His 102 chapter 25 turmoil between the wars

TURMOIL BETWEEN THE WARS

Chapter 25

Introduction

The legacy of the Great War Near-collapse of democracy The rise of authoritarian dictatorships

The Soviet Union under Lenin and Stalin

The Russian Civil War Treaty of Brest-Litovsk polarized Russian

society The Whites

Loose group united by the desire to remove the Reds from power

Supporters of the old regime Reds (Bolsheviks) faced strong nationalist

movements


The Russian Civil War United States, Britain, and Japan intervene

on the periphery of the old empire Solidified Bolshevik mistrust of capitalist world

powers Bolshevik victory

Gained greater support from the majority of the population

Better organization Leon Trotsky as new commissar of war


The Russian Civil War Consequences

One million combat casualties Several million dead from hunger and disease Created permanent hatreds

July 4, 1917

Women’s Battalion

Widows and Orphans by Käthe Kollwitz, 1919

The Soviet Union under Lenin War communism

Government control of industry Outlawed private trade in consumer goods Militarized production facilities and

abolished money Consequences

Devastated Russian industry and emptied major cities

Large-scale famine (1921) Large-scale strikes

The Soviet Union under Lenin The NEP period (New Economic Policy)

Abandoning war communism Reversion to state capitalism

State owned all major industry Individuals could own private property Trading freely within limits

Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on the peasantry

Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)


Peasants should “enrich” themselves Taxes would support urban industrialization and

working classes The “golden age of the Russian peasantry”

Divided up noble lands to level wealth disparities

Reintroduced traditional social structure (peasant communes)

Produced enough grain to feed the country


Abandoning war communism Reversion to state capitalism

State owned all major industry Individuals could own private property Trading freely within limits

Grain requisitioning replaced by fixed taxes on the peasantry

Nikolai Bukharin (1888–1938)


Failure Peasants refused to participate in markets to

benefit urban areas Kept excess grain for themselves Cities experienced grain shortages

The Soviet Union under Stalin Stalin and the “Revolution from Above”

Stalin the man Born in Georgia as Iosip Jughashvili (1879–

1953) Exiled to Siberia for revolutionary activity

Stalin the strategist Isolated all opposition Used the left to isolate the right, used the right

to isolate the left

Lenin and Stalin

The Soviet Union under Lenin Stalin and the “Revolution from Above”

Stalin the strategist By 1929, Trotsky and Bukharin were removed

from positions of power Abandoned NEP Increased tempo of industrialization

Forced industrialization and the total collectivization of agriculture

The Soviet Union under Stalin Collectivization

Local party and police officials forced peasants to join collective farms

Peasant resistance: sixteen hundred large-scale rebellions between 1929 and 1933

Winter Deportations, 1929–1930

The Soviet Union under Stalin Collectivization

The famine (1932–1933) The human cost was 3–5 million lives The Bolsheviks retained grain reserves in other

parts of the country Grain reserves sold overseas for currency and

stockpiled in the event of war

The Soviet Union under Stalin The Five-Year Plans

Campaign of forced industrialization First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932)

Most stunning period of economic growth Built new industries in new cities Urban population more than doubled (from 26

million to 56 million) between 1924 and 1939

“Imperialists cannot Stop the Success of the Five Year Plan!”


The human cost Large-scale projects carried out with prison

labor The Gulag system

By 1940, 3.6 million people were incarcerated by the regime


Structural problems The command economy: production levels

planned from Moscow in advance Heavy industry favored over light industry Emphasis on quantity over quality

Cultural and economic changes Soviet cities Women entered the workforce The conservative shift

The Soviet Union under Stalin The Great Terror (1937–1938)

One million dead—1.5 million to the Gulag The elimination of Stalin’s enemies, real or

imagined Purged the old Bolsheviks

Stalin wanted to eliminate any disagreement with his personal views about Communism

Communist Party disagreements included whether Soviet Communists should export Communism around the world or focus on creating a Communist state in Russia first.

How democratic should the party be? Is it possible to have socialist and liberal reforms

on the way to Communism?

Staged show trials

Plaque containing arrest photos of victims of the Great Purge.These victims were shot at the Butovo Firing Range near Moscow.Between 1938 and 1953 an estimated 20,000 political prisoners were shot at Butovo and buried in mass graves.

We are living, but can’t feel the land where we stay,More than ten steps away you can’t hear what we say.But if people would talk on occasion,They should mention the Kremlin Caucasian.

His thick fingers are bulky and fat like live-baits,And his accurate words are as heavy as weights.Cucaracha’s moustaches are screaming,And his boot-tops are shining and gleaming.

But around him a crowd of thin-necked henchmen,And he plays with the services of these half-men.Some are whistling, some meowing, some sniffing,He’s alone booming, poking and whiffing.

He is forging his rules and decrees like horseshoes –Into groins, into foreheads, in eyes, and eyebrows.Every killing for him is delight,And Ossetian torso is wide.

“The Stalin Epigram,”by Osip Mendelstam. The poem was in effect, a suicidenote as Mendelstamknew he would be arrested and executed.

The Soviet Union under Stalin The Great Terror (1937–1938)

Targeted ethnic groups (Poles, Ukrainians, Lithuanians, Latvians, and Koreans)

Targeted the Soviet military and resulted in the arrest and detention of almost 10% of the top leaders.

Stalin and total control Social advances

Illiteracy reduced Higher education made available to more

people

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy In the aftermath of war

A democracy in distress Seven hundred thousand dead, $15 billion

debt Territorial disputes

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy In the aftermath of war

Problems Split between the industrial north and agrarian

south Conflict over land, wages, and local power Government corruption and indecision Inflation, unemployment, and strikes Demands for radical reform

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)

Editor of Avantia (leading socialist daily) Lost editorship when he urged Italy to side with

the Allies during World War I Founded Il Popolo d’Italia The Fasci

Organized to drum up support for WWI

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy The rise of Mussolini (1883–1945)

The Fascist platform (1919): universal suffrage, the eight-hour day, and tax on inheritance

Fascist support Gained respect of middle classes and

landowners Repressed radical movements of workers and

peasants Attacked socialists Fifty thousand fascist militia marched on Rome

on October 28, 1922

Mussolini at the march on Rome

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy Italy under Mussolini

One-party dictatorship Changed the electoral laws Abolished cabinet system Mussolini assumed role of prime minister

and party leader (Il Duce)

The Emergence of Fascism in Italy Italy under Mussolini

Repression and censorship Liberals and socialists considered enemies of

the state Granted independence to papal residence

in the Vatican City Roman Catholicism established as the state

religion

Weimar Germany

November 9, 1918: Revolution Bloodless overthrow of the imperial

government Social Democratic Party (SPD) announced a

new German republic The kaiser abdicated

Social Democratic Partyleader, PhilipScheiderman, announcescreation of a German Republic on November 9, 1918

Weimar Germany

Problems Governed by unelected Council of People’s

Commissioners Introduced 8 hour workday, legalized labor

unions, required re-hiring of WWI veterans; farm labor reforms; social welfare; national health insurance.

Conservatives opposed these measures and Communists thought they did not go far enough

Elections not held until January 1919 Communists and independent socialists

staged armed uprisings in Berlin Social Democrats tried to crush the

uprisings The Freikorps

Former army officers fighting Bolsheviks, Poles, and communists

Fiercely right-wing anti-Marxist, anti-Semitic, and antiliberal

Weimar Germany

The Weimar coalition Socialists, Catholic centrists, and

liberal democrats Parliamentary liberalism

Universal suffrage for men and women Bill of rights

Freikorps Recruiting Poster

Freikorps

Communists

Weimar Germany

The failure of Weimar Social, political, and economic crisis The humiliation of World War I

Germany “stabbed in the back” by socialists and Jews

Versailles and reparations $33 billion debt The Dawes Plan (1924), a new schedule of

payments

Disabled War Veteran Reduced to begging

Weimar Germany

The failure of Weimar The government continued to print money

Middle-class employees, farmers, and workers hit hardest by inflation

Economic recovery (1925) Scaled-down reparation payments Government-sponsored building projects

Hyperinflation

1 Million Mark notes used as notepaper.

Weimar Germany

The failure of Weimar Further problems

U.S. stock market crash Unemployment Peasants staged mass demonstrations Government cut welfare benefits Left the door open for the opponents of

Weimar

By 1930, the two best organized opposition parties were the Communist Party and theNational Socialist German Worker’s (NAZI) Party

Hitler and the National Socialists

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) Born in Austria, aspired to be an artist

but was rejected by the Academy of Fine Arts in Vienna in 1907 and 1908.

Lived in Vienna supported by orphan’s benefits and support from his mother. After her death, Hitler lived in a homeless shelter in 1909 and later in a hostel for poor laborers. Hitler apparently adopted Anti-

Semitism, anti-Marxism, and pan-Slavism while in Vienna.

After receiving a settlement of his father’s estate, Hitler moved to Munich in 1913.

The outbreak of World War I as his liberation

Hitler’sBaby picture Hitler’s mother,

Klara

The Alter Hof inMunich, watercolor,1914, by AdolphHitler.

A soldier in WWI in a GermanBavarian Regiment

Hitler and the National Socialists

Adolf Hitler (1889–1945) After the war, he joined the German

Workers’ Party 1920: became the National Socialist

Workers’ Party (Nazi) Refused to accept the November (1918)

Resolution

Hitler and the National Socialists Hitler and the Nazis

November 1923: Munich putsch Hitler imprisoned Dictated Mein Kampf

Portrayed himself as the savior of the German people

Nazi elections 1924: Nazis polled 6.6 percent of the vote 1928: Politics polarized between left and right

The impossibility of a coalition

Beer Hall Putsch Defendants

Hitler and the National Socialists Hitler and the Nazis

Nazi supporters 1930 election

Nazis won 107 of 577 seats in the Reichstag No party gained a majority Nazis supported no coalition government not

headed by Hitler which caused the failure of the conservative coalition government

Hitler and the National Socialists Hitler as chancellor

January 1933: Hindenberg appointed Hitler chancellor

February 27, 1933: Reichstag set on fire by Dutch anarchist Hitler suspended civil rights

March 5, 1933: New elections Hitler granted unlimited power for four years Hitler proclaimed the Third Reich

Von Hindenburg Believed that Hitlercould be controlledby the Conservatives

Hitler and the National Socialists Nazi Germany

A one-party state Hitler’s first acts were to sharply limit freedom

of the press and to enable the cabinet to issue decrees without the consent or approval of the Reichstag (parliament).

Reichstag Fire Decree suspended all civil liberties guaranteed by the German constitution.

Widespread arrests of known or suspected opponents of the Nazi party.

Opposition tactics Storm troopers (SA)—used to maintain party

discipline June 30, 1934: Night of the Long Knives

On the basis of Article 48 paragraph 2 of the Constitution of the German Reich, the following is ordered in defense against Communist state-endangering acts of violence: Articles 114, 115, 117, 118, 123, 124 and 153 of the Constitution of the German Reich are suspended until further notice. It is therefore permissible to restrict the rights of personal freedom [habeas corpus], freedom of (opinion) expression, including the freedom of the press, the freedom to organize and assemble, the privacy of postal, telegraphic and telephonic communications. Warrants for House searches, orders for confiscations as well as restrictions on property, are also permissible beyond the legal limits otherwise prescribed.

Reichstag FireDecree

The ReichstagFire, March 23,1933.


Schutzstaffel (SS) Most dreaded arm of Nazi terror Organized by Heinrich Himmler Fighting political and racial enemies


Support Played off fears of communism Spoke a language of national pride Hitler as the symbol of a strong, revitalized

Germany (the Führer cult) The recovery of German national glory


National recovery Sealed Germany off from the rest of the world Unemployment dropped from 6 million to two

hundred thousand Outlawed trade unions and strikes, froze wages Organized workers into the National Labor Front Popular organizations cut across class lines

Still Image from Leni Riefenstahl, Triumph of the Will (1935),

a Film about a Nazi Party Rally in Nuremberg, Germany, 1934

Hitler and the National Socialists Nazi racism

Nazi racism inherited from nineteenth-century opinions

Anti-Semitism Joined by nationalist anti-Jewish theory The Jew as outsider An “international Jewish conspiracy”

Hitler and the National Socialists Nazi racism

April 1933: New racial laws excluded Jews from public office

1935 Nuremberg Decrees Deprived Jews of citizenship (determined by

bloodline) November 1938: Kristallnacht (Night of

Broken Glass)

Nazi Boycott of Jewish Shops in Berlin, 1933

Hitler and the National Socialists National socialism and fascism

Both arose in the interwar period as responses to war and revolution

Intensely nationalistic Opposed parliamentary government and

democracy

The Great Depression in the Democracies Western democracies

France Continued to fear Germany Policy of deflation

Britain Policy of deflation Reduction in wages and decline in the standard

of living The Labour Party (1924 and 1929) Increasing trade union militancy

The Great Depression in the Democracies Western democracies

United States Bastion of conservatism Presidents and the Supreme Court

The Great Depression in the Democracies The origins of the Great Depression

Causes Instability of national currencies Interdependence of national economies Widespread drop in industrial productivity Restrictions of free trade


October 1929: collapse of the New York Stock Exchange United States as world’s creditor nation Immediate and disastrous consequences for

European economy Banking houses closed, manufacturers laid off

entire workforces


Government response Britain

Abandoned gold standard and free trade France

The Popular Front under Léon Blum Nationalized munitions industry Forty-hour week Fixed the price and regulated the distribution of

grain


Government response United States

The New Deal and FDR Recovery without destroying capitalism Managing the economy and public-works projects John Maynard Keynes

Interwar Culture: Artists and Intellectuals The rejection of tradition and the

experiment with new forms of expression Interwar intellectuals

Disillusionment with war and the failure of victory

Frustration, cynicism, and disenchantment Ernest Hemingway (1899–1961): The Sun

Also Rises (1926), the “lost generation”

Interwar Culture: Artists and Intellectuals Interwar intellectuals

T. S. Eliot (1888–1965): The Waste Land (1922), life is a living death

Bertolt Brecht (1898–1956): corruption of Germany’s elites

The politicization of literature

Interwar Culture: Artists and Intellectuals Interwar artists

Developments paralleled those in literature The dominance of the avant-garde

Subjective experience Multiplicity of meanings Personal expression The rejection of traditional forms and values Pushing the boundaries of aesthetics


Expressionism—paintings need not have subjects at all

The Dadaists Rejected all forms of artistic conventions Haphazard “fabrications”


Architecture Functionalism

“Form ever follows function” (Sullivan) Ornamentation to reflect an age of science and

machines

Interwar Culture: Artists and Intellectuals Interwar scientific developments

Albert Einstein (1879–1955) Revolutionized modern physics Challenged our beliefs about the universe New ways of thinking about space, matter,

time, and gravity

Interwar Culture: Artists and Intellectuals Mass culture and its possibilities

Explosive rise of mass media—media for the masses Mass politics as a fact of life Cut across class lines, ethnicity, and nationality Democratic and authoritarian possibilities


The radio Europe: broadcasting rights owned by the

government United States: broadcasting managed by

corporations National soapbox for politicians

FDR’s fireside chats Nazi propaganda

The new ritual of political life—communication and persuasion

Voice of the People, Voice of God by George Grosz (1920)


Advertising Visual images replaced older ads Efficient communication, streamlined and

standardized Drew on modern psychology

Film France and Italy had strong film industries 1927: Sound added to films


Film United States gained a competitive edge in

Europe Size of home market Huge investments in equipment and distribution The Hollywood “star system”

The “Americanization” of culture A threat to European culture? Introduced Europe to new ways of life


The Nazis and propaganda Used film as a means of indoctrination and

control “Spectacular politics” Leni Riefenstahl (1902–2003): Triumph of the

Will (1934) Tried to limit influence of American popular

culture Dance and jazz

Conclusion

The strains of World War I The Great Depression International tensions

His 102 chapter 25 turmoil between the wars

Education

Transcript of His 102 chapter 25 turmoil between the wars