HeatEnergyInternal energyKinetic EnergyPotential EnergyEndothermicExothermicThermodynamicsThermal EquilibriumSystemSurroundingsLaw of Conservation of EnergyHeat CapacitySpecific Heat CapacityFirst Law of ThermodynamicsMeltingFreezingDepositionSublimationEvaporationCondensation

State FunctionStandard state temperatureStandard state pressureStandard states matterEnthalpyHess’s LawThermochemical EquationEnthalpy of FormationIntramolecular forcesIntermolecular forcesHydrogen BondingPolarizationPolarizability

Vapor PressureEquilibriumHeat of VaporizationPhase DiagramSolidLiquidGasTriple PointCritical PointSuper Critical Fluid

Isomersstructural isomersconstitutional isomersstereo isomersracemic mixtureentantiomersgeometric isomerspositional isomerschiral moleculeschiral centersoptical isomerscismertransfachydration isomersionization isomerscoordination isomerslinkage isomers

hydrocarbonsunsaturated hydrocarbonssaturated hydrocarbonsalkanesalkenesalkynesaromatic compoundsalkylsphenylsphenolsalcoholsestersetherscarbonyl groupsaldehydesketonescarboxylic acidsacyl chloridesorganic halidesaminesamidesresonanceArrhenius acids/basesBrönsted/Lowery acids/basesLewis acids/bases

sugars fatspolymers solutionsolvent soluteconcentration molarityppm ppbwt% vol%molecular equationsionic equationsnet ionic equationsspectator ionmetathesis reactioncombination reactiondecomposition reactiondisplacement reactionredox reactionaddition polymerizationcondensation polymerizationligand donor atomunidentatepolydentatechelatecoordination numbercoordination sphere

titrationtitrantprimary standardsecondary standardend pointequivalence pointpHoxidation numbers

• Significant Figures – start at the left and proceed to the right

1. If the number does not have a decimal point count until there are no more non zero numbers

2. If the number has a decimal point start counting at the first non-zero number and continue counting until you run out of decimal places

• Vocabulary1. Observation2. Hypothesis3. Experiment4. Theory5. Law 6. Chemistry7. Matter8. Energy9. Chemical Properties 10.Physical Properties11.Extensive Properties12.Intensive Properties13.Scientific (natural) law14.Anion15.Cation16.Molecular Geometry

17.Law of Conservation of Mass18.Law of Conservation of Energy19.Exact numbers20.Accuracy 21.Precision22.compounds23.molecules24.chemical formula25.empirical formula26.molecular formula27.structural formula28.bond line formula29.ball and stick model30.space filling model31.mole32.Electronic Geometry

33.percent weight34.percent error35.percent composition36.percent yield37.%RSD38.limiting reactant39.Stoichiometry40.Stoichiometric Coefficient41.Electron Affinity42.Electronegativity43.Covalent Bond44.Ionic Bond45.Dipole46.London Dispersion Forces47.Resonance48.Hybrid orbital49.area of high electron density

Monovalent Divalent TrivalentHydronium H3O+ Magnesium Mg2+ Aluminium Al3+

(or hydrogen) H+ Calcium Ca2+ Antimony III

Sb3+

Lithium Li+ Strontium Sr2+ Bismuth III Bi3+

Sodium Na+ Beryllium Be2+

Potassium K+ Manganese II Mn2+

Rubidium Rb+ Barium Ba2+

Cesium Cs+ Zinc Zn2+

Francium Fr+ Cadmium Cd2+

Silver Ag+ Nickel II Ni2+

Ammonium NH4+ Palladium II Pd2+

Thalium Tl+ Platinum II Pt2+

Copper I Cu+ Copper II Cu2+

Mercury II Hg2+

Mercury I Hg22+

Iron II Fe2+ Iron III Fe3+

Cobalt II Co2+ Cobalt III Co3+

Chromium II Cr2+ Chromium III

Cr3+

Lead II Pb2+

Tin II Sn2+

Table of Common IonsCommon Positive Ions

(Cations)

Monovalent Divalent TrivalentHydride H- Oxide O2- Nitride N3-

Fluoride Fl- Peroxide O22-

Chloride Cl- Sulfide S2-

Bromide Br- Selenide Se2-

Iodide I- Oxalate C2O42-

Hydroxide OH- Chromate CrO42-

Permangante MnO4- Dichromate Cr2O7

2

-

Cyanide CN- Tungstate WO42-

Thiocynate SCN- Molybdate MoO42-

Acetate C2H3O

2-

tetrathionate S4O62-

Nitrate NO3- Thiosulfate S2O3

2-

Bisulfite HSO3- Sulfite SO3

2-

Bisulfate HSO4- Sulfate SO4

2-

Bicarbonate HCO3- Carbonate CO3

2-

Dihydrogen phosphate

H2PO4- Hydrogen

phosphateHPO4

2

-

Phosphate PO43-

Nitrite NO2-

Amide NH2-

Hypochlorite ClO-

Chlorite ClO2-

Chlorate ClO3-

Perchlorate ClO4-

Table of Common Ions Common Negative Ions (Anions)

Ion/Molecule Name Name as a Ligand

NH3 ammonia ammine

CO carbon monoxide carbonyl

Cl- chloride Chloro

CN- cyanide cyano

F- fluoride fluoro

OH- hydroxide hydroxo

NO nitrogen monoxide nitrosyl

NO2- nitrite nitro

PH3 phosphine phosphine

Standard P 1.00000 atm or 101.3 kPaStandard T 273.15 K or 0.00oC

K = 273 + oC1 mm Hg = 1 torr 760 torr = 1 atm

The standard molar volume is 22.4 L at STP

PV = nRT

R = 0.08206 L atm mol-1 K-1

Ptotal = PA + PB + PC + .....

At low temperatures and high pressures real gases do not behave ideally. The reasons for the deviations from ideality are:1. The molecules are very close to one another, thus their volume is

important.2. The molecular interactions also become important.

P + n a

VV nb nRT

2

2

Variable Cond. 1 Cond. 2

P (atm)

V (L)

N (moles)

R (L atm mol-1 K-1) 0.08206 0.08206

T (K)

The Kinetic-Molecular Theory• The basic assumptions of kinetic-molecular theory are:• Postulate 1

– Gases consist of discrete molecules that are relatively far apart.– Gases have few intermolecular attractions.– The volume of individual molecules is very small compared to the gas’s volume.

• Proof - Gases are easily compressible.

• Postulate 2– Gas molecules are in constant, random, straight line motion with varying velocities.

• Proof - Brownian motion displays molecular motion.

• Postulate 3– Gas molecules have elastic collisions with themselves and the container.– Total energy is conserved during a collision.

• Proof - A sealed, confined gas exhibits no pressure drop over time.

• Postulate 4– The kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the absolute temperature.– The average kinetic energies of molecules of different gases are equal at a given

temperature.• Proof - Brownian motion increases as temperature increases.

∆H = Hfinal - Hinitial

• The stoichiometric coefficients in thermochemical equations must be interpreted as numbers of moles. 1 mol of C5H12 reacts with 8 mol of O2 to produce 5 mol of CO2, 6 mol of H2O, and releasing 3523 kJ is referred to as one mole of reactions.

mole 1 moles 6 moles 5 moles 8 mole 1

kJ 3523 OH 6 CO 5O 8 HC )(22(g)2(g))12(5

∆∆HHoorxnrxn = = ∆H ∆Hff

oo (prod) - (prod) - ∆H ∆Hff

oo (react)(react)

Specific heat capacity (J/(g∙K) =heat lost or gained by system (Joules)

mass(grams) T (Kelvins)

mTf –Ti)

qcP =

Variable System 1 System 2

Cp

Tf

Ti

m

q

heat transfer outheat transfer out(exothermic), -q(exothermic), -q

heat transfer inheat transfer in(endothermic), +q(endothermic), +q

SYSTEMSYSTEM

∆E = q + w

w transfer inw transfer in(+w)(+w)

w transfer outw transfer out(-w)(-w)

Carbon Atom Hybridization C uses C forms Example

sp3 tetrahedral 4 sp3 hybrids 4 bonds CH4

sp2 trigonal planar 3 sp2 hybrids & 1p orbital 3 bonds 1 bond C2H4

sp linear 2 sp hybrids & 2 p orbitals 2 bonds 2 bonds C2H2

organic nomenclature and structureinorganic nomenclature and structure

mass of molecule

Molar Massgiven or calculated from

periodic table

Mass of element,

or reactantor product

Number of atoms,

or molecules of reactantor product

Avogadro's Number

Number of molecules

Molar Ratio

moles of element, or

other reactant or product

moles ofmolecule

Avogadro's Number

Calculate from molecular

formula or balanced equation

Molar Massgiven or calculated from

periodic table

Given or determined

from balanced stoichiometricequation

Vol solution

density

Concentration solution

molarity, ppm, molality, normality,

etc.

These concepts lead to solvingproblems determining limiting reactantand percent yield.

The principal quantum number has the symbol ~ n which defines the energy of the shell

n = 1, 2, 3, 4, ...... “shells”The angular momentum quantum number has the symbol ~ which defines the

subshells.

= 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, .......(n-1) = s, p, d, f, g, h, .......(n-1)

The symbol for the magnetic quantum number is m which defines the orbital.m = - , (- + 1), (- +2), .....0, ......., ( -2), ( -1),

The last quantum number is the spin quantum number which has the symbol ms which characterizes the single electron. The spin quantum number only has two possible values. ms = +½ or -½ one spin up ↑ and one spin down↓

Quantum Numbers n and define the energy of the electron

The Nucleus:Build by adding the required number of protons (the atomic number) and neutrons (the mass of the atom)

Pauli’s Exclusion Principle states that pairedelectrons in an orbital will have opposite spins.

Electrons:Hund’s Rule states that each orbital will be filled singlybefore pairing begins. The singly filled orbitals will have a parallel spin.

Fill the electrons in starting with the lowest energy level adhering to Hund’s and Pauli’s rules.

Ionic Polar Covalent CovalentDetermine Inductive effect

Count the number of electrons the element should haveDetermine how equally electrons are shared (EN) >1.7 consider it ionic

Oxidation number Formal chargeNever Have a Full Octet Always Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Have a Full Octet

Sometimes Exceed a Full Octet

To calculate a formal charge1. draw the Lewis dot structure2. draw circles around each atom and the electrons

associated with it. Remember that formal charges are associated with covalent bonds and that all electrons are shared equally.

3. compare to the group number for that atom. If the number is larger the formal charge is negative, smaller the formal charge is positive.

To calculate an oxidation number1. list all the elements follow with an equal sign2. follow with the number of atoms of that type in the molecule1. follow with a multiplication sign2. If the element is O follow with a -23. If the element is H follow with a +14. any other element enter a ?5. follow with an = sign, do the math6. draw a total line, then enter the charge on the molecule7. Do the algebra backwards to solve for ?

Summary of Electronic & Molecular Geometries

Regions of High Electron Density

Electronic Geometry Hybridization

2 Linear sp

3 Trigonal planar sp2

4 Tetrahedral sp3

5 Trigonal bipyramidal

sp3d

6 Octahedral sp3d2

VSEPR TheoryLone pair to lone pair is the strongest repulsion.2 Lone pair to bonding pair is intermediate repulsion.3 Bonding pair to bonding pair is weakest repulsion.

• Mnemonic for repulsion strengths lp/lp > lp/bp > bp/bp

• Lone pair to lone pair repulsion is why bond angles in water are less than 109.5o.Electronic geometryElectronic geometry is determined by the locations of regions of high electron

density around the central atom(s). Electron pairs are not used in the molecular geometry determination just the positions of the atoms in the molecule are used.

Molecular geometryMolecular geometry determined by the arrangement of atoms around the central atom(s).