HEALTH RADIO FREQUENCY EXPOSURE FROM …...calculated using Inverse Square Law. Assumes distances in...

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APRIL 2011 FINAL REPORT HEALTH IMPACTS OF RADIO FREQUENCY EXPOSURE FROM SMART METERS

Transcript of HEALTH RADIO FREQUENCY EXPOSURE FROM …...calculated using Inverse Square Law. Assumes distances in...

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APRIL 2011 ! F INAL REPORT

H E A LT H I M PA C T S O F RADIO FREQUENCY EXPOSURE

FROM SMART METERS

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWewouldliketothankthemanypeoplewhoprovidedinputandfeedbacktowardsthecompletionofthisreport.Withouttheinsightfulfeedbackthattheseindividualsgenerouslyprovided,thisreportcouldnothavebeencompleted.WewouldliketogivespecialthankstotheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter,CollegeofEngineeringandComputerScienceattheCaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandtotheUniversityofCalifornia’sCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS).ThisreportwasconductedwiththeoversightofaCCSTSmartMeterProjectTeam,whosemembersinclude:RollinRichmond(Chair),EmirMacari,PatrickMantey,PaulWright,RyanMcCarthy,JaneLong,DavidWinickoff,andLarryPapay.WealsothankJ.D.StackforhistechnicalcontributionsandLoraLeeMartinfortheoverallcoordinationofthisreportresponse.WeexpressgratitudetoCCST’smembersandcolleaguesfortheirmanycontributionstothereport.CommentsontheJanuary2011draftofthisreportweresolicitedfromthepublic.Manyverythoughtfulandinformedcommentswerereceived.Allpubliccommentswerereviewedandtakenintoconsiderationasthisfinalreportwascompleted.COPYRIGHTCopyright2010bytheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology.LibraryofCongress

CatalogingNumberinPublicationsDataMainEntryUnderTitle:HealthImpactsofRadioFrequencyExposureFromSmartMeters

April2011ISBN‐13:978‐1‐930117‐42‐6

CCSTisanon‐profitorganizationestablishedin1988attherequestoftheCaliforniaStateGovernmentandsponsoredbythemajorpublicandprivatepostsecondaryinstitutionsofCaliforniaandaffiliatefederallaboratoriesinconjunctionwithleadingprivate‐sectorfirms.CCST'smissionistoimprovescienceandtechnologypolicyandapplicationinCaliforniabyproposingprograms,conductinganalyses,andrecommendingpublicpoliciesandinitiativesthatwillmaintainCalifornia'stechnologicalleadershipandavigorouseconomy.Note:TheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology(CCST)hasmadeeveryreasonableefforttoassuretheaccuracyoftheinformationinthispublication.However,thecontentsofthispublicationaresubjecttochanges,omissions,anderrors,andCCSTdoesnotacceptresponsibilityforanyinaccuraciesthatmayoccur.Forquestionsorcommentsonthispublicationcontact:CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology1130KStreet,Suite280Sacramento,California95814(916)492‐[email protected]

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TableofContentsLetterfromCCST ............................................................................................................................ 3Keyreportfindings ......................................................................................................................... 4Otherconsiderations...................................................................................................................... 4Legislativerequest.......................................................................................................................... 6Approach ........................................................................................................................................ 6Twotypesofradiofrequencyeffects:ThermalandNon‐thermal................................................. 7Findings .......................................................................................................................................... 7Whataresmartmeters? .............................................................................................................. 10WhyaresmartmetersbeinginstalledthroughoutCalifornia?.................................................... 12Whathealthconcernsareassociatedwithsmartmeters?.......................................................... 15FCCguidelinesaddressknownthermaleffectsonly,notnon‐thermaleffects............................ 16Powerdensity(andexposurelevel)declinesrapidlywithdistance............................................. 19Comparisonofelectromagneticfrequenciesfromsmartmetersandotherdevices .................. 20WhatisdutycycleandhowdoesitrelatedtoRFexposure?....................................................... 23Whataboutexposurelevelsfromabankofmetersandfromjustbehind thewallofasinglemeter?........................................................................................... 24IstheFCCstandardsufficienttoprotectpublichealth? .............................................................. 24Areadditionaltechnology‐specificstandardsneeded? ............................................................... 24Publicinformationandeducation................................................................................................ 25Alternativestowireless? .............................................................................................................. 25Keyfactorstoconsiderwhenevaluatingexposuretoradiofrequencyfromsmartmeters?....... 26Conclusion ....................................................................................................................................27AppendixA–LettersrequestingCCSTassistance........................................................................ 28

• AssemblyMemberHuffman’sLetter ............................................................................... 28• AssemblyMemberMonning’sLetter ............................................................................... 30• CityofMillValleyLetter ...................................................................................................31

AppendixB–ProjectProcess ....................................................................................................... 33AppendixC–ProjectTeam .......................................................................................................... 35AppendixD–WrittenSubmissionAuthors.................................................................................. 38AppendixE–MaterialsConsulted ............................................................................................... 39AppendixF–Glossary .................................................................................................................. 46AppendixG–CCST2010BoardMembers ................................................................................... 48AppendixH–CCST2010CouncilMembers ................................................................................. 49AppendixI–ReportCredits ......................................................................................................... 50

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LetterfromCCSTWithrapidlyemergingandevolvingtechnologies,lawmakersattimesfindthemselvespressedtomakepolicydecisionsoncomplextechnologies.Smartmetersareonesuchtechnology.Smartmetersarebeingdeployedinmanyplacesintheworldinanefforttocreateanewgenerationofutilityservicebasedontheconceptsofasmartgrid,onethatisagile,efficientandcosteffective.Theelectricitycrisisof2000and2001helpedforcetheissuehereinCalifornia,lendingsignificanturgencytotheneedforbettermanagementofpowergenerationanddistribution.In2006,theCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissionauthorizedthePacificGasandElectricCompanytoimplementarelativelynewtechnology,smartmeters,togathermuchmorepreciseinformationaboutpowerusagethroughoutthestate.Theprocessofinstallingthemetersthroughoutthestateisstillunderway.Aswithanynewtechnology,thereareunknownsinvolved.Smartmetersgenerallyworkbytransmittinginformationwirelessly.Somepeoplehaveexpressedconcernsaboutthehealtheffectsofwirelesssignals,particularlyastheybecomevirtuallyubiquitous.Theseconcernshaverecentlybeenbroughttotheattentionofstatelegislators,withsomelocalmunicipalitiesoptingtobanfurtherinstallationofthemetersintheircommunities.WearepleasedthatAssemblyMembersHuffmanandMonninghaveturnedtoCCSTforinputonthisissue.ItisCCST’schargetoofferindependentexpertadvicetothestategovernmentandtorecommendsolutionstoscienceandtechnology‐relatedpolicyissues.Inthiscase,wehaveassembledasuccinctbutcomprehensiveoverviewofwhatisknownabouthumanexposuretowirelesssignalsandtheefficacyoftheFCCsafetystandardsforthesesignals.Todoso,weassembledaprojectteamthatconsultedwithovertwodozenexpertsandsiftedthroughoverahundredarticlesandreports,providingathorough,unbiasedoverviewinarelativelyrapidmanner.Insituationswherepublicsentimenturgespolicymakerstomakepolicydecisionswithpotentiallylong‐termconsequences,accesstothebestinformationpossibleiscritical.ThisistherolethatCCSTwascreatedtofulfill.

SusanHackwood RollinRichmondExecutiveDirector,CCST ProjectTeamChair,CCST

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HealthImpactsofRadioFrequencyfromSmartMetersResponsetoAssemblyMembersHuffmanandMonning

CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology

April2011

KEYREPORTFINDINGS

1. Wirelesssmartmeters,wheninstalledandproperlymaintained,resultinmuchsmallerlevelsofradiofrequency(RF)exposurethanmanyexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevices,particularlycellphonesandmicrowaveovens.

2. ThecurrentFCCstandardprovidesanadequatefactorofsafetyagainstknownthermallyinducedhealthimpactsofexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevicesandsmartmeters.

3. Todate,scientificstudieshavenotidentifiedorconfirmednegativehealtheffectsfrompotentialnon‐thermalimpactsofRFemissionssuchasthoseproducedbyexistingcommonhouseholdelectronicdevicesandsmartmeters.

4. Notenoughiscurrentlyknownaboutpotentialnon‐thermalimpactsofradiofrequencyemissionstoidentifyorrecommendadditionalstandardsforsuchimpacts

OTHERCONSIDERATIONS

Smartelectricitymetersareakeyenablingtechnologyfora“smartgrid”thatisexpectedtobecomeincreasinglyclean,efficient,reliable,andsafeatapotentiallylowercosttotheconsumer.TheCCSTSmartMeterProjectTeamoffersthefollowingforfurtherconsiderationbypolicymakers,regulatorsandtheutilities.Weappreciatethateachoftheseconsiderationswouldlikelyrequireacost/benefitanalysis.However,wefeeltheyshouldbeconsideredastheoverallcumulativeexposuretoRFemissionsinourenvironmentcontinuestoexpand.1. Aswirelesstechnologiesofalltypesincreaseinusage,itwillbeimportantto:(a)

continuetoquantitativelyassessthelevelsofRFemissionsfromcommonhouseholddevicesandsmartmeterstowhichthepublicmaybeexposed;and(b)continuetoinvestigatepotentialthermalandnon‐thermalimpactsofsuchRFemissionsonhumanhealth.

2. ConsumersshouldbeprovidedwithclearlyunderstoodinformationabouttheradiofrequencyemissionsofalldevicesthatemitRFincludingsmartmeters.Suchinformationshouldincludeintensityofoutput,durationandfrequencyofoutput,and,inthecasesofthesmartmeter,patternofsendingandreceivingtransmissionstoandfromallsources.

3. TheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissionshouldconsiderdoinganindependentreviewofthedeploymentofsmartmeterstodetermineiftheyareinstalledandoperatingconsistentwiththeinformationprovidedtotheconsumer.

4. Considerationcouldbegiventoalternativesmartmeterconfigurations(suchaswired)inthosecaseswherewirelessmeterscontinuetobeconcerntoconsumers.

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Figure1. Instantaneous RadioFrequencyPowerDensityLevelsofCommonDevices(inmicroWatts/cm2)Aboutthisfigure:ThisfigurewasdevelopedbytheCCSTprojectteam.QuantitiesfordifferentdistancescalculatedusingInverseSquareLaw.Assumesdistancesinfar‐field,wherepowerdensityreducesasthe

squareofthedistancefromthesource.Smartmeterpowerscaledtoobtainoutputfor50%dutycycle.ThesourceforthevariousstartingmeasurementscamefromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐

FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)

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LegislativeRequestOnJuly30,2010,CaliforniaAssemblyMemberJaredHuffmanwrotetotheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology(CCST)torequestthattheCouncilperforman“independent,science‐basedstudy…[that]wouldhelppolicymakersandthegeneralpublicresolvethedebateoverwhethersmartmeterspresentasignificantriskofadversehealtheffects.”CaliforniaAssemblyMemberBillMonningsignedontotherequestwithhisownlettertoCCSTonSeptember15,2010.TheCityofMillValleyalsosentaletteronSeptember20thsupportingAssemblyMemberHuffman’srequestforthestudy.ApproachReflectingtherequestsoftheAssemblyMembers,CCSTagreedtocompileandassesstheevidenceavailabletoaddress:

1.WhetherFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)standardsforsmartmetersaresufficientlyprotectiveofpublichealth,takingintoaccountcurrentexposurelevelstoradiofrequencyandelectromagneticfields.2.Whetheradditionaltechnology‐specificstandardsareneededforsmartmetersandotherdevicesthatarecommonlyfoundinandaroundhomes,toensureadequateprotectionfromadversehealtheffects.

CCSTconvenedaSmartMeterProjectTeamcomposedofCCSTCouncilandBoardmemberssupplementedwithadditionalexpertsinrelevantfields(seeAppendixAforProjectTeammembers).TheProjectTeamidentifiedandreviewedover100publicationsandpostingsaboutsmartmetersandotherdevicesinthesamerangeofemissions,includingresearchrelatedtocellphoneRFemissions,andcontactedovertwodozenexpertsinradioandelectromagneticemissionsandrelatedfieldstoseektheiropiniononthetwoidentifiedissues.ItisimportanttonotethatCCSThasnotundertakenprimaryresearchofitsowntoaddresstheseissues.ThisresponseislimitedtosolicitinginputfromtechnicalexpertsandtoreviewingandevaluatingavailableinformationfrompastandcurrentresearchabouthealthimpactsofRFemittedfromelectricappliancesgenerally,andsmartmetersspecifically.ThisreporthasbeenextensivelyreviewedbytheProjectTeam,expertsinrelatedfields,andhasbeensubjecttotheCCSTpeerreviewprocess(seeAppendixB).Ithasalsobeenmadeavailabletothepublicforcomment.

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TwoTypesofRadioFrequencyEffects:ThermalandNon‐thermalHouseholdelectronicdevices,suchascellularandcordlesstelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,andwirelesssmartmetersproduceRFemissions.ExposuretoRFemissionsmayleadtothermalandnon‐thermaleffects.Thermaleffectsonhumanshavebeenextensivelystudiedandappeartobewellunderstood.TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)hasestablishedguidelinestoprotectpublichealthfromknownhazardsassociatedwiththethermalimpactsofRF:tissueheatingfromabsorbingenergyassociatedwithradiofrequencyemissions.Non‐thermaleffects,however,includingcumulativeorprolongedexposuretolowerlevelsofRFemissions,arenotwellunderstood.Somestudieshavesuggestednon‐thermaleffectsmayincludefatigue,headache,irritability,orevencancer.Butthesefindingshavenotbeenscientificallyestablished,andthemechanismsthatmightleadtonon‐thermaleffectsremainuncertain.Additionalresearchandmonitoringisneededtobetteridentifyandunderstandpotentialnon‐thermaleffects.FindingsGiventhebodyofexisting,generallyacceptedscientificknowledgeregardingsmartmetersandsimilarelectronicdevices,CCSTfindsthat:

1. TheFCCstandardprovidesanadequatefactorofsafetyagainstknownRFinducedhealthimpactsofsmartmetersandotherelectronicdevicesinthesamerangeofRFemissions.

ThepotentialforbehavioraldisruptionfromincreasedbodytissuetemperaturesistheonlybiologicalhealthimpactthathasbeenconsistentlydemonstratedandscientificallyproventoresultfromabsorbingRFwithinthebandoftheelectromagneticspectrum(EMF)thatsmartmetersuse.TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)hassetalimitontheStandardAbsorptionRate(SAR)fromelectronicdevices,whichiswellbelowthelevelthathasbeendemonstratedtoaffectbehaviorinlaboratoryanimals.Smartmeters,includingthosebeinginstalledbyPacificGasandElectricCompany(PG&E)intheAssemblyMembers’districts,ifinstalledaccordingtothemanufacturersinstructionsandconsistentwiththeFCCcertification,emitRFthatisaverysmallfractionoftheexposurelevelestablishedassafebytheFCCguidelines.

FCCstaffhasrecentlyconfirmedthatit“reliedontheexpertopinionsofEPA,NCRP,andotherstoconcludethattheRFexposurelimitsitadoptedwereadequatelyprotectiveofhumanhealthfromallknownadverseeffects,regardlessofwhethertheseeffectswerethermalorathermalinorigin”.1TheFCCguidelinesprovideasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstknownRFimpactsthatoccuratthepowerlevelsandwithintheRFbandusedbysmartmeters.Givencurrent

                                                        1  StatementprovidebyRobertWellerregardingFCCregulationsonFebruary3,2011.RobertWeller,Chief,TechnicalAnalysisBranch,OfficeofEngineeringandTechnology,FederalCommunicationsCommission. 

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scientificknowledge,theFCCguidelineprovidesamorethanadequatemarginofsafetyagainstknownRFeffects.

2. Atthistimethereisnoclearevidencethatadditionalstandardsareneededtoprotectthepublicfromsmartmetersorothercommonhouseholdelectronicdevices.NeithertherelevantscientificliteraturenorourexpertconsultationssupportthatthereisacausalrelationshipbetweenRFemissionsandnon‐thermalhumanhealthimpacts.Nordoestherelevantevidenceconvincinglydescribemechanismsforsuchimpacts,althoughmoreresearchisneededtobetterunderstandandverifythesepotentialmechanisms.Giventheabsenceofevidencesupportingarealhazard,thebenefitsofelevatingexistingstandardsarehighlyspeculative.Further,thereisnotanexistingbasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearerunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsinvolvedidentifyingadditionalstandardsorevaluatingtherelativecostsandbenefitsofthosestandardscannotbedeterminedatthistime.

Giventheexistingsignificantscientificuncertaintyaroundnon‐thermaleffects,thereiscurrentlynogenerallyaccepteddefinitive,evidence‐basedindicationthatadditionalstandardsareneeded.Becauseofthelackofgenerallyacceptedevidence,thereisalsonotanexistingbasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearerunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsinvolvedidentifyingadditionalstandardsorevaluatingtherelativecostsandbenefitsofthosestandardscannotbedeterminedatthistime.

CCSTnotesthatinsomeofthestudiesreviewed,contributorshaveraisedemerging

questionsfromsomeinthemedicalandbiologicalfieldsaboutthepotentialforbiologicalimpactsotherthanthethermalimpactthattheFCCguidelinesaddress.AreportoftheNationalAcademiesidentifiesresearchneedsandgapsandrecommendedareasofresearchtobeundertakentofurtherunderstandingoflong‐termexposuretoRFemissionsfromcommunicationdevices,particularlyfromnon‐thermalmechanisms.2Inourincreasinglywirelesssociety,smartmetersaccountforaverysmallportionofRFemissionstowhichweareexposed.ConcernsabouthumanhealthimpactsofRFemissionsfromsmartmetersshouldbeconsideredinthisbroadercontext.

                                                        2NationalResearchCouncil(2008)IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealthEffectsofWirelessCommunication,TheNationalAcademiesPress,Washington,D.C.

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THESCIENTIFICMETHOD“Scientificallyestablished”,“generallyacceptedscientificknowledge”andothersuchreferencesthroughoutthisdocumentarereferencinginformationobtainedthroughthescientificmethod.Ascientificmethodconsistsofthecollectionofdatathroughobservationandexperimentation,andtheformulationandtestingofhypotheses.Thesestepsmustberepeatableinordertopredictfutureresults.Scientificinquiryisgenerallyintendedtobeasobjectiveaspossible,toreducebiasedinterpretationsofresults.Anotherbasicexpectationistodocument,archiveandsharealldataandmethodologysotheyareavailableforcarefulscrutinybyotherscientists,givingthemtheopportunitytoverifyresultsbyattemptingtoreproducethem.Thispractice,calledfulldisclosure,alsoallowsstatisticalmeasuresofthereliabilityofthesedatatobeestablished.INTERPRETINGTHESCIENTIFICLITERATUREInourreviewoftherelevantscientificevidence,weprivilegedthosestudiesthathadasmanyofthefollowingindiciaofscientificreliabilityaspossible:(1)Empiricaltesting;(2)Peerreviewandpublication;(3)Theuseofacceptedstandardsandcontrols;(4)Degreetowhichthefindingisgenerallyacceptedbyarelevantscientificcommunity.ThesecriteriaofscientificreliabilityarebroadlybasedonthestandardsofexperttestimonyandevidenceintheUSFederalCourts.

 HealthconcernssurroundingRFfromsmartmetersaresimilartothosefrommanyotherdevicesthatweuseinourdailylives,includingcordlessandcellulartelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,hairdryers,andwireless‐enabledlaptopcomputers.Asdetailedinthereport,acomparisonofelectromagneticfrequenciesfromsmartmetersandotherdevicesshowsthattheexposurelevelisverylow.Standards of Proof or Certainty in Public Health Inthisreport,scientificevidenceistheprimaryconsideration.UponconsultingwiththeCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth,itisnotedthatusingscientificevidencetoshapepublicpolicyisalwayschallenging.Thestandardsfordeclaringcertaintywithinascientificdiscipline,whicharebasedontheresultsofstatisticaltesting,maybeunrealisticorinappropriateformakingpublicpolicydecisions,particularlythosewithpotentialimpactsonpopulationhealth.Statisticaltestsusuallyrelyontheconventionofwhethertheresultsofagivenstudyaresufficienttorejectthenullhypothesisofnoeffect(i.e.,ofagivenexposure).Thisiseffectivelyastandardof95%certainty,analogoustothelegalstandardofproof“beyondareasonabledoubt.”Inpublichealth,fivefactorsaregenerallyconsideredwhenreviewingscientificevidenceforpolicydecisionsrelatedtospecifiedexposures:

1. Severityofpotentialeffect(s):e.g.,cancerorseriousbirthdefectswouldbeconsideredmoreseverethanskinirritation;

2. Numberofpeoplewithpotentialexposure;3. Levelsoflikelyandpossibleexposures;4. Degreeofcertaintyofthespecificeffect(s)atdifferentexposurelevels;certaintyjust

above50%mightbecharacterizedas“morelikelythannot.”5. Costtomitigatepotentialeffect(s),typicallyconsideredinlightoftheotherfactors.

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Policymakersconstantlyweighthesefactorsconsciouslyorunconsciouslyastheyinteractwithstakeholderstocraftgoodpublicpolicy.Inonesituation,theymightconsiderhigh‐costmitigationsforhigh‐severityeffectswithhigh‐certaintyevidence.Inanothersituationwithhigh‐severityeffectsand“morelikelythannot”certaintyofthoseeffects,theymightchooselow‐costmitigations.Thisreportdidnotextendbeyondthescientificevidencerealmwithwhichwewerechargedleavingthoseissuestothepolicymakerstowhomthisreporthasbeendelivered.WhatareSmartMeters?Smartmetersmeasureattributesofelectricity,naturalgas,orwaterasdeliveredtoconsumersandtransmitthatinformation(e.g.,usage)digitallytoutilitycompanies.Somesmartmetersarealsodesignedtotransmitreal‐timeinformationtotheconsumer.Thesesmartmetersreplacetraditional,analogmetersandmeterreaderswithanautomatedprocessthatisexpectedtoreduceoperatingcostsforutilities,andpotentially,costsforcustomers(seeFigure2).EachofCalifornia’smajorelectricityutilitieshasbegundeployingsmartmeterinfrastructure. a.AnalogMeter b.DigitalMeter

Figure2.a)Ananalog,conventionalmeteranda(b)digitalsmartmeter(Source:PG&E)

Therearemanykindsofsmartmetersmanufacturedbyavarietyofcompanies.Themeter,includingsensorsandthehousingorcasing,maybemanufacturedbyonecompanywhilethecommunicationsdevice(installedwithinthemeter)ismanufacturedbyanother.Dependingupontheinternalcommunicationsdeviceemployed,metersareconfiguredtooperateinawiredorinwirelessenvironment.ThesmartmetersusedbyPG&EaremadebyGeneralElectricandLandis+GyranduseawirelesscommunicationstechnologyfromSilverSpringNetworks.EachofthesePG&Emetershastwotransmitterstoprovidetwodifferentcommunicationsofdatafromthesemeters.3Thefirstprovidesforthe“automaticmeterreading”(AMR)function

                                                        3Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.

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ofthemeter(andformoredetailedandrealtimemonitoringofthecharacteristicsoftheelectricalenergydeliveredtotheconsumer)andsendsthisdatatoanaccesspoint,whereitiscollectedalongwithdatafrommanyothercustomersandtransmittedtoPG&Eusingawirelessareanetwork(WAN)(similartothewaycellphonecommunicationworks).

Figure3.SimplifieddepictionofSmartMetersystemnetwork.Arrowsshowtheuseofradiofrequency(RF)signalsforautomatedmeterreading,communicationsamongelectricpowermeters,relays,accesspoints,thecompany’senterprisemanagementsystems.Thefuturehomeaccessnetworkwilloperatewithinthehouse.

Smartmetershaveevolvedfromautomaticmeterreading(AMR;i.e.,replacingmeterreaders)toarealtimemonitoringofpowerasdeliveredtotheconsumerbytheutilitycompany.CCSTobtainedfromPG&EtheRichardTellAssociatesreport,whichdescribestheoperationofthesmartmeterfromthe2008perspectiveofAMR,notafullydeployedrealtimesmartgrid.TheRichardTellAssociatesreportsdescribetheuseofthesmartmeterradiosbeingdeployedbyPG&EaslicensedbytheFCCforamaximumpoweroutputof1W(watt)andwithinthe902‐928MHz(mega‐hertz)frequencyband.Initsinitialdeployment,PG&Ereportsthatitwillconfiguretheradiostotransmitdatafromthemetertotheaccesspointonceeveryfourhours,forabout50millisecondsatatime.4Accountingforthis,thecurrentdutycyclesofthesmartmetertransmitter(thatis,thepercentoftimethatthemeteroperates)wouldthentypicallybe1percent,orinsomecaseswherethemeterisfrequentlyusedasarelay,asmuchas2‐4percent.Thismeansthatthetypicalsmartmeterinthisinitial(AMR)usewouldnottransmitanyRFsignalatleast96‐98percentofthetime.

                                                        4Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)

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Itisimportanttonotethatanyonesmartmeterispartofabroader“mesh”networkandmayactasarelayamongothersmartmetersandutilityaccesspoints.Inaddition,whenthesmartgridisfullyfunctionalthesmartmeterswouldbeexpectedtobetransmittingmuchmorethanonceeveryfourhours,providingdatainnearreal‐time,whichwillresultinamuchhigherdutycycle.Forpurposesofthisreportweincludeahypotheticalscenariowherethesmartmeteristransmitting50percentofthetime(i.e.,transmittinghalfthetimeandreceivinghalfthetime).Eveninthis50%dutycyclesituationthepoweroutputwouldbewellbelowtheFCClimits.Smartmetersaredesignedtotransmitdatatoautilityaccesspointthatisusually25feetaboveground,onutilityorlightpoles.Theseaccesspointsaredesignedtotransmitdatafromupto5,000smartmeterstotheutilitycompany.AccesspointshaveasimilarAMRtransmitterassmartmeters,aswellasanadditionalAirCard,whichcommunicateswithutilitiesandissimilartowirelesscardsusedinlaptopcomputers.AirCardstypicallyoperateat0.25‐1W,inthe800‐900MHzor1.9GHzrange.Insomecases,dataismovedthroughthemeshnetwork,relayingthedatathroughothermeterstotheutilityaccesspoint.Thismayoccurwhenthetopographyorbuiltenvironmentinterfereswiththetransmissionofdatafromasmartmetertotheaccesspoint.Inthesecases,therelayingofdatamayoccurbetweenonesmartmeterandanotherbeforethesignalissenttotheutilityaccesspoint(e.g.,hopsalongasetofmeters).Additionally,somenon‐meterdatarelayswillalsoexistinthesystemtoconnectsomesmartmeterstoutilityaccesspoints.Manysmartmeters,includingthosefromPG&E,alsohaveasecondtransmitterthat,atsomefuturepointintime,willallowcustomerstoenableahomeaccessnetwork(HAN).TheHANwillallowincreasedconsumermonitoringofelectricityuseandcommunicationamongappliancesandthefuturesmartgrid.Thisfunctionalityisimportanttoachievethefullpotentialofthesmartgrid.Thissecondinternaltransmitter,fordeliveryofsmartmeterdatatotheconsumer,reportedlywilloperateataratedpowerof0.223W,atfrequencyofabout2.4GHz(again,similartothatofcellphonesandwirelessphones).Theactualdutycycleofthistransmitterwilldependonthedesignandoperationofthehomeareanetwork.WhyareSmartMetersBeingInstalledThroughoutCalifornia?Itisanticipated,whenfullyoperational,thatsmartelectricitymetersareakeyenablingtechnologyfora“smartgrid”thatisexpectedtobecomeincreasinglyclean,efficient,reliable,andsafe(seeFigure3)atapotentiallowercosttotheconsumer.(Digitalmetersarealsobeingusedforreadingofnaturalgasandwaterconsumption).Smartelectricalmetersallowdirecttwo‐waycommunicationbetweenutilitiesandcustomers,whichisexpectedtohelpendusersadjusttheirdemandtopricechangesthatreflecttheconditionoftheelectricitygrid.Theseenduseradjustmentscanhelptoprotecttheoverallreliabilityoftheelectricitygrid,cutcostsforutilitycustomers,andimprovetheoperationandefficiencyoftheelectricitygrid.Thesmartgridwillenablegridoperatorstobetterbalanceelectricitysupplyanddemandinreal‐time,

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whichbecomesincreasinglyimportantasmoreintermittentwindandsolargenerationresourcesareaddedtothegrid.Figure4depictsthepotentialoperationofasmartgrid.

Figure4.IllustrationofcomponentsofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeshowingtheuseofradiofrequency(RF)signalsforcommunicationsamongelectricpowermeters,relays,accesspointsand,

ultimately,thecompany’senterprisemanagementsystems.(SourceSilverSpringNetwork5)

Smartmeterswillalsoallowutilitiestocommunicategridconditionstocustomersthroughpricesignals,sothatconsumers,viatheirHAN,candelaynon‐timesensitivedemands(suchasclothesdrying)toatimewhenelectricityischeapestorhasthemostbenefittothereliabilityofthesystem.Insomecaseswirelesssignalsinteriortothestructurewillalsobeabletoautomaticallyadjusttheheatingandventilationsystemsandtoadjustheatorairconditioningunits.Thisadaptationtopriceorreliabilitysignalscouldreduceoverallelectricitycostsforcustomers,improvetheutilizationofrenewableandnon‐renewablepowerplants,andcutcostsassociatedwithaddingintermittentwindandsolarresourcestothegrid.

                                                        5Seehttp://www.silverspringnet.com/products/index.htmlforcomponentdescriptions.NetworkinfrastructureincludestheSilverSpringAccessPoints(APs)andRelaysthatforwarddatafromendpointsacrosstheutility’sbackhaulorWANinfrastructureintothebackoffice.TheUtilityIQapplicationsuiteincorporatesbothutilityapplicationssuchasAdvancedMeteringandOutageDetectionaswellasadministrativeprogramsformanagingandupgradingthenetwork.GridScapeprovidesmanagementforDAcommunicationsnetworks.TheCustomerIQwebportalenablesutilitiestodirectlycommunicateusage,pricing,andrecommendationstoconsumers.SilverSpringworkswitheachutilitytocustomizetheinformationportrayedandtoimportutility‐specificinformationsuchasrateschedules.

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Whilesuchlong‐termvalueofsmartmeterswilltakeyearstofullyrealize,theyaresufficientlypromisingthatthefederalgovernmenthasrequiredutilitiestotakestepstoimplementsmartgridnetworks,includingtheuseofsmartmeters.6AfterreviewandauthorizationfromtheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission,7utilitiesinCaliforniahavebeguntoinstallsmartmetersthroughoutthestate.SomeCaliforniautilities(suchasSacramentoMunicipalUtilityDistrict)havereceivedsignificantfederalfundingforsmartmeterdeploymentfromtheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentAct(federalstimuluspackage).Manycountriesaroundtheworldareactivelydeployingsmartmetersaswell.Digitalsmartmetersaregenerallyconsideredtobethefundamentaltechnologyrequiredtoenablewidespreadintegrationofinformationtechnology(IT)intothepowergrid(i.e.,thesmartgrid).Thefollowingtable(table1)summarizessomepotentialsocietalbenefitsexpectedtoresultfromthesmartgrid.

Table1:SmartGridBenefits

Consumers

1.CostSavingsResultingfromEnergyEfficiency2.IncreasedConsumerChoiceandConvenience3.MoreTransparent,Real‐TimeInformationand

ControlforConsumers

Environment

1.WidespreadDeploymentofRenewableEnergy(Solar,Wind,Biofuels)andElectricVehicles(EVs)

2.ReducedNeedtoBuildMoreFossilFueledPowerplants

3.ReducedCarbonFootprintandOtherPollutants(viaRenewables,EnergyEfficiency,ElectricVehicles)

Utilities

1.ReducedCostDuetoIncreasedEfficienciesinDeliveringElectricityandReductioninManpowertoReadMeters.

2.ImprovedReliabilityandMoreTimelyOutageResponse

3.IncreasedCustomerSatisfactionDuetoCostSavingsandSelf‐Control

Source:CaliforniaSmartGridCenter

Economy

1.CreatesNewMarketforGoodsandServices(i.e.,NewCompanies,NewJobs)

2.Up‐skillingWorkforcetobePreparedforNewJobs

3.ReducedDependenceonForeignOil,KeepsDollarsatHome

                                                        6ThefederalEnergyIndependenceandSecurityActof2007directsstatestoencourageutilitiestoinitiatesmartgridprograms,allowsrecoveryofsmartgridinvestmentsthroughutilityrates,andreimburses20%ofqualifyingsmartgridinvestments.TheAmericanRecoveryandReinvestmentActof2009provided$4.5billiontodevelopsmartgridinfrastructureintheU.S.Formoreinformation,see:CongressionalResearchService(2007)“EnergyIndependenceandSecurityActof2007:ASummaryofMajorProvisions,”CRSReportforCongress,OrderCodeRL34l294,December21.(http://energy.senate.gov/public/_files/RL342941.pdf)7CaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommissiondecisiononApplication07‐12‐009(March12,2009).DecisiononPacificGasandElectricCompany’sProposedUpgradetotheSmartmeterProgram.

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WhatHealthConcernsareAssociatedwithSmartMeters?Humanhealthimpactsfromexposuretoelectromagneticfrequency(EMF)emissionsvarydependingonthefrequencyandpowerofthefields.SmartmetersoperateatlowpowerandintheRFportionoftheelectromagneticspectrum.Attheselevels,RFemissionsfromsmartmetersareunlikelytoproducethermaleffects;howeveritisnotscientificallyconfirmedwhetherorwhatthenon‐thermaleffectsonlivingorganisms,andpotentially,humanhealthmightbe.Thesesameconcernsoverpotentialimpactsshouldapplytoallotherelectronicdevicesthatoperatewithsimilarfrequencyandpowerlevels,includingcellphones,computers,cordlessphones,televisions,andwirelessrouters.Anydifferenceinhealthimpactsfromthesedevicesislikelytobearesultofdifferencesinusagepatternsamongthem.Thermal EffectsElectromagneticwavescarryenergy,andEMFabsorbedbythebodycanincreasethetemperatureofhumantissue.Thescientificconsensusisthatbodytemperaturesmustincreaseatleast1oCtoleadtopotentialbiologicalimpactsfromtheheat.Theonlyscientificallyverifiedeffectthathasbeenshowntooccurinthepowerandfrequencyrangethatsmartmetersaredesignedtooccupyisadisruptioninanimalfeedingbehavioratenergyexposurelevelsof4W/kgandwithanaccompanyingincreaseinbodytemperatureof1oCormore.8Theexposurelevelsfromsmartmetersevenatcloserangearefarbelowthisthreshold.TheFCChassetlimitsonpowerdensitiesfromelectronicdevicesthatarewellbelowthelevelwheredemonstratedbiologicalimpactsoccur,andthelimitsaretensorhundredsoftimeshigherthanlikelyexposurefromsmartmeters.9Non‐thermal Effects Thereareemergingquestionsinthemedicalandbiologicalfieldsaboutpotentialharmfuleffectscausedbynon‐thermalmechanismsofabsorbedRFemissions.Complaintsofhealthimpactsfrom“electromagneticstress”havebeenreported,withsymptomsincludingfatigue,headache,andirritability.SomestudieshavesuggestedthatRFabsorptionfrommobilephonesmaydisruptcommunicationbetweenhumancells,whichmayleadtoothernegativesimpactsonhumanbiology.10,11Whileconcernsofbraincancerassociatedwithmobilephoneusagepersist,thereiscurrentlynodefinitiveevidencelinkingcellphoneusagewithincreased

                                                        8D'Andrea,J.A.,Adair,E.R.,andJ.O.deLorge(2003)Behavioralandcognitiveeffectsofmicrowaveexposure,BioelectromagneticsSuppl6,S39‐62(2003).9Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.(http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)10Markova,E.,Malmgren,L.,andI.Y.Belyaev(2009)Microwavesfrommobilephonesinhibit53PB1focusformationinhumanstemcellsstrongerthanindifferentiatedcells:Possiblemechanisticlinktocancerrisk.EnvironmentalHealthPerspectives,doi:10.1289/ehp.0900781.11Nittby,H.,Grafstrom,G.,Eberhardt,J.L.,Malmgren,L.,Brun,A.,PerssonB.R.R.,andL.G.Salford(2008)RadiofrequencyandExtremelyLow‐FrequencyElectromagneticFieldEffectsontheBlood‐BrainBarrierElectromagneticBiologyandMedicine,27:103–126,2008.

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incidenceofcancer.12Butduetotherecentnatureofthetechnology,impactsoflong‐termexposurearenotknown.Ongoingscientificstudyisbeingconductedtounderstandnon‐thermaleffectsfromlong‐termexposuretomobilephonesandsmartmeters,etc.,especiallythecumulativeimpactfromallRFemittingdevicesincludingthatofanetworkofsmartmetersoperatingthroughoutacommunity.13Therecurrentlyisnoconclusivescientificevidencepointingtoanon‐thermalcause‐and‐effectbetweenhumanexposuretoRFemissionsandnegativehealthimpacts.Forthisreason,regulatorsandpolicymakersmaybeprudenttocallformoreresearchwhilecontinuingtobaseacceptablehumanRFexposurelimitsoncurrentlyprovenscientificandengineeringfindingsonknownthermaleffects,ratherthanongeneralconcernsorspeculationaboutpossibleunknownandasyetunprovennon‐thermaleffects.Suchquestionswilllikelytakeconsiderabletimetoresolve.Thedatathatareavailablestronglysuggestthatiftherearenon‐thermaleffectsofRFabsorptiononhumanhealth,sucheffectsarenotsoprofoundastobeeasilydiscernable.FCCGuidelinesIn1985,theFCCfirstestablishedguidelinestolimithumanexposureandprotectagainstthermaleffectsofabsorbedRFemissions.TheguidelineswerebasedonthosefromtheAmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(ANSI)thatwereissuedin1982.14In1996,theFCCmodifieditsguidelines,15basedonarulemakingprocessthatbeganin1993inresponsetoa1992revisionoftheANSIguidelines16,17andfindingsbytheNationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionandMeasurements(NCRP).18The1996guidelinesarestillinplacetoday.

InitsrulemakingprocesstosetSARandMPElimits,theFCCreliedonmanyfederalhealthandsafetyagencies,includingtheU.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgencyandtheFoodandDrugAdministration.

                                                        12Ahlbom,A.,Feychting,M.,Green,A.,Kheifets,L.,Savitz,D.A.,andA.J.Swerdlow(2009)Epidemiologicevidenceonmobilephonesandtumorrisk:areview.Epidemiology20,639‐52(2009).13NationalResearchCouncil(2008)IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealthEffectsofWirelessCommunication,TheNationalAcademiesPress,Washington,D.C.(http://www.nap.edu/catalog/12036.html)14AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1982)“AmericanNationalStandardRadioFrequencyRadiationHazardWarningSymbol,”ANSIC95.2‐1982,InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.15FCC(1997)“EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”OETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65.pdf)16AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1992)“SafetyLevelswithRespecttoHumanExposuretoRadioFrequencyElectromagneticFields,3kHzto300GHz,”ANSI/IEEEC95.1‐1992(previouslyissuedasIEEEC95.1‐1991),InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.17AmericanNationalStandardsInstitute(1992)“RecommendedPracticefortheMeasurementofPotentiallyHazardousElectromagneticFields–RFandMicrowave,”ANSI/IEEEC95.3‐1992,InstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers,Inc.18NCRP(1986)“BiologicalEffectsandExposureCriteriaforRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”NCRPReportNo.86(1986),NationalCouncilonRadiationProtectionMeasurements.

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WhiletheFCCguidelinesappeartoprovidealargefactorofsafetyagainstknownthermaleffectsofexposuretoradiofrequency,theydonotnecessarilyprotectagainstpotentialnon‐thermaleffects,nordotheyclaimto.19Withoutadditionalunderstandingoftheseeffects,thereisinadequatebasistodevelopadditionalguidelinesatthistime.TheFCCguidelinesmeasureexposuretoRFemissionsintwoways.Specificabsorptionrate(SAR)measurestherateofenergyabsorptionandismeasuredinunitsofwatts‐per‐kilogramofbodyweight(W/kg).Itaccountsforthethermaleffectsonhumanhealthassociatedwithheatingbodytissueandisusedasalimitingmeasurementforwirelessdevices,suchasmobilephones,thatareusedincloseproximitytohumantissue.20TheFCClimits,aswellastheunderlyingANSIandNCRPlimits,arebasedonaSARthresholdof4W/kg.AtthetimeoftheFCCrulemaking,andstilltoday,behavioraldisruptioninlaboratoryanimals(includingnon‐humanprimates)atthisabsorptionrateistheonlyadversehealthimpactthathasbeenclearlylinkedtoRFatlevelssimilartothoseemittedbysmartmeters.Thisfindingissupportedinscientificliterature21,22andbytheWorldHealthOrganizationandmanyhealthagenciesinEurope.23,24TheFCClimitof1.6W/kgprovidesasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstthisthreshold.LimitsonSARprovidethebasisforanothermeasurementofexposure,maximumpermissibleexposure(MPE).MPElimitsaverageexposureoveragiventimeperiod(usually30minutesforgeneralexposure)fromadeviceandisoftenusedforexposuretostationarydevicesandwherehumanexposureislikelytooccuratadistanceofmorethan20cm.Itismeasuredinmicro(10‐6)watts‐per‐square‐centimeter(μW/cm2),andaccountsforthefactthatthehumanbodyabsorbsenergymoreefficientlyatsomeradiofrequenciesthanothers.Thehumanbodyabsorbsenergymostefficientlyintherangeof30‐300MHz,andthecorrespondingMPElimitsforRFemissionsinthisrangeareconsequentlythemoststringent.Inthefrequencybandswheresmartmetersoperate,includingPG&E’s,namelythe902‐928MHzbandand2.4GHzrange,thehumanbodyabsorbsenergylessefficiently,andtheMPElimitsarelessrestrictive.

                                                        19TheU.S.EPAconfirmedthisinalettertoTheElectromagneticRadiationPolicyInstitute,datedMarch8,2002.(http://www.emrpolicy.org/litigation/case_law/docs/noi_epa_response.pdf)20FCC(2001)“AdditionalInformationforEvaluatingComplianceofMobileandPortableDeviceswithFCCLimitsforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyEmissions,”SupplementC(Edition01‐01)toOETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,June.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65c.pdf)21D'Andrea,J.A.,Adair,E.R.,andJ.O.deLorge(2003)Behavioralandcognitiveeffectsofmicrowaveexposure,BioelectromagneticsSuppl6,S39‐62(2003).22Sheppard,A.R,Swicord,M.L.,andQ.Balzano(2008)Quantitativeevaluationsofmechanismsofradiofrequencyinteractionswithbiologicalmoleculesandprocesses,HealthPhys95,365‐96(2008).23TheWorldHealthOrganizationhasreviewedinternationalguidelinesforlimitingradiofrequencyexposureandscientificstudiesrelatedtohumanhealthimpactsandconcludesthatexposurebelowguidelinelimitsdon’tappeartohavehealthconsequences.(http://www.who.int/peh‐emf/standards/en/)24CommitteeonManandRadiation(COMAR)(2009)“TechnicalInformationStatement:ExpertreviewsonpotentialhealtheffectsofradiofrequencyelectromagneticfieldsandcommentsonTheBioinitiativeReport,”HealthPhysics97(4):348‐356(2009).

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TheFCClimitsonMPEaresummarizedinFigure5.25,26At902MHz,appropriateforoperationoftheAMRtransmitterofthesmartmeter;theFCClimitis601μW/cm2.Athigherfrequencies,thehumanbodyabsorbsevenlessenergy,andthethresholdforthe2.4GHztransmitterforhomeareanetworkcommunicationsisconsequentlyhigher,1000μW/cm2.PG&Ecommissioneda2008studybyRichardTellAssociates,“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem.”InthisstudyofPG&E’sproposedsmartmeternetworkitisnotedthattheFCClimitsonMPEincludeafactorofsafety,andtheperceivedhazardousexposurelevelis50timeshigherthantheFCClimits.27Thestudyestimatesthatthehighestexposurefromsmartmeters,ifanindividualwerestandingdirectlyinfrontofandnexttothemeter,wouldbe8.8μW/cm2transmittingat2to4%ofthetime.Thestudynotesthatthisisalmost70timeslessthantheFCClimitand3,500timeslessthanthedemonstratedhazardlevel.Inalllikelihood,individualswillbemuchfartherawayfromsmartmetersandlikelybehindthem,(withinastructure)wherepowerdensitywillbemuchlower.Thehighestexposurefromtheentiresmartmetersystemwouldoccurimmediatelyadjacenttoanaccesspoint.Itisveryunlikelythatanindividualwouldbeimmediatelyadjacenttoanaccesspoint,astheyarenormallylocated25feetabovethegroundonatelephoneorelectricalpoleorotherstructure.Thepeakpowerdensityfromanaccesspointisestimatedtobe24.4μW/cm2,orabout25timeslessthantheFCClimit.Fromtheground,exposuretopowerdensityfromaccesspointsisestimatedtobe15,000timeslessthantheFCClimitingreatpartduetothedistancefromthedevice.ThePG&EcommissionedreportbyRichardTellAssociatesisbasedonlyonanAMRdutycycleoftransmittingdataonceeveryfourhourswhichresultsinthisverylowestimatedpeakpower.However,wearenotawareofthejustificationforusingaveragingoverafour‐hourperiod.WedoknowtheFCC28allowsaveragingofexposureoveradesignatedperiod(30minutes).Totrulybeasmartgridthedatawillbetransmittedatamuchmorefrequentratethanthis.Inthisreportwelookattheworst‐casescenario,ameterthatisstuckinthe“on”position,constantlyrelaying,ata100%dutycycle.Eveninthis100%scenariotheRFemissionswouldbemeasurablybelowtheFCClimitsforthermaleffects.

                                                        25FCC(1997)“EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,”OETBulletin65(Edition97‐01),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet65/oet65.pdf)26FCC(1999)“QuestionsandAnswersaboutBiologicalEffectsandPotentialHazardsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFields,"OETBulletin56(FourthEdition),FederalCommunicationsCommission,August.(http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet56/oet56e4.pdf)27Tell,R.(2008)“SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofthePG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystem,”PreparedforPacificGas&ElectricCompany,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.,October27.(http://www.pge.com/includes/docs/pdfs/shared/edusafety/systemworks/rfsafety/rf_fields_supplemental_report_2008.pdf)28http://www.fcc.gov/Bureaus/Engineering_Technology/Documents/bulletins/oet56/oet56e4.pdf

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PowerDensity(andExposureLevel)DeclinesRapidlywithDistanceThepowerdensityfromsmartmeters,orotherdevicesthatemitRF,fallsoffdramaticallywithdistance.Figure6illustratesthisaffectforanexamplesmartmeter.Whiletheestimatedmaximumexposurelevelat1footfromthemeterwithadutycycleof50%is180μW/cm2(farbelowtheFCCguidelines),atadistanceofabout10feet,thepower‐densityexposureapproacheszero.

Figure5.FCCmaximumpermissibleexposurelimitsonpowerdensityrisewithfrequencybecausethehumanbodycansafelyabsorbmoreenergyathigherfrequencies.Theestimatedmaximumexposurefroma1‐WattAMRtransmitterat5%dutycycle(i.e.,72minutes/day)andone‐footdistanceis18μW/cm2,or3%oftheFCClimit.Evenifametermalfunctionedandwasstuckinthealways‐ontransmitmode(i.e.,100%dutycycle),

exposurelevelswouldbe60%oftheFCClimitforanAMRtransmitter.Fora250mWHANtransmitterata5%dutycycle,thelevelwouldbe.45%oftheFCClimitand9%oftheFCClimitifthetransmitterwereon100%.

ExposurefiguresderivedfromFebruary2011ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)fieldmeasurementstudyentitled“RadioFrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel”.29

                                                        29EPRI(2011)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel,”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.

0 

200 

400 

600 

800 

1000 

1200 

0  500  1000  1500  2000  2500 

Max. permissible exposure (MPE) (μW/cm

2) 

Frequency (MHz) 

FCCLimitFCCLimitFCCLimitFCCLimit

MaxexposurefromsmartmeterHANtransmiwerat5%dutycycle

100%ifalwayson

Ifon50%MaxexposurefromsmartmeterAMRtransmiwerat5%dutycycle

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20 

 Figure6.Powerdensityfromasamplesmartmeterversusdistance;301‐Wattemitterat50%dutycycle.TypicalsmartmeterAMRtransmitterpowerdensitydeclinesrapidlywithdistance.Therapiddropofpowerdensity

withdistance(inverse‐squarelaw)issimilarforvariousdutycyclesanddifferentsetsofsourcedata.

ComparisonofElectromagneticFrequenciesfromSmartMetersandOtherDevicesHealthconcernssurroundingRFfromsmartmetersaresimilartothosefrommanyotherdevicesthatweuseinourdailylives,includingcordlessandmobiletelephones,microwaveovens,wirelessrouters,hairdryers,andwireless‐enabledlaptopcomputers.Inadditiontoslightdifferencesinfrequencyandpowerlevels,whichaffecthumanabsorptionofRFfromthesedevices,theprimarydifferenceamongthemishowtheyareused.Cellphones,forexample,areoftenusedformanyminutesatatime,severaltimesoverthecourseofaday,andhelddirectlynexttoone’shead.Forperspective,microwaveovensoperateatasimilarfrequencyastheHANtransmitterofsmartmeters(2.45GHz),andtheU.S.FoodandDrugAdministrationhassetlimitsonleakagelevelsthatarefivetimeshigher(5,000μW/cm2)thantheFCClimitforsmartmetersandother

                                                        30EPRI(20110)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters;ACaseStudyofOneModel,“”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.

180

20 1.8 0.2 0.018

0

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

1 3 10 30 100

μW/cm

2

DistanceinFeet

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devicesoperatingat2.4GHz.31WirelessroutersandWi‐Fiequipmentproduceradiofrequencyfieldsofabout0.2–1.0μW/cm2.32,33,34Peopleinmetropolitanareasareexposedtoradiofrequencyfromradioandtelevisionantennas,aswell,althoughformostofthepopulation,exposureisquitelow,around0.005μW/cm2.35

Figure7. Instantaneous RadioFrequencyPowerDensityLevelsofCommonDevices(inmicroWatts/cm2)Aboutthisfigure:ThisfigurewasdevelopedbytheCCSTprojectteam.Quantitiesfordifferentdistancescalculated

usingInverseSquareLaw.Assumesdistancesinfar‐field,wherepowerdensityreducesasthesquareofthedistancefromthesource.Smartmeterpowerscaledtoobtainoutputfor50%dutycycle.ThesourceforthevariousstartingmeasurementscamefromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐FrequencyExposure

LevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)

                                                        31FDA,“SummaryoftheElectronicProductRadiationControlProvisionsoftheFederalFood,Drug,andCosmeticAct,”U.S.FoodandDrugAdministration.(http://www.fda.gov/Radiation‐EmittingProducts/ElectronicProductRadiationControlProgram/LawsandRegulations/ucm118156.htm)32EPRI(2011)“Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters;ACaseStudyofOneModel,“ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February2011.33Foster,K.R.(2007)RadiofrequencyexposurefromwirelessLANSutilizingWI‐FFItechnology.HealthPhysics,Vol.92,No.3,March,pp.280‐282.34Schmidt,G.etal.(2007)ExposureofthegeneralpublicduetowirelessLANapplicationsinpublicPlaces,RadiationProtectionDosimetry,Vol.123,No.1,EpubJune11,pp.48‐52.35EPA(1986)TheRadiofrequencyRadiationEnvironment:EnvironmentalExposureLevelsandRFRadiationEmittingSources,EPA520/1‐85‐014,U.S.EnvironmentalProtectionAgency,July.

Minimum 

Maximum 0 

500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 

1000 

200  200 20  0.2  0.005 

5000 

800 

200 20  1  1 

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Table2:Radio‐FrequencyLevelsfromVariousSources

Source Frequency ExposureLevel(mW/cm2)

Distance Time SpatialCharacteristic

Mobilephone 900MHz,1800MHz 1—5 Atear Duringcall HighlylocalizedMobilephonebasestation

900MHz,1800MHz 0.000005—0.002 10stoafewthousandfeet

Constant Relativelyuniform

Microwaveoven 2450MHz ~50.05‐0.2 2inches2feet Duringuse Localized,non‐uniform

Localareanetworks 2.4—5GHz 0.0002—0.0010.000005—0.0002

3feet Constantwhennearby

Localized,non‐uniform

Radio/TVbroadcast Widespectrum 0.001(highest1%ofpopulation)

0.000005(50%ofpopulation)

Farfromsource(inmostcases)

Constant Relativelyuniform

Smartmeter 900MHz,2400MHz 0.0001(250mW,1%dutycycle)

0.002(1W,5%dutycycle)

0.000009(250mW,1%dutycycle)0.0002(1W,5%

dutycycle)

3feet

10feet

Wheninproximityduringtransmission

Localized,non‐uniform

Source:ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI),Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel(February2011)

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WhatisDutyCycleandHowDoesitRelatetoRFExposure?Dutycyclereferstothefractionoftimeadeviceistransmitting.Forinstance,adutycycleof1%meansthedevicetransmitsRFenergy1%ofagiventimeperiod.Onepercentofthetimeinadayisequivalentto14.4minutesperday.Thedutycycle,orsignaldurationisanoften‐overlookedfactorwhencomparingexposuresfromdifferentkindsofdevices(e.g.,mobilephones,Wi‐Firouters,smartmeters,microwaveovens,FMradio/TVbroadcastsignals).Dutycyclesofvariousdevicesvaryconsiderably.ThedutycycleofAM/FMradio/TVbroadcasts,are100%;inotherwords,theyaretransmittingcontinuously.Mobilephonesusagevarieswidelyfromusertouser,ofcourse.However,thenationalaverageuseisabout450minutespermonth.Thisusageequatestoa1%dutycycleforthe“average”user.FrominformationthatCCSTwasabletoobtainweunderstandthatthesmartmetertransmitterbeingusedbyPG&Eoperateswithamaximumpoweroutputof1W(watt)andwithinthe902‐928MHz(mega‐hertz)frequencyband.Eachsmartmeterispartofabroader“mesh”networkandmayactasarelaybetweenothersmartmetersandutilityaccesspoints.Thetransmitterateachsmartmeterwillbeidlesomeofthetime,withthepercentoftimeidle(nottransmitting)dependingontheamountandscheduleofdatatransmissionsmadefromeachmeter,therelayingofdatafromothermetersthatanindividualmeterdoes,andthenetworkingprotocol(algorithm)thatmanagescontrolanduseofthecommunicationspathsinthemeshnetwork.Theoreticallythetransmittimecouldincreasesubstantiallybeyondtoday’sactualoperationlevelifnewapplicationsandfunctionalityareaddedtothemeter’scommunicationmoduleinthefuture.Forahypotheticalillustration(i.e.,themetertransmitshalfthetimeandreceiveshalfthetime),anupperenddutycyclewouldbe50%,.ThetablebelowcomparestheeffectofdifferentdutycyclesagainsttheFCCguidelinesforhumanexposurelimits.

TypicalSmartMeterOperationWithRepeaterActivity

ScaledHypotheticalMaximumUseCase(i.e.,alwayson)

5%DutyCycle 50%DutyCycle

72minutes/day 12hours/day

3%ofFCClimit 30%ofFCClimitSourcedataonoperatingdutycycles(i.e.,firstcolumn)fromElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)actualfieldtestingofsmartmeters,asreportedinRadio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel,February2011.Secondcolumnhypotheticalmaximumcasederivedthroughextrapolationoffirstcolumndata.Bothexposurelevelsat1‐footdistance.

Insummary,thedutycyclesofsmartmetersintypicalmeter‐readoperationandaddedmaximum‐caserepeateroperationresultinexposuresthatare3%oftheFCCexposureguidelines.Eveninahypotheticalextremeandunusualcaseofhalf‐transmitandhalf‐receivescenariothemaximumexposurewouldbeabout30%oftheFCClimit,whichprovidesawidesafetymarginfromknownthermaleffectsofRFemissions.

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WhatAboutExposureLevelsfromaBankofMetersandfromJustBehindtheWallofaSingleMeter?InaFebruary2011studyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)36fieldtestedexposurelevelsfromabankof10metersof250mWpowerlevelatonefootdistanceinordertosimulateabankofsmartmeterslocatedatamultifamilybuilding,suchasanapartmenthouse.Theexposurelevelwasequivalentto8%oftheFCCstandard.InthesamestudyEPRImeasuredexposureofonemeterfromeightinchesbehindthemeterpanelboxinordertosimulateproximityontheoppositesiteofthemeterwall.At5%dutycycleityieldedanexposureofonly0.03%oftheFCCstandard.Evenat100%dutycycle(i.e.,alwaystransmitting),exposureateightinchesbehindthemeterwas0.6%oftheFCClimit.IstheFCCStandardSufficienttoProtectPublicHealth?TheFCCguidelinesdoprovideasignificantfactorofsafetyagainstthermalimpactstheonlycurrentlyunderstoodhumanhealthimpactthatoccursatthepowerlevelandwithinthefrequencybandthatsmartmetersuse.Inadditiontothefactorofsafetybuiltintotheguidelines,atworst,humanexposuretoRFfromsmartmeterinfrastructureoperatingateven50%dutycyclewillbesignificantlylowerthantheguidelines.Whileadditionalstudyisneededtounderstandpotentialnon‐thermaleffectsofexposuretoRFandeffectsofcumulativeandprolongedexposuretoseveraldevicesemittingRF,givencurrentscientificknowledgetheFCCguidelineprovidesanadequatemarginofsafetyagainstknownRFeffects.AreAdditionalTechnology‐specificStandardsNeeded?FCCguidelinesprotectagainstthermaleffectsofRFexposure.Manynon‐thermaleffectshavebeensuggested,andadditionalresearchisneededtobetterunderstandandscientificallyvalidatethem.Giventhescientificuncertaintyaroundnon‐thermaleffectsofallRFemittingequipment,atthistimethereisnoclearindicationofwhat,ifany,additionalstandardsmightbeneeded.Neitheristhereabasisfromwhichtounderstandwhattypesofstandardscouldbehelpfulorappropriate.Withoutaclearunderstandingofthebiologicalmechanismsatplay,thecostsandbenefitsofadditionalstandardsforRFemittingdevicesincludingsmartmeters,cannotbedeterminedatthistime.

                                                        36 EPRI(2010)“Aperspectiveonradio‐frequencyexposureassociatedwithresidentialautomaticmeterreadingtechnology,”ElectricPowerResearchInstitute,February,2011. 

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PublicInformationandEducationItisimportantthatconsumershaveclearandeasilyunderstoodinformationaboutsmartmeteremissionsaswellasreadilyavailableaccesstoclear,factualinformationandeducationonknowneffectsofRFemissionsatvariousfieldstrengthsanddistancesfromanarrayofdevicescommonlyfoundinourworld.Equippedwiththisinformation,peoplecanmakeknowledgeablejudgmentsabouthowtoprudentlyminimizepossibleriskstothemselvesandtheirfamiliesbyutilizingstandards‐compliantdevicesatknownsafedistances.Also,peoplewillbebetterabletogaugerelativefieldstrengthsofvariousRFsourcesinoureverydayenvironment(e.g.,mobilephones,electricblankets,clockradios,TVandradio,computers,smartmeters,powerlines,microwaveovens,etc.).Anongoingregularlyupdatedsourceofunbiasedinformationonthestateofscientificresearch,bothprovenandas‐yet‐unprovencausaleffectsbeingstudied,ifpresentedbyanindependententity,wouldprovideconsumersacredibleandtransparentsourcefromwhichtoobtainfactsaboutRFinourenvironment.CCSTisnotcurrentlyawareofasinglewebsitewithup‐to‐dateconsumerinformationwhichweareabletoendorseasimpartial.AlternativestoWireless?AssemblyMemberHuffmanhasinquiredaboutpotentialalternativestowirelesscommunicationwithsmartmeters.Therearecurrentlyseveralothermethodsoftransmittingdatafromsomesmartmeterstotheutilitycompany.Thesemethodsincludetransmittingoverapowerlineorwiredthroughphonelines,fiber‐opticorcoaxialcable.Eachmethodhastradeoffsamongcostandperformance(e.g.,howmuchdatacanbecarried,howfar,howfast).Theabilitytohaveatransmissionprotocolalternativetowirelessdependsuponthetypeandconfigurationofthemeterused.Someexistingsmartmeterscanbehard‐wired,whileotherswouldhavetobemodifiedorreplaced.Thecommunicationsboardplugsintoadigitalmeter.ThecurrentPG&EmetersuseaSilverSpringcommunicationsboardthatonlysupportswirelessprotocol.SilverSpringoranothervendorcouldprovideanalternativecommunicationsmeansifsuchwerewarrantedandcosteffective.Therelatedcostsofanalternativeapproachwouldneedtobefactoredintothedecisionmakingprocessrelatedtodifferentoptions.IffutureresearchweretoestablishacausalrelationshipbetweenRFemissionsandnegativehumanhealthimpacts,industriesandgovernmentsworldwidemaybefacedwithdifficultchoicesaboutpracticalalternativestoavoidandmitigatesucheffects.Thiswouldgreatlyaffectthewidespreaduseofmobilephones,cordlessphones,Wi‐Fidevices,smartmeters,walkie‐talkies,microwaveovens,andmanyothereverydayappliancesanddevicesemittingRF.Ifsuchahypotheticalscenarioweretooccur,smartmeterscouldconceivablybeadaptedtonon‐wirelesstransmissionofdata.However,retrofittingmillionsofsmartmeterswithhard‐wiredtechnologycouldbedifficultandcostly.Perhapsmoreimportantly,retrofittingsmart

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meterswouldnotaddressthesignificantlygreaterchallengepresentedbythebillionsofmobilephonesinuseglobally.KeyFactorstoConsiderWhenEvaluatingExposuretoRadiofrequencyfromSmartMeters1.SignalFrequency Comparetodevicesinthe

900MHzbandand2.4GHzbandFrequencysimilartomobilephones,Wi‐Fi,laptopcomputers,walkie‐talkies,babymonitors,microwaveovens

2.SignalStrength(orPowerDensity)

Microwatts/squarecentimeter(µW/cm2)

Metersignalstrengthverysmallcomparedtootherdeviceslistedabove

3.DistancefromSignal Signalstrengthdropsrapidly(doublingdistancecutspowerdensitybyfour)

Example:1ft.–8.8µW/cm23ft.–1.0µW/cm210ft.–0.1µW/cm2

4.SignalDuration ‐Extremelyshortamountoftime(2.0‐5.0%,max.)

‐NoRFsignal95‐98%ofthetime(over23hours/day)

‐Oftenoverlookedfactorwhencomparingdevices.

‐Shortdurationcombinedwithweaksignalstrengthyieldstinyexposures

5.ThermalEffects ‐ScientificconsensusonproveneffectsfromheatathighRFlevels

‐FCC“margin‐of‐safety”limits50timeslowerthanhazardousexposurelevel

‐Typicalmeteroperatesat70timeslessthanFCClimitand3,500timeslessthanthedemonstratedhazardlevel

6.Non‐thermalEffects ‐Inconclusiveresearchtodate‐Noestablishedcause‐and‐effectpointingtonegativehealthimpacts

Continuingresearchneeded

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ConclusionTheCCSTProjectTeam,aftercarefullyreviewingtheavailableliteratureonthecurrentstateofscienceonhealthimpactsofradiofrequencyfromsmartmetersandinputfromawidearrayofsubjectmatterexperts,concludesthat:

1. TheFCCstandardprovidesacurrentlyacceptedfactorofsafetyagainstknownthermallyinducedhealthimpactsofsmartmetersandotherelectronicdevicesinthesamerangeofRFemissions.Exposurelevelsfromsmartmetersarewellbelowthethresholdsforsucheffects.

2. Thereisnoevidencethatadditionalstandardsareneededtoprotectthepublicfrom

smartmeters.ThetopicofpotentialhealthimpactsfromRFexposureingeneral,includingthesmallRFexposurelevelsofsmartmeters,continuestobeofconcern.Thisreporthasbeendevelopedtoprovidereadersandconsumerswithfactual,relevantinformationaboutthe:

• ScientificbasisunderpinningcurrentRFlimits• NeedforfurtherresearchintoRFeffects• RelativenatureofRFemissionsfromawidearrayofdevicescommonlyusedthroughout

world(e.g.,cellularandcordlessphones,Wi‐Fidevices,laptopcomputers,babymonitors,microwaveovens).

CCSTencouragestheongoingdevelopmentofunbiasedsourcesofreadilyavailableandclearfactsforpublicinformationandeducation.Aweb‐basedrepositoryofwrittenreports,frequentlyaskedquestionsandanswers,graphics,andvideodemonstrationswouldprovideconsumerswithfactual,relevantinformationwithwhichtobetterunderstandRFeffectsinourenvironment.

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AppendixA–LettersRequestingCCST

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AppendixB–ProjectProcessCCSTSmartMeterProjectApproachAssemblyMemberHuffman(Marin)(July30,2010letter)andAssemblyMemberMonning(SantaCruz)(September17,2010letter)requestedCCST’sassistanceindeterminingiftherearehealthsafetyissuesregardingthenewSMARTmetersbeinginstalledbytheutilities.Inaddition,theCityofMillValleysentalettertoCCST(September,2010)insupportofMr.Huffman’srequest.(AppendixA‐letters)TheCCSTExecutiveCommitteeappointedaSmartMeterProjectTeamthatoversawthedevelopmentofaresponseontheissue(AppendixC):

• RollinRichmond(Chair),PresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSU• JaneLong,AssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,Center

forGlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory• EmirMacari,DeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaState

University,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter• PatrickMantey,Director,CITRIS@SantaCruz• RyanMcCarthy,2009CCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellow• LarryPapay,CEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirm• DavidWinickoff,AssistantProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,Departmentof

EnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeley• PaulWright,Director,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchinthe

InterestofSociety(CITRIS)Inadditiontothoseontheprojectteam,CCSTapproachedovertwodozentechnicalexpertstocontributetheiropiniontoinformCCST’sresponse.TheexpertswerereferredfromavarietyofsourcesandwerevettedbytheSmartMeterProjectTeam.Effortsweremadetoincludebothbiologicalandphysicalscientistsandengineerstohelpprovidebroadcontextandperspectivetotheresponse.Manyoftheexpertsapproachedindicatedtheydidnottimetoprovideawrittenresponsehowevertheyprovidedreferencestoadditionalexpertsand/orliteratureforreview.Afewexpertsidentifiedwerenotaskedtocontributeduetoaffiliationsthatwerefelttobeaconflictofinterest.Expertswereaskedtoprovidewrittencommentontwoissues,toprovidereferraltootherexperts,andtosuggestliteraturethatshouldbereviewed.AppendixDprovidesalistofthoseexpertswhoprovidedwrittencomment.SmartMeterProjectTeammembersandtheexpertsprovidingwrittentechnicalinputcompletedaconflictofinterestdisclosureformtorevealanyactivitiesthatcouldcreatethepotentialperceptionofaconflict.Inadditiontowrittenandoralinputfromtechnicalexperts,CCSTidentifiedrelevantreportsandothersourcesofinformationtoinformthefinalreport.ThismaterialcanbefoundlistedinAppendixEandonaCCSTwebsite:http://ccst.us/projects/smart/.

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PeerReview:AfterthedraftreportwasvettedingreatdetailbytheSmartMeterProjectTeam,itwasforwardedtotheCCSTBoardandCouncilforpeerreview.PublicComment:CommentsontheJanuary2011draftofthisreportweresolicitedfromthepublic.ThereportwaspostedtotheCCSTwebsitetoallowthegeneralpublictoeasilycomment.Manyverythoughtfulandinformedcommentswerereceived.Allpubliccommentswerereviewedandtakenintoconsiderationasthisfinalreportwascompleted.

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AppendixC–ProjectTeamTheCaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnologyadherestothehigheststandardstoprovideindependent,objective,andrespectedwork.BoardandCouncilMembersreviewallworkthatbearsCCST’sname.Inaddition,CCSTseekspeerreviewfromexternaltechnicalexperts.Therequestforrigorouspeerreviewresultsinaprotocolthatensuresthespecificissuebeingaddressedisdonesoinatargetedwaywithresultsthatareclearandsound.Inall,thisreportreflectstheinputandexpertiseofnearly30peopleinadditiontotheprojectteam.Reviewersincludeexpertsfromacademia,industry,nationallaboratories,andnon‐profitorganizations.Wewishtoextendoursincereappreciationtotheprojectteammemberswhohavehelpedproducethisreport.Theirexpertiseanddiligencehasbeeninvaluable,bothinrigorouslyhoningtheaccuracyandfocusoftheworkandinensuringthattheperspectivesoftheirrespectiveareasofexpertiseandinstitutionsweretakenintoaccount.Withouttheinsightfulfeedbackthattheseexpertsgenerouslyprovided,thisreportcouldnothavebeencompleted.RollinRichmond,SmartMeterProjectChair,CCSTBoardMemberPresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSU

PriortoRichmond’sappointmentatHumboldtStateUniversityin2002,hehadadistinguishedcareerasafacultymember,researcherinevolutionarybiologyandacademicadministrator.RichmondreceivedaPh.D.ingeneticsfromtheRockefellerUniversityandabachelor’sdegreeinzoologyfromSanDiegoStateUniversity.Dr.Richmond’scareerhasincluded:ChairpersonofbiologyatIndianaUniversity,foundingDeanoftheCollegeofArtsandSciencesattheUniversityofSouthFlorida,ProvostattheStateUniversityofNewYorkatStonyBrook,andProvostandProfessorofZoologyandGeneticsatIowaStateUniversity.HewasnamedthesixthPresidentofHumboldtStateUniversityinJulyof2002.Dr.RichmondisafellowoftheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancementofScienceandamemberofPhiBetaKappa.Hisresearchinterestsareinevolutionarygenetics.

JaneLong,CCST’sCalifornia’sEnergyFutureProjectCo‐ChairandCCSTSr.FellowAssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,CenterforGlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory

Dr.LongisthePrincipalAssociateDirectoratLargeforLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryworkingonenergyandclimate.SheisalsoaFellowintheLLNLCenterforGlobalStrategicResearch.Hercurrentinterestsareinreinventionoftheenergysysteminlightofclimatechange,nationalsecurityissues,economicstress,andecologicalbreakdown.Sheholdsabachelor'sdegreeinengineeringfromBrownUniversityandMastersandPh.D.fromUCBerkeley.

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PatrickManteyDirector,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS)@SantaCruz,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz

ManteyholdstheJackBaskinChairinComputerEngineeringandwasthefoundingDeanoftheJackBaskinSchoolofEngineering.HeisnowthedirectorofCITRISatUCSantaCruzandofITI,theInformationTechnologiesInstituteintheBaskinSchoolofEngineering.In1984,hejoinedtheUCSCfacultytostarttheengineeringprograms,comingfromIBMwherehewasaseniormanageratIBMAlmadenResearch.Hisresearchinterestsincludesystemarchitecture,design,andperformance,simulationandmodelingofcomplexsystems,computernetworksandmultimedia,real‐timedataacquisition,andcontrolsystems.ManteyisaFellowoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers.HiscurrentprojectsatCITRISincludetheResidentialLoadMonitoringProjectandworkonpowerdistributionsystemmonitoringandreliability.ManteyreceivedhisB.S.(magnacumlaude)fromtheUniversityofNotreDame,hisM.S.fromtheUniversityofWisconsin‐Madison,andhisPh.D.fromStanfordUniversity,allinelectricalengineering.HeisaFellowoftheInstituteofElectricalandElectronicsEngineers(IEEE).

EmirJoséMacariDeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenter

PriortohisappointmentasdeanatCSUSacramento,MacariwasdeanoftheCollegeofScience,MathematicsandTechnologyattheUniversityofTexasatBrownsville.Priortothat,heservedastheprogramdirectorfortheCentersofResearchExcellenceinScienceandTechnologyattheNationalScienceFoundation.HespentfiveyearsastheChairandBinghamC.StewartDistinguishedProfessorintheDepartmentofCivilandEnvironmentalEngineeringatLouisianaStateUniversity.AttheGeorgiaInstituteofTechnologyhetaughtbothengineeringandpublicpolicyandattheUniversityofPuertoRicohewasaprofessoranddirectorofCivilInfrastructureResearchCenter.HehasalsoworkedasacivilengineerinprivateindustryandhasbeenafellowatNASA.Macariholdsbothadoctorateandamaster’sdegreeincivilengineeringgeomechanicsfromtheUniversityofColorado.Hehasabachelor’sdegreeincivilengineeringgeomechanicsfromVirginiaTechUniversity.

LarryPapayCCSTBoardMemberCEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirm

PapayiscurrentlyCEOandPrincipalofPQR,LLC,amanagementconsultingfirmspecializinginmanagerial,financial,andtechnicalstrategiesforavarietyofclientsinelectricpowerandotherenergyareas.HispreviouspositionsincludeSectorVicePresidentfortheIntegratedSolutionsSector,SAIC;SeniorVicePresidentandGeneralManagerofBechtelTechnology&Consulting;andSenior

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VicePresidentatSouthernCaliforniaEdison.PapayreceivedaB.S.inPhysicsfromFordhamUniversity,aM.S.inNuclearEngineeringfromMIT,andaSc.D.inNuclearEngineeringfromMIT.HeisamemberoftheNationalAcademyofEngineeringandservedonitsBoardofCouncilorsfrom2004‐2010.HeservedasCCSTCouncilChairfrom2005through2008,afterwhichhewasappointedtotheBoard.

DavidEWinickoffAssociateProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,DepartmentofEnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeley

DavidWinickoff(JD,MA)isAssociateProfessorofBioethicsandSocietyatUCBerkeley,whereheco‐directstheUCBerkeleyScience,TechnologyandSocietyCenter.TrainedatYale,HarvardLawSchool,andCambridgeUniversity,hehaspublishedover30articlesinleadingbioethics,biomedical,legalandsciencestudiesjournalssuchasTheNewEnglandJournalofMedicine,theYaleJournalofInternationalLaw,andScience,Technology&HumanValues.Hisacademicandpolicyworkspanstopicsofbiotechnology,intellectualproperty,geo‐engineering,risk‐basedregulation,andhumansubjectsresearch.

PaulWrightDirector,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestofSociety(CITRIS)

AsDirectorofCITRISWrightoverseesprojectsonlargesocietalproblemssuchasenergyandtheenvironment;ITforhealthcare;andintelligentinfrastructuressuchas:publicsafety,watermanagementandsustainability.Wrightisaprofessorinthemechanicalengineeringdepartment,andholdstheA.MartinBerlinChair.Heisalsoaco‐directoroftheBerkeleyManufacturingInstitute(BMI)andco‐directoroftheBerkeleyWirelessResearchCenter(BWRC).BorninLondon,heobtainedhisdegreesfromtheUniversityofBirmingham,EnglandandcametotheUnitedStatesin1979followingappointmentsattheUniversityofAuckland,NewZealandandCambridgeUniversityEngland.HeisalsoamemberoftheNationalAcademyofEngineering.

RyanMcCarthyScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellow,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology

McCarthyrecentlycompletedtheCCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellowshipintheofficeofCaliforniaAssemblyMemberWilmerAminaCarter,whereheadvisedonissuesassociatedwithenergy,utilities,andtheenvironment,amongothers.McCarthyholdsamasteranddoctoratedegreeincivilandenvironmentalengineeringfromUCDavis,andabachelor’sdegreeinstructuralengineeringfromUCSanDiego.Hisexpertiseliesintransportationandenergysystemsanalysis,specificallyregardingtheelectricitygridinCaliforniaandimpactsofelectricvehiclesonenergyuseandemissionsinthestate.

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AppendixD–WrittenSubmissionAuthorsWrittenInputReceivedfrom:PhysicalSciences/EngineersKennethFoster,Professor,DepartmentofBioengineering,UniversityofPennsylvaniaRobKavet,Physiologist/Engineer,ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)Biologists/medicalDe‐KunLi,MD,Ph.D.,SeniorReproductiveandPerinatalEpidemiologist,Divisionof

Research,KaiserFoundationResearchInstitute,KaiserPermanenteAsherSheppard,Ph.D.,AsherSheppardConsulting,trainedinphysics,environmental

medicine,andneuroscienceMagdaHavas,B.Sc.,Ph.D.,Environmental&ResourceStudies,TrentUniversity,

Peterborough,CanadaCindySage,MA,DepartmentofOncology,UniversityHospital,Orebro,SwedenandCo‐

Editor,BioInitiativeReport

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AppendixE–AdditionalMaterialsConsultedAllsourcescanbeaccessedthroughtheCCSTwebsiteathttp://www.ccst.usAmericanAcademyofPediatrics

• TheSensitivityofChildrentoElectromagneticFieldsAmericanAcademyofPediatrics(August3,2005)

AustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)• www.arpansa.gov.auAustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency

(ARPANSA)• RadiationProtection‐CommitteeonElectromagneticEnergyPublicHealthIssues

(FactSheet)AustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)(May2010)

• RadiationProtection‐MobileTelephonesandHealthEffectsAustralianRadiationProtectionandNuclearSafetyAgency(ARPANSA)(June25,2010)

Bushberg,Jerrold–WrittenSubmission• BackgroundontheThermalvs.Non‐thermalExposureandHealthIssue

JerroldBushberg

DocumentsFromtheCaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth(CDPH)• CorrespondenceProvidedbyRickKreutzer,CaliforniaDepartmentofHealth

RickKreutzer,CaliforniaDepartmentofPublicHealth(March10,2011)• MixedSignalsAboutCellphones'HealthRisksHangUpResearch

TheChronicle(September26,2010)• SummaryoftheLiterature:WhatdoweKnowAboutCellPhonesandHealth?

(July20,2010)• BrainTumorRiskinRelationtoMobileTelephoneUse:Resultsofthe

INTERPHONEInternationalCase‐ControlStudyOxfordUniversityPress(March8,2010)

• MobilePhonesandHealthU.K.DepartmentofHealth

• LateLessonsfromEarlyWarnings:TowardsRealismandPrecautionwithEMF?DavidGee,EuropeanEnvironmentAgency,(January30,2009)

• StatementofFinnishRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthority(STUK)ConcerningMobilePhonesandHealthRadiationandNuclearSafetyAuthority‐STUK(January7,2009)

• FactSheet:ChildrenandSafeCellPhoneUseTorontoPublicHealth(July2008)

• ChildrenandMobilephones:TheHealthoftheFollowingGenerationsinDangerRussianNationalCommitteeonNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(April14,2008)

• AFSSEStatementonMobilePhonesandHealthFrenchEnvironmentalHealthandSafetyAgency‐AFSSE(April16,2003)

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CommitteeonManandRadiation(COMAR)• IEEEEngineeringinMedicineandBiologySocietyCommitteeonManand

Radiation(COMAR)• COMARTechnicalInformationStatementtheIEEEExposureLimitsfor

RadiofrequencyandMicrowaveEnergyIEEEEngineeringinMedicineandBiologyMagazine(April2005)

CommonwealthClubofCalifornia• CommonwealthClubofCalifornia‐TheHealthEffectsofElectromagneticFields

(Video)(November18,2010)

ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)• emf.epri.comEMF/RFProgramatEPRI• Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMeters:ACaseStudyofOneModel

ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(February2011)FinalReport• Radio‐FrequencyExposureLevelsfromSmartMetersDraft

ElectricPowerResearchInstitute(November2010)DraftReport‐accessedviatheInternetDecember2010

• PerspectiveonRadio‐FrequencyExposureAssociatedWithResidentialAutomaticMeterReadingTechnologyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(February22,2010)

• TestingandPerformanceAssessmentforFieldApplicationsofAdvancedMetersElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(December4,2009)

• OverviewofPersonalRadioFrequencyCommunicationTechnologiesElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(September9,2008)

• CharacterizingandQuantifyingtheSocietalBenefitsAttributabletoSmartMeteringInvestmentsElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(July2008)

• MeteringTechnologyElectricPowerResearchInstitute(June20,2008)

• TheBioInitiativeWorkingGroupReportElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(November23,2007)

• AnOverviewofCommonSourcesofEnvironmentalLevelsofRadioFrequencyFieldsElectricPowerResearchInstitute(EPRI)(September2002)

EnvironmentalProtectionAgency• UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sResponsetoJanetNewton

(March8,2002)• UnitedStatesEnvironmentalProtectionAgency'sResponsetoJo‐AnneBasile

(September16,2002)

Epidemiology• PrenatalandPostnatalExposuretoCellPhoneUseandBehavioralProblemsin

ChildrenEpidemiologyJuly2008‐Volume19‐Issue4‐pp523‐529

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EuropeanJournalofOncology‐RamazziniInstitute• Non‐ThermalEffectsandMechanismsofInteractionbetweenElectromagnetic

FieldsandLivingMatter(2010)

FederalCommunicationsCommission• RadioFrequencySafetyFAQ's• RFSafetyPage• StatementProvidedbyRobertWellerRegardingFCCRegulations

RobertD.Weller,Chief,TechnicalAnalysisBranch,OfficeofEngineeringandTechnology,FederalCommunicationsCommission(February3,2011)

• FederalCommunicationsCommissionResponsetoCindySage(August6,2010)

• FCCCertificationso FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September28,

2009o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September28,

2009o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐September4,

2007o FCCCertificationfortheSilverSpringNetworksDevices‐July6,2007

• QuestionsandAnswersaboutBiologicalEffectsandPotentialHazardsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsFederalCommunicationsCommissionOfficeofEngineering&Technology(August1999)

• EvaluatingCompliancewithFCCGuidelinesforHumanExposuretoRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsFederalCommunicationsCommissionOfficeofEngineering&Technology(August1997)

FoodandDrugAdministration• NoEvidenceLinkingCellPhoneUsetoRiskofBrainTumors

U.S.FoodandDrugAdministration(May2010)

HealthProtectionAgency• Wi‐Fi

HealthProtectionAgency(Lastreviewed:October26,2009)• CordlessTelephones‐DigitalEnhancedCordlessTelecommunications(DECT)and

otherCordlessPhonesHealthProtectionAgency(Lastreviewed:September4,2008)

InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(ICNIRP)• www.icnirp.deInternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection

(ICNIRP)• InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(ICNIRP)onthe

InterphonePublication

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InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(May18,2010)• ICNIRPStatementonthe"GuidelinesforLimitingExposuretoTime‐Varying

Electric,Magnetic,andElectromagneticFields(upto300GHz)"InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(September2009)

• EpidemiologicEvidenceonMobilePhonesandTumorRiskInternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(September2009)

• ExposuretoHighFrequencyElectromagneticFields,BiologicalEffectsandHealthConsequences(100kHz‐300GHz)InternationalCommissiononNon‐IonizingRadiationProtection(2009)

NationalAcademiesPress• IdentificationofResearchNeedsRelatingtoPotentialBiologicalorAdverseHealth

EffectsofWirelessCommunicationNationalAcademiesPress(2008)

• AnAssessmentofPotentialHealthEffectsfromExposuretoPAVEPAWSLow‐LevelPhased‐ArrayRadiofrequencyEnergy(9.9MBPDF)NationalAcademiesPress(2005)

NationalCancerInstitute• CellPhonesandCancerRisk(FactSheet)

NationalCancerInstitute• CellPhonesandBrainCancer:WhatWeKnow(andDon'tKnow)

NationalCancerInstitute(September23,2008)

NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences• ElectricandMagneticFields

NationalInstituteofEnvironmentalHealthSciences

Neutra,Raymond–MaterialsSubmitted• www.ehib.org/emfTheCaliforniaElectricandMagneticFields(EMF)Program• ShouldtheWorldHealthOrganization(WHO)ApplythePrecautionaryPrincipalto

LowandHighFrequencyElectromagneticFields?RaymondRichardNeutra

PG&E• UnderstandingRadioFrequency(RF)

PG&E• SupplementalReportonAnAnalysisofRadiofrequencyFieldsAssociatedwith

OperationofPG&ESmartMeterProgramUpgradeSystemRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.(October27,2008)

• SmartGrid:UtilityChallengesinthe21stCentury(7.4MBPDF)AndrewTang,SmartEnergyWeb,PacificGasandElectricCompany(September18,2009)

• SummaryDiscussionofRFFieldsandthePG&ESmartMeterSystemRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.(2005Reportand2008SupplementalReport)

• AnalysisofRFFieldsAssociatedwithOperationofPG&EAutomaticMeter

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ReadingSystemsRichardA.Tell,RichardTellAssociates,Inc.andJ.MichaelSilva,P.E.EnertechConsultants(April5,2005)

SocietyforRiskAnalysis• RiskGovernanceforMobilePhones,PowerLinesandOtherEMFTechnologies

SocietyforRiskAnalysis(2010)

SwedishStateRadiationProtectionAuthority(SSI)• TheNordicRadiationSafetyAuthoritiesSeenoNeedtoReducePublicExposure

GeneratedbyMobileBasStationsandWirelessNetworksSwedishStateRadiationProtectionAuthority(SSI)(2009)

UniversityofOttawa• WirelessCommunicationandHealth‐ElectromagneticEnergyand

RadiofrequencyRadiationFAQ'sUniversityofOttawa,RFcom

WorldHealthOrganization• DatabaseofWorldwideEMFStandards• WHO‐ElectromagneticFields• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐BaseStationsandWirelessNetworks

(FactSheetN°304)WorldHealthOrganization(May2006)

• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐ElectromagneticHypersensitivity(FactSheetN°296)WorldHealthOrganization(December2005)

• ElectromagneticFieldsandPublicHealth‐Mobilephones(FactSheetN°193)WorldHealthOrganization(May2010)

UnsolicitedSubmissionsDocumentsProvidedbyAlexanderBlink,ExecutiveDirectoroftheDE‐ToxicsInstitute,FairfaxCA

o PointsandSourcesSubmittedforConsiderationbyAlexanderBlink2o PointsandSourcesSubmittedforConsiderationbyAlexanderBlink1o PublicHealthImplicationsofWirelessTechnologies,CindySageo MemoryandBehavior,ByHenryLai,BioelectromagneticsResearch

Laboratory,UniversityofWashingtonSageConsulting

o AssessmentofRadiofrequencyMicrowaveRadiationEmissionsfromSmartMetersSageAssociates(January2011)

o CindySageLettertoJuliusKnapp(FCC)(September22,2010)

o ResponseLettertoCindySagefromJuliusKnapp(FCC)(August6,2010)

o CindySageLettertoEdwinD.Mantiply(FCC)

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(March15,2010)o BioinitiativeReport:ARationalforaBiologically‐basedPublicExposure

StandardforElectromagneticFields(ELFandRF)(3.1MBPDF)o BioinitiativeReport:WhatistheBioInitiativeReport?o BioinitiativeReport:MyocardialFunctionImprovedbyElectromagnetic

FieldInductionofStressProteinhsp70(1.1MBPDF)o BioinitiativeReport:TheInterphoneBrainTumorStudy(1.6MBPDF)

CindySage,EditorialPerspectiveo BioinitiativeReport:StepstotheClinicwithELFEMF(1.0MBPDF)o MobilePhoneBaseStations‐EffectsonWellbeingandHealth

Pathophysiology(August2009)o IncreasedBlood‐BrainBarrierPermeabilityinMammalianBrain7Days

afterExposuretotheRadiationfromaGSM‐900MobilePhonePathophysiology(August2009)

o PublicHealthImplicationsofWirelessTechnologiesPathophysiology(August2009)

o GenotoxicEffectsofRadiofrequencyElectromagneticFieldsPathophysiology(August2009)

o EpidemiologicalEvidenceforanAssociationBetweenUseofWirelessPhonesandTumorDiseasesPathophysiology(August2009)

o PublicHealthRisksfromWirelessTechnologies:TheCriticalNeedforBiologically‐basedPublicExposureStandardsforElectromagneticFields(2.9MBPDF)BioInitiativeBriefingforPresident‐ElectObamaTransitionTeam

o TheBioInitiativeReport:ARationaleforABiologically‐basedPublicExposureStandardforElectromagneticFields(ELFandRF)(3.6MBPDF)CindySagePowerPointPresentation(November2007)

Wilner&Associateso SmartMetersandExistingElectromagneticPollution

Wilner&Associates(January2011)‐ThisreportwasnotcommissionedbyCCST

o ApplicationforModificationBeforetheCaliforniaPublicUtilitiesCommission(3.5MBPDF)

OtherDocuments• HealthCanadaSafetyCode6andCityofToronto'sProposedPrudentAvoidance

Policy(2010)

• TransmittingSmartMetersPoseASeriousThreatToPublicHealth(2010)

• RFSafetyandWiMaxFAQ's:AddressingConcernsAboutPerceivedHealthEffects(April2008)

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RelevantWebsites• EMF‐Portal

• emfacts.com

• emfsafetynetwork.org

• lbagroup.com

• NIOSHProgramPortfolioCentersforDiseaseControlandPrevention(CDC)

• RadioFrequencyRFSafetyandAntennaFAQs

• SmartGridInformationClearinghouse(SGIC)

• stopsmartmeters.org

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AppendixF–GlossaryAccesspoint‐AtermtypicallyusedtodescribeanelectronicdevicethatprovidesforwirelessconnectivityviaaWANtotheInternetoraparticularcomputerfacility.Dutycycle–AmeasureofthepercentageorfractionoftimethatanRFdeviceisinoperation.Adutycycleof100%correspondstocontinuousoperation(e.g.,24hours/day).Adutycycleof1%correspondstoatransmitteroperatingonaverage1%ofthetime(e.g.,14.4minutes/day).Electromagneticfield(EMF)‐Acompositionofbothanelectricfieldandamagneticfieldthatarerelatedinafixedwaythatcanconveyelectromagneticenergy.Antennasproduceelectromagneticfieldswhentheyareusedtotransmitsignals.Far‐field‐Adistancewhichextendsfromabouttwowavelengthsdistancefromtheantennatoinfinity,istheregioninwhichthefieldactsas"normal"electromagneticradiation.Thepowerofthisradiationdecreasesasthesquareofdistancefromtheantenna.Bycontrast,thenear‐field,whichisinsideaboutonewavelengthdistancefromtheantenna,isaregioninwhichthereareeffectsfromthecurrentsandchargesintheantenna,whichdonotbehavelikefar‐fieldradiation.Theseeffectsdecreaseinpowerfarmorequicklywithdistance,thandoesthefar‐fieldradiationpower. FederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)‐TheFederalCommunicationsCommission(FCC)isanindependentagencyoftheUSFederalGovernmentandisdirectlyresponsibletoCongress.TheFCCwasestablishedbytheCommunicationsActof1934andischargedwithregulatinginterstateandinternationalcommunicationsbyradio,television,wire,satellite,andcable.TheFCCalsoallocatesbandsoffrequenciesfornon‐governmentcommunicationsservices(theNTIAallocatesgovernmentfrequencies).TheguidelinesforhumanexposuretoradiofrequencyelectromagneticfieldsassetbytheFCCarecontainedintheOfficeofEngineeringandTechnology(OET)Bulletin65,Edition97‐01(August1997).AdditionalinformationiscontainedinOETBulletin65SupplementA(radioandtelevisionbroadcaststations),SupplementB(amateurradiostations),andSupplementC(mobileandportabledevices).Gigahertz(GHz)‐OnebillionHertz,oronebillioncyclespersecond,ameasureoffrequency.Hertz‐Theunitforexpressingfrequency,oneHertz(Hz)equalsonecyclepersecond.Maximumpermissibleexposure(MPE)limit.AnexposurelimitorguidelineforRFenergyexposurepublishedbyarecognizedconsensusstandardsorganization.Megahertz(MHz)‐OnemillionHertz,oronemillioncyclespersecond,aunitforexpressingfrequency.

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Meshnetwork‐Anetworkprovidingameansforroutingdata,voiceandinstructionsbetweennodes.Ameshnetworkallowsforcontinuousconnectionsandreconfigurationaroundbrokenorblockeddatapathsby“hopping”fromnodetonodeuntilthedestinationisreached.Milliwattpersquarecentimeter(mW/cm2)‐Ameasureofthepowerdensityflowingthroughanareaofspace,onethousandth(10‐3)ofawattpassingthroughasquarecentimeter.Microwattpersquarecentimeter(µW/cm2)‐Ameasureofthepowerdensityflowingthroughanareaofspace,onemillionth(10‐6)ofawattpassingthroughasquarecentimeter.Radiofrequency(RF)‐TheRFspectrumisformallydefinedintermsoffrequencyasextendingfrom0to3000GHz,thefrequencyrangeofinterestis3kHzto300GHz.Repeaterunit‐Adevicethatcansimultaneouslyreceivearadiosignalandretransmitthesignal.Repeaterunitsareusedtoextendtherangeoflowpowertransmittersinageographicalarea.Router‐Anelectroniccomputerdevicethatisusedtorouteandforwardinformation,typicallybetweenvariouscomputerswithinalocalareanetworkorbetweendifferentlocalareanetworks.Smartmeter‐Adigitaldeviceformeasuringconsumption,suchasforelectricityandnaturalgas,andsendingthemeasurementtoautilitycompany.Automatedmeterreading(AMR)meterssendinformationone‐wayonly.Automatedmeterinfrastructure(AMI)metersarecapableoftwo‐waycommunications.

Specificabsorptionrate(SAR)‐Theincrementalenergyabsorbedbyamassofagivendensity.SARisexpressedinunitsofwattsperkilogram(ormilliwattspergram,mW/g).Transmitter‐AnelectronicdevicethatproducesRFenergythatcanbetransmittedbyanantenna.ThetransmittedenergyistypicallyreferredtoaradiosignalorRFfield.Wideareanetwork(WAN)‐Acomputernetworkthatcoversabroadareasuchasawholecommunity,town,orcity.Commonly,WANsareimplementedviaawirelessconnectionusingradiosignals.High‐speedInternetconnectionscanbeprovidedtocustomersbywirelessWANs.Wi‐Fi‐Annamegiventothewirelesstechnologyusedinhomenetworks,mobilephones,andotherwirelesselectronicdevicesthatemploytheIEEE802.11technologies(astandardthatdefinesspecificcharacteristicsofwirelesslocalareanetworks).

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AppendixG–CCST2011BOARDMEMBERS

KarlS.Pister,Board Chair;ChancellorEmeritus,UCSantaCruz;andDeanandRoyW.CarlsonProfessorofEngineeringEmeritus,UCBerkeley

BruceM.Alberts,Professor,DepartmentofBiochemistry&Biophysics,UCSanFrancisco

AnnArvin,ViceProvostandDeanofResearch,LucileSalterPackardProfessorofPediatricsandProfessorofMicrobiologyandImmunology,StanfordUniversity

WarrenJ.Baker,Emeritus,President,CaliforniaPolytechnicStateUniversity,SanLuisObispo

PeterCowhey,CouncilVice‐ChairandDean,SchoolofInternationalRelationsandPacificStudies,UCSanDiego

BruceB.Darling,ExecutiveVicePresident,UniversityofCalifornia

SusanHackwood,ExecutiveDirector,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology

RandolphHall,ViceProvostforResearchAdvancement,UniversityofSouthernCalifornia

CharlesE.Harper,ExecutiveChairman,SierraMonolithics,Inc.

MiriamE.John,CouncilChairandEmeritusVicePresident,SandiaNationalLaboratories,California

MoryGharib,ViceProvost,CaliforniaInstituteofTechnology

BruceMargon,ViceChancellorofResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,SantaCruz

TinaNova,President,CEO,andDirector,Genoptix,Inc.

LawrenceT.Papay,CEOandPrincipal,PQR,LLC

PatrickPerry,ViceChancellorofTechnology,ResearchandInformationSystems,CaliforniaCommunityColleges

RollinRichmond,President,HumboldtStateUniversity

SamTraina,ViceChancellorofResearch,UniversityofCalifornia,Merced

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AppendixH–CCST2011COUNCILMEMBERS

MiriamE.John,Council ChairandEmeritusVicePresident,SandiaNationalLaboratories,California

PeterCowhey,Council Vice ChairandDean,SchoolofInternationalRelationsandPacificStudies,UCSanDiego

WandaAustin,PresidentandCEO,TheAerospaceCorporation

JulianBetts,ProfessorofEconomics,UCSanDiego

GeorgeBlumenthal,Chancellor,UCSantaCruz

SusanBryant,FormerViceChancellorforResearch,UCIrvine

CharlesElachi,Director,JetPropulsionLaboratory

DavidGollaher,PresidentandCEO,CaliforniaHealthcareInstitute

CoreyGoodman,FormerPresident,BiotherapeuticsandBioinnovationCenter,Pfizer

M.R.C.Greenwood,President,TheUniversityofHawai’iSystem

SusanHackwood,ExecutiveDirector,CaliforniaCouncilonScienceandTechnology

BryanHannegan,VicePresidentofEnvironmentandRenewables,ElectricPowerResearchInstitute

Sung‐Mo“Steve”Kang,Chancellor,UniversityofCalifornia,Merced

CharlesKennedy,VicePresidentforHealthInformationTechnology,WellPoint,Inc. 

JudeLaspa,DeputyChiefOperatingOfficer,BechtelGroup,Inc.

WilliamMadia,FormerSeniorExecutiveVicePresidentofLaboratoryOperations,Battelle

DavidW.Martin,Jr.,M.D.,Chairman&CEO,AvidBioticsCorporation

FariborzMaseeh,FounderandManagingPrincipal,PicocoLLC 

GeorgeH.Miller,Director,LawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratory

MichaelNacht,Dean,GoldmanSchoolofPublicPolicy,UCBerkeley

StephenD.Rockwood,ExecutiveVicePresident,ScienceApplicationsInternationalCorporation

JeffreyRudolph,PresidentandCEO,CaliforniaScienceCenter

ShankarSastry,Dean,CollegeofEngineering,UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley

SorooshSorooshian,DistinguishedProfessorandDirector,CenterforHydrometeorology&RemoteSensing(CHRS),UCIrvine

JamesL.Sweeney,Director,PrecourtInstituteforEnergyEfficiency,andProfessorofManagementScienceandEngineering,StanfordUniversity

S.PeteWorden,Director,NASAAmesResearchCenter

JulieMeierWright,PresidentandCEO,SanDiegoEconomicDevelopmentCorporation

KathyYelick,Director,NationalEnergyResearchScientificComputingCenter(NERSC),LawrenceBerkeleyNationalLaboratory

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AppendixI–ReportCreditsCCSTSmartMetersProjectTeam:RollinRichmond(Chair),PresidentHumboldtStateUniversity,CSUJaneLong,AssociateDirectoratLarge,GlobalSecurityDirectorateFellow,Centerfor

GlobalSecurityResearchLawrenceLivermoreNationalLaboratoryEmirMacari,DeanofEngineeringandComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoandDirectoroftheCaliforniaSmartGridCenterPatrickMantey,Director,CITRIS@SantaCruzRyanMcCarthy,2009CCSTScienceandTechnologyPolicyFellowLarryPapay,CEO,PQR,LLC,mgmtconsultingfirmDavidWinickoff,AssistantProfessorofBioethicsandSociety,Departmentof

EnvironmentalScience,PolicyandManagement,UCBerkeleyPaulWright,Director,UCCenterforInformationTechnologyResearchintheInterestof

Society(CITRIS)WithAdditionalAssistanceFrom:JDStack,Administrator,CaliforniaSmartGridCenter,CollegeofEngineeringand

ComputerScience,CaliforniaStateUniversity,SacramentoCCSTExecutiveDirector:SusanHackwoodProjectManager:LoraLeeMartin,Director,S&TPolicyFellowsCCSTStaff:DonnaKing,ExecutiveAssistantandAccountantSandraVargas‐DeLaTorre,ProgramCoordinator,LayoutandDesign


Measuring Distances

Measuring Distances

Distances to Astronomical Objects. Recap Distances in astronomy – Measuring distances directly with light travel time – Measuring distances geometrically.

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Astronomical distances

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les formations à distances

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30 f · Retail Incubator Program Launched 2014 City Assumes Ownership of former BNSF Railyard Mixed Use Parking Ramp Groundbreaking Jones421 Groundbreaking Washington Square Groundbreaking

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