Health Defence 4: Free Radicals · WHY DISEASE STRIKES : Free radicals 44 HEALTH DEFENCE How...

40 HEALTH DEFENCE

Chapter 4

Under attack – the battle against free radicals

Ten years ago, hardly anyone outsidespecialised research areas knew verymuch about free radicals. Now you’ll

find them all over the popular press, fromhealth magazines to the covers of Time andNewsweek.

From all the publicity, you’d think they were thecause of all illness, ageing and disease. That’staking things too far, but it’s true that freeradicals are involved in many of the diseases

which ultimately kill most of us. It’s also becoming clear that theyare deeply involved in the ageing process.

As a result, many scientists now believe that anti-oxidants willmake as big an impact on public and individual health as didantibiotics half a century ago.

Chain reactions of destructionOur bodies are built up from many hundreds of thousands ofdifferent types of molecules. These molecules are built, in turn,out of rather less than a hundred different kinds of atom.

All atoms consist of a nucleus at the centre surrounded by ashell of electrons spinning round the nucleus, like planets round asun. Generally the electrons in the outer shell are paired, which is

• Free radicals are particles which attack

the body’s cells, damaging or killing them

• Your own metabolism, smoking,

sunbathing and strenuous exercise all

produce free radicals

• Free radical damage is a major cause of

ageing. It contributes to the gradual

deterioration of organs and to illness

such as cancer, arthritis, cataracts and

heart disease

• The better your defences against free

radicals, the longer you tend to live

• Anti-oxidants reduce free radical damage

ª New anti-oxidant drugs are being used to

treat stroke, ulcerative colitis,

pancreatitis and other diseases

WHY DISEASE STRIKES : Free radicals

HEALTH DEFENCE 41

a stable arrangement; but certain processes such as radiation oroxidation may knock an electron out of the shell, leaving anunpaired electron. Atoms with unpaired electrons, and themolecules of which they form a part, are free radicals. Stableradicals are safe; but unstable free radicals behave veryaggressively towards biological tissues, ransacking them forreplacement electrons.

Burning wood in a fire produces useful heat, but alsopotentially dangerous sparks and smoke. Burning petrol in anengine produces useful energy also, but dangerous exhaustfumes are given off. When you ‘burn’ glucose in your body cells,free radicals are the potentially dangerous by-products of theenergy producing process.

Cells are attacked by unstable free radicals many thousandsof times every day. Unstable radicals will grab an electron fromwherever they can; thus creating more free radicals. Chainreactions occur where thousands of free radicals can begenerated in seconds, unless the body’s defences catch them intime.

If a chain reaction takes off it can kill the cell. At lower levels,it may damage the cell membrane, making the cell less able to

NUCLEUS NUCLEUS

UNPAIREDELECTRON

1 A stable atom with pairedelectrons round it.

2 An unstable atom with an unpaired electron(arrowed). This becomes a free radical and will try to‘grab’ an electron from another atom – setting off adamaging ‘chain reaction’. Anti-oxidants work byneutralising these free radicals, thus stopping thechain reaction.

1 2

Free Radicalpoisoning

In the face of sustainedattack by free radicals,unprotected biologicaltissues turn rancid anddie.

Free radicals can bethought of as a subtlepoison which isconstantly weakeningus, and contributing toour eventual demise in aslow death of athousand million cuts.


handle nutrients, less reponsive and less efficient. If free radicalsattack the cell’s genetic material (DNA) this can, if not repaired intime, lead to cancer. If free radicals attack the mitochondria (thecell’s power generators), they can impair the cell’s energybalance to such an extent that the cell eventually commits‘suicide’.

If that cell is in the kidney, kidney function will gradually beimpaired. If the affected cell is in the skin, it will mean a slowerturnover of skin cells, less collagen deposition, and a gradual lossof skin tone and texture.

This all sounds pretty grim – but just because we’ve onlyrecently found this out doesn’t mean free radicals are somethingnew. They are as old as life itself, and all living species haveevolved defences against these destructive agents. In fact, therule of thumb in nature is that the better your defences against freeradicals, the longer you live: humans and elephants, for instance,have much better anti-radical defences than shorter-lived speciessuch as mice.

There are some rare human genetic conditions where the anti-radical defences are damaged, and in these cases, acceleratedageing, early illness and death is the outcome. Certain nutritionaldeficiencies, where one or more of the micro-nutrients used in thebody’s anti-radical defence shield are missing from the diet, havesimilar results; the victims are far more prone to age-relateddiseases, such as heart disease, cancer and blindness.

Free radical

damage:

• Exacerbatesinflammation in thejoints (rheumatoidand osteo arthritis)

• Oxidises thecholesterol in ourblood (leading toheart disease)

• Damages our eyes(leading tocataracts andblindness)

• Degrades the DNAin our body cells,which can eitherkill them or turnthem cancerous

• Is deeply involvedin most major non-infectious diseasesand inflammation

• Plays a major rolein gingivitis,asthma,Alzheimer’s,pancreatitis andulcerative colitis

42 HEALTH DEFENCE

An unprotected cell being attacked by free radicals.

A cell protected with an anti-oxidant shield.

Smoking – a free radical production line


HEALTH DEFENCE 43

Smoking loads the body withtrillions of free radicals.

Each puff of cigarette smokeproduces 1014 free radicals –that’s 100,000,000,000,000 –which is why half of allsmokers die before their time.

It’s been calculated that each cigarettereduces the life expectancy of a smoker by 10minutes, because of the damage caused by all thosefree radicals.

The link between smoking and premature death wasfirst discovered by statisticians, but it is the free radicaltheory which explains why cigarettes are linked withheart disease and cancer.

The increased free radical load uses up the body’santi-oxidants, such as Vitamin C. Smokers (evenpassive smokers) typically have subnormal Vitamin Clevels in their blood(1) – many of them could be said tobe suffering from borderline scurvy. Low levels of anti-oxidants cause damage to the lining of the arteries.

At the same time, the free radicals cause lipids (fats)in the blood to oxidise and turn rancid. These rancidlipids attack the damaged artery walls and start

building atheromatous plaque (furring of the arteries).This helps to explain why smokers are so prone toheart attacks.

Free radicals also damage the DNA in a smoker’sbody cells, leading to mutations which may eventuallygive rise to cancer.

So what about the few smokers who defy the oddsand live out a reasonably normal life span? It is almostcertainly because they have better anti-oxidantdefences.

There may be a genetic factor: some individuals maybe better at making anti-oxidant enzymes. Long-lifesmokers may eat a better diet, containing higherlevels of anti-oxidant nutrients.

This suggests that if you cannot (yet) give up smoking,you should at least try to minimise the damage bysupplementing with a well-designed mix of the keyanti-oxidants.

A threshold of 100mg of Vitamin C reduces theamount of DNA damage(11) and should reduce the riskof cancer. Vitamin E, Co-enzyme Q10, anti-oxidantminerals and the flavonoids are equally important.

EVERYDAY FREE RADICAL DAMAGE

Take the milk out of your fridge in the morning, put it somewhere warm, andby the evening it’s sour. Cut an apple in half, and watch it turn brown. Leavebutter exposed to air (oxygen) and the fat turns rancid. Leave a scratch onyour car untreated, and you’ll soon see the exposed metal corroding.

These are all very similar chemical processes. In each case free radicals dothe damage – it’s called ‘oxidative stress’ and it’s basically rusting.

Health

Warning!

This pack co

ntains

20 x 20 x

1014

Free Radical

s


44 HEALTH DEFENCE

How anti-oxidants protect your cells

4 Free radicals can attack any and allparts of the cell. Damage to DNA canlead to cancer. Damage to mitochondriacan lead to premature ageing.

5 Different anti-oxidantsprotect different parts ofthe cell. They are likespecialist defence troops.

1 This is a cross sectionof the inside of a body cellmagnified approx. 10,000times.

2 Inside the cell is thenucleus which containsmost of the cell’s DNA.DNA itself contains thegenetic codes that makeyou a unique human being– determining your haircolour, size, shape,features etc.

3 Also inside the cell aremitochondria. They are theenergy factories of thebody – where the energy infood is converted intoenergy for you to use.

nucleus

mitochondrion

cell membrane


HEALTH DEFENCE 45

6 Vitamin C is water-soluble, andprotects against free radicals in theblood and the watery fluids thatbathe our cells.

7 Vitamin E and other fat-solubleanti-oxidants such as thecarotenoids and Co-enzyme Q10,protect fatty structures such ascholesterol particles in the bloodand cell membranes.

Glutathione is an important anti-oxidant inside the cell.

8 Large amounts of free radicalsare produced in the mitochondria.Q10 acts inside the mitochondria,and beta carotene protects themitochondrial walls.

9 Anti-oxidant enzymes neutralisefree radicals in almost all areas. Theydepend on trace elements (see right-hand column).

10 When free radicals damage DNAin the cell nucleus that cell may startto grow out of control, and becomea cancer.

11 Some flavonoids maybind to DNA, and couldprovide a local anti-oxidantline of defence.

Other flavonoids canprotect other parts of thecell.

THE SECRET IS ACOMBINATION OF ANTI-OXIDANTS

These diagrams show why it’sso important to use asupplement that contains abroad range of anti-oxidants inthe right amounts and in theright form.

No single anti-oxidant canprovide comprehensive protec-tion, as different vitamins andminerals provide differentdefences in different places.

For example, anti-oxidants thatlocate in the mitochondria helpprotect against mitochondrialageing. And anti-oxidants thatprotect lipids (fats) slow theprocess that leads to strokesand heart attacks.

In addition, certain anti-oxidants only function properlyin combination with other anti-oxidants. Vitamin E andcarotenoids protect fats in yourbody from oxidation – but only ifsufficient Vitamin C is present.

The body can’t make vitaminsor minerals, but it does makeits own anti-oxidant enzymes.Production of these enzymesdepends upon there beingenough trace elements likeselenium, copper, zinc,manganese and iron present inyour diet.

DNA

Flavonoidshield

Freeradicalattack

Beta carotene

Q10

WHY DISEASE STRIKES: Free radicals

46 HEALTH DEFENCE

What’s the damage?Your body’s cells are involved in a running battle of oxidativedamage and repair. When the rate of free radical formation isincreased, or when the anti-oxidant defences are impairedbecause of a poor diet, the result is uncontrolled free radicaldamage – ‘oxidative stress’.

If the degree of oxidative stress is relatively mild, it can stimulatethe cell into boosting its own anti-oxidant defences. This happensafter moderate exercise. Severe oxidative stress, however, kills thecell fast. Oxidative stress somewhere in the middle can damagethe cell enough to make it self-destruct – a slightly slower process.

Oxidative stress damages a cell in a number of ways: • If a free radical attacks a DNA base, the

cell’s DNA repair enzymes try to cut out thedamaged part and replace it with a new one.The damaged, oxidised DNA base isexcreted in the urine, so the rate of DNAdamage can be estimated by measuringoxidised DNA base levels in the urine. Non-smokers experience roughly 1,000 DNAbase ‘hits’ a day; smokers between threeand ten times as many

• When a protein is oxidised it becomes lessefficient, or completely dysfunctional. Thebody is constantly breaking down andreplacing its proteins, so damaged proteinsare eventually replaced by newly madeprotein molecules. The oxidised proteinsform compounds which can also bemeasured in blood or urine.

• When the fatty acids (lipids) in a cell areoxidised by free radicals, they form toxicLipid Oxidation Products (LOPs), andlipofucsin. Lipofucsin accumulates in thetissues at such a constant rate that it hasbeen suggested that lipofucsin levels are anaccurate measure of biological ageing(12,13,70).

Thymol

The anti-oxidant drugCentrophenoxineconcentrates in lipids,slows lipid oxidation,and allows the body toclear away deposits ofthe lipid oxidation end-product lipofucsin(otherwise known asthe ‘ageing pigment’)(12, 13).

Age spots in elderlyskin disappear and themental function ofelderly rats and humansimproves(14, 15).

The highly potent lipid-soluble anti-oxidantssuch as thymol,extracted from the herbthyme, are reported tohave similar effects(16, 17).


HEALTH DEFENCE 47

The effects of the build-up of lipofucsin depend on whichtissues are affected. In skin, lipofucsin forms so-called liver spots,which are merely unsightly. Inside nerve cells, however, theaccumulation of lipofucsin contributes to a steady decline in nervefunction, and eventually to cell death. In fact, lipofucsin accumulationis one of the factors which contributes to the steady loss of brain cellswhich occur as we age.

In certain conditions the rate of lipofucsin build-up is accelerated.Severe deficiency of the anti-oxidant Vitamin E, for example,leads to a rapid build-up of lipofucsin and symptoms of nervedamage such as unsteadiness and slurred speech(18-20). Vitamin Etherapy improves these symptoms, suggesting that lipofucsin canbe removed by the body’s normal clearance mechanisms(18).

LOPs (lipid oxidation products), the other main products of lipidoxidation, are also bad for your health. LOPs in the bloodstreamare a potent cause of coronary artery disease(21) (See Chapter14, Heart disease). In other tissues LOPs are thought to triggerinflammation, contributing to conditions such as asthma andarthritis.

Anti-oxidants such as Vitamin E which can get into the lipids inthe cells, protect them from oxidation and reduce the rate ofLOPs formation.

Of all the different lipids in the body, poly-unsaturated fattyacids (known as PUFAs) are the most vulnerable to oxidation,and can only be replaced from the diet.

In nature, foods rich in PUFAs like nuts and grains alwayscontain high levels of fat-soluble anti-oxidants. With modernprocessed foods, however, these anti-oxidants are often strippedaway.

If we eat too many foods containing refined PUFAs (ievegetable oils and the poly-unsaturate-rich margarines), withoutprotecting ourselves with anti-oxidant supplements, we putourselves at risk of producing more lipofucsin and more LOPs(22)

(see Chapter 8, Essential fatty acids).

Balance your fishoil supplement

Because PUFAs are soprone to oxidation,PUFA supplementssuch as fish oil orevening primrose oilshould always becombined with lipid-soluble (ie fat-soluble)anti-oxidants.

These include VitaminsA and E, Co-enzymeQ10, Vitamin K, betacarotene, lutein andlycopene.

These, in turn, must be supported byVitamin C; and furtherby selenium and anti-oxidant herbs such asthyme, rosemary andothers.


48 HEALTH DEFENCE

Free radicals and ageingThe theory that ageing is caused by free radical damage isbacked up by a great deal of evidence. For example, Drs Sohaland Rose at the University of California recently succeeded inbreeding a mutant super-fly, known as the Methuselah fly, whichlives twice as long as its normal brothers and sisters.

When they examined the super-fly, it was different from normalflies in one respect: it was producing extra SOD (super-oxidedismutase) and catalase(3-7) – two key anti-oxidant enzymes whosefunction is to mop up free radicals.

At more or less the same time, Thomas Johnson at theUniversity of Colorado discovered a super-worm, with a life span70 per cent longer than normal. This long-lived mutant, like the

Not all bad

We can’t avoid freeradicals altogether, norwould we want to.Some free radicals aregood for our health.

Significant numbers ofradicals are generatedby immune cells as anessential part of thebody’s defences againstinvading micro-organisms.

It is when free radicalsare produced in excessthat they spill over fromthese physiologicalfunctions, and causetissue damage, illnessand accelerated ageing.

Mice and men

Anti-oxidant supple-ments are good forelderly humans too.Research groups haveshowed that long-termanti-oxidant supple-ments given to old folkimprove their mentaland physical well-being(72, 73) and reducethe risk of Alzheimer’sby up to 66%(77).

REJUVENATED RODENTSBruce Ames, the distinguished biochemist at the University of California, hasshown that the DNA in each cell of a rat is hit by about 100,000 free radicalsa day.

Damaged DNA can either kill a cell, or turn it cancerous, which is why alllife forms have DNA repair kits. The rat’s DNA repair enzymes workconstantly to remove the damage, but they can’t keep up.

A young rat has about one million sites of damaged DNA in each cell; oldrats have about two million. The DNA repair processes slow down with agebecause they too accumulate oxidative damage. As a result, older rats havea high cancer rate.

The cancer rate is much lower in humans because, as Richard Cutler at theUSA National Institute of Ageing has shown, we have better anti-radicaldefences – one reason we live so much longer than rats.

In 1993 John Carney at the University of Kentucky Medical Centerfound that, as expected, levels of oxidised proteins in the brainand other tissues of gerbils increased with age. He gave hiselderly, oxidised gerbils an anti-oxidant called phenlybutylnitrone(PBN). This had two important effects – it reduced the oxidativedamage in the brain to youthful levels, and it improved thegerbils’ short-term memory (see Chapter 17, A Healthy Brain).

Elderly gerbils lose their memory just like many elderly folk do. On PBN theirability to navigate through a maze shot up until they were doing as well asgerbils half their age – indicating considerable restoration of brain cell function.

!


HEALTH DEFENCE 49

super-fly, was producing larger than normal amounts of the sametwo anti-oxidant enzymes: SOD and catalase. So here was acommon link – two mutants, two very different species, both witha significantly extended life span and both with better thannormal free radical defences.

Higher up the evolutionary tree, one experimenter claimedthat mice fed on the anti-oxidant Co-enzyme Q10 increased theirlife span by up to 50 per cent (see Chapter 9, Q10 and L-carnitine). The various anti-oxidants work in tandem, and theaddition of other anti-oxidants to the mice’s diet might haveextended their life span still further.

From mice to men is a relatively small step, evolutionarilyspeaking. Mice are mammals and their metabolism is in manyways similar to our own. It’s not identical, but there are moresimilarities than differences. It follows that much of what is knownabout free radical damage and ageing in rodents, the mostcommonly used lab animals, probably has a direct bearing on thehuman condition.

EXTREME EXERCISE: DON’T OVERDOSE

When you exercise, you breathe faster, use more oxygen and producemore free radicals. Moderate exercise stimulates the production of thebody’s anti-oxidant enzymes, which slow the ageing process. This explainswhy moderate exercisers live longer than ‘couch potatoes’(23).

Top athletes, however, have shorter lives. They are more frequently ill(24, 25),as their immune systems are depressed (66, 74, 75) both by excess free radicals,and exercise-related falls in the amino acid glutamine – the immune cells’‘fuel’(76). Their very high level of exercise creates more free radicalsthan their defences can cope with so, like smokers, they tend to dieprematurely with heart disease, cancer, etc. This is why manyathletes today supplement with high dose anti-oxidants (called‘tanking’). This is not just an insurance policy: a welcome side effectis reduced muscle damage, pain and stiffness after an event, and afaster recovery time (24-38, 40 ).

N.B. Excessive Vitamin E or carotenoids, if taken without Vitamin C,may be counterproductive(39).

Check yoursupplement

The anti-oxidantprotection offered byfoods is now measuredin ORACs (OxygenRadical AbsorbanceCapacity).

A diet of five servings offruit and vegetables aday typically provides1500 ORACs a day: theevidence suggests weneed 3-5000 to stayreally healthy(69).

But don’t rely on the A-Ztype supplements toboost your anti-oxidantstatus much. A typical‘one-a-day’ A-Zsupplement providesunder 100 ORAC units aday. My recommendationfor a supplement providesyou with a much higherORAC score – andhence protection (seeChapter 22, Selectingthe right supplements).

Excessive exercisedepresses the

immune system.


50 HEALTH DEFENCE

The powerhouses run downA significant part of the ageing process is due to damage causedby free radicals to nuclear DNA and to the lipids in cellmembranes. However, some experts believe that the key to freeradical ageing occurs elsewhere – in the mitochondria, the powergenerators which are found in each cell of the body.

DNA in the cell nucleus is protected by DNA repair enzymesand anti-oxidant substances such as the histones. DNA inside themitochondria, however, is unprotected. This is where the cell’soxidative fires burn most fiercely, and where DNA is mostvulnerable. The only safety factor is that each mitochondrion hasmultiple copies of DNA, so that when one strand of DNA is burnedout, another takes over. But there are only a limited number ofcopies, so eventually the mitochondrion starts to break down.

This is why mitochondria become less efficient with age. Thiswas proven by Gino Cortopassi and Norman Anaheim at theUniversity of Southern California, and Douglas Wallace at theEmory University School of Medicine, who showed that the loss ofefficiency in ageing mitochondria is directly related to the steadilyincreasing number of DNA defects. As the mitochondria run downthey produce less energy for the cells, which leads directly to celland organ decline, systems failure, illness and death.

Co-enzyme Q10 is an anti-oxidant which enters themitochondria, where it mops up free radicals and slows the rate ofoxidative damage. But it has another, equally important role. It is alink in the process whereby energy from the food we eat istransferred to ATP, the energy molecule. By adding Q10, a falteringmitochondrion can produce more energy, thereby giving elderlycells a strong anti-ageing boost. (See Chapter 9, Q10 and L-carnitine).

That mice fed on Q10 lived half as long again as other mice,suggests that something very profound is going on. Q10 is one ofthe first nutritional interventions that seems capable of slowingdown the hands of the biological clock to such an extent. It isunlikely to be the last.

The superoxideradical

The free radical mostcommonly formed inthe body is thesuperoxide radical,H2O2.

It’s not particularlydestructive but, in thepresence of free iron orcopper, it produceshydroxyl radicals,which are much moreactive and dangerous.

Anti-oxidantdefences

Anti-oxidant defencescan be increased bytaking anti-oxidantvitamins; together withthe vital mineral co-factors – zinc, copper,selenium andmanganese.

Because micro-nutrientdepletion is soprevalent (2, 41-68) anti-oxidant supplementsimprove the body’sdefences in mostcases.


HEALTH DEFENCE 51

Rancid people!Some nutritionists and geriatricians have remarkedthat old people smell differently from younger folk.

This is nothing to do with hygiene. They are talkingabout a sour smell, which the smell of rancid oil. Thisis especially common in elderly folk who, either forpreference or because they have dental problems,eat a diet low in fruit and vegetables. This means theyaren’t getting enough anti-oxidants, leavingthemselves vulnerable to free radical attack(71).

The smell of rancid oil is simply a symptom of anunhealthy rate of oxidation taking place in the body,which will, sooner or later, culminate in serious illness.

It is fairly widely accepted that these people are atincreased risk of many from the major diseases, and

some companies have developed diagnostic testswhich give a rapid ‘rancidity’ reading, and tell exactlywho needs anti-oxidant help.

These test systems should be widely available in thenext few years. In the meantime, a well-designedanti-oxidant supplement should be an essential partof anyone’s health and longevity programme. Similarsupplements have been shown to reduce ‘rancidity’ inthe elderly(8, 9,).

Sexually adventurous researchers have reported thatpartners who eat a Mediterranean diet taste sweeterthan those who live on junk food – indicating that ananti-oxidant-rich diet reduces rancidity on youngersubjects also.

Iron alert

Be careful with ironsupplements!

High iron intake is linkedto an increased risk ofcolo-rectal cancer – andiron supplementsincrease free radicals inthe colon(10, 67).

Make sure your supple-ment does not containiron unless you reallyneed it.

Why older people need supplementsWhen you reach 50, many micro-nutrients are less wellabsorbed – especially Vitamins D and B. Also many older peopleare on prescription drugs which can significantly affect vitaminand mineral levels. Appetite and food intake often fall – reducingmicro-nutrient intake further.

Fighting off free radicalsOur defences are reasonably good at keeping free radicals atbay. The body can adapt to a moderately increased free radicalload by making more anti-oxidant enzymes(3,4,8). But when thefree radical load gets too heavy, as in smokers or those who livein intensely polluted areas, it overrides the body’s defences andleads to illness and premature death, unless the defences arebuilt up with supplements.

The next section shows you just what that means.


52 HEALTH DEFENCE

Free radicalsFree radicals are atoms or moleculeswith unpaired electrons that attackother atoms in your body. They canbe highly damaging to DNA, whichcan lead to cancer.

They damage mitochondria (thepower plants in each cell), which cancause premature ageing.

They oxidise lipids in cell membranes,leading to cellular dysfunction anddeath.

They oxidise the cholesterol in theblood which can cause furring up ofthe arteries and heart disease.

Anti-oxidants protect against theoxidative damage that free radicalscause.

Evidence from animal experimentsshows that better anti-oxidantdefences are associated with a longerlife span.

A comprehensive anti-oxidant strategyneeds to involve a combination ofanti-oxidant nutrients as each nutrienthas its own specialist function, andmay protect a different part of thebody and its cells.

We can now measure the anti-oxidantpower of foods and supplements.Many A-Z type supplements thatcontain nutrients at just their RDAlevels provide a disappointingly lowlevel of anti-oxidant protection.

S U M M A R Y

BREATH OF LIFE – AND DEATH

A fire can’t thrive without oxygen and neither can we.We need oxygen in order to be able to ‘burn’ the foodwe eat, releasing its energy and converting it to ATP,the ‘energy molecule’ which fuels the activities ofcells, such as growth, movement and repair.

Around 95 per cent of the oxygen we breathe formsATP. The remaining five per cent forms free radicals.

By measuring how much oxygen we take in we cancalculate that about two kilograms of free radicals areformed in the body every year.

Oxygen, the colourless, odourless gas essential forlife, is eventually responsible, via the formation of freeradicals, for many of the ills which plague andeventually kill us.

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