HEALTH ASSESSMENT OF LIVISTONA CHINENSIS AND CYCAS REVOLUTA IN

UNIMAS

Siti Nadhirah Binti Ismail

Bachelor of Science with Honours

(Plant Resource Science and Management)

2015

Health Assessment of Livistona chinensis and Cycas revoluta in UNIMAS

SITI NADHIRAH BINTI ISMAIL

(38771)

This report is submitted in partial fulfilment of the

requirement for the Degree of Bachelor of Science with Honours

(Plant Resource Science and Management)

Supervisor: Dr. Mohamad Hasnul Bin Bolhassan

Plant Resource Science and Management

Department of Plant Science and Environmental Ecology

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2014/2015

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

Bismillahirrahmanirrahim

I am grateful to all those concerned who had made this dissertation possible. First of all, I

would like to thank upon Allah SWT for His willing and blessing for me to complete this

Final Year Project. I am very grateful to have Dr. Mohamad Hasnul Bolhassan as my

supervisor, for his guidance, advices, knowledge, and non-stop support to complete this

project. His dedicated supervision has made things clear and I gain new knowledge and

experience throughout the process of completion of this project.

I am also very grateful for having Dr. Siti Rubiah Zainudin as my co-supervisor. Thanks for

her guidance, ideas, meaningful criticism and also her encouragement for me to finish my

project. Her patience and understanding make me comfortable to work under her supervision.

My special recognition goes to my mother, Puan Zaiton Sam and my family for giving me

support and encourages me to complete this project. I would like to convey my sincere thanks

to my partner Nur Fatihah Khair Yusof for always there beside me from the starting of this

project until the successful completion of this project.

My warmest thanks to the UNIMAS landscaping unit management staff for sharing

information and cooperation in technical support. Last but not least, my warmest thanks for all

those who had help me either directly or indirectly upon the completion of this Final Year

Project. Thank you.

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work. All the quotations and citations

have been duly acknowledge. No portion of the work referred to this dissertation has been

previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree programs in UNIMAS or other

institutions of higher learning.

_____________________

Siti Nadhirah Binti Ismail

Plant Resource Science and Management

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS)

APPROVAL SHEET

Name of Candidate: Siti Nadhirah Binti Ismail

Title of Dissertation: Health Assessment of Livistona chinensis and Cycas revoluta in

UNIMAS

___________________________

Dr. Mohamad Hasnul Bolhassan

Supervisor

Plant Resource Science and Management

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak (UNIMAS)

i

Table of Contents

Table of Contents…………………………………………………………………………….....i

List of Abbreviations…………………………………………………………………………...ii

List of Tables, Figures and Plates..............................................................................................iii

Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………...vi

1.0 Introduction…………………………………………………………....…………………...1

1.1 Problem Statement………………………………………………………………….1

1.2 Objectives…………………………………………………………………………..2

2.0 Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………..2

2.1 Urban Forest………………………………………………………………………..2

2.2 Ornamental Plants…………………………………………………………………..2

2.3 Benefits of Ornamental Plants…………………….………………………………..3

2.3.1 Aesthetical Value ………………….…………………………………...3

2.3.2 Noise Reduction …………….………………………………………....3

2.3.3 Air Quality Improvement……...…………………………………….…4

2.3.4 Shading and Cooling…………………………………………………...4

2.4 Palm……...……...………………………………………………………………….5

2.4.1 Livistona chinensis…………………………...………………………...6

2.4.2 Cycas revoluta……………………………………………………….....7

2.5 Common Urban Plant Diseases…………………………………………………….8

2.5.1 Ganoderma zonatum……………………………………………………8

2.6 Main Factors Affecting the Health Status of Urban Plant...………………………..9

2.6.1 Climate Change…………………………………………………….…..9

2.6.2 Nutrient Deficiencies……………………………………………….…10

2.6.3 Biotic Factors………………………………………………………….12

3.0 Materials and Method……………………………………………………………………..15

3.1 Study Area………………………………………………………………………...15

3.2 Physical Assessment...…………………………………………………………….17

3.2.1 Diameter at Breast Height, DBH……………………………………...18

3.2.2 Height…………………………………………………………………18

3.2.3 Planting Distance……………………………………………………...19

3.2.4 Chlorophyll Content…………………………………………………..19

3.2.5 Tree Health Status…………………………………………………….20

4.0 Results…………………………………………………………………………...……......22

5.0 Discussion…………………………………………………………………………………36

6.0 Conclusion………………………………………………………………………………...47

7.0 Recommendations………………………………………………………………………...48

8.0 References………………………………………………………………………………...49

9.0 Appendices……………………………………………………………………………..…52

ii

List of Abbreviations

UNIMAS – Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

DBH – Diameter at Breast Height

SPAD – Soil Plant Analysis Development

CAIS – Center of Academic, Information and Services

CTF – Central of Teaching Facilities

FCSHD – Faculty of Cognitive Science and Human Development

FE – Faculty of Engineering

FACA – Faculty of Applied and Creative Art

FMHS – Faculty of Medicine and Health Science

N – Nitrogen

K – Potassium

Mg – Magnesium

Mn – Manganese

Fe – Iron

Ca – Calcium

B – Boron

iii

List of Tables, Figures and Plates

Tables

Table 1: Symptoms of Nutrients Deficiencies of Palm Species. 11

Table 2: Symptoms of Fungal and Bacterial Infection of Urban Tree. 12

Table 3: Palm Species Planted and the Distribution in UNIMAS. 16

Table 4: Distribution of Chinese Palm. 17

Table 5: Distribution of Cycad Palm. 17

Table 6: Ranking System for Tree Health Status. 21

Table 7.1: DBH and height range of Chinese Palm at Site 1 22

Table 7.2: Chlorophyll content of Chinese Palm at Site 1 23

Table 8: DBH and height range of Chinese Palm at Site 3 25

Table 9: Physical Data of Chinese Palm at Site 5 30

Table 10: Physical Data of Chinese Palm at Site 6 31

Table 11.1: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 1- CAIS) 53

Table 11.2: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 2- University House) 55

Table 11.3: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 3- Jalan Ensurai) 56

Table 11.4: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 4- FACA lower ground floor) 58

Table 11.5: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 5- FCSHD parking lot) 59

Table 11.6: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 6- CTF2 parking lot) 60

Table 11.7: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 7- FE parking lot) 61

Table 11.8: Physical Identification Data Collection (Site No. 8- FMHS within buildings) 62

iv

Figures

Figure 1: Height calculation 19

Figure 2: Overall Health Status of Chinese Palm in UNIMAS. 35

Figure 3: Overall Health Status of Cycad Palm in UNIMAS 35

Figure 4: Map of UNIMAS West Campus 52

Figure 5: Map of planting position of Chinese Palm at CAIS 54

Figure 6: Map of planting position of Cycad Palm at University House 55

Figure 7: Map of planting position of Chinese Palm and Cycad Palm at Jalan Ensurai 57

Figure 8: Map of planting position of Cycad Palm at FACA 58

Figure 9: Map of planting position of Chinese Palm at FCSHD 59

Figure 10: Map of planting position of Chinese Palm at CTF2 60

Figure 11: Map of planting position of Cycad Palm at FE 61

Figure 12: Map of planting position of Cycad Palm at FMHS 62

v

Plates

Plate 1: Chinese Palm planted at CTF2, UNIMAS. 6

Plate 2: Cycad Palm planted near the lake of UNIMAS. 7

Plate 3: Suunto clinometer. 18

Plate 4: SPAD Meter. 20

Plate 5: Technique to use SPAD 20

Plate 6: Chinese Palm planted at CAIS walking pathway. 23

Plate 7: Single potted Cycad Palm 24

Plate 8(a): Yellowish tip leaves of Chinese Palm. 26

Plate 8(b): Hollow stem. 27

Plate 8(c): Snails feed on the hole 27

Plate 8(d): Three Cycad Palm planted at Jalan Ensurai. 28

Plate 9(a): Ganoderma infection at stem base (C11). 29

Plate 9(b): Ganoderma conk formation (C12). 29

Plate 9(c): Stem base affected by Ganoderma (C11). 29

Plate 9(d): Ganoderma conk (C12). 29

Plate 10: Yellowing tip of Chinese Palm leaves 31

Plate 11(a): Chinese Palm in roundabout (L1 and L2). 32

Plate 11(b): Browning color with dead leaves (L3). 32

Plate 12: Tip necrosis of Cycad Palm leaves (C1). 33

Plate 13: Cycad Palm planted in potted form at Faculty of Medicine. 34

vi

Health Assessment of Livistona chinensis and Cycas revoluta in UNIMAS

Siti Nadhirah Binti Ismail

Plant Resource Science and Management

Faculty of Resource Science and Technology

Universiti Malaysia Sarawak

Abstract

Urban trees planted in the urban landscape are usually beautiful, of high aesthetic values and should be

free from pest and diseases. However, due to several biotic and abiotic factors, urban trees are

sometimes infected with pest and diseases. The objective of this study is to assess the health status of

69 Livistona chinensis (Chinese Palm) and 24 Cycas revoluta (Cycad Palm) planted in different sites

within UNIMAS campus. In this study, the health assessment of the palms were measured including of

DBH, height, planting distance, chlorophyll content, health status and symptoms of infection. The

infected part of palm with Ganoderma conk formation was the indicator that the palm was affected by

Ganoderma butt rot disease. Overall, Chinese Palm planted in UNIMAS was in good condition

although suffering with nitrogen deficiencies and attacked by palm borer beetle while Cycad Palm was

in fair condition probably due to potassium deficiencies and Ganoderma butt rot disease. This health

assessment will aids the management in UNIMAS in planning a more proper palm health management.

Key words: Disease, Livistona chinensis, Cycas revoluta, Ganoderma, tree health status, disease

management.

Abstrak

Pokok urban yang ditanam di kawasan lanskap adalah cantik, tinggi nilai estetika dan seharusnya

bebas dari perosak dan penyakit. Namun, berikutan faktor biotik dan abiotik, pokok urban

berkemungkinan diserang oleh perosak dan penyakit. Objektif kajian ini adalah untuk menilai taraf

kesihatan 69 Livistona chinensis (Chinese Palm) dan 24 Cycas revoluta (Cycad Palm) yang ditanam

di kawasan yang berbeza dalam kampus UNIMAS. Di dalam kajian ini, panilaian taraf kesihatan

pokok palma dinilai dari aspek DBH, ketinggian, jarak penanaman, kadar klorofil, taraf kesihatan dan

gejala jangkitan penyakit. Bahagian pokok palma yang dijangkiti dengan pembentukan jasad berbuah

Ganoderma merupakan petunjuk bahawa pokok tersebut telah dijangkiti penyakit Ganoderma reput

batang. Secara keseluruhannya, Chinese Palm yang ditanam di UNIMAS berada dalam keadaan baik

walapun mengalami kekurangan nitrogen dan serangan kumbang pengorek palma manakala Cycad

Palm berada dalam keadaan memuaskan kerana berkemungkinan mengalami kekurangan potassium

dan penyakit Ganoderma reput batang. Kajian ini akan membantu pihak pengurusan di UNIMAS

dalam merancang pengurusan kesihatan pokok palma yang lebih baik.

Kata kunci: Penyakit, Livistona chinensis, Cycas revoluta, Ganoderma, taraf kesihatan pokok,

pengurusan penyakit.

1

1.0 Introduction

Urban forestry has been regarded as an important urban infrastructure to help reduce stress

from the results of artificial covers and to furnish and decorate a broad range for

environmental benefits (Grey & Deneke, 1986; Miller, 1997). Ornamental plant settings play

an important role in human life. They provide shade and beauty around homes, schools,

markets and shopping areas, places of work, along streets and highways, in city parks and

other areas. They also help to conserve energy and the quality of air, water and soil.

(Schroeder & Cannon, 1983; Ulrich, 1985; Heisler, 1986). Many types of ornamental species

are classified as urban plant for landscaping purposes either they are flowering plants or non-

flowering plants.

Ornamental plant may be susceptible to diseases due to several factors. For example,

the unfavorable surrounding climate, insects attack, poor drainage system and also lacks of

maintenance activities. In order to maintain the aesthetical value of these ornamental plants, a

study to identify the health status and types of diseases associated with the ornamental plant

should be conducted. Once the types of diseases is identified, the factors contribute to the

diseases can be overcome and the problems associated with ornamental plant can be reduced.

1.1 Problem Statement

Palm planted as urban tree are prone to pest and diseases. Two species of urban palm planted

in UNIMAS are Chinese Palm and Cycad Palm. It is of interest to identify the types of

diseases associated with Chinese Palm and Cycad Palm.

2

1.2 Objectives

The objective of this study is to assess the health status and to identify the types of diseases

associated with Chinese Palm and Cycad Palm in UNIMAS.

2.0 Literature Review

2.1 Urban Forest

Urban forest can be viewed as a “living technology”, an essential component of urban

infrastructure that helps maintaining a healthy environment for urban dwellers (Dwyer et al.,

1992). Urban forest is a land surrounded by human intensive area, ranging from small

communities to dense urban center occupied by trees and associated natural resources. Urban

forests can strongly influence the physical and biological environment (Dwyer et al., 1992).

2.2 Ornamental Plants

Ornamental plants are essential for enriching the appearance of any landscaping areas. An

ornamental plant is use as part of the landscape for purely aesthetic values (FAO, 1979). In

order to create a landscaping area with high aesthetical value, it is best for a professional

landscaper to include an even mix of various types of plants, trees, shrubs and flowers.

Ornamental trees, shrubs and other plants exist in a landscape area setting provide an

aesthetical environment. However, many ornamental plants require special maintenance in

order to prevent or control any diseases (FAO, 1979).

3

2.3 Benefits of Ornamental Plant

Ornamental plants provide a basic contact with nature and increase the pleasure in human

surroundings (FAO, 1979). Their value is difficult to quantify in economic terms but some of

the aesthetic benefits they can provide are create an aesthetical environment, intriguing

sounds, improving the air quality and also as a cooling shade (FAO, 1979).

2.3.1 Aesthetical Value

Ornamental plants increase the aesthetical value and life quality of an urban land area. The

presence of ornamental plant provides communities with pleasant environment for a place to

live, work, recreation, tourism and spending leisure time (Dwyer et al., 1992). Ornamental

plants also contribute significant increase in the tourism and recreational activities by

attracting more visitors to the country and increase the economic level (Dwyer et al., 1992). A

study in the eastern United States indicated that ornamental plant had increased the appraised

value of undeveloped land by 27% and that of 0.2 ha residential lots with houses by 7% (FAO,

1979).

2.3.2 Noise Reduction

Properly planting designs of ornamental trees and shrubs in urban area is significantly reduces

noise as stated in research conducted by Dwyer et al. (1992). The combinations of tall dense

ornamental trees with ground surface covers apparently reduce loudness by more than 50% of

noise (Dwyer et al., 1992). Ornamental plant will help in reducing noise pollution in urbanized

areas.

4

2.3.3 Air Quality Improvement

Ornamental plant can helps in improving and maintaining air quality by trapping the carbon

dioxide release to the atmosphere and convert it as food by the process of photosynthesis,

resulting in the releasing of oxygen gas which is an essential needs for human (Dwyer et al.,

1992). Ornamental plant also help in capturing gaseous pollutants such as carbon monoxide,

sulfur dioxide and ozone gaseous which is harmful to human (Dwyer et al., 1992).

2.3.4 Shading and Cooling

Ornamental plants have a considerable effect on the microclimate of urban areas with heavy

human population. They absorb heat as they transpirate, provide shade that reduces the solar

radiation and reflection, they can reduce or increase the wind speed and they can increase fog

precipitation and snow deposition (FAO, 1979). Ornamental plants have a significant

beneficial effect on the cost of winter heating and summer cooling of buildings. They break up

urban “heat islands” by providing shade. It had been estimated that the shade provided by

strategically placed of ornamental plant near a residential home can reduce air conditioning

costs by 30-50% and ornamental trees planted as windbreaks around buildings can reduce

winter heating energy costs by 4-22% (FAO, 1979).

5

2.4 Palm

Palm species are often thought as a symbol of tropics, but they also can grow well in warm

and temperate climates (Broschat, 2005). Palms present with bold-textured foliage and growth

characteristic forms that cannot be provided by other plants. They may have feather-like

leaves (pinnate) or fan-shaped leaves (palmate) on slender to thick trunks either single or

multi-stemmed (clumping) and range in height from a couple of feet to more than 100 feet.

There are several factors that need to be considered in choosing palm species for

ornamental purpose. Landscaping manager must consider the height and spread of the palm

species to be planted at a particular site. Tall palm should not be planted at site with overhead

power lines or large leaves or broad spread palm species is not suitable to be planted and

accommodate a very small space area (Broschat, 2005).

The maintaining activity of palm is fairly simple. That is why palm is chosen as one of

the most common ornamental plant. Completely dead leaves need to be removed if they do

not fall off by themselves and after a year of establishment, most palms do not require

supplemental irrigation except under severe drought conditions (Broschat, 2005). In this

study, two palm species of Chinese Palm and Cycad Palm were chosen.

6

2.4.1 Livistona chinensis

Common name : Chinese Palm

Family : Arecaceae

Origin : Australia, Malaysia, New Guinea, and Asia.

Livistona chinensis is a single stemmed fan palm. It is cultivated worldwide and usually found

in tropical and temperate climates (Loope et al., 2013). It is also known as Fountain Palm

(Jones, 1995; Wagner et al., 1999). It has up to 15 m tall trunk, pale green numerous leaves up

to 1.5 m long. The tips are pendulous and petioles armed with stout prickles. This attractive

palm with drooping fanned leaves makes it popular palm for ornamental purposes. It is

cultivated either as an avenue tree, single specimen or planted in groves. It is a hardy species

which survive in temperate and tropical climates. It can tolerate shady spots and young

Chinese Palm is good for indoor container plant. It may be susceptible to diseases of lethal

yellowing of palm (Dehgan, 1998).

Plate 1: Chinese Palm planted at CTF2, UNIMAS.

7

2.4.2 Cycas revoluta

Common name : Cycad Palm

Family : Cycadaceae

Origin : Malaysia, Taiwan, Japan and Pacific Islands.

Cycas revoluta is symmetrical plant with very low trunk. This small palm is about 1.5m height

and can grow up to 3m. This palm bearing long and pointed leaflets is a very slow growing

plant with shiny, thick and dark green leaves crown. The long narrow leaflets are strongly

recurved with revolute edges. Cycad Palm is tolerant to low temperatures. It needs sandy and

well-drained soil for successful growth. It is drought-tolerant, can grow in both under the sun

or shade and extremely poisonous to animals and human if ingested.

Plate 2: Cycad Palm planted near the lake of UNIMAS.

8

2.5 Common Urban Plant Diseases

Palm species have higher probability to be infected with many types of diseases. The common

urban plant diseases were root rots, crown rots and damping off, powdery mildew, fungal leaf

spots, leaf rusts, leaf and flower galls, botrytis blight, seiridium canker, bacterial disease, fire

blight and viral disease (Martinez & Williams, 2012). It was stated that in order for the

diseases to occur on a particular plant, three important factors must be present at the same

time; a plant must be susceptible to the diseases, the diseases-causing agent (pathogen) must

be present and able to infect the plant, and the environment must be favorable for diseases

development (Martinez & Williams, 2012). The research also provided several landscape

managements; keep disease out, keep landscape site clean, keep foliage dry and conduct

cultural, biological and chemical control (Martinez & Williams, 2012).

2.5.1 Ganoderma zonatum

Many researches have been conducted on diseases of urban plant. Palm is always related to

the diseases affected by Ganoderma zonatum (Price, 2000). In many cases, mature palms acts

as primary host of G. zonatum (Price, 2000). Research was conducted on butt rot of palm by

physical identification based on the symptoms appeared by the Ganoderma conk formation

(Price, 2000). The examples of palm species affected by Ganoderma are Elaeis guineensis

(Oil Palm), Cocos nucifera (Coconut Palm) and also Areca catechu (Betel Nut Palm)

(Sankaran et al., 2005). It was found that G. zonatum is a lethal fungal-disease where the

infected palm found in all situations and environment. The symptom of G. zonatum is the

wilting of older leaves and the light green or yellowish color of new leaves. Positive

conformation of this G. zonatum is by the formation of conks at the trunk. It was also noted

that this diseases had no labeled pesticide and spreads from spores of conks of infected palm

9

(Price, 2000). The ways to control this disease is by removing and incinerating of infected

conks and infected portions along with the stump and root. Wetting of palm base and

mounding mulch next to the trunk is avoided and soil fumigation helps to remove the spores.

2.6 Main Factors Affecting the Health Status of Urban Plant

There are many factors that prevents palm from established a healthy status and maintain its

aesthetical value as an urban plant. For example, the unfavorable weather and climate change,

nutrient deficiencies, lack of maintaining activities by landscaping manager and also pest

attack.

2.6.1 Climate Change

Urban plant usually expose to various types of environmental conditions. They may be hard

enough to withstand and overcome the climatic change. Weaker species which cannot survive

in the harsh environment will be susceptible and easily infected by many types of diseases.

Research on pest and diseases threatening urban plant under a changing climate found that

climatic change altered the patterns of disturbance from pathogens and herbivorous insects

through; physiological changes in the host plant, direct effects on the development and

survival of the pests and pathogens, indirectly through impacts on natural enemies, compet-

itors and vectors, and enhancing the suitability of the climate for non-native pests and

pathogens (Tubby & Webber, 2010).

10

2.6.2 Nutrient Deficiencies

Some diseases infected plants are not directly caused by fungal infection, but they may also

due to the nutrient deficiencies in the plant itself. A study was conducted on nutrients

deficiencies of urban and field-grown palms by running a physical appearance diagnosis on

different species of palm by Broschat (2005). It is found that urban palms are subjected to

numbers of potentially nutritional deficiencies; nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron,

manganese and boron (Broschat, 2005).

The study also stated that most palm nutrient deficiencies can be diagnosed using

visual symptom alone and the leaf analysis would be helpful in confirming the diagnosis by

selecting four to six pieces of central leaflets of youngest fully-expanded leaves (Broschat,

2005).

Nutrient deficiencies symptoms were tabulated in Table 1. The trunk condition, the

color of the leaves, the shapes of the leaves, health condition of the whole stand palm, the

appearance of any irregular structure or any symptoms of disease from the list were observed

and recorded. Some of these physical appearances can directly identify the disease associated

with the specific infected palm.

11

Table 1: The Symptoms of Nutrients Deficiencies of Palm Species (Broschat, 2005).

Types of Nutrient Deficiencies Symptoms

Nitrogen, N

Appear first on oldest leaves.

Uniform light-green color.

Entire palm canopy become chlorotic.

Leaf size becomes smaller.

Tapering of trunks.

Growth rate reduced sharply.

Potassium, K

Appear first on oldest leaves.

Older leaflets mottled with yellowish spot.

Necrosis is not marginal, but confined largely to tips of

leaflets.

Premature senescene of older palm leaves.

Magnesium, Mg

Appear first on oldest leaves.

Broad chlorotic bands along margin.

Central portions of leaves remaining distinctly green.

Results of improper fertilization.

Manganese, Mn

Appear on younger leaves.

Emerge chlorotic with longitudinal necrotic streaks.

Curling of leaves about rachis (frizzled appearance).

Iron, Fe

Appear on younger leaves.

Interveinal or uniform chlorosis.

Older leaves remain green.

Severe cases, new leaflets with necrotic tips, stunted

growth, dying of meristem or bud.

Boron, B

Appear on newly emerging leaves and remain until

mature.

Transverse translucent streaking on leaflets.

Sharply bent leaflets tips (hookleaf).

Bent tips are rigid and cannot be straightened out.

Weak, narrow leaflets towards tips of newly leaves;

drop-off leaflets leaving rachis tips devoid of leaflets.

Cause necrosis on primordial spear leaf; appearance of

blunt, triangular truncation of leaf tip.

Failure of newly emerging spear leaves to open

normally; tightly fused.

Severe cases: entire crown bend in one direction, newly

leaves growing downward along the trunk.

Common in deserts and seasonally dry areas.

12

2.6.3 Biotic Factors

Diseases also occur due to fungal and bacterial attacks besides of climate change and nutrient

deficiencies. The diseases and symptoms of infections caused by fungal and bacterial attacks

are tabulated in Table 2. Fungi are eukaryotic, spore-bearing, heterotrophic organisms that

produce extracellular enzymes and absorb the nutrition of plant (Jacobs, 2001). The ecological

characteristics of fungi are they have thallus, hyphae a cellular unit in filamentous fungi either

septate or aseptate and the bunch of hyphae forming mycelium. Fungi will absorb nutrient

form the host plant by various way such as heterotrophic, absorptive, produce extracellular

enzymes, saprobes; pathogens; symbionts (parasites - commensals - mutualists) (Jacobs,

2001). Fungi are separated into many several major phyla. They are Chytridiomycota,

Zygomycota, Basidiomycota, Ascomycota, Glomeromycota and Dikaryomycota (Jacobs,

2001).

Table 2: The Symptoms of Fungal and Bacterial Infection of Urban Tree (Jacobs, 2001).

Disease Symptoms

Phymatotrichopsis

Root Rot

(Phymatotrichopsis

omnivora)

Woody, dicotyledonous and perennial plants.

Sudden wilt during high temperature.

The roots are rotted and brown in color.

Mycelia strands produced by the fungus on the surface of

cortical tissue from decayed roots.

Phytophora Diseases

(Phytophthora

parasitica)

Herbaceous annuals to woody perennials.

Phytophthora bud rots of palms caused by P. parasitica.

Leaf and shoot blights, flower, fruit and bud rots, crown rots,

stem and trunk cankers of woody and herbaceous plants,

seedling damping-off, necrosis of feeder roots and collar and

root rots.

13

Pythium Diseases

(Pythium

aphanidermatum)

Seedling diseases of bedding and ornamental plants.

Seeds or seedlings rot before or after their emergence.

Post emergence damping off occurs several weeks after

emergence.

Seedlings become less susceptible with increasing age.

Rhizoctonia Diseases

(Rhizoctonia solani)

Soil borne fungus of agricultural crops; cotton, potatoes, lettuce,

vegetables and field crops.

Primarily seed decay, pre- and postemergence damping off

seedlings, bulb rots, root rots, crown blights, neck rots and

lower stem rots.

Fungus grows as weblike mycelium on the moist soil surface

and in the lesions. Mycelia growth easily visible with hand lens.

Most infections occur at or just below the soil surface. Infected

seedlings wilt and die.

Powdery Mildew

(Erysiphe

cichoracearum)

Primarily affect leaves, green stems, flower buds, and immature

fruit.

Obligate parasite, reproduce on living host tissue, not

saprophytically.

Whitish, powdery covering over infected leaves, stems, and

other aerial plant parts.

Leaves often curled or twisted. Severe leaf; leaf yellowing,

reduced leaf size and defoliation.

Fungus easily identified under the microscope by conidial

(asexual stage) and the sexual fruiting body (cleistothecium).

Rust Diseases

(Puccinia antirrhini, P.

lvacearum, Cronartium

arizonicum)

Symptoms are diverse as the fungi that cause the diseases.

Rust fungi attack leaves, infect flowers, fruit, and stems and

branches and trunks of woody flowering plants and conifers.

Most rust infections become locally systemic in host tissue

cause galls, blisters, and cankers in woody tissue.

Cytospora Canker

(Cytospora palmarum)

Affect fruit trees, hardwood, forest and shade trees, shrubs and

conifers. Infections on above ground woody tissue that has been

damaged by frost, fire, sunburn, wounds; pruning, broken twigs

and branches.

Sunken lesions on infected tissue, slowly invades and girdles

limbs or trunks result is a dead limb above the infection site.

Sooty Canker (Limb

Wilt)

(Hendersonula

toruloidea)

Invades only sunburned bark or area that was injured; pruning

wounds on smooth or thin barked deciduous trees. Fungus not

infects uninjured host tissue.

Sooty canker is the sooty, black canker develops beneath bark

tissue; presence of masses of black, fungal spores that appear

under the bark and on the surface of the canker.