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HARPER'S

AIRCRAFT BOOKWHY AEROPLANES FLY, HOW TOMAKE MODELS, AND ALL ABOUTAIRCRAFT, LITTLE AND BIG

BY

A. HYATT VERRILLMEMBER OF THE TECHIsftcAL BOARD OFTHE AERONAUTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA

AUTHOR OF

HARPER'S BOOK FOR YOUNG NATURALISTS

HARPER'S WIRELESS BOOK

FULLY ILLUSTRATED

HARPER & BROTHERS PUBLISHERSNEW YORK AND LONDON

MCMXIII



77- 770

COPYRldHT. 1913. BY HARPER ft BROTHERS

PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

PUBLISHED SEPTEMBER. 1913

I-N



CONTENTSPAGE

INTRODUCTION ix

Part I

WHY THE AEROPLANE FLIES

CHAPTER I.-SAILING IN THE AIR 3

REACTION SURFACES OR PLANES

SIMPLE EXPERIMENTS

CHAPTER II. MOVING BODIES IN THE AIR 11

STABILITY

CHAPTER III. STEERING IN THE AIR 17

Part II

MODEL AEROPLANES AND FLIERSCHAPTER IV.-MODEL MACHINES 31

SIMPLE MODELS TOOLS,AND MATERIALS

CHAPTER V.-HOW TO BUILD RACING MODELS 41

WORLD'S MODEL FLYING RECORDS THE PIERCE MODEL

AMERICAN MODEL FLYING RECORDS A JAPANESE FLIER

BRITISH MODEL FLYING RECORDS THE LAUDER DURATION MODEL

How TO BUILD A PEOLI RACER GROUND-FLIERS

A MODEL HYDROAEROPLANE

CHAPTER VI. FLYING THE MODELS 68

How TO FLY A MODEL RULES FOR TOURNAMENTS

MEASURING FLIGHTS How TO MAKE A MEASURING-DEVICE

Part III

GLIDERS, OR NON-PROPELLED AEROPLANES

CHAPTER VII. TYPES OF GLIDERS 79

PRINCIPLES OF GLIDING MAKING A GLIDE

CHAPTER VIIL HOW TO BUILD A GLIDER 88

QUANTITY AND SIZES OF MATERIAL ASSEMBLING THE GLIDER

PREPARING THE MATERIALS CONNECTING THE PLANES



CONTENTSPAGE

CHAPTER IX. COMPLETING THE GLIDER 98

MAKING THE RUDDERS COVERING THE PLANES

To DISASSEMBLE THE GLIDER

CHAPTER X. MONOPLANE GLIDERS 107USING A MONOPLANE GLIDER MODEL GLIDERS

Part IV

THE MODERN AEROPLANE

CHAPTER XL TYPES OF AEROPLANES 117

PARTS OF AEROPLANES

CHAPTER XII. BIPLANES AND MONOPLANES 125

LEADING BIPLANE TYPES TYPICAL LEADING MONOPLANES

CHAPTER XIIL THE HEART OF THE AEROPLANE .... 143

OPERATION OF TWO-CYCLE MOTOR VARIOUS FORMS OF AVIATION MOTORS

OPERATION OF FOUR-CYCLE MOTOR OPERATION OF THE ROTATING- MOTOR

CHAPTER XIV. MINIATURE AEROPLANES 159

How TO BUILD THE IDEAL WRIGHT THE SPRAY-HOODBIPLANE MAKING THE WINGS

CONSTRUCTING THE PLANES THE TAIL

MAKING THE CHASSIS THE BLERIOT MODEL

THE ELEVATOR THE FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

THE RUDDER MAKING THE CHASSIS

PROPELLERS THE SKIDS

THE NIEUPORT MONOPLANE MODEL THE MOTOR

CONSTRUCTING THE FUSELAGE, OR BODY THE MAIN PLANES

THE CHASSIS, OR RUNNING-GEAR THE RUDDER AND THE ELEVATOR

Part VHYDROAEROPLANES AND FLYING-BOATS

CHAPTER XV.-THE HYDROAEROPLANE 185

PONTOONS, OR FLOATS THE FLYING-BOAT

CHAPTER XVI. HOW TO BUILD A MINIATURE CURTISS

HYDROAEROPLANE 197

MAKING THE PLANES THE MOTOR

SUPPLEMENTARY PLANES THE PONTOON AND FLOATS

COVERING THE PLANES LAND-CHASSIS

To ASSEMBLE THE MAIN PLANES FLYING THE MODEL

THE OUTRIGGERS THE MINIATURE FLYING-BOAT

vi



CONTENTS

Part VI

USES OF THE AEROPLANE PAGE

CHAPTER XVII. AEROPLANES IN PEACE AND WAR .... 219

THE SENSATIONS OF FLIGHT INTERNATIONAL AEROPLANE RECORDSARE AEROPLANES DANGEROUS? SOME AMERICAN AEROPLANE RECORDS

FACTS AND FIGURES MISCELLANEOUS WORLD RECORDS

MISCELLANEOUS AMERICAN RECORDS

CHAPTER XVIIL MISCELLANEOUS AIRCRAFT 231

DIRIGIBLES ORNITHOPTERS

HELICOPTERS FREAK AIRCRAFT

Box AND TETRAHEDRAL KITES

INDEX -. 243



INTRODUCTION

IN

this book, which explains the making of model aero-

planes and the operation of large aircraft, the key-

note is practicability, and the author's purpose has been to

furnish a book on aircraft not only accurate, but simpler

and more comprehensive than anything which he has been

able to find on the subject.

In the preparation of the book he has had the aid and co-

operation of many of the most noted and successful aviators

in America, as well as of his fellow - members of the Aero-

nautical Society, the Aeronautical Bureau, Mr. Edward

Durant, Mr. Hugo Rosenstein, Mr. Montague Palmer and

other designers and builders of model aeroplanes.

The experiences, suggestions, and advice of such noted

airmen as Capt. Thomas Baldwin, Harry Brown, Cecil

Peoli, Frank Fitzsimmons, the late Howard Gill, and manyothers have proved of inestimable value, and have aided

the author in substituting facts for theories, while details

of construction, plans, and much other material of value

have been freely given by many manufacturers, among them

the Ideal Aeroplane & Supply Company, Thomas Brothers,

Benoist Aeroplane Company, the Curtiss Aeroplane Com-

pany, Heinrich Brothers, the Sloane School of Aviation,

and numerous aeroplane-motor manufacturers.

All the facts obtained from these authoritative sources

have been combined by the author with his own personal

ix



INTRODUCTION

knowledge to provide a book for boys which will be prac-

tical, up to date, and, he hopes, an advance upon anything

hitherto prepared for a similar purpose.

The object of the book is twofold: first, to explain in

a simple, lucid manner the principles and mechanisms in-

volved in human flight; and, second, to tell boys how they

may design and construct model aeroplanes, gliders, and

even man-carrying machines.

To proceed in the design or construction of any mechan-

ism without first mastering the whys and wherefores of the

machine, the relation of one part to another, and the vari-

ous influences and conditions which effect its successful

operation, is putting the cart before the horse a fault all

too common in many books intended for. boys. Before at-

tempting to build even a model flier the builder should

have some knowledge of the principles of flight, air pressures,

speeds, lifts, and other details as well as the various me-

chanical details of aeroplane construction. As this book is

intended primarily for youthful readers, a great many im-

portant but complicated and technical matters have been

omitted, and the volume is not intended as a complete

treatise on the modern airship, nor is it a history of avi-

ation.

Only the most vital and salient features of construction

and operation have been included in the chapters devoted

to man-carrying machines, for, while it is quite within the

power of any boys to construct a real and practical machine,

yet it is more advisable for them to confine their efforts to

model machines and gliders until thoroughly familiar with

the principles and peculiarities of aeronautics, which can only

be mastered by actual experience and numerous experiments,

all of which may be readily carried out with model aircraft.

Many boys have already accomplished wonderful results

x



INTRODUCTION

in the invention, design, and construction of model fliers,

and the world's records for speed and distance flights of

these miniature aircraft are held by American boys. It was

in the winter of 1907 that the first model aeroplane club in

America was organized in New York by Miss E. L. Todd.

Through the efforts of the founder and Mr. Edward Durant

the first model flight contest was held a little later in a New

York armory, starting the models from the floor.

In December the first public exhibition was held in Madi-

son Square Garden. This enlisted the interest of the WestSide Young Men's Christian Association, which established

a department of aviation. More and more attention was

given to the new sport, larger buildings became necessary,

and finally the aviators found it necessary to go out-of-

doors to obtain sufficient space.

The contests of the young aviators have become a regular

Saturday feature at some New York parks.

The Junior Aero Club of America was formed, and, with

the quickening interest on the part of men as well as boys,

the New York Model Aero Club was organized in 1910. Nu-

merous thriving model aeroplane clubs are now in existence,

and the boy members have regular meets, contests, exhibi-

tions, and periodicals devoted exclusively to the model

aeroplanes.

In this field of aeroplane construction there is ample op-

portunity for boys to obtain a great deal of pleasure, educa-

tion, and practical knowledge, for the principles of flight in

a small model are very similar to those of full-sized machines.

It must not be supposed, however, that a model of a certain

form or design will work equally well if enlarged to man-

carrying size. For this reason the two fields of experiment

and construction are very distinct, a fact that in manybooks on the subject has been overlooked entirely.

xi



INTRODUCTION

Gliders, although very similar in design to aeroplanes,

are often efficient when aeroplanes of similar construction

would fail entirely; but any boy can build a safe and satis-

factory glider, and with these simple affairs may taste all

the joy and exhilaration of actual flight without any of its

attendant risk or danger.

Because model aeroplane and glider construction is work

so admirably adapted to boys' abilities and needs, a great

deal of space has been devoted to these subjects, and the

author is confident that this book is unequaled in the

amount of practical and detailed information in regard to

aerial craft which it contains.

While the object of this volume is primarily to teach its

readers how to construct model aeroplanes and gliders, yet

those interested in real man-carrying machines, or in the

progress or advance of aviation, will find herein a great deal

of valuable information presented in such a simple manner

that it may be readily grasped and understood.

To many the question of Why does an aeroplane fly?

is of much greater moment than the method or manner

of its construction, and many otherwise excellent books

have been published which leave their readers as much in

the dark regarding this matter as before. The author of

this book believes that he has explained this puzzle so fully,

so simply, and in such an elementary manner that any one

can understand just why an aeroplane flies and the manner

of its flight.

In the preparation of this work every effort has been

made to avoid technical terms, involved or abstruse prob-

lems and formulae, and to make all tables, explanations, and

descriptions as simple, lucid, and concise as possible.

Actual facts and results have been substituted for theories,

and actual experiences of noted aviators and builders are

xii



INTRODUCTION

given precedence wherever a question as to the most effi-

cient design or construction occurs.

For this reason the descriptions of various types of ma-

chines and motors have been confined to thoroughly tried

and proven forms in common use; and, while a vast number

of efficient machines are in use to-day, yet all are merely

variations of a few standard types, which if once mastered

will make the others easy to understand.

In the majority of books treating of aerial craft and

aviation more especially those intended for boy readers

far too little attention has been devoted to the most impor-

tant part of the aeroplane namely, the motor.

The engine is the heart, soul, and life of the entire fabric,

and upon the efficiency and reliability of this wonderful

power the entire success of human flight depends.

The aeroplane motor represents the very highest develop-

ment of the modern combustion engine; and, as motors of

this type are so universally used in every-day life, every boy

at all interested in mechanics should become thoroughly

familiar with their principles and construction.

The chapter on motors in this book will be found com-

plete, simple, and easily understood, for the motors selected

for treatment are those of recognized merit and of distinct

types.

No one can foresee the ultimate future of aviation, but

in the minds of the author and many other leading au-

thorities, the future flying-machine for commercial use will

be of the hydroaeroplane type.

These machines, equally at home on water or land, or in

the air, obviate many of the objectionable features of ordi-

nary aircraft, and combine the advantages of the fast motor-

boat with the power of sustained and rapid flight.

While any boy who can build a boat can also build an

xiii



INTRODUCTION

hydroaeroplane, yet miniature or model flying-boats are

better suited to the requirements and capabilities of the

average boy. As such models are fairly accurate reproduc-

tions of the real hydroaeroplanes, very full descriptions of the

principal types of these machines are provided, supplemented

by directions for building models and describing the numer-

ous details of parts, proportions, and materials required.

The illustrations are selected from hundreds of valuable

photographs in the possession of the author, placed at his

disposal by aviators and builders, supplemented by scale-

plans and working-drawings, some original, and others

loaned by manufacturers and by the publishers of Aero-

nautics, Aircraft, and other periodicals devoted to aviation.

The drawings and plans have been prepared with the ut-

most simplicity possible combined with accuracy and detail,

and are purposely more or less diagrammatic. To avoidthe bugbear of computing measurements from scale, all such

measurements have been plainly marked on the illustra-

tions in addition to the detailed tables and specifications of

dimensions included in the text descriptions.

Many boys are under the impression that an aeroplane,

if only a model, is a complicated and intricate machine,difficult to build, handle, or understand. As a matter of

fact, they are extremely simple affairs, far easier to master

than an automobile, and safely handled with far less prac-

tice than is required to sail a boat properly.

Home-made, full-sized aeroplanes are, as a rule, far in-

ferior to those built by professionals, and a boy who builds

a real aeroplane should never attempt a flight, or even try

to rise from the ground, until the machine has been thorough-

ly tested and approved by a competent aviator and the

builder himself has become familiar with the operation and

control of the aeroplane.

xiv



INTRODUCTION

Many boys are ambitious to become aviators, and, while

the author does not advise aviation as a profession, yet

some boys become very expert and competent airmen.

The only way to learn properly is to take regular lessons

from a well-known and thoroughly competent pilot, num-

bers of whom make a specialty of teaching aviation.

By visiting the various aviation - fields and hangars a

great deal may be learned that cannot be mastered by the

perusal of any book, no matter how complete and intelligible

it may be; and, as aviators and builders of flying-machines

are invariably glad to point out and explain the various

details of operation and construction of their machines to

visitors, a great deal of time may be very profitably spent

in this way.



Part I

WHY THE AEROPLANE FLIES



HARPER'S AIRCRAFT BOOK

Chapter I

SAILING IN THE AIR

WE

have all seen boats sailing against the wind, kites

soaring steadily skyward in a brisk breeze, or have

watched a hawk, buzzard, eagle, or other bird sailing in

graceful curves or circles with no motion or effort of his

wings. All these things are so common and so familiar to

our eyes that we seldom wonder why they are possible or

how the result is accomplished.

When at last success crowned man's attempts to rise and

fly in a machine heavier than air, and aeroplanes rose

and soared, twisted and turned, and performed marvelous

evolutions in air, every one asked the question, Why does

an aeroplane fly?

As a matter of fact, an aeroplane flies for precisely the

same reason that a boat sails, a kite rises, or a bird soars;

in other words, it flies because it moves in the direction of

least resistance, which is forward and upward.

The boat, with its sail close-hauled, would merely drift

sideways on the water but for the keel or centerboard,

which offers a greater resistance to the water than does the

stem, and hence, as the wind pushes sideways on the sail

3



>;;>

, HJA.RPE R' a AIRCRAFT BOOK

the boat moves forward. The simple kite cannot move

straight away before the wind, as it is held by a string; and,

as some relief must be obtained for the pressure against its

surface, it slides edgewise. If the kite is not properly

hung on its string or properly balanced by a tail or similar

device, it dips and dives, performs wild gyrations and dashes

to earth. If properly hung and balanced, the lower edge is

farther from the wind's force than the upper edge, and the air,

sliding from this slanting surface, forces the kite aloft, just

as the boat moves forward and allows the wind to slide off the

sail.

Reaction

It can easily be seen that if, instead of a moving wind

and a fixed surface, we substitute a fixed body of air and a

moving surface the same result will obtain, and this is ac-

complished in the aeroplane.

A very important factor in the flight of a kite, the sailing

of a boat, the success of an aeroplane, or the power of a wind-

mill is reaction.

If a stream of water is turned against a flat surface at

right angles it will spatter off in every direction. If the same

flat surface is tilted, the water will rush off the object along

the slanting surface.

If this flat body is so arranged that it can move edgewise

but not directly away from the stream we will find that as

soon as the surface is tipped, thus allowing the water to

slide off, the surface will move forward toward the water

(Fig. i). This is caused by the reaction of the water; and,

while the action of an air current cannot be seen as can the

current of water, yet it acts in exactly the same manner.

Thus any surface exposed to a moving mass or stream of

air is acted upon in two ways : first, the direct pressure tend-

4



SAILING IN THE AIR

ing to lift it; and, second, the reactionary force which

tends to drive it forward. In the windmill the latter is

the only force utilized to obtain motion and power, but in

kites and aeroplanes both forces are employed to advantage.

The amount of force or lift, as well as the amount of reac-

tion, obtained depends upon the speed of the column of air

striking the surface or the speed of the surface striking the

air. A strong wind will drive a boat or windmill faster

than a light breeze, but if we increase the size and area of

the sail of the boat or the blades of the windmill without

proportionately increasing the size of the boat's hull or the

machinery of the mill nearly the same power and speed

can be obtained with a light wind as the smaller sail or

smaller mill developed with a hard wind.

As soon as we recognize this law of physics we can readily

understand that speed and area are closely related, and

that, while the earliest aeroplanes spread forty feet or more

and traveled slowly, the latest machines have a speed of

more than one hundred miles an hour and spread a scant

eighteen feet.

Surfaces or Planes

For a great many years men have realized that if a kite-

like surface or plane could be driven with sufficient speed

against the air it would lift and fly; but for years this was

impossible to accomplish, as no known motive power could

produce sufficient speed and power to drive a machine fast

enough to lift its own weight.

In their experiments these men designed numerous ma-

chines and constructed many novel and wonderful forms

of kites, for, lacking the power, they strove to evolve forms

of planes or surfaces which would develop more lift. Such

were the various box-kites, the Hargrave kites/' tet-

5




Fig. 3 ', Fig. 4

Entering Edge

Point of Pressure

Fig. 5 Fig. 6

rahedral kites, etc., some of which were so steady in flight,

so great in lifting power, and of such large size that they

carried men aloft with perfect ease and safety.

With the advent of the gasolene-engine, however, the

long-sought power was found, and through this marvelous

light, powerful engine which nowadays does such uni-

versal work for mankind the aeroplane became an actual

fact.

The earlier wings or planes were perfectly flat, inclined

surfaces much like an ordinary kite, but it was soon dis-

covered that curved surfaces were far more efficient. Just

why this is so can be easily seen by studying the diagrams

in Figs. 2 and 3.

In Fig. 2 a flat, inclined surface is shown with the arrows

indicating the direction of the wind. In this case the air

strikes the flat surface and slides along it until it slipsofT

6



SAILING IN THE AIR

the rear edge at A. The combined upward lift or pressure

of the air at A and the reactionary force at B will, of course,

force the entire plane toward C; but a large amount of the

force is wasted owing to the fact that it is so very easy for

the air to slip along the flat surface that only a small part

of its lifting power is used. If a curved surface, as shown in

Fig. 3, is used, we will see at once that the air striking the

under side of the curve at A exerts a lifting power through-

out the curve until it reacts or slips off at B, and that even

when thus slipping off its direction, guided by the curve,

tends still further to lift the plane. In a semicircular sur-

face of this type the air approaching the surface at C must

act more or less upon the upper surface at D, and this not

only tends to retard the forward motion of the plane, but

actually produces a downward motion of the forward edge.

To overcome this fault parabolic curves are now gen-

erally used, such as shown in Fig. 4. Here the forward edge

does not curve down enough to present the upper surface

to the wind, while the long, gentle sweep of the lower surface

allows the air to act upon it for its entire width.

This parabolic curve is now universally adopted in aero-

plane and glider construction, but the exact proportions and

curvatures vary with different designers.

The forward thickened edge of the wing is known as the

entering-edge, and upon its form and curve a great deal

depends. The point of pressure is the particular point

or spot upon the lower surface of the wing upon which the

wind or air exerts its greatest force, and the distance from

the entering-edge to the point of pressure has a very great

influence upon the efficiency, stability, and success of any

aeroplane, glider, or model (Fig. 5).

In every aeroplane the forward edge of the wings is slight-

ly higher than the rear edge, or at an angle in relation to

7




the horizontal line, and this angle is known as the angle

of incidence, which merely means the angle at which the

wings meet the air as the machine moves forward (Fig. 6).

When a machine is once in the air it may be tipped at any

angle required to rise upward, but as it rests on the ground

and is. run forward to gather speed the wings must present

an angle in order to grip or receive the lift of the air currents.

If the wings were perfectly horizontal the machine would

merely travel on the earth and would never lift. This point

should always be borne in mind when building gliders or

Paste together here

Pin to balance

Fig. 10

models, and nearly every maker has a slightly different idea

as to the best and most effective angle of incidence.

In addition to this angle the wings of most machines are

placed at an angle or slope from their tips toward their

8



SAILING IN THE AIR

center. This is the dihedral angle (Fig. 7, A), and it has

been adopted because it gives greater stability or balance

to the machine. In some machines the outer ends of the

wings curve downward, producing drooping wings (Fig. 7,

B), and such drooping tips in combination with the dihedral

angle are often used with excellent results, although the

droop alone lacks stability and balance. (Fig. 7, C.)

Simple Experiments

These various points involved in wing form and con-

struction are of vast importance, and they may be readily

tested and their significance easily proved by very simple

experiments with cardboard and paper.

If a piece of straight note-paper is attached to a strip of

card, and the latter held before the mouth and blown upon,

the action of the wind or air on a straight plane will be

demonstrated (Fig. 8). If the paper is curved as in Fig. 9

the action of the curved surface will be shown.

By making little cardboard models of aeroplanes and

balancing them with bits of wood, pins, etc., many of the

problems of balance and flight may be grasped and a great

deal of pleasure and knowledge gained by experimenting

with various forms, curves, and shapes.

You will find that a straight, flat card, if dropped, will

waver from side to side, and at last dash suddenly down

edge on. If the tips of the card are bent down or drooped,

the card will float for a moment right side up, and will then

capsize and slide off at an angle bottom up. If, on the other

hand, the card is bent sharply in the center so that the two

halves are at an angle, the card will float quite steadily to

the ground with little tendency to tip over or slide edge-

wise.




By attaching a body and tail to these cards, somewhat

resembling the body and tail of an aeroplane (Fig. 10), you

may so balance them, by trying various curves and weights,

that when thrown by hand they will travel forward andeven rise in the air for some distance.

We have now considered the action of the air or wind

against the plane or wing, but we have overlooked one very

important matter, which 'is the resistance of the moving

body to the air through which it moves.

This resistance may be divided into true resistance and

frictional resistance; and, as they are very important factors

and exhibit some remarkable peculiarities, they should be

well understood before any attempt is made to design or

build any sort of an aircraft.



Chapter II

MOVING BODIES IN THE AIR

THEprincipal form of resistance produced by any

5*

body

moving through the air is that known as head re-

sistance. This is the form of resistance which your body

presents to a strong wind, and you all know how very hard

it is to walk against a gale of wind. If the air was not

moving at all, and you should run at a speed of forty miles

an hour, you would find the resistance just as great as if

you were standing still and the wind was blowing forty

miles an hour. Fortunately, this form of resistance may be

greatly reduced by using certain forms and shapes of bodies

which offer a minimum amount of resistance to the air.

If a square body is exposed to wind or air currents (Fig. i),

the currents resulting will flow about as indicated by the

arrows. If the body is spherical, as in Fig. 2, the flow will

be more regular and smoother, as shown by the arrows.

In both of these forms the two separated currents do not

meet and flow away behind until at some distance in the

rear.

If this empty space or partial vacuum is filled in by a solid,

the sides compressed, and the forward end sharpened, as

shown in Fig. 3, the air-flow about it will be very smooth

and gradual, or, in other words, this form of body will offer

practically the least possible head resistance to the atmos-

phere. This is known as a stream line form, or

fish-

ii




Fig. 3

body form, and is the sectional shape of most of the spars,

struts, beams, and other parts of the modern aeroplane.

Skin friction is the friction or resistance caused by the

moving

air passingalong

and over the surface of anobject.

This does not amount to much on a perfectly smooth sur-

face, but if the surface is rough or uneven a great deal of

frictional resistance will result. For this reason every part

of an aeroplane or other machine should be as smooth and

even as possible, and even the surfaces or covering of the

wings

should be stretched tight andpainted

or varnished

smooth.

As the greatest amount of skin friction occurs on the

planes, these are made to offer the least possible friction with

the greatest lifting area. The form which thus results is

a long, narrow wing, as in Fig. 5, instead of a short, wide

plane, as in Fig. 4. At first sight it seems as if the short,

broad form would lift more than the other, but the arrows

showing the direction in which the air slips off from the sur-

face prove that the long, narrow plane has greater lifting

power and less friction than the short, broad form. This

is owing to the fact that the air will always flow off from a

body in the direction of least resistance.

12




As the long, narrow plane presents less resistance to the

air from front to rear than from front toward the ends, the

air passes directly back, and in so doing exerts its entire

lifting force. In the short, broad plane, on the other hand,

the air finds less resistance toward the sides than from front

to rear, and consequently slips off the sides without exert-

ing more than a very small part of its lifting power on the

plane.

Stability

Another reason why the very long, narrow wings are used

on aerial craft is because the short, broad wings are much

less stable. Stability is a most important matter in aerial,

vehicles, and even under the best conditions only a very

little real or natural stability can be obtained. The long

planes serve to balance the body at their center, for their

extremities act as levers or balancing-poles.

Just as a tight-rope walker maintains his equilibrium with

a long pole, so the aviator finds the long wings of value in

balancing his craft. Natural stability is the aim of every

designer and builder of aeroplanes and models, and recent

experiments have proved that certain remarkable phenomena

are produced by bodies of peculiar form moving through the

atmosphere.

One of these is the fact that any body moving through the

air causes a disturbance of the air for a considerable dis-

tance in advance of the body itself. By numerous experi-

ments and very complex formulae students of aerodynamics

have demonstrated that certain forms of bodies and wings

will produce a disturbance ahead which will result in act-

ually adding to the lifting power of the air. By adopting

wings designed to take advantage of this peculiar fact very

much greater efficiency has resulted.

13




Another discovery which has quite recently been made

is the fact that, whereas the old-fashioned curve of wing

and wing-beams tended to reduce stability when ascending

or descending, more deeply curved wings and thicker and

more rounded entering-edges result in increased stability.

This seeming paradox is the result of the center of press-

ure changing as a machine rises or descends, and whether

this point changes to front or back depends largely upon

the curve of the wing section.

The diagrams Figs. 6 and 7 make this matter much clearer

than an explanation. In Fig. 6 a conventional form of

monoplane is illustrated. A shows the machine flying in a

horizontal plane, with the center of pressure indicated by

the arrow; B shows the same machine rising, and here it

will be noticed that the center of pressure has moved for-

ward, thus tending to tilt the machine still farther up with

possibly fatal results; C shows the same machine descend-

ing, and here the arrow indicates that the center of pressure

has moved to the rear, thus tending to tip the machine-tail

up and cause it to dive.

In Fig. 7 a monoplane of the same form with improved

wings is shown. A illustrates the machine in horizontal

flight, with the center of pressure indicated by the arrow. If

this machine ascends, as in B, the center of pressure, instead

of moving forward, moves back, thus tending to preserve

balance or stability. At C this same machine is shown

descending, and here again the center of pressure moves,

but it moves forward, thus helping to preserve stability and

preventing the machine from diving.

In making your models or gliders, or in designing a large

machine, you should always bear these facts in mind and

try numerous experiments with wings of various forms and

curves before finally deciding on the one you will adopt.




Fig. 6 Fig. 7

No machine has been made which is entirely dependent on

natural or inherent stability, for, while small models canbe so constructed, in man-carrying sizes they are uncertain

and liable to capsize. Moreover, the small machines are

not intended for flying in circles or performing figure eights,

spirals, etc., which are necessary in real flying-machines.

The early machines could not turn at all, and it was a

2 15




long time after the first flights were made in public before

the aviators learned to turn a corner, or even a half-circle,

in the air.

Each turn, twist, or deviation from a straight course re-

sults in a variation in balance and stability, and to overcome

the constantly changing equilibrium, as well as to allow the

pilot to turn or manoeuver in any direction, various supple-

mentary or auxiliary devices are used. Some of these are

used in turning to right or left, others for rising or descend-

ing, andstill

others for maintaining balance or stability.

All these things must be under the direct control of the

operator, and must be easily and quickly reached and ma-

nipulated, for upon them his life invariably depends.

These various devices are collectively known as con-

trols/' and as they vary a great deal in several types of

machines, and, as they are in a way the most importantparts of the aeroplane, they should be carefully studied

and thoroughly understood before attempting to make or

fly any sort of aeroplane or glider.

Very few model aeroplanes are provided with controls;

but it is great fun to fit them to models and, by setting them

in various ways, watch the effects they have upon the flight

of your tiny machines.

As those used on model machines are identical in action

and design with those used on real machines, a knowledge

of one will answer for both, and in the next chapter I will

describe and explain the most important controls and their

most noteworthy and efficient types.



Chapter III

STEERING IN THE AIR

THEmain control of any aeroplane is that which renders

it possible to guide or steer the machine upward when

rising from the ground, or to steer or guide it downward

when the pilot wishes to descend or volplane.

This control may be obtained by horizontal rudders in

front of the

machine,or

bya horizontal tail in the

rear,or a combination of both. In the older forms of machines,

such as the original Wright, the old Curtiss, the Farman,

and others, the front horizontal rudders, or elevators, were

Fig. /

always used. Nowadays the tendency is to omit the head

and depend entirely upon rear elevators. Fig. i shows an

old-style Farman machine with the forward elevator, or




The elevating-planes of a Bleriot monoplane are shown

in Fig. 4 A, and those of an Antoinette in Fig. 4 B. The

manner in which the elevators are moved or controlled by

the aviator varies greatly in different machines, but in the

majority of biplanes the elevators are connected by wire

cable to a steering-column, or post, and by moving this for-

ward or back the pilot raises or depresses the elevators

(Fig. 5). Only a very slight motion of the horizontal rud-

der is required to cause the machine to vary its angle of

ascent or descent a great deal, and in building model aero-

planes you will find that the least variation of the angle

of the planes will make a wonderful difference in their

flight.

For a long time after aeroplanes flew successfully it was

impossible for the operators to turn in a curve or circle

without upsetting. The tails of the machines were ar-

ranged to move like rudders to boats; but, nevertheless, a

slight turn would upset the balance of the machine and

cause disaster. It was not until the Wright brothers in-

vented the warping-wings and other inventors discov-

ered ailerons that stability could be maintained and

circles, figure eights, and other evolutions performed in

midair.

If we examine the diagram Fig. 6, which represents an

aeroplane turning in a circle, we will find that the outer

wing (A) must travel a great deal farther than the inner

wing (B), just as the outer rim of a wheel turns farther in

making a revolution than does the hub. In order to accom-

plish this the outer tip of A must travel through the air at

a much greater speed than the inner wing-tip (B). As I have

already explained that the faster a plane moves the more

lift it produces, it will be easily understood that the excess

in speed of A must tend to lift the outer wing-tip and that

20



STEERING IN THE AIR

side of the aeroplane a great deal more than the slower-

moving inner wing.

Of course, this causes the machine to tip more and moretoward the center, and if carried too far would cause the

aeroplane to slide sideways to earth or to capsize. In order

to overcome this tipping, or banking, and enable the pilot

to turn safely, various devices known as warping or

flexible wings and ailerons were designed.

Fig. 7

The warping-wing consists of a flexible portion of the

outer end of the planes connected by cables with the op-

erator's control in such a way that the wing or plane may be

bent or twisted (Fig. 7). By bending down one wing and

bending up the other the planes can be made to present a

greater or less resistance and lift to the air. Thus, in turning

a corner, as shown in Fig. 6, the speed of the outer wing, A,

may be decreased by warping down that wing, and the speed

of B accelerated and its lift increased by the same control-

cables, so that the tendency to tip up is neutralized and the

machine remains practically on a level keel.21



Fig. 8

Lever operatesRuddzrs and

Warps Wings

'

Chain

Fig. 9 A

THE FUNCTION OF THEAILERONS



STEERING IN THE AIR

rudder is so arranged as to operate in unison with the

warping-controls or with the ailerons in such a way that

whenthe

machineis turned to

rightor left the

properaileron

or wing-tip is raised or lowered, thus more or less automati-

cally maintaining stability.

Several typical forms of tails, rudders, and ailerons are

illustrated in Figs, n and 12. Fig. n A shows the new




Wright form of vertical and horizontal rudders; B is the

Voisin form used on the Farman aeroplanes in conjunction

with ailerons attached to the rear edges of the main planes,

as shown in C; D is the famous Curtiss tail and rudders

used with the ailerons between the wings shown in E. The

tail and rudders of the Benoist machine, and its odd ailerons

extending beyond the wing-tips, are shown at F. These are

all typical biplane devices, and several monoplane rudders

are shown in Fig. 12. As monoplanes use warping or flexible

wing-tips, and not ailerons, the tails and rudders alone are

illustrated (Fig. 12). A shows the Bleriot, B the Heinrich,

C the Columbia.

Any of these forms or their modifications are capable of

Fig.

12 C

adaptation to model machines, and there is really no particu-

lar choice as regards their relative efficiency.

No matter what system of rudders, elevators, and lateral

controls are used, all three must be present in some form in

any real aeroplane, even if it is of the peculiar tailless type

26



Part II

MODEL AEROPLANES AND FLIERS



Chapter IV

MODEL MACHINES

rI ^HE term model aeroplane is in a way very mis-

1 leading, for a true model aeroplane is an exact copy

in miniature of a real plane. Such a model may or may not

be capable of actual flight, and some of the most beautifully

made models of this class, with every detail worked out

with utmost care and accuracy, can never be flown. Such

models serve only to illustrate the proportions, construc-

tion, and appearance of the real machines, and have little

interest save as curiosities and examples of good handi-

work.

Actual flying-models of large machines are often seen,

and some of these are marvels of good work, accurate at-

tention to details, and are most interesting and instructive,

for they illustrate far better than any other method the

actual principles and operation of the big machines.

Nowadays the term model aeroplane is more widely

applied to small machines which are very distinct from any

man-carrying aeroplane, and are designed and built solely

for amusement or for racing or distance contests.

These machines are more properly known as racers

and fliers, and it is with these that the various model

aeroplane clubs hold contests, and for which prizes are

offered. Such models are of no real value as related to

large machines, for, oddly enough, a flier that works well and




breaks records would fail utterly if enlarged to man-carrying

dimensions.

If a boy wishes seriously to study aviation with a view to

ultimately designing or building a real aeroplane, muchgreater progress may be made and much more knowledge

gained by building small reproductions of standard machines

than by constructing fliers and racers. On the other hand,

a great deal more amusement and real fun may be obtained

from the fliers than from true models. Fliers are cheap and

easy to build, and one never knows when some new or un-tried design may prove to possess remarkable powers. True

models are rather expensive, and require a great deal of time

and patience to construct, and very accurate work and fine

adjustment are necessary if they are actually to make

flights.

When the model is at last complete and really flies, anaccident may occur, and your beautiful model, which repre-

sents weeks of painstaking care, may be smashed to bits

in a second. This is very disheartening, whereas a flier,

even if broken or smashed which is unlikely means mere-

ly a small loss of time and money.

The commonest forms of true models which have beenworked out on a small scale and which actually fly are the

old-style Wright biplane, the Curtiss biplane, the Curtiss

hydroaeroplane, the Nieuport, and the Bleriot monoplane.

These will be fully described and minute directions for their

construction will be given in another chapter.

Before commencing to build a model of any sort, however,

great care should be taken to secure accurate and reliable

plans and materials. It is very easy to draw out a scale-

plan of an aeroplane, but it is a far more difficult matter

to build one that will actually fly from many of the plans

offered for sale at the present time.

32



MODEL MACHINES

Simple Models

Probably the simplest form of model flier that it is possible

to construct is that known as the skeeter (Fig. i). This

machine is designed especially for indoor amusement, and

consists of a very light, straight stick for the body, or frame,

Fig. 5 A

with a forward and rear plane of cardboard or onion-paper.

The propeller may be cut from thin sheet celluloid, alumi-

num, or stiff cardboard, and is turned by a twisted rubber

33




band fastened to a hook on the propeller-shaft and a second

hook on the frame (Fig. 2). These tiny affairs are about

8-1 /2, long, and spread 6-1/4 across the forward wings.

They will fly thirty feet or more, and by bending the wings

at various angles and using different-sized planes a great

deal of fun may be had, and considerable experience gained

as to the particular angle of planes and proportion of sizes

which give the best results. These models cost but twenty-

five cents ready-made, but any boy can make one in a few

minutes at home.Almost as simple as the skeeter is the

loop-the-loop

glider, shown in Fig. 3. For pure amusement this device

will prove very satisfactory, for it will fly several hundred

feet, and can be made to perform numerous remarkable

evolutions, such as looping the loop, dipping the dip,

etc. This glider consists of a single stick having at its for-

ward end a wire hook (A) and an elevating-block (B) to

which is attached the forward wing or plane (C). At the

rear end of the stick is a vertical fin, or keel (D), and above

this the main plane (E). Both of these planes, C and E,

are attached to the stick by rubber bands (F). Either thin

wooden or fiber planes may be used, and even thin alumi-

num planes often prove very satisfactory. In addition to

the glider you must also have a sling of wire (G), to which

a long and powerful elastic band is attached (H).

If you wish a straight flight, with the wind, set the front

edge of the forward plane on the second notch in the ele-

vating-block and catch the hook (A) on the rubber of the

sling. Grasp the rear end of the stick between thumb and

forefinger, as shown in Fig. 4, draw back as far as you can,

and release the grasp on the stick. If your planes are truly

set the little device will sail gracefully upward and awayfor a hundred feet or more. If a longer flight is desired,

34



MODEL MACHINES

you may drive two stakes in the ground several feet apart

and use these as the crotch to the sling with longer and

stronger rubbers. Two people may also hold the ends of a

long, stout rubber, and by one or the other of these methods

vefy long flights of from three hundred to six hundred and

fifty feet may be obtained.

Care should always be taken, however, to have the glider

start at a spot a little lower than the top of the stakes or

sling, and at an ascending angle, in order to have it clear

the top of the stakes or the crotch of the sling.

If instead of flying straight the glider flies to one side,

set the main plane a little over to the same side. A very slight

alteration will serve, and it is best to make such changes very

gradually until just the proper adjustment is obtained.

By placing the forward or elevating-plane (C) on the upper

step of the block (B), and flying the device against the wind,

the loop-the-loop will be obtained, and the glider will come

to earth after a long and graceful glide.

By varying the position of the forward plane up and down

on the steps of the block, and by altering the adjustment

of the rear plane from side to side, almost an endless

number of evolutions may be obtained with this simple

device.

These very simple affairs, such as the skeeter and loop-

the-loop gliders, are really mere toys, and are useful

simply as serving to demonstrate the principle of model

machines and as affording an insight into the various

effects produced on flight by slight changes in balance, angle

of planes, and other details. For real sport or satisfaction

in model-flier construction and design you must look for

something better, more advanced, and more powerful. Such

are the various long-distance fliers and speed-o-planes

(Fig. 5 and Fig. 5 A), the Cecil Peoli racer, the Pierce,

35




and Mann machines, and a host of other miniature aero-

planes designed for speed, long-distance, and accurate

flights, and many of them capable of rising from the ground

under their own power.

Tools and Materials

Many splendid models are for sale ready-made by the

various firms dealing in model aeroplanes and supplies, or

the machines may be built from accurate plans furnished bythese dealers.

As it is far more fun to build your own models and work

out the parts from the raw materials yourself, I advise every

boy to do this. It is practically impossible to secure the

proper grades and qualities of wood, fabric, rubber, and other

materials in the ordinary shops, and it is therefore advisable

to purchase them from a reliable firm dealing only in such

things.

It is possible to build a very good model with only a

jack-knife and a brad-awl for tools, and with a piece of pine

board, some silk thread, and an old tin can for materials;

but such a model built with such crude utensils will never

be satisfactory, and is only a makeshift.

Ordinary carpenters' tools are far too coarse and heavy

for the fine and accurate work required in building model

aeroplanes, and it is far better to provide tools especially

suited to the work.

Such tools are not expensive, and save many times their

cost in material saved, which would be wasted or injured in

attempting to use ordinary tools.

One of the most important tools is a small hand-drill.

This is very essential, as it is necessary to drill manysmall holes in the thin wood of frames and planes, and special

36




A small iron plane, plenty of assorted sandpaper, strong

silk thread, steel and copper wire, sheet brass and aluminum,

small screws and brads, and tiny screw-eyes are very useful,

and in many cases necessary.

Wire should be flexible, strong, and very fine, gages 28

to 34, and the screws and brads very minute.

In building models lightness and strength combined are

of the utmost importance, and common wood with knots

or weak spots, ordinary cardboard or paper, and common

elastic bands will not serve if good results are to be obtained.

Among the fabrics used are silk fabric, bamboo-

paper, and fiberloid, all excellent for certain purposes.

The silk and bamboo fabrics should be coated with bamboo

varnish or fabric solution; but fiberloid is a celluloid-like

transparent material and requires no treatment.

Other fabrics can also be obtained which are already

treated and require no varnishing or other preparation.

Among these is Zephyr Skin, a specially prepared ma-

terial which is lighter than tissue-paper and tougher than

silk, and which has an exceedingly smooth surface, thus

reducing skin friction to the minimum. The size of the

skins is about 6 x 22 , but two or more may be readily

glued together to obtain any desired size.

To those unfamiliar with model aeroplane work and the

advances made in model -aeroplane construction a great

surprise is in store when a visit to a dealer in model supplies

is made.

In addition to selected materials, such as woods, fibers,

bamboo, rattan, metal, etc., there is a great variety of dainty

carved propellers, metal propellers, and fiber propellers for

machines of every sort and size.

Shafts, bearings, metal braces, and even ball-bearings, are

constructed solely for models, and an infinite variety of tiny

38



MODEL MACHINES

rubber-tired wheels, axles, turnbuckles, gears, sprockets,

and other parts are to be had ready-made, and as care-

fully finished as their larger counterparts used in real

aeroplanes.

In many cases better results may be gained by purchas-

ing all such accessories ready-made than by attempting to

fashion them by hand, for they are wonderfully cheap, and

unless you are well provided with a fine assortment of metal-

working tools it is a difficult matter to produce accurate

metal fittings for models.

Propeller hangers, bearings, braces, and similar fittings

may be obtained to suit almost any model; but, as most of

these are adapted to special designs, it is better, in experi-

mental work, to make your own metal parts.

The only materials which should be kept on hand are

various sizes of spruce sticks, T- and I-beam section wood,round and half-round rattan or reed, and split bamboo. As

you can never tell just what size or form of wood, rattan,

or bamboo you will require, it is best to keep a good assort-

ment on hand, for these materials are cheap, and a great

deal of time and trouble will be saved if you have just the

thing you need and are not obliged to run out or send for

a piece of wood you happen to want.

The spruce in various forms costs but one or two cents a

foot, and the rattan and bamboo about the same, so you

can have a splendid assortment for less than a dollar.

If you wish to make your own propellers you should have

several blanks on hand, as these are very cheap, costing fromten to twenty-five cents each, and are far better than you

can make yourself. It is an easy matter to whittle a single

propeller from a blank; but it is very hard to whittle out

two exactly alike where twin propellers are used. The

blanks are made of various suitable woods, and are roughly

39



Chapter V

HOW TO BUILD RACING MODELS

THEmodel flier which holds the world's record for dis-

tance or duration is always of the greatest interest

to model-flier enthusiasts. Like real aeroplanes, however,

the records are so often broken and new ones established

that it is very difficult to keep track of just which one is

reallythe record-holder.

Moreover, official and unofficial records may differ, and

whereas an unofficial record may be correct, yet unless it is

official it will not stand as a record among the clubs and

model enthusiasts.

A record flight to be official must be made in actual com-

petitionin a

dulyannounced

contest,and under

acceptedrules and conditions of model contests.

Many of the longest recorded flights are unofficial, among

them the flight of the Mann monoplane, which is alleged

to have covered 4,200 feet with a duration of 100 seconds.

Cecil Peoli has also made various flights of 2,500 feet and

moreunofficially,

and the Pierce record of1,814

feet 6 inches

was also unofficial.

For a long time the Cecil Peoli racer was the holder of all

American records, with a flight of 1,691 feet 6 inches, and a

duration of 48-5/8 seconds.

The official records at the present time are as fol-

lows:




the rear end, and the whole machine is driven by twin

propellers of eight-inch diameter.

The triangular frame consists of two pieces of selected

silver spruce 1/4 square and 34 inches long, with a cross-

brace at the rear end of I/'

\ x 1/8 spruce seven inches long.

Fig. 1

This rear cross-brace is of stream-line section (Fig. I, B), to

reduce air resistance, and is lashed to the main frame by

silk thread glued or shellaced (Fig. I, C). A second cross-

piece is also lashed and glued on the top of the frame twelve

4,3




inches from the pointed forward end of the frame, and in

shape and size is similar to the rear brace. In gluing these

cross-braces in place only the finest white glue should be

used, and the thread lashings should be wound evenly and

tightly, and then coated with a layer of glue and shellac.

The two forward ends of the main beams should be cut off

at an angle, as shown in Fig. i, D, and glued together. Acurved W-shaped piece of stout wire four inches long is set

over the end in a slight notch, and is lashed and glued as

shown in Fig. I, E, thus holding the two ends of the beams

together and serving as a hook to which the rubber strands

are fastened. The two curved sides of these hooks are cov-

ered with a piece of rubber tubing. From the junction of

the forward cross-brace with the side-beams wire guys ex-

tend diagonally to the junction of the rear ends of the main

beams with the rear brace. These guys are of very fine

piano-wire set taut with small turnbuckles, which may be

purchased at any dealer's in model -aeroplane supplies

(Fig. i, A). The main or rear plane is elliptical in form, with

a total span of 17 inches and a chord of four inches (Fig. I, F).

The frame of this plane is made of i8-gage piano-wire bent

to the proper shape and soldered together. In making this

frame it will be much easier if a wooden form or pattern is

first cut out and the wire bent around it. By using 1/2

board for the pattern the wire may be held in position while

soldering by tacking small staples over it. The plane has

two cross-ribs, as shown in the figure. These are i8-gage

wire also, and they are bent or curved upward to give the

plane an arch or camber of 1/2 '. The frame of the plane

should be fastened to the main frame by lashings of silk

and shellac, as illustrated in Fig. i, G. The most difficult

part of the plane construction is in covering it with fine

waterproof silk, which is cut to shape and then laced taut

44



Photo by Frank Wiehn

MODEL HYDROAEROPLANE RISING FROM THE WATER, OAKWOOD HEIGHTS,

STATEN ISLAND

Photo by M. Palmer

HAND-LAUNCHING A FLYING MODEL, OAKWOOD HEIGHTS, STATEN ISLAND




with strong silk thread. You will probably have to try

several times -before you succeed in getting the silk just the

proper size and in adjusting it in such a way that it will fit

the frame snugly and smoothly and yet not wrinkle or tear.

It is next to impossible to describe this adjustment, but a

few trials will help wonderfully well, and by using some

cheaper and commoner material for your experiments you

will soon learn the knack of getting the covering on smoothly.

The forward or elevating-plane is 7 long x 1-3/4 wide,

and is made from spruce 1/30 in thickness. The forward

edge of this plane is straight when seen from above, with

the rear edge tapering from the center to the square ends,

which are one inch wide (Fig. I, A). The two sides of the

elevating-plane tip up from the center at a dihedral angle

of 30 degrees, while the rear tips bend down at an angle of

about five degrees, and upon the curve of these tips depends

the elevation of the machine. The plane is easily given

the desired curve by steaming and bending, and by making

a form of wood and fastening the steamed plane on this

until dry and cold very accurate results may be obtained.

When thoroughly dry the wood should be carefully sand-

papered with the finest sandpaper until perfectly smooth.

It is fastened to the frame by rubber bands, which are slipped

over the frame, and the free loops passed over the projecting

ends of the plane. As this thin spruce elevator is very fragile,

it should be placed in position only when in use, and several

extra elevators should be provided so that if one breaks

another may be substituted. After sandpapering, the plane

should be given two coats of fine shellac. The spot where this

plane is to be placed (two inches from the front of the frame)

should be marked in pencil on the main frame. The pro-

pellers are made of birch or other hard wood 1/20 in thick-

ness, and are eight inches in diameter, with a pitch of 24




inches. Instead of being cut from a block of wood as

usual, they are bent from a thin strip by steaming it.

As it is very difficult to secure an accurate pitch in this

way,or to

getboth

propellers exactlyalike

whichis

es-sential to good flights it is better to buy ready-made

propellers such as the Ideal, which may be obtained at a

cost of from 75 cents to $1.50 a pair, and are absolutely

true, and are sold in pairs. These may be purchased of

plain wood, laminated wood, fiber, metal, or aluminum, and

will

provefar more efficient than

anything youcan make.

The bearings for the propeller-shafts are merely L-shaped

pieces of brass with one side fastened to a side of the

frame and the other arm bored with a small hole to receive

the propeller-shaft, as shown in Fig. i, H. Between the

brass piece and the hub of the propeller are two steel collars,

orwashers,

to reduce friction. One of these is

stationary,while the other revolves, and they should be well lubricated

with vaseline.

A great improvement over this rather crude construction

can be made by substituting factory-made propeller-shafts

with turned or ball bearings. Turned bearing-shafts cost

15cents

each,while

ball-bearingshafts cost

50cents

each,and for ordinary work the turned bearings answer every

purpose (Fig. 2). The brass shaft-hangers should be fas-

tened in place by shellac and tiny brads, and should also be

lashed firmly to the frame by silk thread coated with shellac.

The end of the shaft is bent into a hook and covered with a

pieceof rubber tube to

protectthe strands of rubber used

as a motive power. Each motor consists of six strands of

1/4 flat elastic looped over the forward wire hook and the

hook on the shaft, and they should be given about 1,000

turns to produce a propeller-speed of 750 revolutions per

minute. As it is a tedious job to wind up propellers by

4

47




hand, it is advisable to purchase or make a winder. The

Ideal patented friction-winder (Fig. 3) is a very good form, as

this insures even winding of both propellers. Another good

form of winder is shown in Fig. 4. This can easily be made

from an old Dover egg-beater by cutting off the beaters and

replacing them with wire hooks as shown. When winding

the rubber strands, for this or any other model, with a winder

Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

the rubber strands should be stretched to twice their length.

Owing to the fact that the sizes of rubber strands did not

always agree and confusion often occurred in ordering, the

dealers have now adopted the plan of listing and selling

rubber by number. Number 16 was formerly known as

1/16 rubber and Number 14 as 3/32 .

If the machine is to be used entirely for racing or com-

petition flights light weight is most desirable, and no fur-

ther attachments should be added; but if the machine

is to be used for pleasure and sport, a landing -gear or

skids of some sort should be added. These may be made

of light strips of reed or split bamboo 3/32 square and

lashed to the lower side of frame. One of these should

be placed at the forward end, and one on each main brace

near the rear.

48




How to Build a Peoli Racer

A splendidly efficient and easily built machine is the Cecil

Peoli racer, invented and produced by Cecil Peoli, of New

York City, who is the youngest professional aviator, and

who has produced several novel and efficient gliders and

models, as well as full-sized aeroplanes. This machine, like

the Mann monoplane already described, is of triangular

form, with a frame made of two long sticks of spruce, each

34 long and3/^6

wide and 1/4 thick. To the rear

end of each stick, on the outer side, are bearing-blocks 3/4

x 1/4 x 1/2 (Fig. 5, aa), which should be glued and lashed

in position on the main beams, on their widest side, as shown

in the cut. The opposite sides at the other ends of the two

fuselage sticks should be cut off at an angle until they meet

evenly with the rear ends five inches apart (Fig. 5, Plan).

Across this triangle are three bamboo braces (Fig. 5, c), each

1/16 thick and 1/8 wide, lashed in place with silk thread

as usual. Through the two side-beams, where they join

in front, a 1/16 hole should be bored and a stiff wire placed

through this hole and bent in a hook at each side, as shown

in the plan at dd. The two ends of the main frames

should then be lashed and glued as usual. Thin bamboo

strips 3/32 wide should next be bent into the form shown

in Fig. 5, Ci, C2, and lashed to the lower sides of the main

beams one in front and two at the rear.

It is very easy to bend bamboo, rattan, or thin wood by

steaming or heating over a spirit-lamp, and you should never

attempt to bend such materials either dry or cold. In plac-

ing the rear skids (C2) in place care should be taken that

they slant slightly outward, as shown in the front view in

the figure. When the correct slant is obtained the cross-

piece of bamboo (/) is lashed in place and the V-shaped

49




space on the skids is covered with bamboo-paper and given

a coat of bamboo-varnish.

The main plane should now be constructed, and in this

work great care should be taken, as upon this depends the

success of your model.

For the ribs there are fourteen pieces of 1/32 bamboo,

which should be bent to the curve shown in the cross-sec-

tion of planes, and these should be lashed, two at a time

(upper and lower), to the main spar (k), which is 24 long,

1/2 wide, and 1/16 thick, at their centers. All the ribs

should be bound in place accurately at right angles to the

main spar and spaced as follows: Outer ribs on each side,

2-1/2 from end of main spar; second ribs on each side,

2-1/2 from first; third ribs, 3-1/2 from second; center

ribs, 3-1/2 from third.

When this is accomplished slip the two auxiliary spars

(ee) yeach 1/4 wide and 1/16 thick, between the ribs

from one end to the other of the plane, and slide them into

position so that they will be spaced 1-3/4 from the front

edge, and 3/4 from the main spar, and the other 5/8 from

the main spar and 7/8 from the rear edge. Next glue and

lash all the joints of ribs and spars firmly in place, and while

these are drying build the front plane or elevator. This is

built exactly like the main plane, except that no auxiliary

spars are used and only three sets of ribs are needed. Around

the edges of each plane strips of bamboo 1/16 thick and

1/16 wide are bent, and are lashed between the ends of

each pair of ribs and at the end of the main spar, as shown.

Cut some bamboo-paper large enough to cover the plane,

and turn up over the edges and cement or glue this in place.

Then cut a second piece just large enough to fit the plane's

top, and glue this firmly over the edges of the bottom piece.

When dry the paper should be given a coat of bamboo-varnish.




When dry the planes may be attached to the main fuse-

lage by rubber thread, as shown; but before placing the

elevator in position two small blocks, each 3/1 6 thick and

1/2 wide at the widest end and 3/32 wide at the other

and 1/2 long, should be attached to each main-frame beam

4-7/8 from the forward end. The front edge of the ele-

vator should then be adjusted to rest on the sloping side

of these blocks at 5-1/4 from the apex of the fuselage.

The propellers are 6-1/4 in diameter, 1-1/4 wide, and

3/4 thick, and may be cut from blocks by hand, or maybe bought ready-made, which is advisable if the best results

are to be expected. The shafts pass through 1/16 holes in

the bearing-blocks. Small hooks of steel wire should be

made, as shown at t, and 18 feet 8 inches of 3/32 x 3/32

rubber should be wound in a skein of seven strands from

each of these hooks to its respective propeller-shaft hook.

Your racer is now ready to fly, but you should wait for a

calm day before trying it, as at first there very likely will

be numerous small adjustments to make before a straight

and reliable flight is accomplished.

By the aid of a propeller-winder, such as already de-

scribed, or by winding each propeller the same number of

times by hand (for about 600 to 800 turns), the rubbers maybe twisted taut. Hold both propellers in the right hand

and raise the model above the head with the left hand.

Let go with the left hand, and at the same time give a slight

push with the right.

If the machine flies upward or climbs too rapidly re-

move the elevator and cut off about 1/16 from the upper

surface of the elevating-block. Continue this until the proper

angle of ascent is attained.

If the model dives, whittle the elevating-blocks down until

you get more elevation. If it shows an inclination to turn

52




in circles, the main plane is out of center or warped, and it

must be bent into shape or adjusted so that a steady flight

is attained. For delicate front and rear stability adjust-

ment move the main plane a little (half an inch or so) for-

ward or back. If pushed forward the machine will climb

more, if pushed back it flies on a more level course. It is

best to mark the position when a satisfactory flight is se-

cured, in order to avoid unnecessary adjustments every

time.

In speaking of fastening various parts I have mentioned

glue, but, while good white glue is an excellent material,

it is subject to weather changes, and a waterproof cement

such as Ambroid is preferable. Bamboo- varnish and

bamboo-paper are materials especially made for model-

aeroplane use, and may be purchased of any dealer in model

supplies.

The Pierce Model

Another very fast, powerful, long-distance model, which

for a long time held the American record for long flights, is

the Pierce monoplane.The unofficial record of this machine is 1,814-1/2 feet,

with a duration of 72 seconds. It is a simple, easy model

to build, and every boy who takes up model-building should

certainly build a Pierce.

The more styles and types of models you have, the more

likely you are to learn just why and how one model is

superior to another, and by combining the best points of

several you may perhaps invent an entirely new and re-

markable flier.

The Pierce is a triangular machine composed of two

sticks of straight-grained spruce each 34 long and tapered

from 3/16 at the middle to 1/8 at the ends.

53




The two forward ends are shaved down and glued and

lashed together in the same way as in the Mann or the

Peolimodel, and

theapex

of theframe

carries a steel-wire

hook as shown in Fig. 6.

This hook is lashed in place by silk thread, and two small

S-hooks are used to connect the rubber strands, as illus-

trated in Fig. 7.

The rear cross-piece is of spruce 1/3 2 square, shaved to

stream-linecross-section,

and the twinpropellers

are at-

tached to this.

The planes are built up of bamboo strips bent around a

light spruce frame, as shown in Fig. 8, and are covered with

Fig. 7

rice-paper. They are of bird-wing shape with tipped-up

ends, and have a dihedral angle of 90 degrees.

The forward plane is about 8-1/2 long x 3 wide, and

the rear plane is 18 x 3-1 /2 . The forward plane is se-

cured in

position bytwo rubber bands, as in the Mann

54




Park. At this meet a model built by K. Nakagawa won

the prize by flying 105 yards in 12 seconds.

TheJapanese

boys and

young

men at once became en-

thusiastic over models, and there are now over a dozen

clubs, and numerous meets are held yearly.

The Japanese are noted for delicate and accurate work,

and in the construction of model aeroplanes they discovered

a field in which their skill in handiwork proved most valu-

able.

Some of the Japanese models are very beautifully and

carefully made, and while, as a rule, American models are

followed, yet many are very original, and are well worthy

of imitation by American designers.

The Angel IX. of Mr. Nakagawa is a typical example

of prize-winning Japanese models.

This is a monoplane of triangular frame, and, while the

original is composed of native Japanese woods, spruce and

other American products will serve just as well.

The main beams are 3/16 x 1/4 , each 36 inches long, and

are connected by cross-beams (Fig. 9, A, B). The main

beams, instead of being square or rounded, are of I-beam

section (Fig. 10), which insures great strength with extreme

lightness, and affords an excellent means of attaching the

cross-beams and other parts in a neat and workmanlike

manner.

The two cross-bars mentioned (Fig. 9, A, B) are spaced 12

inches from the front and five inches from the rear, and are

of stream-line section with the ends fitted snugly into the

grooves in the main beams (Fig. li). A thin strip of sheet

aluminum is then bent around the main beam and over the

cross-braces, and is held in position by glue and silk-thread

lashing. These strips of metal are but i x 1/8 in size,

and the weight is so slight that it is of no consequence,

56




whereas the superior strength and rigidity gained by this

method of attachment is of great value.

The lightness obtained by using I-beam section main

beams allows the use of metal in many important details

without an increase over the normal weight of the ordinary

model.

At the extreme rear ends of the frame-beams are the

bearings for the propeller-shafts. These are made of 1/3 2

steel bent as shown in Fig. 12, and attached to the outer

sides of the main beams by silk winding and glue.

A thin wooden block should be glued into the groove on

the beam beneath the plate, as indicated, before winding on

the bearings.

The propeller-shafts are of No. 15 steel wire, and they

are fastened to the propellers by a fine wire pin passing

through a hole drilled through the propeller and the wire

shaft.

It is a mighty difficult and delicate job to drill a hole

through a No. 15 steel wire, and few American boys could

accomplish it, and I should therefore advise the use of an

ordinary shaft. If you wish fully to appreciate the exquisite

accuracy of the Japanese construction you may try your

hand at thus drilling the wire; but I assure you that you

will find it most difficult.

The propellers are 10 inches in diameter, with 1 5-inch

pitch reduced to lo-inch pitch near the hubs. The original

model carries hand-made wooden propellers carefully whit-

tled and scraped to perfect balance, and coated with five

coats of varnish and highly polished. Ordinary ready-

made propellers will serve every purpose, however.

In the original model a round glass bead was placed

between e.ach propeller-hub and its bearing; and, while this

serves very well when the simple shaft is used, yet regular




ball-bearing shafts or plain bearings will answer as well

or even better.

The apex of the frame is provided with a hooked wire,

as usual, for attaching the rubber strands, 1/16 square,

with twelve on each side.

The planes are of light Japanese silk coated with shellac,

and are stretched over piano-wire frames. The large plane

is 22 x 3 , with five ribs of wire bent as shown in Fig. 13.

The bent ends of each rib are then wound to the edge-frame

by fine copper wire and are soldered firmly in place.

The forward or elevating plane is of the same construc-

tion, 10 x 2 , with three ribs, and on its forward edge

is a thin metal plate with a 1/16 hole, as shown in

Fig. 13, A.

This plate slips over a 1/16 bolt attached to a short

cross-brace on the lower side of the frame, and rests upon

a nut on the bolt. The plane is attached to the frame by

a rubber band, and by merely screwing the nut up or down

any desired elevation is easily obtained (Fig. 14).

The bolt is fastened to the block by soldering to thin

pieces of metal on the upper and lower sides, as shown in

Fig. 14, A, and the block is attached to the frame by glue

and silk thread as usual.

Across the top of each plane a stout silk thread is stretched

from tip to tip, thus giving a dihedral angle and trussing

the planes also.

Beneath the frame a keel or fin is placed extending from

the forward cross-brace to the rear extremity of the main

beams (Fig. 15).

This keel serves to stiffen the model, protect the pro-

pellers when landing, and aids in producing straight flights,

and adds to lateral stability.

This keel is attached by elastic bands, and the rear end

59




acts as a rudder, which may be slightly moved from side

to side to correct any tendency to fly to right or left.

The Lauder Duration Model

This efficient and simple flier won the duration contest at

Murray Hill, New Jersey, October 20, 1912, and, while the

record has since been broken, yet its performance at that

time was remarkable.

LAUDERDURATION

CLEVATION

Fig. 16

Its record flight was 143 seconds; but eight times, in eight

consecutive flights, this model flew over 130 seconds.

The construction of this model is so simple that scarcely

any detailed directions are necessary, and its appearance is

fully shown in Fig. 16.

The fuselage is 40 inches long, and is of silver spruce

60




1/4 x 5/16 , tapered toward the ends. The main beams

are of oval section, carefully smoothed and varnished. The

front plane is 13 x 5 , and the main or rear plane 27 x

7 ,

built

upof bamboo and covered with

Japanesesilk

paper.The propellers have a blade surface of 14-1/2 square

inches each, and a pitch of 34 inches. They are 12 inches

in diameter and of true screw shape.

The machine is guyed with No. 34 steel wire, and weighs,

complete, 4-5/8 ounces.

The motor consists of two ounces of flat-strand rubber,

driving the propellers at about 500 revolutions per minute.

Ground-Fliers

Many of the best types of racing and long-distance models

will not rise from the earth under their own power, but must

be started at theheight

ofyour head,

or evengiven

aslight

push to start them, in order to make long flights.

The earliest models were mainly ground-fliers, and many

model enthusiasts are now seriously taking up that type

after discarding it for the more speedy racing models.

It is a great deal more interesting to see a model rise from

theground

andfly gracefully

off than to start it from the

hands; and, moreover, it is a far better test of the efficiency of

the machine to have it rise itself, as a great deal of the flight

of a racer depends upon the skill used in starting its flight.

The following model is an excellent type of ground-flier,

but almost any well-designed model will rise from the

ground if given larger planes, skids to rest upon, and the

right elevation to the front plane.

For building the ground-flier you will require the following

materials:

Two pieces of spruce, each 35 long x 1/4 x 5/16 .

Two 6 propeller-blanks or two 6 ready-made propellers.

61




Thirty-six feet 3/32 square rubber.

Four feet of split bamboo.

One foot 1/16 steel wire.

Two and one-half feet thin spruce 1/16 thick.

Two propeller-bearings and shafts.

One can Ambroid varnish.

The above will cost from $1.50 to $3, according to the

quality of shafts, propellers, and bearings used.

To build the frame cut off the side of each long stick at

one end and lash and glue them together as shown in Fig. 17.

About1/2

from the other ends lash andglue

a brace of

split bamboo to the upper side of the sticks, and fasten

another in the same way half-way between the rear brace

and the apex of the frame (Fig. 18, A, B).

Cut two small wooden blocks in the form of steps (Fig.

17, C), and glue and lash these to the top of the frame sticks

three inches from the forward end.

Through the two sticks, where they are joined in front,

bore a 1/16 hole, and through this place a steel wire bent

in the form of a hook on each side (Fig. 17, H).

The bearings are glued and lashed to the outer side of the

rear of the main beams, and may be home-made of thin

metal bent and bored as described for theJapanese flier,

or

they may be purchased ready-made for a few cents.

The machine carries six-inch propellers; and, while these

may be whittled from blanks at home, yet better results

may be obtained by purchasing them ready-made.

Beneath the model are skids of split bamboo constructed

as follows:

Heat a piece of bamboo 5-1/2 long over a spirit-lamp or

flame, and bend it as shown in Fig. 19. Then split this in

half, and you will have two skids exactly alike.

The braces to these (Fig. 19, A) are made in the same way,

using pieces 4-1/2 long.

62




From one skid to the other a thin strip of bamboo is

lashed at the spot where the braces join the skids, in order

to steady them (Fig. 19, C).

The front skids are made like the rear skids, but the for-

ward skid is 7-1/2 long, and the braces 6-1/2 , in order

to give the machine a slight upward tilt, or angle of incidence,

and thus allow it to rise.

After the skids are attached they are covered with bamboo-

paper and varnished, and then act as keels or fins, increasing

stability and producing straighter flights (Fig. 19, D).

The planes are made from the thin 1/16 spruce, the main

plane being 18 x 3 (Fig. 18), and the front or elevating

plane 8-1/2 x 3 . Both planes are bent or curved slightly

by heating the wood and bending it into shape.

The planes are lashed to the frame by rubber strands, with

the forward edge of the elevator resting on the two wooden

steps (Fig. 17).

Each motor should have six strands of the rubber, which

should be attached to the wire hook at the forward end by

small S-hooks so that the rubber may be easily slipped off for

winding with a winding-machine such as already described.

In winding these rubbers not over 250 turns should be

given, or the strands may break.

In winding rubber strands for this or any other model the

rubber should be stretched out while winding, as otherwise

it will kink, and one person must hold the model while the

other winds.

After it is wound the rubber is hooked over the front

wire hook and the machine placed on smooth ground while

the propellers are held by the hand.

As soon as the propellers are released the machine will

slide along the ground a short distance and then rise grace-

fully in flight like a real aeroplane.

64




If it fails to rise, or uses up most of its power before rising,

the front plane should be elevated more by raising it a step

on the blocks, or the rear plane should be moved forward

slightly.

Instead of the fragile wooden planes you may use planes

made of a wire or bamboo framework, with bamboo or silk-

fabric covering, such as those described for the Mann,

Pierce, Peoli, or Japanese models. The wooden planes are

merely easier to build; and, as the machine is not intended

for racing, they answer very well.

Moreover, for experiments you may use wooden planes

of various sizes and curves, and when you decide on the

very best proportions you may easily duplicate them in a

frame and fabric plane for permanent use.

A Model Hydroaeroplane

The hydroaeroplane is in many ways far superior to the

ordinary aeroplane, and it is very interesting to build a

model of one of these machines and see it skitter along the

water and rise from the surface.

Small model hydroaeroplanes are quite easy to make, and

they have proved so successful and attractive that contests

and meets for these tiny airboats are now a regular feature

of model clubs.

Many of these models have flown 500 feet after running

over the water but eight or ten feet.

The principal difference between a model hydroaeroplane

and an ordinary model is in the floats, or pontoons, as well

as in slight details of proportion and dimensions to over-

come the weight of the floats.

It must also be remembered that every part of a hydro-

aeroplane must be constructed of waterproof materials.

65




The fuselage consists of two pieces, each 32 inches long,

of 1/4 x 5/16 spruce fastened together at the forward end

in the usual

way.The cross-braces are heavier and stronger than in a strict

flying-model, and are best set into I-beam section main

beams, as described for the Japanese model.

The main plane is 17 x 3 , built up of spruce ribs

and bamboo edges, covered with bamboo -fiber paper on

both sides, and coated with four coats of Ambroid var-

nish.

The floats are three in number, one in front and two in

the rear, built of thin spruce and bamboo fiber.

Elevating'

Plane

r 2J Forward Float andAttachments




The forward pontoon is 4 long and 2 wide and 1-1/4

deep, constructed by cutting two pieces for the sides (Fig.

20), separated by four braces, as shown in Fig. 19, A, A, each

3/16 square.

The floats are attached to the fuselage by sewing bamboo

strips to the sides and lashing the ends to the main frame

(Fig. 21). The rear floats are 2-1/2 long, 1-1/8 high,

and 1-3/4 wide, made in the same way as the front float,

and with a cross-piece of bamboo connecting them, as shown

in Fig. 22.

After sewing the floats to the bamboo supports they are

covered with bamboo fiber and given four coats of Ambroid

varnish.

In fastening the floats to the frame they should be set so

as to have an incline of about 20 degrees, which will enable

the machine to rise quickly from the water.

The front plane is attached to the frame by rubber bands,

and rests upon an elevating-block, as in other models, with

the hooks at the forward end. The propeller bearings and

other details are exactly like those already described for

racing-machines.

The propellers are 6-1/4 m diameter, with a lo-inch

pitch, and powerful strands are used as a motor.

The machine, if properly balanced, will rise readily from

the water; but if not properly adjusted it will turn turtle,

and with floats upside down will whirl around and perform

wonderful gyrations, with its propellers churning the water

like a miniature submarine.



Chapter VI

FLYING THE MODELS

A>Lthe racing and record-holding models, such as those

already described, are more or less alike in form, con-

struction, and details, and if you wish to be absolutely sure

that your model will succeed and will fly it is wise to follow

designs of this sort.

Many builders of real aeroplanes have had remarkable

success in producing efficient machines by departing from

established forms and building planes with oddly shaped

wings, novel bodies, and oth-

er peculiar features.

In building or designing

models the boy designer

may also experiment and

try wings and frames of va-

rious proportions and shapes.

Bird -like wings, such as

those shown in Fig. I, have

proved most satisfactory on

real aeroplanes, and for mod-

els they should also produce

good results. Biplane mod-

^*els are as a rule less success-

ful than monoplanes, but they serve as an interesting change

from the other forms, and every boy builder should aim to

construct as many types of models as possible.

68



FLYING THE MODELS

By altering the shapes and sizes of planes and using one

or two regular bodies a great deal may be learned in regard

to the superior qualities of new planes, and when something

is found that produces better results than others the machine

may be laid aside as it is and considered a new design, while

further experiments are carried on to improve upon it by the

use of another model.

Sometimes a very slight alteration in the location or

angles of planes, or in balance or proportions of the body,

will produce unlooked-for and surprising results, and it is

only by thus experimenting that new and faster models

can be evolved.

It is in this experimental work that the greatest pleasure

can be found, and once you learn the principles of model

construction and learn to use tools on the minute parts

required for models, you will find the work wonderfully

fascinating.

How to Fly a Model

After you have built your first model you will be very

anxious to try it, and if you do not wish to be disappointed

you should be careful in selecting the time and place in

which to attempt a flight. You should choose a calm or

nearly calm day and an open space free from trees, shrubs,

buildings, or wires, and at first you should merely try very

short flights.

Probably your first attempts will be dismal failures, for

even if carefully made and a standard and well-designed

model has been followed, yet some little adjustment or

alteration will be necessary before the model actually flies.

Two people are usually required to fly a model success-

fully, but you will have no difficulty in getting plenty of

your boy friends to help you; and after they have seen a

69




few model flights they will all be anxious to build models

of their own, and very soon you will be able to form a club

and hold regular contests.

Various clubs are already formed in most of the larger

cities, but it is lots of fun to have your own little club; and

after you have built a number of models and have learned

to fly them well you may be able to arrange competitions

with other clubs just as you would form a baseball nine and,

after practising, challenge other nines to games.

Model aeroplanes are now so firmly established, and have

become so common, that regular rules and regulations for

contests and meets have been formulated and are accepted

by nearly all clubs, just as baseball or football games are

subject to recognized rules which all players must abide by.

Of course a great many contests and meets are unofficial,

or are held just for fun or for practice; but oftentimes won-

derfully long or fast flights are made at these meets, and,

unfortunately, such flights do not go on record as official.

The principal rules for model-aeroplane contests, as com-

piled by Mr. Edward Durant, are as follows:

1. A contest to be official must have at least five contestants.

2. Each contestant must abide by the rules of the contest and the de-

cision of the judges.

3. Each contestant must register his name, age, and address before the

event.

4. Each contestant must enter and fly models made by himself only.

5. Trials to start from a given point indicated by the starter of the trials,

and distance is to be measured in a straight line from the starting-

point to where the model first touches the ground, regardless of the

curves or circles it may have made.

6. Each contestant must have his models marked with his name and

number of his models (i, 2, 3, etc.), and each model will be entitled

to three official trials. Contestant has the privilege of changing

the planes and propellers as he may see fit, but only three frames

can be used in any contest. If in the opinion of the board of

judges there are too many entries to give each one nine flights in

70



FLYING THE MODELS

the length of time fixed, the judges have the power to change that

part of rule No. 6 to the following:

Six flights will be allowed to each contestant, which can all

be made with one model or dividedup;

due notice must begiven

to each contestant of the change.

7. No trial is considered as official unless the model flies over 100 feet

from the starting-point. (The qualifying distance can be changed

by agreement between the club and the starter provided the en-

trants are notified.)

8. Should the rubber become detached from the model, or the propeller

drop off during the trial, the trial is counted as official, providing

the model has covered the qualifying distance.

9. Contests should cover a period of three hours, unless otherwise agreed.

10. The officials should be: a starter, measurer, judge, and scorer; also

three or four guards to keep starting-point and course clear. The

first three officials shall, as a board of judges, decide all questions

and disputes.

11. A space 25 feet square (with stakes and ropes) should be measured

off for officials and contestants, together with one assistant for each

contestant. All others must be kept out by the guards and a space

kept clear (at least 25 feet) in front of the starting-point, so a con-

testant will not be impeded in making his trial.

12. Each official should wear a badge, ribbon, or arm-band designating his

office, and must be upheld in his duties.

HANDICAPS

13. At the discretion of the club there may be imposed a handicap for

club events as follows:

A contestant in order to win must exceed his last record with

which he won a prize.

COMBINATION AND DURATION EVENTS

14. First, second, and third records to count. Lowest number of points

to win. For example:

A may have ist in distance and 2d in duration=3 total pointsB may have 3d in distance and ist in duration=4 total points

C may have 2d in distance and 3d in duration=5 total points

Thus A wins.

RISING FROM THE GROUND

15. Models to be set on the ground and allowed to start off without any

push from the contestant. Models must rise from the ground to

clear arope

or stick laid on the ground, and no flight is to be con-

7 1




sidered as official unless it does so. Contestant may start at any

length back from the mark he chooses, but the distance is to be

measured only from the rope or stick.

OPEN EVENTS

1 6. These events are open to all, and no handicaps are imposed on club

members or others.

RULES FOR INTER-CLUB MODEL AEROPLANE

TOURNAMENTS

(For a Club Trophy)

Compiled by Mr. Edward Durant

The tournament to consist of five events as follows :

DURATION: Models launched from hand

DISTANCE: Models launched from hand

DURATION: Models launched from groundDISTANCE: Models launched from groundDURATION: Models launched from water

Arrange dates about two weeks apart, to allow time for special

model to be made for the next event.

In case of inclement weather, the event to take place the week follow-

ing, so that the regular schedule for bi-weekly events can be carried out.

Each competing club must be represented by a team of three con-

testants, and one non-competitor, who will act as judge in conjunction

with the judges from the other clubs, and a manager selected by the

judges who will issue calls for meetings.There shall be a meeting of the judges of the competing clubs at some

designated headquarters, at which time the dates and general details

shall be arranged, and between events there should be a meeting called,

for general discussion regarding the last previous event, receive protests

and suggestions, and to announce officially the result of same.

The manager shall have control of the various events, assisted by the

judges, and they shall decide all disputes that may arise, and act as scorers

and timers as well.

Each flyer will be allowed but one model and shall be entitled to three

official flights, but he shall be permitted to make any repairs or replace

any broken parts. Each event shall close when all the contestants have

made three official flights, or when three hours' time has elapsed.

To determine results of events, the best flight of each member of the

team shall be added together, and the total divided by three. The team

having the largest result shall be declared winner of that event, and shall

72



FLYING THE MODELS

be credited with 20 points. (So in, case one club wins all five events it

will have 100 points.)

The other teams getting points in proportion as their average is to the

winner, and, should some member or members not make an official

flight, the record must be figured in the result as O, for instance:

A flies 1,500 feet, his greatest flight

B flies o No official flight

C flies 600 feet, his greatest flight

2,100 feet

1/3 = 700 feet, the average of the team

At the close of the tournament a meeting shall be called by the man-

ager to determine the net result by examining the official score for each

event, and figuring out the proportion due to each club.

In determining what will qualify as an official flight, judgment must

be used by the manager and board of judges, not to set the qualifying

marks higher than the capabilities of the average flier of the clubs that

will go into the contest; for example:

There has recently been held (May and June, 1913) a five-event inter-

club tournament in which the qualifying points were as follows:

DURATION: Launching from the hand, 60 seconds

DISTANCE: Launching from the hand, 1,200 feet

DURATION: Launching from the ground, 30 seconds

DISTANCE: Launching from the ground, 600 feet

DURATION: Launching from the water, No limit

These high marks were set because the contestants were in the world's

championship class, comprising such fliers as Selley and Herzog, of NewYork

M.A.

C.; Cavanaugh,of

LongIsland

M.A.

C.; Myers,of

Summit, New Jersey, M. A. C.; and the Bamberger brothers, of Bay

Ridge M. A. C.; and the results justified the high standard, as the fol-

lowing three new world's records were made:

W. Bamberger Making duration from ground . 81 seconds

L. Bamberger Making distance from ground . 1,542 feet

Geo. H. Cavanaugh Making duration from water . 60 seconds

But for the gusty winds which prevailed on the occasion of the dura-

tion from hand and distance from hand, new world's records would prob-

ably have been made for these events.

While the list of events here used covers all styles of flying, still the

number of them can be cut down or modified to suit the qualification of

the clubs which may compete.

These are special rules for inter-club series of events. The general

rules for model aeroplane contests will prevail where they do not con-

flict with the above special rules.

73




Fig. 2

Measuring Flights

Formerly all flights were measured by a tape or similar

method, but with the increase in model-aeroplane flying

better appliances were produced, and nowadays all flights

are measured by automatic instruments that are simply

wheeled over the ground.

Some of these measuring-devices are very accurate and

are also very costly; but any boy with a little ingenuity can

make a measurer that will serve every purpose and will

prove very accurate far more accurate, in fact, than any

tape or rule. The following

device was originated by

Mr. Edward Durant, and

will prove very accurate and

useful.

How to Make a Measuring-

Device

First secure a wheel ex-

actly two feet in circumfer-

ence. An old . velocipede,f

bicycle, or baby -carriage

wheel will answer; or make

a wooden wheel by nailing

boards together with their

grain running in opposite

directions, and saw it out

round and true. If there is

a sawmill or good wood-

working shop in your neigh-

borhood you can have it sawed on a band-saw much more

accurately than you can do it yourself.

74

Bras*

Bolt



FLYING THE MODELS

If you use such a wooden wheel you should cover its edge

with brass or iron as a tire to protect it.

To one side of this wheel fasten a small wheel three

inches in diameter (Fig. 2), and on the edge of this small

wheel fasten two pieces of brass or iron exactly opposite

each other (Fig. 3).

Saw out a piece of plank or board in the shape shown in

Fig. 4, and fasten the wheel in the slot by a bolt for an axle,

as shown in the cut, and attach a handle at the upper end.

A cyclometer that registers feet, or that plainly registers

the number of revolutions, should be fastened near the

upper end of the frame, so that the projecting bits of brass

on the small wheel strike the lever of the cyclometer and

thus register the distance the wheel turns.

Instead of the cyclometer you may arrange a small bell

with a striker, and as you push the device along you merely

have to count the strokes of the bell to know how many

feet you have traveled.

Both of these arrangements are shown in detail in Fig. 5,

and you can easily see just how the device is constructed

and how simple it is to measure distance with this home-

made apparatus.



Part III

GLIDERS, OR NON-PROPELLED AEROPLANES



Chapter VII

TYPES OF GLIDERS

WHEN you have learned something about the princi-

ple of aeroplanes and have built model machines

you will no doubt long to try real flying.

Real man-carrying aeroplanes are hard to build, and are

expensive, while the motors required to drive them are far

beyond the reach of most boys.

There is, however, a way to enjoy all the pleasurablesensations of actual flight in a simple and inexpensive way,

and that is by the use of a glider.

A glider is a form of aeroplane which has no propelling

power or motor, but depends upon a wind or a jump from

a height to carry it forward in flight.

Gliders are really very important things, for the various

experiments that led to the invention and construction of

the first real aeroplanes were made by the use of gliders, and

had it not been for these safe and simple things probably

aeroplanes would never have been invented.

In a way gliders are merely aeroplanes without a motor;

and, as no engine or steering-apparatus is required and no

propellers are used, the glider may be constructed far lighter

and more easily than a real aeroplane.

There are a great many forms of gliders, for, like the aero-

plane-builders, each designer of a glider tried his best to

invent something better and safer than others; and, while

6 79




many proved failures, a great many others have proved so

very successful that they are recognized as true types.

Some of the best known are the Montgomery glider, the

Chanute glider, the

Wrightglider, the Witteman glider, and

many others.

As gliders are the ancestors, so to speak, of aeroplanes,

they are very similar in form to the more highly perfected

machines; and we will find monoplane gliders, biplane

gliders, and triplane gliders, as well as a few multiplane

gliders, which have a great

manysmall planes instead of

the one, two, or three large planes of the other forms (Fig. i).

Fig.l

Aeroplanes are very dangerous machines in the hands of

inexperienced people, and even in the hands of expert air-

men accidents often happen and many aviators are killed.

Gliders, on the other hand, are very safe, for unless you

glide from a great height or in a gale of wind there is

little danger of the slightest harm coming to you even

if you fall or upset, and about the worst that can happen80



TYPES OF GLIDERS

is to break your machine or get a few bruises or torn

clothes.

In a way gliders are even more like kites than aeroplanes,

for they rise and sail against the wind; and, while at times

they glide for quite a long distance and actually rise quite

a good deal higher than the spot from which they started,

yet as a rule the flight of a glider is comparatively short, and

is a long, descending slide through the air.

It requires but little skill to guide a glider, for if properly

built and balanced they keep right side up and sail steadily

with little effort on the part of the passenger.

Of all types of gliders the biplane is perhaps the safest

as well as the easiest to build, and the biplane glider invented

and perfected by Mr. Chanute, and afterward slightly altered

to the Wright style, is as good as any to commence on.

The cost should not be over $10 to $15, and no special

tools are required to build it; but it is a good plan to have

a large shed or barn in which to set it up, for even if built

in knock-down form it is easier to build it and assemble it

ready to fly.

It is not wise to build your first glider either very large or

very heavy, for a boy does not require as large a glider as

a full-grown man; and the larger and heavier the machine

the more difficult it is to glide or control, while in making

a landing a light glider is a great advantage.

The dimensions should be closely followed, however, for

a slight variation may mean total failure, and if you wish

to experiment with alterations and innovations it is wise

to wait until you have built at least one successful machine

of known strength and ability to fly.

After you have done this you can build another with any

changes you may think will improve it, or you may try

your hand at monoplane or triplane affairs.

81




Close to the earth the atmosphere is composed of numer-

ous swirling and confused currents, which constantly rise

or fall, and by watching particles of dust or dead leaves on

a fairly windy day you can see this very easily.

On almost calm days these currents still occur, but are

far less pronounced, and even in perfectly calm weather

rising and falling currents are caused by various tempera-

ture changes, such as the sun passing behind a cloud, or by

other causes which we cannot see or feel.

As cold air is heavier than warm air, the latter is constant-

ly rising from the earth while the sun shines and warms it,

while the cold air is descending and filling the space left

by the warm air.

The more unequal the temperature the more these cur-

rents rise and fall, and even at great heights these varying,

unseen air streams occur and prove the most dangerous

items in flying.

Even when the wind is very steady a small object, such

as a tree or building, will cause the air currents to divide,

and the least disturbance thus caused will affect the other

air currents for a long distance in every direction.

As a rule, however, the cross-currents and miniature

whirlwinds caused by variations in temperature or by objects

in the path of the wind, are not great enough to disturb

a glider unless the wind is blowing more than fifteen miles

an hour; but it is far wiser to try your first few glides in a

very light wind.

Begin by running against the wind on level ground and

making short jumps. As soon as you have learned the

sensation of actually traveling a short distance in the air,

and have discovered that you can land on your feet and

can prevent the machine from capsizing, you may attempt

a real glide from a low hill.

84



TYPES OF GLIDERS

Making a Glide

Carry your glider to the top of the hill, and if possible

have two of your friends hold the ends of the lower plane.

Get beneath the machine and grasp the front main beam

and lift the glider until the arm-sticks are tight up beneath

your armpits (Fig. 2).

Now run quickly down the slope, your friends letting go

of the ends as soon as you are in motion, and you will at

Fig. 2

once find that the machine has apparently lost all weight

and is actually trying to lift you from your feet.

Now elevate the front edge of the glider slightly and leap

into the air. If your glider is properly made and your

position is right you will sail smoothly and evenly off into

the air and gradually sail down to the foot of the hill. As

you approach the earth push yourself toward the rear of

the glider, so that the machine tilts up. This will cause it to

rise a little; but almost instantly it will lose its forward

motion, and you will slowly and gently drop to the ground

on your feet.

85




If in your glide you find the machine has a tendency to

droop toward one side or the other, you merely have to swing

your legs and body toward the higher side, and the machine

will come back to a level keel.

Only a very slight motion is required to accomplish this

lateral balance, and at first you will probably err by swing-

ing too far or too quickly.

If you swing the body forward the center of gravity will

be brought toward the front, and the machine will descend,

while by swinging the weight farther back the machine

will tilt up in front and will lose its speed and drop you

to earth.

As a rule, the tendency of beginners is to place their weight

too far back; but after a little practice the operator will

learn how to handle his weight so as to increase the velocity

or decrease it at will.

The diagram (Fig. 3) shows how the weight of the operator

may be shifted to bring about any desired line of flight.

-JB2)...

Fig. 3

At A the flier is just starting to run forward on the hill-

top, and the line from A to B shows how his flight or glide

starts at first.

If the weight is too far back the glider will continue as in

the line to F through C, D, E. If at the position B the

operator moves his legs back, as shown, the glider will

travel more sharply downward, as shown by the line from

86



TYPES OF GLIDERS

B to G, H. If at the point H, where the machine is traveling

the fastest, the legs are swung forward again, as at I, the

machine will rise slightly and will finally settle to the earth

at F.

This sort of a glide is the most enjoyable as well as the

safest, for a longer flight is made at a lower elevation and

with less likelihood of a bad fall.

Always remember that a gust of wind from the front will

cause the glider to rise, and a gust from the rear will cause

it to drop. With these few hints in regard to gliding, I will

tell you how to build the glider, and if you follow the direc-

tions carefully you will have no trouble in making a flight

the first time you try.



Chapter VIII

HOW TO BUILD A GLIDER

BEFOREcommencing to plan or build any form of

glider it is best to be thoroughly familiar with the names

of the various parts, in order more clearly to understand the

directions.

A glider is composed of comparatively few parts, and these

are clearly showTn in the diagram (Fig. i).

This illustration shows the glider frame complete; but theribs on the lower plane and the fabric covering of the two

^fe,4

ftttJrr 8e,t

Fig. 1

wings and rudder, as well as the truss or stay wires, areomitted to avoid confusion.

The two long, slender pieces on the front and rear of each

plane are known as horizontal beams, and connecting

the upper and lower horizontal beams are a number of up-

right pieces known as stanchions. Connecting the hori-




zontal beams of each plane from front to back are six pieces

in each plane, and these are called struts.

Crossing the planes from front to rear between the struts

are numerous smaller, curved pieces known as ribs.

Between the two central struts of each plane, and placed

parallel with the horizontal beams, are short, stout pieces

to which the long rudder-beams are attached, and the

latter are connected at their extreme ends and at another

spot between their ends and the planes by braces, or struts.

Between these two rudder-frame struts a rectangular

frame is placed, which when covered with fabric will form

the horizontal rudder.

Thus you will see that the frame of a glider or of a bi-

plane aeroplane consists of horizontal beams, struts, stan-

chions, ribs, and rudder-frames.

The glider, in addition, has two stout pieces on the lower

plane between the two central struts which are used as

supports for the operator, and are appropriately known as

arm-pieces. In the real aeroplane these pieces are re-

placed by beams to support the motor.

All of these various pieces are made from selected straight-

grained dry spruce, and each must be carefully made and

finished, smoothed to as perfect a surface as possible by

sandpaper, and then coated with spar varnish.

Some builders prefer to coat the wood with glue, then sand-

paper it smooth, and finally finish with shellac, but the var-

nish is easier to use and answers

every purpose.It is usually a difficult matter to procure straight-grained

spruce of sufficient lengths in an ordinary lumber-yard; but

if you live near any city where aeroplanes are built or are

used you can secure the material from the builders of the

aeroplanes, or from firms making a specialty of this kind

of lumber.

89




If no long pieces can be procured for the main beams, two

shorter pieces can be spliced together.

Quantity and Sizes of Material

For the horizontal beams you will require:

Four pieces of spruce each 20 feet long, 1-1/2 wide, 3/4 thick.

For the struts:

Twelve pieces, each 3 feet long, 1-1/4'' wide, 1/2 thick.

For the stanchions:

Twelve pieces, each 4 feet long and 7/8 square.

For the ribs:

Forty-one pieces, each 4 feet long, 1/2 square.

For the arm-pieces:

Two pieces, each 3 feet long, i wide, 1-3/4 thick.

For the rudder-frame:

Two pieces 8 feet n inches long, two pieces 3 feet 10 inches long, four

pieces 2 feet long, and two pieces 6 feet long. All of these i square.

For the rudder-beam supports:

Two pieces 2 feet 1 1-1/4 wide and 3/4 thick.

For covering the planes:

About 20 yards of fabric, either silk or cotton, i yard wide. Stout silk

or unbleached cotton will answer, but it is better to buy the aero-

plane fabric, for sale by all dealers in aeroplane supplies, as this is

very tough and light, and is already treated to render it air and

water tight.

For stays you will need:

A roll of No. 12 piano-wire.

You will also require:

Twenty-four strut or stanchion sockets. These may be purchased

ready-made, and, as they should be strong and reliable, the ready-

made sockets are far better than anything you can make yourself

or have made to order. For the rest, the only things needed are

copper or galvanized-iron carpet-tacks, some stove-bolts, shellac,

varnish, glue, and simple carpenter's tools.

Preparing the Materials

Having cut out the various pieces of wood and smoothed

them down to the dimensions given, you should proceed to

90




round off all the corners, and on the stanchions work them

into an elliptical or stream-line shape (Fig. 2).

The pieces for the ribs should then be steamed and bent

on a form made of wood, and curved so as to bring the cen-tral part of each rib about two inches higher than the ends

(Fig- 3)-

By making a form of planks and nailing thin strips across

(Fig. 4) a number of ribs may be readily bent at one time,

thus insuring a uniform curve and making the work much

easier.

The curve required is so slight that little trouble will be

encountered in bending them, and they may easily be held

Fig. 3

Fig. 4 Fig. 5

in position while drying by cleats placed across them and

held down to the sides of the form by a hook or by twisted

wire, as shown in Fig. 5.

Although steaming is the best way to prepare the ribs for

bending, yet soaking in boiling water will answer just as

well, and for this purpose an old wash-boiler will serve very

well indeed.

After the ribs are steamed and bent, and all the pieces are

rounded off on the corners, and the stanchions are worked

down to the proper shape, they should all be sandpapered




just as smooth as possible and then varnished. When the

first coat of varnish is thoroughly dry it should be smoothed

off with fine sandpaper and a second coat applied. When

this second coat is dry and hard you can proceed to putthe glider together.

Assembling the Glider

Select two of the long horizontal beams, and place them on

a smooth, level floor so they are three feet apart and parallel.

Between these place six of the strut pieces, one at each

end and the others spaced 4-1/2 feet distant.

This will give you a rectangle, formed by the two hori-

zontal beams and the two end struts, and divided up into

five sections or cells with the two central struts two feet

apart and the others 4-1/2 feet apart (Fig. 6).

Be very careful in placing the struts and beams to see that

the ends of the struts are snugly fitted against the beams

and that each point of contact is an exact right angle.

Test the corners repeatedly with a steel square, for if the

plane skews or twists you cannot possibly make a good flight

with the machine.

Having made sure that the struts all fit the beams per-

fectly, you should then mark the position of each, and care-

fully cut away one edge of each end of each strut for a dis-

tance of 1-1/2 from the end and 3/4 deep (Fig. 7).

When the notches are cut square and even place the

struts on the beams and fasten them in position by small

wire-nails and glue.

As soon as the glue has set the struts should be fastened

to the beams by means of clamps, which are merely pieces

of sheet brass 1/16 thick, 3-7/8 long, and i wide, with

the ends rounded and a 1/4 hole bored in each end. You

can readily cut out these clamps yourself; but, as they are

92




*-

--*#*

Fig. 6

Fig.7

F.g.8

Fig. 9

to be held in position by the stanchion-socket eyebolts, you

need not be in a hurry about them, but can make them up

while waiting for the glue to dry, or at odd times.As soon as you have completed the beams and struts for

one plane you may finish the other in the same way.

Next place one frame with the struts on top, and the other

with the struts beneath, and on these place the ribs.

The ribs should be placed with the curved side up (Fig. 8);

93




and on the upper plane the one with the struts on top

there should be twenty-one ribs placed one foot apart; and

on the lower plane the one with the struts underneath

twenty ribs are placed, leaving a space in the middle twofeet wide for the operator's body.

When the ribs are placed in position and perfectly square

with the beams, and with one end flush with the latter, and

the other end projecting one foot beyond the beam (Fig. 9),

they may be fastened in position.

First tack them in place with fine wire-nails, and then

place over each a strip of sheet copper or brass 2-1/4 l ng

and 5/8 wide with the ends rounded, and fasten the ends

to the beam on each side of the rib with No. 5 round-headed

brass wood-screws, about 1/2 long.

In using these screws be sure and start a hole with a fine

awl, as otherwise you will be very liable to crack or split

the wood, and if this occurs the piece should be discarded

and a new piece used.

Connecting the Planes

The two frames of the planes, or wings, having now been

completed, and the ribs clamped in position, you can pro-

ceed to fasten them together by the stanchions.

It is in this work that you will require the twenty-four

metal sockets of aluminum or brass.

These sockets are of the form illustrated in Fig. 10, and

may be purchased for a few cents each from any dealer in

aeronautical supplies.

The sockets are made to receive either oval, stream-line,

or round stanchions, and are of various sizes, to suit machines

of different kinds.

The dimensions of those for the glider should be about as

follows:

94




Base, 3-1/4 long, 1-1/4 wide, 1/4 thick.

Internal diameter of cup, 7/8 ; outside diameter, 1-1/4 .

Height from base to top of cup, one inch.

Holes in base, 1/4 diameter, separated 1-7/8 apart.Two smaller holes 3/16 in diameter should be bored in

the base outside of the larger holes.

Having the sockets ready, place six of them on the front

beam of the plane, beginning them at the end of the beam

and placing one socket exactly over the end of each strut

on the opposite side of the beam, as shown in Fig. n.




Screw each socket in place with small wood-screws with

round heads through the smaller holes in the base.

Next place the brass clamps you have made for the struts

over each strut, andpass

the

eyebolt

of the socket down

through the base of the latter and through the i/'

\ holes

in the clamp beneath, and screw on the nut so as to firmly

clamp the socket, beam, strut, and clamp together (Fig. 12).

Repeat the placing of another set of six sockets on the rear

beam of the lower-plane frame, and when all these are in

position

treat the

upperframe in the same

way, beingsure

that the struts of the upper frame are above the beam, while

those of the lower plane are below.

The next step is to set up stanchions in the lower-plane

sockets, and in doing this you should use a great deal of

care to keep the ends snug in the cups.

If

theyare too

tight

to slip in

they

should be rubbed

down slightly with fine sandpaper, but under no considera-

tion should you whittle or plane them down or try to drive

them into place.

Having all the stanchions set up in the sockets of the

lower plane, you must now lift the upper-plane frame and

set it on the stanchions.

In doing this you will probably need two friends to help

you, for the frame is clumsy and ungainly even though light

in weight, and it is a difficult matter to handle it alone and

place the sockets over the upper ends of the stanchions.

If two of your friends will lift the frame and support it

in

position,

it is

very easyto fit each stanchion into its

propersocket in turn and get them all evenly and tightly in place.

The next step is to place the arm-pieces in position, which

is very easily accomplished by boring 3/16 holes through the

arm-piece and the lower-frame beams, and bolting the pieces

in place 6-1/2 on each side of the exact center of the

96




beams, so that a space 13 inches wide is left between the

arm-pieces (Fig. 13).

The arm-pieces should be rounded smoothly on top, so as

to be flat on the bottom and half round above, as shown in

the section A, Fig. 13. Eight inches from the rear lower

beam a cross-piece 2' 11-1/4 l ng an^ I~~

I /4//

x 3/4

should be fastened between the two central struts, and an-

other placed in exactly the same position on the upper

frame (Fig. 13, B).

These are fastened in position by glue and fine wire-nails,

and are further secured by small angle-irons of brass,

aluminum, or steel screwed onto the struts and cross-pieces

by round-headed screws.

These angle-irons may be made from sheet brass or alumi-

num, or may be purchased ready-made.

These cross-pieces are designed to support the rudder-

frame, and you should now construct the latter and some

sockets for fastening it in place.

The rudder-frame sockets are very simple affairs of sheet

brass 1/16 thick and 4-1/2 long. Two of the sockets are

3/4 wide and two 1-1/4 wide, and are bent as shown in

Fig. 14. The ends of each are rounded, and are drilled with

3/16 holes at the ends, as shown in the cut, while the smaller

ones also have a hole through the center, as illustrated.

One of the larger sockets is fastened to the main rear

beams, and the smaller ones to the cross-pieces by bolts

as shown in Fig. 13, and the utmost care must be taken to

place these sockets absolutely in line and exactly in the

middle of the planes.

The frames should now be quite stiff and strong, but they

must be still further strengthened by trussing and staying

with wire, in order to support the weight of your body and

bear the strain and force of the air against their surfaces.

97



Chapter IX

COMPLETING THE GLIDER

TOproperly truss the frames the framework should be

supported on benches or horses, so as to be perfectly

level and true without any strain coming on any one part.

The roll of No. 12 piano-wire should then be placed close

at hand with pliers, some short pieces of copper or brass

tube 1/8 inside diameter, and about 3/8 long, and solder-

ing-tools.

There are two methods of trussing, either one of which is

excellent for a glider; but the first, while much the simpler,

is also somewhat weaker.

For aeroplane use the simple method is seldom used, but

for glider construction it serves very well; and, as it answers

every purpose and is much easier to describe and understand,

it is the only method you need consider at present.

.In many gliders the builders depend upon pulling taut the

wires by hand, but this is a poor and difficult method, and

it is far better to use small turnbuckles.

Turnbuckles may be made from old bicycle spokes; but

these are apt to be weak and unreliable, and as first-class andstandard turnbuckles may be bought of dealers for less than

fifteen cents each, it is not worth while to trust your life and

the glider to home-made makeshifts.

To truss a section of the frame slip a piece of the copper

tube over the end of the wire, pass the wire through an eye-




bolt in a socket, run the end back through the copper tube,

bend the end of the wire back over the tube, and shove the

tube down close to the eyebolt, as shown in Fig. i. Some

builders trust to this fastening

entirely, but I advise all build-

ers to solder the wire and tube

firmly together to insure greater

strength and safety.

The soldering can, however,

wait until all wires are in posi-Fig.l

tion, and in this way time will be saved and a better job

accomplished.

Having fastened one end of a wire to an eyebolt, place

a turnbuckle on the opposite diagonal corner and loosen it

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

out nearly its full extent. Stretch the wire down to the

eye in the turnbuckle and fasten the end through it exactly

99



COMPLETING XKE

Here a wire is run diagonally from the junction of each

center strut with the upper beams to the opposite corner

(Fig. 6, D), and other wires are run diagonally across from

the corners of the rear stanchions with the rear beams, as

shown in Fig. 5, D.

When all the wires are placed, the turnbuckles should be

gradually tightened up until every rectangular cell or sec-

tion is true and square and each wire is tight and sings

when struck with the fingers. By tightening here and

loosening there a perfect alignment can be obtained, and

the frame should then be lifted onto two saw-horses, one at

each extreme end.

Take your place in the center section and lift your entire

weight by placing your arms or hands on the arm-pieces.

If the machine sags or bends ever so little, you must increase

the tension on the wires until the frame is absolutely rigid

even when you jolt up and down or add at least twenty

pounds in weight to your own weight.

Making the Rudders

It now only remains to construct the rudders and cover

the planes, and you may do either one or the other first as it

suits your convenience. Personally, I prefer to have the

entire woodwork completed before touching the fabric, as

you can then lay aside all the wood-working tools and have

only one sort of work to attend to.

The rudder-frame consists of two rectangular frames

joined in such a manner that the two planes, or rectangles,

cross at right angles.

The horizontal rudder-frame is first constructed by using

the six rudder-frame pieces already mentioned, the six-foot

lengths being joined by the four two-foot lengths, thus

101



...i:HARPER'S AIRCRAFT BOOK

forming a rectangular frame six feet long and two feet wide,

with cross-pieces spaced so that they are 2-1/2 feet from

each end and one foot apart in the center (Fig. 3).

The corners of this frame are fastened together by half-

and-half lap-joints glued and nailed and reinforced by sheet-

metal angle-irons (Fig. 3, A).

The vertical rudder-frame is built from the pieces 8 feet

II inches long for top and bottom beams, connected by

the 3-foot-io-inch pieces. One of the latter connects the

two long pieces at the extreme ends, with the second two

feet from it, and between these, exactly half-way from top

and bottom, is fastened the horizontal frame by means of

3/16 bolts, which can be easily removed. The two frames,

when in position, will appear as in Fig. 3, B, and each joint

should be carefully made and reinforced with plates of

metal or angle-irons, for the rudder bears considerable

strain while in flight.

At the points marked BB, BB, eyebolts should be placed

through the corners of the beams to receive the stay-wires

which support the rudder-frame and stiffen it.

The frame is merely slipped into the sockets, already pro-

vided on the cross-pieces of the planes, and is held in posi-

tion by a bolt passed through these sockets, and to steady it

and keep it true the truss-wires are essential. The rudder-

frame may be placed in position and afterward covered, or

it may be covered first and placed on the frame when fin-

ished, which is by far the easier method.

The method of trussing the rudder is simple, and is clear-

ly shown in Figs. 5 and 6:

Two wires run from the top of the vertical rudder-plane

to the lower sockets on the rear beams of the plane 4-1/2

feet from each wing-tip (A, A) and two similar wires run

from the lower corners of the rudder to the top sockets of

102




the plane of the same stanchions (C). Four other wires

(E, F, G, H) brace the horizontal plane of the rudder by ex-

tending from its corners to the sockets which support the

inner ends of the rudder-beams.

Eight other wires (I, I, in the cut) merely serve to brace

the horizontal and vertical planes and hold them rigidly

together. These pass from the eyebolts in the corners of

the rudder-frames to the eyebolts in the opposite rudder-

frame, as shown in Fig. 4, A, A.

Covering the Planes

Upon the covering you select for the planes and rudders a

great deal depends.

Plain, strong silk, unbleached cotton or muslin, plain

sheeting, or, in fact, any strong, light, closely woven cloth

will serve; but all such materials are liable to tear or rip

and allow a great deal of air to pass through their surface.

On the other hand, the various fabrics made and sold for

covering gliders and aeroplanes are air and water proof,

very tough and strong, and exceedingly light.

They cost only a little more than good silk or linen, and

are so much safer and better that it does not pay to use any

other material, unless it is impossible to procure the proper

fabric.

Nowadays no boy need go without the proper materials

or appliances for building a glider or aeroplane, for the in-

dustry has become so common that every large city has firms

that make a specialty of aeronautical supplies.

Even if you live in the country or far from a large town

you may secure anything you wish by consulting one of the

aeronautical magazines and writing to advertisers for il-

lustrated lists.

103




Most of the aeronautical supplies you will require are so

light and small that they can be shipped by parcels post

and it will surprise you to find how cheaply all such supplies

are sold.

In covering the planes some builders cut the cloth into

seven strips, each 4' 6-1/2 long, and sew these together

so that a piece a little over 20 feet long is formed. To rein-

force the seams narrow strips 1-1/2 wide are sewed across

the cloth and turned over to form a stout double thickness

over each rib.

While this method of construction is very strong, yet the

difficulty in getting the seams even and the cloth free from

wrinkles is very great, and is apt to discourage an amateur.

A method which will serve every purpose is to cut the

cloth into strips a little over four feet in length and glue

the end of each strip around the front horizontal beams of

each plane, and tack it in place with small copper tacks.

Draw the other end back over the ribs and tack the edges

of the strip to the ribs as you go along.

In placing the tacks through the fabric a strip of narrow

felt or tape should be placed under the tacks to prevent

their tearing out; but this should be almost as narrow as

the width of the tack-heads to prevent loose edges, and care

should be taken to keep each piece of fabric very tight,

smooth, and free from wrinkles as you tack it in position.

As the ribs are spaced one foot apart and the cloth is one

yard wide, the edges of the cloth should lap on the ribs, and

even if you use 24-inch cloth the edges will still lap.

The rear edges of the fabric will, of course, be loose and

flexible between each rib, and this is the proper way to have

it.

Planes covered in this way are known as single-surfaced

planes, and a great deal better results are obtained with

104




aeroplanes by covering both upper and lower surfaces of

the planes; but for gliders this is not of any importance, and

only adds to the weight.

Probably you will find it easier to take the planes apart

for covering them; but you are less liable to strain or break

the ribs and beams if the covering is put on after the frame

is trussed up with wires.

The surfaces of the two rudder-frames must also be cov-

ered with fabric, which is stretched over both sides of each

frame, passing completely around one end, and is then tacked

along all the edges. The last edge should be turned under

before tacking in place to prevent any possibility of tearing

out.

When your planes and rudders are covered the glider is

complete, and all that is necessary is to take it to the proper

spot and try a glide or flight.

If the place is comparatively near home you can carry

the glider entire; but if at any considerable distance, the

rudder should be disconnected and carried separately.

To do this merely remove the bolts that pass through the

rudder-beam sockets and loosen the guy-wires connecting

the rudder with the machine by loosening the turnbuckles

The latter may then be unhooked and the entire rudder

slipped away from the glider.

If you have to transport the glider for a great distance

you may take it completely apart in a few minutes, for it is

designed to disassemble readily.

To Disassemble the Glider

Having removed the rudder-frames and loosened all the

turnbuckles in the plane sections, unhook the turnbuckles

from the eyebolts.

105




Lift the upper plane from the stanchions and lay it on a

flat surface; lift the stanchions from the sockets and tie

them neatly together.

Carefully coil up the truss-wires, being careful not to

kink or bend them, and tie each coil to its proper socket.

Place one plane on top of the other, taking care that each

socket lies against its fellow below, and tie the two planes

tightly together.

To prevent any danger of the planes chafing or injuring

the fabric, you should have eight short plugs of the same

size and shape as the stanchions, and should place one of

these in each corner socket and in the four central sockets,

thus keeping the planes a short distance apart. The coils

of wire may be slipped between the planes, and the turn-

buckles tied to the sockets to prevent their shaking about.

If turnbuckles with two hook-ends are used they may be

removed entirely and packed separately.

The vertical rudder and horizontal rudder-frames should

also be separated and packed flat together.

In this way the entire glider may be packed in a space

2O feet long, 4-1/2 feet wide, and less than 10 inches thick.

It is very easy to set it up again, for everything fits in

place, and after a little practice you will know just how tight

the wires should be, and will learn to assemble your glider

in a wonderfully short space of time.



Chapter X

MONOPLANE GLIDERS

FTER you have built a biplane glider such as has been

described, and have learned to use it with confidence,

you may try your hand at constructing gliders of other

types.

Most of the biplane gliders are so similar to the Chanute

type already described that the same general directions for

building and using them would serve equally well for any

one, the only difference being in details of proportions,

shapes of planes, etc.

A very different class of gliders is that of the monoplane

type, the most successful and safest of which is undoubtedly

the Montgomery glider.

In a way this is not a true monoplane, but a double or

tandem monoplane, and it is designed upon such excellent

lines and scientific principles that with strong and careful

construction and a little care it will prove just as safe as

the biplane gliders.

The Montgomery glider is a patented machine, and there-

fore you cannot reproduce or use it except for experimental

purposes without securing permission; but you can alter

the design slightly or otherwise change the machine and

possibly secure even better results than with the original

design.

Very few owners of patents will object to boys making or

107




using patented machines for themselves, and will usually

grant permission for so doing.

The general construction and the detailed measurements

are well and clearly shown in Figs, i, 2, 3. The machine is

exceedingly simple; but, as the planes are of the monoplane

style, great care must be taken to have all the parts strong

and carefully built, as there is no trussing and bracing

possible as in the case of biplanes.

The framework consists mainly of two light bars (O, O)

tapered off into spars (I, I) and with a heavier lower beam

(N) connected to the bars (O, O) by the four diagonal stan-

chions (H, H).

The wings are built up of frames consisting of two spruce

horizontal beams attached by metal clips to the bars (O, O)

and having fifty-eight ribs each. The ribs are curved as

described for the Chanute glider, and are equally spaced,

save for a space of 18 inches in the center of each plane.

The covering of the wings is a light rubberized silk made with

pockets through which the ribs are passed.

The ribs should be of spruce 1/4 wide x 5/16 deep, and,

as the curve is under considerable strain, they are best made

from two pieces curved and glued together in a form under

pressure.

The wing-bars, or beams, are of hickory 1-1/8 x 1-3/4 at

the center, and are tapered to about half this size at the tips.

The frame-bars (O, O) should be of spruce 1-3/4 x 2 at

the center, and tapered off to their ends, the forward end

being almost pointed and quite a little smaller than the

rear end.

The lower bar of the frame (N) is 1-1/4 thick, and from

3 to 3-1/2 deep at the center. The upper edge is straight;

but the lower edge is arched, being thickest a little nearer

the rear than the front.

1 08



MONOPLANE GLIDERS

Extending from the bar (N) up beside the forward wing-

bars, and projecting 19 inches above the bars, are two masts

secured by sockets to N, and by lashing and metal clips to

the wing-beams. These masts support No. 12 piano-wire

stays (F) which support the forward beams of each plane.

From the lower side of this forward bar of the wings other

wires (F, F) are brought down to N, and these must be set

up until the wing-bars are drooped or arched as shown

in the cuts.

The rear bars of each wing are not trussed, but are hinged

at (Q, Q) so that they droop or hang loosely at their ends

quite a bit lower than the forward bars. From the ends of

these loose rear bars, control-cords (E, E) run over pulleys

on N, and are attached to the short stirrup-bar (M), which

is 14 inches long and serves as a foot-rest for the operator,

who sits on the seat (P), which is merely a padded bar or

saddle, and may be made from an old bicycle seat.

By pressing on the right or left side of the stirrup-bar the

cords (which are crossed) pull down the opposite wing-tips.

This also aids in balancing the machine; but equilibrium

is mainly maintained by the automatic action of the huge

tail or fin (C) attached to the rudder (D).

By pressing down on the stirrup-bar equally with both

feet all the rear wing-tips are drawn down with a sort of

brake effect which causes the glider to land as lightly as a

feather.

In addition to these controls a very effective longitudinal

control can be obtained by pulling down the cord and

pulleys on the rear wing (B) which thus alters the curve of

the rear plane as related to the forward plane. The tail, or

rudder (D), and the fin (C) are framed from light spruce

half-and-half jointed and clamped with aluminum angle-

irons and stayed by wires from one edge to the other.

109




The horizontal tail (D) is set very close to the rear edge

of the plane (B), and is hinged to the extremities of O, O.

Control-cords (J, K) pass from the center of the rim of this

rudder and lead over pulleys at the junction of N and H,

and at the top of the mast (G), and hence around a pulley on

O, in front of H, and are both fastened to a short wooden

bar or toggle (L), which is located on a stationary wire (K2).

Owing to the angular pull of these cords on the opposite

ends of L, the latter stays locked in any position that it

may be placed on K2. By removing this toggle up or downthe wire (Kz) the rudder is raised or lowered, and the glider

descends or rises accordingly.

This is a very light machine, weighing complete about 40

pounds, and, as the control is mechanical, it is far more like

a real aeroplane than the biplane gliders, in which balancing

and elevating are accomplished by swaying the body and

thus changing the center of gravity.

The large vertical fin (C) moves up and down with the

horizontal rudder, but does not move sideways, and acts

only as a stabilizer.

On several occasions operators of this type of glider have

deliberately turned side-somersaults with it, and have de-

scended from heights as great as four thousand feet, the speed

being as high as sixty-eight miles an hour on these glides.

Its equilibrium is almost positive, and if released by itself

when at a height and upside down, it will automatically

right itself and will glide to earth after falling only four or

five times its own spread.

Using a Monoplane Glider

The biplane glider is very easy to use, and is practically

perfectly safe, but in the case of the Montgomery type

greater care and caution should be used.

no



Fig. /

*H-

'i

;

*-T-TJi ---.-- 4J J

t- TflfxL' ^ C **

'sLx 1/A1 '

'sL^T^. jO s^z TW -- n^-

*

DETAILS OF MONTGOMERY GLIDER CONSTRUCTION




In the biplane glider the operator is free to use his feet in

landing, whereas in the monoplane glider the operator is

seated, and the feet are used in controlling the machine, and

must be removed from the stirrup-bar and dropped belowwhen landing.

Moreover, to use this machine with the best results it

must be dropped from a height, although by having two

friends hold it and run with it down a slope very fine glides

may be obtained.

Never attempt flightsfrom

any great height,and if

pos-sible practise over water, where a fall will not injure you.

Even with the best of care accidents will at times occur,

especially when learning, and it is wise to be cautious and

make haste slowly.

Model Gliders

Either biplane or monoplane gliders may be made in

small model sizes, and, while miniature reproductions of

man-carrying gliders will almost always work excellently,

yet gliders designed as models and of two or three feet spread

will not always work at all well when carried out in full

size.

This is as true of gliders as of model aeroplanes or fliers,

and, while a well-recognized fact, the explanation is so

technical and depends so largely upon mathematical prob-

lems that it would be very difficult to make it clear in sim-

ple, understandable language.

Boys may make very interesting experimentswith model

gliders, however, and if one is designed which possesses

extraordinary lifting and gliding properties it would be well

worth making a full-sized machine of the same type and

trying it out.

This is the only way that you can be absolutely certain

112



MONOPLANE GLIDERS

that your design will or will not prove efficient as a man-

carrier.

Any boy who has designed or built model fliers can readily

build a model glider, for the methods of construction are

identical, practically the only differences being in the shape

and size of planes and the omission of propellers and rubber-

band motors.

The materials, wood and fabric, used are the same for

the model gliders as for model aeroplanes, and to fly them

one merely attaches a suitable weight to the lower part of

the machine and drops it from a height facing the wind.

In a way the flight of a model glider is even more interesting

than that of a model flier, for it sails so gently and easily

without any propulsive force of its own that it seems almost

endowed with life.



Part IV

THE MODERN AEROPLANE



Chapter XI

TYPES OF AEROPLANES

THEtrue aeroplane is practically nothing but a strongly

built and perfected glider provided with a motor and

propeller to drive it through the air. There are many

points of difference between the simple glider and the

latest types of aeroplanes, however, but these points are

nearly always details which are made necessary owing to

the greater weight to be carried and the more perfect control

required in the aeroplane.

The Wright brothers developed their biplanes from a bi-

plane glider very similar to the Chanute type, already de-

scribed; and, in fact, the earlier Wright machines were

merely biplane gliders with a motor and propellers.

Even the light and simple Montgomery glider has been

equipped with motor and propeller, and has made excellent

flights.

Aeroplanes vary in size from the tiny Demoiselle of Santos

Dumont, which spreads but 16 feet and weighs 248 pounds,

to the huge 5<D-foot passenger-carrying aeroplanes built

recently.

Many of the most successful and fastest aeroplanes are

far smaller than the aeroplanes one commonly sees, for these

machines are very high-powered, and if the power of an

aeroplane is increased the spread or surface of the planes

may be decreased.

117




The faster an aeroplane travels the more a given area

will sustain, and in building racing-machines power has been

carried to extremes, and wing area reduced until it seems

impossible that the machines can actually fly at all. Never-

theless, Vedrines won the Gordon Bennett prize at Chicago

in a machine spreading but 18 feet, and traveled at the amaz-

ing speed of 109 miles an hour.

The power that drove this aeroplane was a i4O-horse-

power motor, however, whereas the power required to safely

lift and fly an ordinary machine with a spread of 35 feet

or more need not be over 35 or 40 horse-power.

So if you see a very small aeroplane flying swiftly you

may be sure it is a high-powered machine, whereas if you

see a broad-winged machine traveling slowly but surely

perhaps with several passengers you may be quite sure

that it is a low or medium-powered machine, and very safe

and steady.

The Wright machines are of this class, and, in fact,

the Wright biplane has developed less and has remained

.more like the first model than any other type of aero-

plane.

Americans are very partial to biplanes, and until recently

nearly all the machines made or flown in this country were

of this class.

Nowadays, however, a great many excellent monoplanes

are built and used in this country, but still the great majority

of American aeroplanes are biplanes.

Biplanes are aeroplanes having one plane or wing above

the other, as in the Chanute glider. Fig. I shows a typical

form of biplane.

Monoplanes have but a single wing or plane, like the

Bleriot (Fig. 2); but some models have a second plane be-

hind the main plane, just as in the model fliers or the Mont-

118



TYPES OF AEROPLANES

Fig. /

Fig. 2

gomery glider. These are known as tandem-surfaced mon-

oplanes.

In addition to monoplanes and biplanes, machines with

three or more wings, one above the other, have been built

and flown. These are known as triplanes and multi-

planes, and while they have been flown successfully, they

are seldom used, and have never proved as practical as the

single or two winged forms.

119




Parts of Aeroplanes

The parts of an aeroplane are mainly the frame, or chas-

sis ; the body, or fuselage ; the wings, or planes ; the

rudder and tail; the elevator and the running-gear, or

alighting-gear, in addition to the motor and propeller

and the control system.

The chassis, fuselage, planes, etc., are similar in con-

struction and detail to the gliders, but in order to with-

stand the shock of landing the parts are made much heavier

and stronger, and a running-gear is provided.

The running-gear of the original Wright machines con-

sisted merely of wooden runners or skids, and the machine

was started on a track or runway.

Nowadays all aeroplanes are provided with wheels as

well as skids, and by using large pneumatic tires on the

wheels, as well as rubber bands and coiled springs, a great

deal of the shock of landing is obviated, and the machine

can run over fairly rough ground when starting.



TYPES OF AEROPLANES

The running-gear varies a great deal in detail in different

types of aeroplanes, and each maker has his own ideas of

the best form.

Typical forms of running-gear are shown in Fig. 3, and

by studying these you can obtain a very good idea of the

way the leading aeroplanes are equipped for landing and

rising from the ground.

Most aeroplanes are built of wood with metal clamps,

sockets, and wire stays, but quite a number have the frame-

work composed mainly of hollow-steel tubing.

Others have the body built of pressed fiber, or are built

of thin wood like a boat; but, strange as it may seem, no

metal is as strong for its weight as selected spruce, ash, and

other woods, and practically all standard machines use wood

for their framework, ribs, etc.

Aluminum is used only where light weight without great

strength is required, for this metal, as well as its alloys, is

not strong enough for most parts of aeroplanes.

Steel sockets and clamps, steel bolts, exceedingly strong

steel piano-wire, and steel-wire cables are used wherever

possible.

The fabric used for covering wings and rudders is of vari-

ous kinds, and there is but little choice among the various

prepared fabrics now manufactured especially for aero-

planes.

Rubberized silk, linen, cotton, and many patented cloths

chemically treated are used, while some builders use plain

cloth and treat it themselves to make it water and air

proof.

The motors used are of so many different types and kinds

that they must be treated in a separate chapter, and the

propellers also vary a great deal in shape, size, pitch, and

material.

121




Most aeroplane propellers are constructed of wood, carved

out of blocks formed by gluing several thicknesses of dif-

ferent kinds of wood together under pressure.

These are known as laminated propellers, and by using

soft and hard woods in their construction the outer edges

fig. 4

mmm

Fig. 5

can be made to resist chipping and injury, while the inner

portions may be constructed of soft wood, and thus be far

lighter than if built entirely of hard, strong wood.

A typical form of propeller is shown in Fig. 4. This is

the Charavay type, and has proved very effective in a great

many machines.

122




through the air instead of pushing it, and so in reality it

becomes a tractor instead of a propeller.

Nearly all monoplanes have always been built with the

propeller in front, and this permitted a covered body or

fuselage of graceful shape, which made the monoplanes

look like huge dragon-flies or some kind of birds.

As soon as biplane builders commenced to place the pro-

pellers in front instead of behind the machine they realized

that the covered and compact fuselage of the monoplane

could be used in a biplane, and one may now see scores of

tractor biplanes which are just as graceful and birdlike

as the monoplanes, and, in fact, when flying overhead one

can scarcely distinguish a biplane with a tractor propeller

from a true monoplane (Figs. 6 and 7).

Whether the tractor is really more efficient than the pro-

peller is a matter still under discussion by designers and

builders, but it is certain that many propeller biplanes

which have been altered to the tractor form have proved

far safer, faster, and more reliable when the propeller pulls

instead of pushes the machine.



Chapter XII

BIPLANES AND MONOPLANES

THEaeroplanes in use to-day are practically all biplanes

and monoplanes, and both types prove equally efficient

and reliable in the hands of their operators.

There is little real choice between the two kinds of ma-

chines; but as a rule the biplane is a steadier, safer, and

slower machine than the monoplane, and is far better adapted

to beginners or amateurs. The fact that two planes are

placed one above the other allows a very simple and strong

method of bracing and trussing, as each plane helps to sup-

port and strengthen the other.

Monoplanes, on the other hand, must depend for support

of the wings upon very strong and rather intricate con-

struction and wire stays fastened to masts, or pylons.

Biplanes also have the advantage^ that their lateral bal-

ance can be maintained by small auxiliary planes, or ailerons,

and consequently stiff and rigid planes may be used, whereas

monoplanes usually depend upon flexible or warping wing-

tips, which require special methods of construction and

mechanical devices.

In order to lift and fly with a certain weight and a given

power a definite area of wing surface must be provided;

hence the monoplane requires longer planes than the biplane

of equal plane surface, which has the area of surface

divided into two sections, and this again necessitates a

125



Fig*

THE WRIGHT BROTHERS




more elaborate and complicated system of stays and

braces.

For these reasons biplanes are and always will be far

easier to build than monoplanes, and, moreover, they areless liable to break or to develop weak spots than the

single-winged machines.

Leading Biplane Types

Probably the best-known biplane in the world is the

Wright. This is not because the Wright machine is any

better or more widely used than several other types, but

merely because it was the first really successful aeroplane,

and the one which opened the eyes of the world to the

fact that men had learned to fly.

To the Wright brothers, Orville and Wilbur (Fig. i), mustbe given every credit and honor for having been the pioneers

of aviation; and yet to-day the Wright machine is by no

means as efficient or fast as many other aeroplanes.

The Wright machine is a rather heavy, slow, and cumber-

some affair, with many features unchanged since the earliest

models; but it is a favorite model with many exhibition

fliers, and especially with aviators who make a specialty

of carrying passengers.

The Wright machines are made in several models, but all

are very similar in appearance and are readily distinguished

from other biplanes by the rounded wing -tips, boxlike

vertical rudders, and upturned skids to the running-gear,

as well as by the twin propellers and lever-controls (Fig. 2).

The Burgess-Wright (Chapter III, Fig. 2) is a modified

Wright machine preferred to the latter by many operators.

This machine is used by the United States army and navy,

and by many long-distance and cross-country fliers. Its

9 I27



Fig 2

WRiqHT MODEL C




most characteristic features are the two triangular vertical

planes in front of the lower plane a feature also found in

many genuine Wright machines.

Burgess machines are, however, now made in the trac-

tor form, and these are scarcely recognizable as Burgess

aeroplanes.

Almost as well known as the Wright aeroplanes are the

Curtiss machines, made world-famous by their record flights

in the hands of their inventor, Mr. Glenn Curtiss, and that

most spectacular of aviators, Mr. Lincoln Beachy.

It was a Curtiss biplane that first flew from Albany to

New York, from New York to Philadelphia, from KeyWest to Havana, and that first flew from and landed on

the deck of a warship, and it was also the first American

hydroaeroplane to rise successfully from the water.

It was in a Curtiss machine that Beachy made his famous

Fig. 3

129




flight through the gorge at Niagara, and the Curtiss ma-

chine is renowned for speed, safety, and ease of handling.

Instead of the flexible warping wings of the various Wright

types the Curtiss uses ailerons between the tips of the wings,

and in place of the clumsy box-tail a graceful pigeon-tail''

or kitelike tail is used (Fig. 3). The shape of the running-

gear, the ailerons, and the control easily distinguish the

Curtiss machines even when built in tractor form (Fig. 4).

The latest Curtiss models do not have the head or

front elevator, shown in Fig. 3, which was used on all the

earlier Wright and Curtiss machines, but which has now

been generally discarded.

In addition to these two widely used types of biplanes

there are many others less familiar to the average person,

but of splendid efficiency and powers of flight.

Among these are the Benoist (Fig. 5), the Thomas, the

Baldwin, the Witteman, the Kirkham, and dozens of others,

many of which hold world's records and are superior in

construction and design to many better-known types.

A great many are, however, merely Wright or Curtiss

types slightly altered, or with additional or unique features

designed to improve them. Many of these machines are

known by a special name, but to all intents and purposes

they are Curtiss or Wright machines.

Another very distinct type of biplane is the Farman

(Fig. 6). In this machine the ailerons are flaps of fabric

hinged to the rear edges of the planes, while the tail con-

sists of two miniature planes like a small biplane, between

which are the vertical rudders. Small flaps at the rear

of the two horizontal tail-planes act as horizontal rudders

and a broad plane in front acts as the elevator, or head.

Many biplanes which have flown splendidly are really

combinations of the Wright, Curtiss, and Farman types.

130




Such, for example, is the famous Baldwin Red Devil, flown

by Cecil Peoli, the Boy Aviator.

This machine has the Farman type of ailerons, the Curtiss

control, with some details of the Wright, while many newideas and original improvements have been added, such as

steel-tube construction, peculiar rudders and tail, etc.

A form of biplane which is very distinct from all others

and is absolutely unique in many ways is the Boland Tailless

Fig. 5

I

Fig.

132

Copyright




Biplane, invented by the late Frank Roland, and improved

and perfected by the Boland Aeroplane and Motor Com-

pany (Fig. 7).

When first flown by its inventor the machine absolutely

amazed all beholders, for it performed evolutions and flew

in a manner apparently contrary to all laws of aviation, and

its intrepid owner drove the odd creation with the same

facility and ease with which he would handle an automobile.

The machine was flown successfully throughout several

months, and was exhibited in South America and the West

Indies, and in the island of Trinidad the unfortunate in-

ventor lost his life.

The machine is so unusual and so distinct from all others

that a detailed description and plans are of value to all in-

terested in aeroplanes.

The principal and most striking feature of the machine

is the fact that it is tailless, and, although various other

machines of the tailless form have been constructed,

yet none have operated in the same manner as the Boland.

The nacelle, or body, contains the engine, pilot, and

passenger, and consists of a boatlike structure near the

center of the machine between the planes. This body is of

oval section at the forward end but V-shaped at the rear

seat and tapers off to a sharp edge at the rear. The engine-

bed rails run from the cross-piece which forms the back of

the passenger seat to a point at the rear, where they meet

the tapering sides of the body just above the lower wing-

beam. The body frame is metal, covered and upholstered,

and within it are the steering-wheels, gages, tachometer,

etc. Thirteen feet and eight inches in front of the main

planes the elevator is pivoted. This is a curved plane 12

feet wide with 3-1 /2-foot chord, and in flight it carries fully

half the weight of the entire machine, but its location far

133




ahead of the body gives it so much leverage that the actual

weight supported is but 120 pounds.

By rocking the yoke of the elevator forward or backward

the machine is made to rise or descend.The most noteworthy feature of the machine is the meth-

od of control. Instead of ailerons, warping-wings, or rud-

ders, the Boland biplane has two jibs, one at each end

of the planes, pivoted on an oblique axis and normally in a

vertical position. Each of these jibs works in but one di-

rection inward and is controlled by a 5/32 cable leadingaround the steering-wheel. By moving this wheel, exactly

as in steering an automobile, the machine is turned to right

or left, and as the action of the jib tends to retard the

machine on the side which is pulled, the jibs act as lateral

stabilizers as well as rudders.

By turning the wheel to the right the machine turns to

the right and tips or banks just enough to prevent side-

slipping or capsizing. Any tendency of the biplane to tip

or bank when traveling through the air may be corrected

by pulling in the jib on the high side. If this is not done,

however, the machine merely turns a little from its course.

The running-gear consists of two skids extending far outin front and serving as a support for the elevating-plane.

There are two 20 x 3 wheels on a long axle situated 18

inches in front of the forward edge of the main planes, and

rubber shock-absorbers are also provided.

The power-plant is a Boland V motor of 60 horse-

power driving a single propeller.

The main planes spread 35.5 feet and are 5.5 feet wide

and 5.5 feet apart.

The weight of the machine complete with gas, water, and

oil is about 900 pounds, and it is capable of traveling at

about 60 miles an hour.




Typical Leading Monoplanes

Various as are the different biplanes in use, even more

numerous are thedesigns

of

monoplanes.Most of the monoplanes are of French origin, and as the

first to prove successful was the Bleriot, so to-day the Bleriot

type is by far the most familiar and most widely known form.

The Bleriot (Fig. 8) is a very graceful and efficient ma-

Fig. 8




ducing head resistance to the minimum. The tail is broad,

rounded, forked, and birdlike, with hinged horizontal rud-

ders at the rear and a small vertical rudder between them.

The whole machine is very graceful in form, and has proveda most reliable and efficient flier.

Many designers have departed radically from estab-

lished principles and have produced monoplanes of odd or

freakish form. Among these are the Gallaudet bullet

(Fig. 14) and the Waldron monoplane. The bullet was

Fig. 14

a fish-shaped machine of steel-tube construction, and with

the three-bladed propeller in the rear. It was designed to

produce great speed, but was not a success.

The Waldron monoplane, on the other hand, was a ma-chine which had ailerons like a Farman biplane, with a

running-gear and control similar to the Curtiss, and with

the propeller behind the wings. It was in effect a biplane

with only the upper plane, and, while it made a number of

successfulflights, it was always a cranky and dangerous

140




machine. Such freaks are constantly appearing, and

they all serve an excellent purpose in demonstrating just

what is practical and what not in aeroplane design. Only

in this

waycan better results be

accomplishedand

progressmade in aviation, for the best theories on paper often prove

failures in practice.

Of very freakish appearance but of wonderful power

and efficiency -are the specially designed racing-monoplanes.

The Deperdussin racer, in which Vedrines won the Gordon

Bennettcup

atChicago,

is a machine of this

type (Fig. 15).This monoplane is constructed with a fish-shaped body

built of thin basswood strips 1/8 thick, glued together in

alternate layers over a form which is removed after the

body is complete. The wings are very short and small, and

spread but 18 feet, while the motor is a Gnome develop-

ing 140 horse-power. The running-gearis

very simple,and

even the wheels are covered with disks of aluminum to re-

Fig. J5

duce air resistance. With this machine the fearless French

aviator dashed through the air at 109 miles an hour, looking,

as one observer stated, like a huge, winged cannon travel-

ing breech first.

Other machines of similar construction have since been

141



Chapter XIII

THE HEART OF THE AEROPLANE

rI ^HE heart, lungs, soul, and life of any aeroplane are, so

1 to speak, the light, compact, and powerful gasolene-

motor. Many people seem to think that the motor is a

secondary consideration, and that, having built or bought

a plane, they can place an old marine or automobile engine

in it and fly. Many boys and men have done this, and be-

cause their machines proved dismal failures they have be-

come discouraged and disgusted.

As a matter of fact, the motor for an aeroplane must pos-

sess many features and details that are very distinct from

those of either marine, stationary, or automobile engines.

Whereas the automobile engine is constantly varying in

its work and seldom operates at its maximum power or

speed, the aeroplane motor works at a uniform and very

high speed, and is called on for its maximum power all the

time it is in operation. To withstand this strain the strong-

est and most wear-resisting materials must be used in its

construction and unfailing methods of lubrication and cool-

ing are absolutely necessary.

As an aeroplane motor must be exceedingly light and free

from vibration, you can readily understand how difficult it is

to combine these various requirements. It is very easy

to construct a reliable engine fairly free from vibration and

with long life, provided it weighs from eight to fifteen pounds

10 H3




or more per horse-power, and few automobile motors weigh

less than this. Imagine trying to build a motor of the

same power, reliability, and life and weighing but 2-1/2 to

five pounds per horse-power; or, as a better illustration,

think of a six-cylindered, 6o-horse-power motor so light in

weight that a man can readily lift it in his hands

Yet this is actually accomplished in many aeroplane

engines; and the wonder is, not that aviation motors are

unreliable, but that they are half as dependable as they are.

In place of the cast-iron, heavy forgings, stout, long bear-

ings, heavy supports, and thick cylinder-walls of the marine

and automobile motor, the aeroplane engine is constructed

of the highest grade chrome and venadium steels, mag-

nalium metal, manganese bronze, and other selected ma-

terials, with delicate ball-bearings, feather-weight crank-

cases, and cylinder-walls hardly as thick as ordinary card-

board.

All this means a very expensive engine, for no part can

be slighted, and the best possible work and utmost care must

be devoted to each and every part and detail.

Some idea of the work required to build a modern aero-

plane motor may be obtained by considering the crank-shafts and cylinders of any of the best of the aviation

engines.

These parts are machined from solid steel bars, and the

crank-shaft, in the rough, may weigh as much as 150 or

200 pounds, but when finished weighs less than 25 pounds.

Many air-cooled engines have the cylinders turned andbored from solid steel or iron bars six inches or more in

diameter, and yet the completed cylinder weighs but a few

ounces, and is less than 1/16 in thickness.

The work and time required to turn down and finish the

many parts of such a motor are what make it expensive; and,

144



THE HEART OF THE AEROPLANE

Many excellent stationary-cylindered motors are also

air-cooled, and both two and four cycle engines are made in

air-cooled and water-cooled types.

The actual efficiency of either system is about the same;

but, as a rule, an air-cooled engine is harder to lubricate, is

more apt to be troublesome, and is shorter-lived than a

water-cooled engine.

Both kinds are about equally used, and each builder and

aviator has his own ideas on the subject.

Many of the most successful American motors are air-

/Ha

Fig. 19

cooled, such as the Kemp (Fig. 18), while others which

have proved excellent aviation engines are water-cooled.

Among these are the Roberts (Fig. 19), a two-cycle type;

the Curtiss, Wright, Sturtevant, Kirkham, Frontier, and

157



Chapter XIV

MINIATURE AEROPLANES

IT

is quite possible for any boy who is adept at using

carpenter's tools and who has a fairly good idea of

mechanics to build a real man-carrying aeroplane. The

expense is, however, very great, and far beyond the reach of

ordinary boys; and any boy who desires to fly, and whose

parents do not object to his learning, will succeed far better

by purchasing a standard aeroplane than by building one

of his own.A great deal of pleasure and much knowledge may be

obtained by building exact duplicates of standard machines

in model sizes, however, and if these working-models are

carefully made they will fly splendidly.

It is very easy to build a copy of an aeroplane for show

purposes from cardboard, flimsy materials, and odds and

ends; but such models will seldom fly, and are of no par-

ticular value.

As the real biplane is easier to build than the monoplane,

so the model biplane is easier than the model monoplane,

and I will therefore first describe how to build a Wright

biplane model.

Before commencing to build any of these little airships

you should have the proper tools and materials on hand.

If you have already built model fliers, the same tools you

used will answer for building the model aeroplanes, and

much of the same material may be used.

11 159




Fine drills, brad-awls, sandpaper, a small plane, cutting-

pliers, and small, round-nosed pliers, soldering-tools, fine

saws, and a tiny screw-driver are the most important tools;

and strong silk thread, fine wire, glue, varnish and shellac,

fabric, and spruce sticks and reeds are the most important

materials.

The material for building a three-foot Wright model

should not cost over six or seven dollars, even if bought

ready cut, and if you get out some of. the parts from

rough stock yourself the cost may be considerably re-

duced.

In building a flying-model of a real aeroplane you must

use a great deal more care than in constructing a model

flier, for a very slight variation in size or proportion of parts

will prevent the machine from flying at all.

It is always best to follow standard and tried designs at

first, and after becoming familiar with details and prin-

ciples you can try building models from your own plans or

along original lines.

Many reliable firms, such as the IdealAeroplane and Supply

Company, make a specialty of furnishing working-plans andmaterials for constructing scale-models of standard machines,

and, as these models are guaranteed to fly if constructed ac-

cording to plans, the boy builder cannot do better than to

follow them.

The plans and directions given herewith are reproduced

by permission of the Ideal Aeroplane and Supply Company,and if followed accurately any machine built in accordance

with the plans will actually fly. It is useless to spend time,

trouble, and money working at a model from unreliable

plans, only to find upon completion that it cannot possibly

rise from the ground.

1 60




How to Build the Ideal Wright Biplane

The materials required for this three-foot model are as

follows :

i foot spruce 5/16 square 4 pieces 5/8 aluminum tube 1/8

6 feet spruce 1/4 square inside diam.

i foot spruce 5/32 square 3 feet 1/4 x 3/16 spruce

12 feet spruce 1/8 square 14 feet 1/4 x 1/8 spruce

i foot brass 3/32 diam. (round) n feet 3/16 x 1/8 spruce

1

i/i2

yardsilk fabric

24feet reed 1/8 diam.

2 lo-inch Wright-type propellers 7 feet reed 3/32 diam.

64 feet rubber strands 3/32 20 feet tinned wire .32 gage

Glue 2 feet 1/16 brass rod

Model-making nails 2 ball-bearing propeller-shafts

i ii-inch special axle, 2 special 3 miniature wheels 1-1/2 diam.

aluminum tube braces 7-inch aluminum rod 1/16 diam.

This will be ample for building the model, and will also

allow quite a little extra material in case of breakage, and

you must expect some breakage and waste in your first few

attempts at constructing models from such fragile, thin

material as is used in making these miniature machines.

Before commencing actual operations you should study the

plans (Figs. I, 2, 3) very carefully and thoroughly. Fig. i

is the ground-plan, or the view of the machine looking down

upon it; Fig. 2 the front view; and Fig. 3 a section, or view

from one side. The perspective view (Fig. 4) shows how

the machine appears when completed.

Most of the important dimensions are indicated on the

plan, but any part can be readily measured by means of the

12-inch-scale rule on the cut.

The various parts are all lettered, and by referring to

the table at the top the name or significance of any part

may be determined.

In building the model be very sure that each and every

161




joint is rigid and made with good glue and model-nails, and

is wrapped with silk thread.

Never attempt to drive nails through small wood unless

a hole a trifle smaller than the nail is first drilled (with a

No. 60 drill), or otherwise the piece will split.

Constructing the Planes

The 3/16 x 1/8 wood should be cut up into eight-inch

lengths for the ribs, and should be steamed and bent into

shape as follows: Copy the proper curve, as illustrated in

the plans, on a piece of board, and tack enough small nails

along the outline to hold the steamed rib in position. After

steaming or soaking in hot water the rib may be bent and

slipped into the form made by the nails and left until per-

fectly dry.

The pieces of 1/8 reed for the wing outlines, as well as

those for the chassis frame, should also be steamed and bent

to shape.

The first thing to do after the ribs are steamed and bent

is to construct the main planes, or wings. First bevel the

front of each rib where it lies on the forward spar, and cut

a notch in each rib where it crosses the rear spar, as shown

in the diagram.

Place the ribs along the spars in their proper position

and mark each spar at the points where the ribs cross, and

mark where there are to be holes for stanchions, legs, and

braces. Fasten the ribs in place by glue and a nail in each

and lash with silk thread.

Place the frame with ribs in position on an outline (full

size) of the plane, and trim off the ends of the ribs and spars

to conform with it.

Next take the pieces of rattan, bent to the wing outline,

163




and place them around the spars and ends of ribs, fastening

one end to the end of the front spar and carrying it around

the rear ends of the ribs to the other end of the front spar.

Fasten the reed edge to the spars and rib ends with glue and

lay aside until thoroughly dry.

When the two planes have been thus completed in skele-

ton form, cover the upper surfaces with silk as follows:

Coat the front edge of each plane with glue and place it on

the silk and turn the latter up and over it. Next glue the

reed rear edge, and stretch the silk over this edge and under

it. Then coat the ends of the reed frame with glue and

stretch the silk tightly across and under it in the same

manner. When thoroughly dry, trim off the uneven edges

close to the frame with a pair of scissors. If the silk, when

completed, is coated with Ideal Coating Solution or some

similar compound better results will be obtained.

After the upper and lower planes are finished and covered

with silk the ends of the uprights, or stanchions, are trimmed

down to fit in the 1/16 holes which should have been

previously drilled where marked. The four stanchion-holes

in the central part of the lower plane should have 1/16

aluminum sleeves placed flush with the tops of the spars,

and into these sleeves the ends of the four stanchions (those

of the rear being reed) are glued. After the glue is thorough-

ly hard cross-truss the spaces between the stanchions with

wire, and the planes will be complete.

Making the Chassis

The chassis, or frame, should first be made as a flat frame

from two 27-inch pieces of reeds connected by the four

cross-pieces (previously bored with 1/8 holes); mark these

W, X, Y, Z. The forward piece (W) is 7-1 /2/;

long, as well

164




as the rear piece (Z). Glue the forward ends of the reed

pieces into the outermost holes in W, and join them together

at the points X, Y, and Z. When the glue is dry connect

the frame to the main plane with four reed legs from holes

in the lower plane-spars to holes in Y and Z. Connect Xto the front spar of the upper plane with 12-1/4 ree(^

braces, and thus bend the chassis partly to shape.

Glue the forward ends of the 23-inch upper reeds into the

innermost holes in W, and by drawing this back and fasten-

ing under the spars of the lower plane draw the chassis

into the proper form and curve. Where this reed passes

under the lower plane it should be wired to the legs, and at

the rear of the back leg it should be bent down and finally

wired and glued to the lower reed ends at p.

Throughthe aluminum sleeves in the lower

plane-sparspass the ends of the semicircular braces (m), and wire the

middle of each to the lower reed as shown. Before wiring

these be sure and place the wheel-axle between.

Now place the wheels on the axle, screw the special axle-

braces (/) to Y and Z and screw the nuts on the axle ends.

Place the front wheel at the center of the

1/16brass rod,

and bend the rod to the shape shown in the cut Bend the

ends of the rod over X and the lower reed, and wire them

firmly to X. Adjust this front axle so that the planes stand

at about the angle shown in the section Z-Z, and the frame

and planes will be complete and ready for the front elevator-

plane.

The Elevator

Make two H-shaped frames by joining two 3/32 (round)

uprights to a cross-piece 3/16 x 1/8 , which must be

drilled to rotate on a shaft. Bend the reed edge piece to

the shape shown and join the edges with ribs, two in the

165




upper plane and four in the lower. Cover the planes with

silk, and leave spaces on the lower plane between the ad-

jacentribs where the

shaft-supportfrom the chassis

passesthrough.

Attach the two planes to the H-shaped frames by gluing

the uprights into holes drilled in the ribs, and when dry

mount the whole on the shaft-supports by means of the

aluminum shaft. Drill a fine hole in W, pass a wire through,

and fasten the ends to the lowerplane

of the elevator. This

will serve to maintain the elevator in any desired position.

Glue the 5/3 2 square elevator-plane shaft-supports into

the holes already bored in W, and the machine will be prac-

tically complete, and only requires a rudder, the rubber

motor, and propellers to be ready for a flight.

The Rudder

This is easily made by constructing two simple reed

frames with the ends spliced together and made from the

3/32 reeds. Each of the frames is then covered with silk

and connected at top and bottom by cross-pieces of 1/8

wood. The rudder-supports of 1/8 wood are joined to

the frame under the central ribs of both main planes, and

the rear ends are nailed to the rudder cross-pieces. A small

piece of wire passed through a fine hole in the upper sup-

port and attached to the front edges of the rudder frames

will hold the rudder in

any positionit

maybe

placed.

Propellers

The propellers should be 10 inches in diameter and two

inches wide, of regular Wright type, and they may be whittled

from blanks or purchased ready-made. The latter method

1 66




If you have followed directions carefully the little bi-

plane will run a short distance on the ground and will then

rise gracefully in flight and sail away for 100 feet or more,

gradually slowing down and descending softly on the earth.

The first attempts should be made with a very slight

elevation to the elevator in order to avoid mishaps, and the

elevation may be gradually altered until the best results are

obtained.

Instead of starting from the ground the (model

maybe

started from a board or other smooth surface tilted slightly

upward in the direction of flight and placed about six feet

from the ground. The machine flown in this way will fly

farther and better, but is not as natural or as much like a

real aeroplane.

After succeeding in constructing the

Wrightmodel

youwill be anxious to try other forms, and perhaps the best of

these to work at next is the Nieuport monoplane.

The Nieuport Monoplane Model

The materials used to construct this beautiful and suc-

cessful model are as follows:

1/2 foot wood, 5/16 square Ball-bearing propeller-shaft

6 feet wood, 1/4 x 1/8 square Aluminum propeller-hanger

15 feet wood, 5/32 square 12 wooden propeller

12 feet wood, 1/8 x 1/16 square 10 feet para rubber 1/8 square

1-1/8 wood, T section, 5/16 2 sheets bamboo-paper2 feet wood, 3/3 2 diam., round 2 oz. bamboo-varnish

2 feet reed, 3/16 diam. Set of 12 Nieuport sockets

3 feet reed, 1/8 diam. i Nieuport running-gear with axle

12 feet reed, 3/32 diam. 2 rubber-tired wheels 2 diam.

Nails; 1/4 screws; eyelets; es- 1/16 aluminum rod

cutcheon-pins, and pins 1/16 steel rod

1/16 board 6 wide Some thin sheet aluminum

Spool of No.

30

wire

168




The above should not cost over six dollars, and all the

materials may be bought ready cut to size for five dollars;

but if you purchase the materials in various lengths and cut

them yourself you are less likely to run short through break-

age, and can use what you have left from one model in

building others.

The plans of the machine, as illustrated, show the details,

dimensions, and methods of construction so clearly that

little explanation is required.

The same care should be used in building this model as

in the Wright; the joints should all be strong and rigid, no

nails should be driven without first boring holes, and the

ribs, four fuselage-bars, and the reed-outline pieces should

all be steamed and bent exactly as described for the Wright

biplane model.

Constructing the Fuselage, or Body

First make the sides and join the top and bottom bars,

after forming, to the vertical struts, thus making a frame as

shown in side elevation. Join these two frames with hori-

zontal struts, as shown in plan, and be sure that the dis-

tances between frames, struts, etc., are exactly as illustrated.

Through the T-section piece drill two holes to take the

rear hook (side elevation); bend the hook into place,

and join the T-section to the rear of the body, as shown

in the detailed view of the rear joint (view of tail and

rudder).

Join the other 5/16 piece to the 5/16 strut which be-

longs at the front of the body, and over both screw the

aluminum propeller-hanger.

Place the ball-bearing propeller-shaft in this, and bend

the inner end of shaft in the shape of a hook, as shown in

170




side elevation. Attach this bed and hanger to the body

frame, and also fasten it to the extra 5/32 horizontal strut

(side elevation), being very careful that the shaft is in a

straight line with the rear hook. The ends of the 5/16

horizontal strut must be cut away until the front comes

flush with the front of the fuselage; then wire it very firmly

to the fuselage.

The wing-sockets should next be screwed in position on

the frame of the body as shown in side elevation. Next

cover the fuselage except where indicated with bamboo-

paper, and give it a coat of bamboo-varnish.

The tripod should now be constructed of 1/16 aluminum

rod, wiring the tops together and flattening the ends, and

then wiring these to the upper fuselage-bars (side elevation).

The propeller may now be placed on the shaft and fastened

with the nut and washer and pinned through the flange by

escutcheon-pins.

Knot the ends of the rubber and divide the loop thus

made into six loops; hook one end of the skein so formed to

the hook on the propeller-shaft, and the opposite end over

a small S-hook made from the steel rod.

Hold the fuselage front end up and allow the rubber to

drop down to the rear end, where it may be readily hooked

over the rear hook through the opening left in the body

covering.

The Chassis, or Running-Gear

Make the curve on one end of the skid, as shown in side

elevation, and place upon it the ready-made Nieuport

running-gear, and glue it in position. Drill holes near one

end of each of the five 1/8 reed braces and wire them to the

skids as shown, and insert the 3/16 reed braces in the

sockets of the running-gear.

171




To the upper ends of the braces glue the seven terminal

sockets, and screw all to the fuselage before the glue is dry,

and then true it up.

After the glue is dry insert the axle in the running-gear

and mount the wheels.

The Spray-Hood

On the sheet aluminum draw the pattern of the hood, as

detailed in plan of spray hood, and cut it out carefully with

shears. Draw the front piece on thin wood and cut it out,

being very careful not to split it. Wire the aluminum hood

to the front piece through holes drilled through each, and

fasten it in place over the propeller-shaft as shown.

Making the Wings

Trim down the 1/4 x 1/8 pieces so that they are 1/4

high at the fuselage and 3/32 at the tips, and to insure

even tapering mark them off first with a straight-edge.

Wire the ribs, already bent, one above and one below

the spars in the positions shown in plan. Then cut off the

rear ends of the ribs to the proper size and form. Next

wire the reed frame of the wing which is already bent

to the ends of ribs and spars through holes drilled for the

purpose.

The ends of this outer piece of reed should project 5/8

at the body end, so as to fit into the wing-bars on the

fuselage. In making the wings do not forget that the right

andleft wings are different, and they must be made right

andleft.

Make small hooks on the ends of four pins and pass the

other ends through holes drilled in the spars, and then bend

172




hooks on these ends. To the hooks thus made the wires

which run to the tripod and chassis are to be attached.

Now glue all the joints, true all up, and hang the wings

up to dry. When thoroughly dry the wings should be cov-ered with bamboo-paper, the under sides being covered

first, and be sure that the paper adheres firmly to each rib

as well as to the reed-frame piece. When covered and dry

give the paper a coat of bamboo-varnish.

Make four S-hooks from pins, and hook two on the top

of the tripod (front elevation), and the other two on the skid

just back of the running-gear.

Slip the projecting ends of the rattan wing frames into

the sockets on the fuselage and tie wires to the hooks in

the wing-spars, and carry them to the S-hooks on the tripod

and running-gear, inserting little eyelet tighteners or tiny

turnbuckles, as shown in front elevation.

Tighten the wires so that the main planes, or wings, tilt

slightly upward as shown in front elevation. The wings are

easily disassembled by merely unhooking the S-hooks from

the skid and tripod.

The Tail

Wire the semicircular outline of reed to the 3/32 round

wood, through holes drilled in the reed, and fasten the three

radiating-ribs in the same way. Glue them together and

dry between two flat surfaces to insure perfect truing up.

Cover the framework thus made with bamboo-paper and

coat with bamboo-varnish.For the rudder, wire the ends of the reed, bent in shape as

shown in side elevation, glue them together, dry between

flat surfaces, and cover the same as the tail.

Construct the elevators in the same manner as the tail,

and when these and the rudder are dry the 1/16 tiller-bars

173




are bound and glued in position as shown in plan, side ele-

vation, and detailed plans. Nail the tail to the top of the

fuselage by two nails through the central radiating-rib,

being sure to drill holes first.

Next hinge the rudder to the rear T-piece through holes

drilled in the latter, and tie it in place with wire, using the

tiller-bars as shown. This will maintain the rudder and

elevators in any position desired.

The three-foot model will now be complete and ready to

fly, and if you have done your work well you will have the

prettiest, most graceful, and strongest little aeroplane you

ever saw.

It will prove a splendid flier, and may be flown from the

ground or launched from the hand.

In flying release the propeller first, and then let go of the

machine; and if you wish the model to rise rapidly raise

the rear end from the ground, so that the skid will not drag,

and at the same time give the machine a slight forward

thrust.

In launching from the hand grasp the underside of the

body just behind the chassis with one hand, and hold the

propeller with the other hand.Let go of the propeller and gently thrust the model for-

ward, and keep it on as nearly a level keel as possible.

At first you should only try flights on calm days, or in a

gentle wind, and in perfectly open and smooth spots.

If you wish a larger model of the Nieuport, or, in fact, of

any of the machines described, you can readily constructthem by enlarging the various parts and drawing them out

to scale, following the plans given for details and propor-

tions. In this way you can build models up to six feet

spread if you choose.

Still another model reproduction of a standard type of

174




aeroplane which you can easily build is the Bleriot, and this

is such a well-known and famous machine that you should

certainly add one to your fleet of model flying-machines.

The Bleriot Model

If you have followed the instructions and built the

Nieuport and Wright machines, you will find the plans of

this model so simple and easily understood that you will

have no difficulty in following them, for the principal

dimensions are given, and the reduced one-foot rule will

serve for measuring the other parts.

The materials and tools required are practically the same

as for the other models; the dimensions of wood, etc., as well

as special fittings, being as follows:

4 feet wood5/16

x

5/16 Ball-bearing propeller-shaft2 feet wood 1/4 x 3/16 Wooden propeller 12 inches diam.

7 feet wood 5/32 x 5/32 Aluminum propeller-hanger

20 feet wood 1/8 x 1/8 40 feet para rubber 1/16 square

12 feet reed 1/8 diam. Model-making nails

7 feet reed 3/3 2 diam. Spool No. 32 wire

i foot aluminum rod 1/16 Small piece of sheet aluminum

i foot brass rod 18 smallest screw-eyes

Silk forcovering planes

and rudder4 small

screws

Two rubber-tired wheels 2 inches 4 tiny tube turnbuckles

diam.

These will cost about $3.50 to $4, or the parts may be

bought ready-cut to lengths and size complete for $4. I

advise all boys who wish to build several models, or who are

likelyto

carryout their own

ideas,to

buyall

wood, reed,

etc., in quantities, and thus have a stock on hand which

will save delays in ordering more. For boys who wish to

build but one model the ready-cut wood and reed, with at-

tendant fittings selected and packed especially for making

each particular model, is the best.

12

175



COPYRIGHT,I^BYIDEAI AEROPLANE AMpSuppuyOx NEWARK r

IDEAL BLERIOT MONOPLANE. THREE-FOOT FLYING MODEL




In the Bleriot model the joints must be strong and rigid,

perfectly true, glued and nailed save where reed and wood

lie parallel, in which case glue and No. 32 wire should be

used. It is always a good plan to lash all joints neatly with

silk thread and finish by coating with shellac or Ambroid

varnish.

The first step is to shape the wooden ribs and curved reeds

for wings, tail, skids, etc, as directed for the models already

described, and while these are drying you may busy your-

self building the fuselage.

The Fuselage Construction

Two frames are made from four 32-inch pieces of the

5/32 square wood, two of the long pieces being joined by

5/32 square uprights, as shown in elevation, for one side;

the other two pieces being joined exactly the same way for

the other side. These two side-frames are then connected by

six horizontal pieces of the same wood on top and six on

the bottom, as shown in plan.

In order to avoid two nails coming close together in the

main-frame beams the horizontal cross-pieces should be

placed slightly in the rear of the upright pieces, as illus-

trated.

The T-section tail-piece (r) is next placed in the narrow

end of the frame, trimmed flush at top and bottom, and

the body is complete.

The aluminum rod should now be bent to the form shown

at g, elevation; two pieces exactly alike being made, the

central part lashed together and the ends twisted around

the fuselage-bars and lashed in place.

The tripod beneath the body (g, elevation) should be bent

and lashed in the same way, and in making and attaching

177




with 1/8 x 1/8 pieces, the ends of which should be

trimmed down to fit the holes. Two other vertical pieces

and a short horizontal piece of 5/32 square are made into

an inner frame, which is joined centrally to the main

frame as shown.

The shock-absorber reeds, which should have been bent

to form, are next wired to the uprights (d), one at each

side, as shown in elevation at e, e. The rubber-tired wheels

should then be mounted on their axles and placed in the

forks formed by the reed absorbers, the axle being secured

to the inner prongs of the forks by wire, and to the outer

prongs by bending the axle-ends around the reeds and

clinching them with pliers. A great deal of care should be

taken to have the axles true and the wheels parallel, so that

the wheels will run smoothly.

The ends of the long fuselage-beams are next joined to

the inner frame of the chassis, care being taken to have the

ends fit snugly into the corners of the frame.

The diagonal reed braces are now placed in position, one

end being glued in the holes already bored in the lower

bar of the chassis, and the other end wired and glued to

the lower bars of the fuselage. The curve is shaped

by bending into place, and does not require previous

steaming or forming.

The Skids

These are of reed, 3/32 diameter, formed as shown in

elevation, H, and tied with wire where they cross below, and

fastened with wire and glue to the lower bars of the fuselage.

If a small 1-1/2 rubber-tired wheel is attached to the skid

of this model the machine will rise quicker from the ground

and will be greatly improved.

179




The Motor

Cut a 1/16 groove in the small 5/16 square cross-piece,

and into this fit the motor-stick (a). Fit on the aluminum

propeller-hanger tight against the stick and fasten with

screws, the upper part being bent over the cross-piece.

Insert the ball-bearing shaft through holes, and bend the

inner end into a hook; string the rubbers between this hook

and another at the rear end, which is fastened through a

hole, and wind the rubber back and forth, keeping it rather

tight, until a skein is formed. The ends of the rubber should

then be tied to the hooks. The motor is now complete, and

should be fastened in the fuselage by nails and glue in front,

and by a piece of rubber tied to the upper fuselage-bars in

the rear, as shown in elevation and plan. By this methodof attachment all twisting of the fuselage by the motor is

avoided.

The propeller should next be fastened to the shaft by a

nut, with nails through the hub, and the body laid aside

while you make the wings and tail.

The Main Planes

The bent ribs are joined to two beams, or spars, of 1/8

x 1/8 wood, and the ends trimmed off to conform with

the outline shown, and around the ends of the ribs and bars

the reed-outline piece is bent and fastened.

In making the wings bear in mind that they are right and

lefty as noted in the directions for building the Nieuport

model.

The planes should be covered with the silk on the upper

sides by giving the reed edges a coat of glue, laying it on

1 80




The model is now complete, and will prove to be an exact

copy of a Bleriot monoplane, with all the grace, birdlike

form and easy flight of the large machines. It will rise from

the ground and fly 100 feet or more, or may be started from

an upward-inclined surface as directed for the Nieuport

monoplane.

Having constructed these three models, the boy model-

maker will be perfectly familiar with methods and details,

and with little trouble can draw plans of any standard

machines and from them build models of various kinds.

Most of the aeronautical magazines, such as Aeronautics,

Aircraft, etc., publish scale working-drawings of various

aeroplanes in each issue, and by reducing these to model

sizes it is very easy to build the models.

Models of the latest types of Curtiss, Moissant, De-

perdussin, Morane, Farman, Caudran, Baldwin, Martin,

Burgess, Benoist, Thomas, and scores of other makes maybe built, and if you can form a club of boys and build the

models together a great deal of fun and a wonderfully valu-

able training in aeroplane construction and design will be

obtained.



THE HYDROAEROPLANE

his machine at any time and place, for the water presents

a fairly flat surface at all times when calm, whereas over

land the pilot must descend on a selected spot in order to

avoid accidents, and frequently such level or open places

are not at hand. In addition it is often very hard for an

aviator to tell just what sort of country is beneath, for

from a height brush, uneven land, and level turf look much

alike.

One well-known airman, while flying over New York

City, was obliged to descend, and selected a broad green

expanse which he thought was level and open fields. After

a long and successful glide his machine turned a complete

somersault as it plowed into the long grass and reeds of

the Hackensack meadows.

Only the soft marsh and the deep grass prevented the

aviator from being killed, and, as it was, his machine was

badly injured.

Many hydroaeroplanes have no means of landing on the

earth; but the later models combine the floats for water

with wheels for ground landing, and when thus equipped

the aviator may fly over land or water and descend where

he chooses, and may rise from either earth or water with

equal ease.

Pontoons, or Floats

The earlier aeroplanes that were equipped for water-

flying had two floats, or pontoons, attached to the landing-

chassis, and several standard machines still use these double

hulls.

Such was the hydroaeroplane of Frank CofFyn, which was

flown about New York harbor in the winter of 1912, and

which attracted world-wide attention by its success and

efficiency.



Fig. 9

13



THE BE/JOISTFLYI/iG BOAT

Fig.10



Copyright, Kji2, by Kleal Aeroplane and Supply Co., New York

HYDROAEROPLANt

GENERAL PLAN



PONTOON

PLAN -W

.Lie:

-Uft

FORM FOR C-N.COPYRIQHT,I9I2,BY lOEATAtROPLANE AND SUPPLY CaNEwYORKN.Y

DETAIL PLANS



HOW TO BUILD A HYDROAEROPLANE

wood for the various parts by placing it directly over the

drawings and cutting it to shape with a sharp knife drawn

over the line indicating the joint. Label each piece as soon

as cut with a mark that will identify it and insure its being

joined in the proper place. In wiring, one turn of a wire is

sufficient except on the main planes.

First twist the ends of the wires together with the ringers,

and then with a small pair of pliers, pulling away from the

joint while twisting the wire tight. Always twist the wires

until the joint is rigid, but do not twist hard enough to

break the wire or cut into the wood.

After the wires are twisted nip off the ends 1/8 from the

wood and squeeze the joint with the pliers until the twist

is flush with the surface. Before wiring it is well to coat

the joints with bamboo-varnish, which will cement them

together. No glue should be used on this model, for it

will be constantly exposed to the action of water.

The material for this model will cost from $7 to $8, and

aside from the wood and reeds is as follows :

3 sheets bamboo-paper.

3 miniature rubber-tired wheels, 1-1/2 diam.

Multiple conversion-gear and propeller-shaft (Ideal).

12 wooden propeller.

40 feet rubber No. 14 (3/32 square).

1 threaded 7-3/4 axle with nuts.

2 rear rubber hooks.

2 feet aluminum tube.

8-oz. can of bamboo-varnish.

1/16 aluminum rod; spool of 34-gage wire; 2 S-hooks; 3 doz. screws,

and a few escutcheon-pins.

Making the Planes

Draw out the plan of the planes (A) to full size, drawing

in the spars and ribs, and using care to get every joint

square. Upon this pattern place the spars in their proper

201




position and mark on them the centers for the uprights or

struts (shown as small circles in the plan), and through

these drill holes with a No. 61 drill. Enlarge these holes

witha3/3

2drill,

and use the utmost care not to break the

spars.

Steam and bend the twenty-two ribs to form as directed

for other models; or, better still, make a form by nailing

parallel strips of wood to a board, as shown in detail plans.

Each steamed piece is then placed on the form diagonally

soas to

slip both endsunder the

stripsto hold them down.

They are then worked around square to the strips, where

they will remain snug and tight until dry.

While the ribs are still in the form drill holes with the

No. 6 1 drill through each rib 1/8 from each end.

Wire the ribs to the front spar at the points indicated in

theplan,

and asillustrated, making

aslight

notch in the

front of the spar for the wire to set in, and be sure to place

the ribs so they all face the same way.

Wire on the rear spar, and then the small extension ribs,

not forgetting the small braces at each end. Now stretch

two pieces of thread, one on each side of the plane and across

the rear of the extensionribs,

and tiethis,

and varnish at

the extreme ribs; also put a drop of varnish at each inter-

mediate rib-tip, which will be sufficient to hold the thread

in place.

Cut the wood for the rib-braces the pieces that run

parallel and between the spars and place these between

theribs, being

careful to havethem

in a trueline;

these

need not be fastened with wire.

When both planes have been thus constructed they should

be squared up and given a thick coat of bamboo-varnish.

They should then be hung up to dry thoroughly, and while

drying you can make the supplementary planes.

202




Supplementary Planes

These are the elevator-plane (B) ; the tail (E) ; the horizon-

tal rudder (F); the vertical rudder (D), and the ailerons (C).

Each of these is built in the same manner as the main planes,

and all are coated with bamboo-varnish and laid upon a

smooth, unpainted surface to dry, with heavy weights

placed on them to keep them perfectly flat.

If placed upon a board coated with paraffin, or upon oiled

paper, there is no danger of their sticking.

Covering the Planes

When all the planes are perfectly dry they should be

covered with the bamboo-paper as follows: Cut four pieces

of paper an inch larger all around than the size of the planes,

and with a soft brush coat each sheet evenly with bamboo-

varnish. In coating the paper, or using the varnish in any

way, be sure to place the object being treated on an un-

painted surface, as the varnish quickly destroys ordinary

paint or varnish.

As soon as a sheet of paper is varnished hang it on a cord

to dry, and as some little skill is required to coat the paper

quickly and evenly, you had better coat several extra

sheets of paper to use in case some should prove failures.

While the varnished paper is drying lay the plane frame

to be covered on a flat surface, with the hollow side up, and

give the spars and ribs for a distance of two ribs from one

end a thick coat of the bamboo-varnish. As rapidly as

possible lay the cut paper over the frame and rub rapidly

over the freshly varnished parts until dry. Then raise the

free portion of the paper and apply the varnish to the next

203




section of the frame, and rub down as before; and continue

in this way, coating and rubbing two rib-sections at a time,

until the whole plane is covered, and it can be hung up to dry.

Treat the other planes in the same way, and then cover

the tops of the planes by following the same method; but

in this case only the spars and ends of ribs need to be at-

tached to the paper. In rubbing down the top paper be

careful not to press so hard as to distort or flatten the ribs.

When the planes are covered on both sides and are dry,

trim off the excess paper and finish smooth with a fine file,

at the same time rounding the front edges of the spars

slightly.

If you find that any portion of the paper has not adhered,

raise it carefully, force a little varnish underneath, and rub

it down. When the edges are filed smooth varnish them

thoroughly.

At the rear of the planes the upper and lower coverings

are fastened together, with the varnish between them, and

at the rear ends of the small extension ribs, the thread al-

ready mentioned being between the two coverings, thus

forming a flexible trailing-edge. The other planes are

all covered in the same way, but are kept weighted downflat until dry and ready to use.

When the main planes are dry puncture the paper where

it covers the drilled holes with the 3/32 drill. If by any

chance a tear or hole is made in the plane-coverings a piece

of the bamboo-paper fastened over it with bamboo-varnish,

and afterward coated with the varnish, will make a perfect

patch.

To Assemble the Main Planes

Cut a piece of 3/32 diameter hardwood into 16 pieces,

each exactly 5-1/2 long, and proceed to assemble as follows:

204




Lay one plane, hollow side down, on a smooth surface

and fill four holes at each end with bamboo-varnish. Press

the uprights firmly but rapidly into these with a twisting

motion. Place the upper plane bottom side up and fill the

corresponding holes with varnish, and then quickly place

it over the uprights and set each into its proper hole. Turn

the planes upside down the upper one on the table or other

surface and drive the uprights flush with the outer sur-

faces of the planes by gently tapping with a light hammer

over each upright along the spar.

Examine the assembled planes and line them up true,

twisting slightly this way and that until the two planes are

parallel; and support the structure in this position until the

varnish dries hard.

After it is dry it will retain its shape and will be flexible

enough to allow you to insert and cement the remaining

uprights one at a time, but care must be used not to bend

the spars any more than absolutely necessary when placing

the last uprights in position.

Next cut the 3/32 hardwood support for the outer rear

propeller-shaft bearing, and wire it between the rear-center

struts in the position shown. When this is done give all a

coat of varnish, and the plane-cell is complete.

The next step is to mount the ailerons in the cell by drill-

ing two small holes at the points next to the struts and

wiring the ailerons to the struts. In this model the ailerons

are merely for appearance, and if omitted the model will

fly even better than with them.

The horizontal rudders (F) are hinged to the tail (E) with

pieces of cloth, as shown. It is best to paste the pieces on

the tail with varnish, and when the varnish is hard cross the

free ends and attach them to the rudders.

A small hole is then drilled through the longest side of

205




notches in the borders at the curved parts of the frame so

they can be lapped smoothly in place. Coat the edges of

the frames and the parts of paper over the 1/4 wood with

a heavy coat of bamboo-varnish and fasten the paper quickly

in place, starting at the top of the frames at a cross-brace.

Varnish only as much of the frame as can be covered before

the varnish dries, and be sure that the paper is glued to-

gether at the lap. Touch up any loose spots; and when dry

give the entire pontoon three coats of the varnish, letting

each coat dry thoroughly before applying the next, and

being careful to get each coat as smooth and uniform as

possible. Weight the pontoon down to keep it true while

drying, but leave enough of it exposed to let it dry quickly.

The small plane-floats are covered and varnished in the

same way, except that a single piece of paper is glued right

around the frame and is fitted over the ends by cutting and

lapping.

Cut two pieces of reed for each float a little longer than

required, and drill a hole at one end of each. Bind these

to the plane-floats as shown, using the drilled holes for

binding through, and then coat the joints with varnish, and

be sure they retain their exact position while drying.

When dry cut off the reed so that when the aluminum

fitting is placed on the end the total length will be that

shown in the cut.

Make the L-fitting by cutting off a piece of aluminum

tube 3/4 long, and with a pair of pliers squeeze the tube

flat for a distance of 1/4 from one end. Bend the flat

part at right angles to the round part, being careful to bend

it slowly. In the center of the flat portion drill a 1/16

hole for the screw.

These fittings (18 are needed) are worked on to the end

of the reeds used as supports, as shown in plan and general

209




x 1/8 keel-piece and drill a hole at one end, and wire on

the reed fork just made.

Varnish the joint and let it dry, and when hard pass the

axle of aluminum rod through the holes in the V-fittings

with the wheel between the two and flatten the projecting

ends with pliers to prevent the axle from slipping out.

Cut a piece of reed about nine inches long, bend it sharply

at the center by moistening and holding over a flame, and

wire it at the bend to the keel-stick in the position shown in

view of chassis. Cut the ends to the right size and slip

L-fittings in place. This forms the front-strut to the

chassis for the running-gear. Next place the two front

reed braces into the empty arms of the V-fittings at the

axle, and wire the free ends to the front-strut near the top.

Cut the rear uprights and fit on L-fittings and bind the

other ends to the steel axle, leaving 3/4 of the axle free at

each end for the wheels.

Bind the center of the axle to the keel-stick in the position

shown in view of chassis, cutting a slight groove in the top

of the stick for the axle to rest in. Run the diagonal reed

braces as shown in plan; one bent piece from the top of the

rear uprights to the axle where it joins the stick, and two

pieces from the top of the front-strut to the foot of the rear

uprights.

True up the chassis and varnish it, putting an additional

drop of varnish at each joint. When dry place the rear

wheels on the axle-ends and fasten with nuts.

The land-chassis and running-gear is now complete and

may be screwed onto the plane-spars in place of the pon-

toon; but the rear uprights of the former need extra holes

drilled in the rear plane-spars. These holes must be var-

nished inside to prevent any water from entering the wood,

and when using the machine as a hydroaeroplane it is a good

212




plan to fill the holes with varnish, which may easily be re-

moved when you wish to transform the model to a land-

machine.

Flying the Model

The motor-rubbers may be wound up either by turning

the propeller by hand or by using a regular winder on each

half. By the former method you can wind and fly the

machine by yourself, but as a smaller number of turns are

obtained in this way, and more time is required, it is always

better to use a winder and have a friend to help, when

possible. In case the motor is to be wound by hand the

S-hooks at the ends of the rubbers may be omitted.

In winding by hand hold the gear at the motor-stick with

one hand and turn the propeller backward with the other,

giving it about 250 turns.

Be sure that the rubbers are always wound in the right

direction; viewing the machine from the back the pro-

peller should turn like the hands of a clock, from left to

right.

After winding keep hold of the propeller with your hand

and note if all parts of the plane are true and parallel. If

the model is equipped with the pontoon, merely let it rest

gently on the water, give it a slight push, and release the

propeller. The same method may be used on land with

the running-gear attached, or it may be flown from a smooth,

upward-tilted surface, as directed for other models.

Still another method is to hold the model level and pointed

slightly upward in your hand, and gently cast it forward,

lowering the hand very quickly to avoid catching it in the

tail.

A fairly calm day should be selected for flying the machine,

and after a little practice you will learn just how to set the

213




rudders and elevators to obtain the best results in all sorts

of weather.

To rise from land or water quickly, the horizontal rudders

should be turned up slightly at the rear, and when the pon-

toon is used the elevator must have its front edge a little

higher than its rear edge.

The vertical rudder is used to turn the model to right or

left, and the machine may be made to travel in a curve by

this rudder, or it may be set to one side just enough to over-

come any side-drift or irregular course due to wind or un-

even balance or unequal construction of some part.

The Miniature Flying-Boat

Even more interesting than the model Curtiss hydroaero-

plane is the model Curtiss flying-boat perfected and placed

on the market by the Ideal Aeroplane and Supply Company.This beautiful little aircraft is an exact counterpart of

the real and original Flying-boat, and by the aid of the

plans and directions furnished by the Ideal Company any

boy may readily construct this most recent model.

The dainty little craft will fly equally well from the

hand, on water, or from land; but in the latter case it must

be launched from a land-chassis which consists of three

rubber-tired wheels on a light wire frame. In use the

chassis remains behind when the flying-boat rises.

The model is thoroughly waterproof and cannot be in-

jured by striking the water or being submerged entirely.

The construction of these two water flying-models will

keep you and your friends interested for a long time, and

I have no doubt that you will soon commence building other

types of hydroaeroplanes, or may even attempt to construct

a real man-carrying flying-boat.

214




The knowledge you have gained by building models

will serve you well if you undertake this, and by merely

using care, common sense, and plenty of time you can

succeed just as well at the full-sized machine as with the

little models.




steamboats as a regular method of transportation is very

doubtful.

Passengers can be and are safely carried by aeroplanes,

and as many as seven passengers have been carried at one

time.

As a rule these trips are made merely for the novelty of

the experience, but on several occasions doctors have found

aeroplanes of the greatest value when compelled to travel

a long distance at utmost speed.

As aeroplanes readily travel from 60 to 75 miles an hour,

and can travel in a straight line from place to place, they

can transport a passenger or mail with the utmost despatch

when required.

In war-time aeroplanes also play quite an important part,

and, whereas their true value in warfare was questioned

until really tested, they have now proved to be of great

use in actual hostilities.

In Tripoli, in the Balkans, and in Mexico aeroplanes have

played an important part in war and have proved of very

great value.

As scouts, in learning the position of fortifications and

guns, and in furnishing reports of surrounding country, as

well as in carrying despatches from one officer to another,

aeroplanes are wonderfully useful.

To be sure, an aeroplane is now and then struck with a

shell and brought to earth, but even if the operator is killed

the loss of a single machine and operator in this

wayis of

no great importance as compared with the service rendered.

Moreover, a falling aeroplane, or even a falling aviator,

may kill or disable a number of the enemy, and in a waya dead aviator or a crippled machine is far more dangerousto life and limb than one flying overhead.

Aeroplanes are very cheap as compared to other war-

220



AEROPLANES IN PEACE AND WAR

like apparatus, and the same amount spent in aeroplanes

that is spent on a single war-ship would probably in the

endbring

far

greater

results in time of war.

Not only can aeroplanes rise to great heights and still

observe the enemy and his camps and forts, but excellent

photographs may be taken from the aircraft.

Such pictures show the country beneath even better

than a map, and with modern photographic appliances and

inventions the

photographs maybe taken, the negatives

developed, and the pictures examined within a few minutes;

in fact, negatives are often dropped from the aeroplanes to

earth by means of small parachutes.

Many splendid biograph pictures have been taken from

aeroplanes, and no doubt aeroplane photography may at

some time become a

popularfad.

Numerous army and naval officers have made excellent

map sketches from aeroplanes in flight. The first aerial

map made by an army officer in a long-distance flight (Fig.

i) was drawn by Lieutenant Sherman, U.S.A., on the return

non-stop cross-country flight between Texas City and San

Antonio, Texas, on March 28 and31, 1913.

The total distance covered in this flight was 480 miles,

the machine used being a Burgess tractor biplane equipped

with a Renault motor. It was planned to make this flight

by compass, but the air was very hazy and rough, and after

striking the Sante Fe the railway was followed to San

Antonio.

A portion of this country is flat and treeless, but from

Eagle Lake to San Antonio the country is rolling and cov-

ered with forests interspersed with cultivated tracts.

The air was so rough and the temperature so high that

great difficulty was encountered in handling the plane,

which on one occasion

dropped

to 600 feet, and it was fre-

221




ft)1 L

lf:\ W/

quently necessary to dive for 50 to 100 feet to regain

equilibrium.

Lieutenant Sherman carried a cavalry sketching-case, and

only attempted a rough sketch. The sketching-board was

held parallel to the fuselage and the compass-bearing noted

and a time-scale used.

222




A long strip of paper was used and the map was made

in sections, the map being rolled up as each section was

completed.

The entire

mapis about eighteen feet

long,each section representing the country covered in ten min-

utes. The map is very complete in detail, and shows the

railroad, wagon-roads, streams, woods, hills, prairies, and

other features of the country so clearly that any army could

readily locate each and every locality, and by studying the

mapthe officers would become familiar with the

topographyof the country covered.

For military use such maps would undoubtedly prove of

the utmost value, and if the country was occupied by an

enemy the position of camps, guns, batteries, etc., could be

easily located and entered on the map.

One of the commonest feats in exhibition flights has been

that of dropping imitation bombs at marks on the earth

below.

Many aviators became very expert at this, and seldom

failed to drop an orange or other bomb within the rough

outline of a steamship which answered for a target.

To still further increase the accuracy of bomb-dropping

instruments were perfected for shooting bombs from air-

ships, and some of these operate with remarkable accuracy.

Aviators have also carried passengers who shot ducks

and other birds from the aeroplane in flight, and some ex-

cellent scores have been made by riflemen firing from

moving aeroplanes.As a whole, however, aeroplanes are mainly of value for

sporting or exhibition purposes, and their inherent danger

has hitherto prevented many ardent sportsmen from

adopting them.

The advent of the hydroaeroplane and the flying-boat

has made flying as safe as motor -boating, and probably

15 223




within a year or two we will see almost as many flying-

yachts in use on our bays, rivers, and lakes as we nowadays

see real yachts and launches.

The Sensations of Flight

Many people are very curious to know just what the

sensations of flying are, and many are afraid to go up fearing

that they will be dizzy or have an inclination to jump out.

I have never known of a person feeling dizzy or giddy in an

aeroplane, and, although the passenger is seated on a frail

seat with nothing beneath but the air, and can look directly

down to the earth a thousand feet below, yet there is a

feeling of safety and security that is entirely absent when

looking from a high building or a mountain-top.

Each and every person has slightly different sensations

when making his or her first flight. One man described his

sensations as similar to riding on a fluttering flag. Another

compared it to riding on a huge feather, while others state

that it seems like a dream in which the body is suddenly

bereft of all sensation of weight or bulk.

The author's eighteen-year-old daughter made a long

and high flight with Harry Brown in a Wright machine

and stated that the first wild rush across the field, before

rising, was the most thrilling and exciting part of the trip,

and that as the machine rose the earth seemed to drop

suddenly from beneath. After the biplane once left the

earth and began to rise the ascent appeared to be very

gradual, and the machine seemed to poise and remain

motionless, swaying gently in the wind, although the ap-

parent gale was really the motion of the rapidly traveling

machine through the air. So safe and steady felt the bi-

plane that the passenger released her grasp on the stan-

224




chions and used her hands to arrange her hair and rib-

bons.

The machine was then turned and banked sharply,

and at this moment the first real flying-sensation was felt.

As the aeroplane swerved and tore at sixty miles down the

wind the Long Island landscape unrolled like a vast pano-

rama beneath, with all details queerly foreshortened and

distorted.

The roads seemed erratic and at varying angles, the fields

irregularly shaped, with the shrubs and bushes looking like

dark-green clover on a lawn. At this time the aeroplane

was about fifteen hundred feet in the air, and, while trees

were readily recognized, the houses, wagons, horses, auto-

mobiles, and people looked like exquisitely formed toys, and

a little red runabout appeared like a tiny potato-bug. There

was no sensation of height or distance; everything below

seemed merely dwarfed in size; and no feeling of exhilara-

tion, such as is felt when speeding on land or water, was

experienced. Instead there was a feeling of aloofness,

a sort of mental numbness such as one feels in certain

dreams.

I doubt if any two people ever have exactly the same

feelings while flying, but the fact that hundreds of people of

all ages and temperaments are carried through the air each

season proves the safety and ease of taking an aerial voyage

with a competent pilot.

Are Aeroplanes Dangerous? Some Facts and Figures

Many persons insist that aviation is a most hazardous

profession, and that the man who attempts a flight takes

his life in his hands.

In reality facts, borne out

byindisputable evidence and

225




records, prove that conservative aeroplaning is as safe as

automobile riding, and is safer than football.

In the early days of aviation each flight was heralded

throughout the world, and every successful and every

disastrous flight was recorded.

To-day flights are so common, so numerous, and such an

every-day matter that only notable record-breaking flights

or serious accidents are published in periodicals and news-

papers.

This draws the attention of the public only to accidents,

and the average man does not and cannot realize that the

majority of flights are successful, and are so numerous

that they cannot be recorded.

Few can believe that in the four years since the first

aeroplane made public flights the number of aviators has

increased 1,200 times

How few of us realize that during 1912 no less than

12,000,000 miles were traveled in aerolpanes, or that 6,000

men were actively engaged in flying as recognized pilots or

aviators

In 1903 only 1,000 miles were flown, and but five trained

aviators were known. One year later the mileage increased

to 28,000, and 50 aviators had learned to fly. By 1910 no

less than 500 airmen were flying, and aeroplanes traversed

600,000 miles through the air.

The figures increased rapidly, and by leaps and bounds,

and at the close of 1911 1,500 aviators flew 2,300,000 miles,

which during 1912 increased to 12,000,000 miles flown, or a

distance equal to 24 round trips to the moon, while the

army of airmen had grown to 6,000.

These figures illustrate how rapidly aviation has grown,

and if we look at the records of accidents and deaths we will

find that these have decreased even more rapidly in proportion.

226




In 1908 one out of five aviators was killed; in 1909 only

four out of fifty met death by flying; in 1910 the number

of deaths was 30 out of 500; in 1911 only 77 of the 1,500

aviators were killed, and in 1912 the proportion was 152

deaths to 6,000 men.

The total number of fatalities since aeroplanes first flew

until June I, 1913, was 264, and as aeroplanes have alto-

gether flown 14,929,000 miles, there has been but one fatal

accident to each 56,549 miles flown.

In other words, safety in aviation has increased over

1,000 per cent, in a single year (1911), and in the past year

(1912) has jumped to a 4,ooo-per-cent. increase.

These figures apply only to professional aviators, and take

no account of the vast number of passengers carried, and

of whom but twenty-three have been killed, including

military officers who are classed as passengers. Just how

many real passengers have been carried cannot be deter-

mined; but many aviators have carried thirty-five passen-

gers in a day, and have made over three hundred passenger-

carrying trips in a season without a single accident.

It is very seldom indeed that an accident occurs when

reasonable care is taken and the aviator uses common sense

and does not attempt spectacular feats.

The great majority of accidents fatal and otherwise

have been due to gross carelessness or performing stunts.

Men like Lincoln Beachy, who appears to bear a charmed

life, perform feats of a most daring and death -defying

character, such as flying with both hands free, flying over

crowds, flying through the gorge of Niagara, etc.

Many other airmen have attempted similar feats with

disastrous results, and the unknowing at once set down such

accidents as proving the dangers of aviation, whereas the

unfortunate victims would probably have killed themselves

227




just as quickly were they operating automobiles or other

high-powered machines.

Carelessness, daredeviltry, and recklessness have no place

in aviation, and it is seldom indeed that a cool-headed,

cautious, and conservative aviator meets with serious

accidents.

The Wright brothers made hundreds of flights, many of

them in untried and experimental machines; Capt. Bald-

win has grown gray in aviation; Glenn Curtiss is a veteran

of the air; and Cecil Peoli, a mere boy, has made over four

hundred flights in a season, and no death or serious accident

has ever marred the career of any one of these famous

aviators.

Aeroplanes are so new and have been developed and per-

fected so rapidly that a few deaths and accidents were

unavoidable, as in any new art, and the great wonder is that

more fatalities have not resulted from flying.

No one can foresee the future of aviation, and each year,

month, and day brings forth new inventions, new discoveries,

and new devices to make human flight safer, more certain,

and more exact, and we may confidently look for undreamed-

of progress in the future.

No art or discovery of mankind has ever made such

rapid progress as aviation, and aeroplanes still in their

infancy have been perfected more rapidly than any other

mechanical device ever built by human hands.




American Aeroplane Records

Duration

Distance

Altitude

Greatest Speed

Climbing Speed

Climbing Speed

Speed

Time

Alighting, from Mark

Weight-carrying

500 m.

1000 m.

5 kil.

10 kil.

20 kil.

30 ki .

40 kil.

50 kil.

100 kil.

150 kil.

200 kil.

250 kil.

Khr.

1 hr.

2 hrs.

3 hrs.

4 hrs.

1-Man

$$6:10:35.0

283.628 kil.

3548.5 m.

$174.10 k.p.h.

$3:35

*$i:43-38

$3:27-87

$6:55-95

*$io:32.si

*$i7:34-88

*$35:i6.65

53:04.73

1:10:56.85

3:32:56.4

40 kil.

80 kil.

166.6 kil.

141.97 kil.

214.57 kil.

283.628 kil.

0.445 m.

458 Ibs.

2-Man4:22:00

1422 m.

101.762 k.p.h.

$9:00

6:13.4

12:26.6

18:42.0

24:49.8

31:01.6

3-Man

1:54:42.6

56.263 k.p.h.

6:56.4

4-Man**

Duration

record only,

1:54.0

24.14 kil.

36.24 kil.

* Passed by A. C. A. as American

record but not yet by F. A. I. as an

international one.

$$ Hydroaeroplanes.

$ World records.

** Not yet passed.

MISCELLANEOUS WORLDRECORDS

BALLOONSDistance *2ipi kiloms.

Duration73

hours.

Altitude 10,800 meters.

DIRIGIBLES

Distance 807 kiloms.

Duration 7 hours, 13 min.

Altitude 3080 meters.

Speed 37.808 kils. per hour.

KITESAltitude -+7265 meters.

SOUNDING BALLOONSAltitude $30,486 meters.

$ Made in United States.

MISCELLANEOUS AMERICANRECORDS

BALLOONSDistance 1887.6 kilometers.

Duration48 hours,

26 minutes.

Lahm Cup 1172.9 miles.

DIRIGIBLES

Speed 31.559 kil. per hour.

Duration 2 hours, i minute, 50 seconds.

KITES

Altitude *726s meters.

SOUNDING BALLOONSAltitude *30,486 meters.* World record.



Chapter XVIII

MISCELLANEOUS AIRCRAFT

A EROPLANES and gliders are known as heavier-

/ \ than-air machines, for they weigh more than the

actual air they displace.

Quite a different class of aircraft are the lighter-than-air

machines, more commonly known as balloons.

Formerly all balloons were merely huge silken or cloth

bags filled with hot air or gas, which, being lighter than air,

caused the whole fabric to rise from the earth.

In balloons men traveled from place to place at the will

of the winds, their only control over their conveyance being

ability to rise by throwing out ballast, or to descend by

opening a valve which allowed a portion of the gas to

escape from the balloon.

Balloons are still widely used as a means of elevating

parachutes, in which men descend to earth at fairs and ex-

hibitions, and a number of aeronauts still use balloons in

races or contests in which the balloons often travel long

distances and in unlooked-for directions.

Dirigibles

Long before aeroplanes were invented balloons had been

constructed which were provided with propellers operated

by enginesor

foot-power,and which were

capableof

being231




forced through the air and steered from place to place at

will.

These were known as dirigibles, and to-day dirigibles

have been developed to a very great degree (Fig. i).

The Zeppelin and other European dirigibles carry a num-

ber of people on regular trips, and in one of these craft Mr.

Wellman attempted to cross from America to Europe.

Fig. /

a Vertical rudder.

b Horizontal rudder.

Some of these dirigibles are enormous structures 500 feet

or more in length and 75 or 80 feet in diameter. These

great balloons are usually composed of an elongated cover-

ing or

envelope containinga number of small inflated

balloons, and thus the danger of a puncture, leak, or tear

affecting the whole is minimized.

The modern dirigibles are provided with powerful motors

driving the propellers, and have horizontal and vertical

rudders, stabilizing fins, and similar devices, some of which

are

very plainlyshown in the illustration.

232



MISCELLANEOUS AIRCRAFTS

coated with a lining of a secret jelly-like substance which

prevented any possible escape of gas.

The total length of this enormously expensive dirigible

gas-bag was 525 feet, with a diameter of 52 feet.

Below the bag was the car, 200 feet long, with an upper

deck, cabins, dining-saloons, smoking-rooms, kitchens, prom-

enade, etc. (Fig. 2).

The engines were placed at both front and rear, and the

craft was provided with every appliance for controlling and

navigating the great balloon. Notwithstanding the care

used in its construction the entire fabric was destroyed in

a brief moment by a spark igniting the gas, and the work

of many months, as well as the lives of the inventor and his

crew, were snuffed out instantly.

Although Europeans have devoted far more time to the

perfection of dirigibles than Americans, yet recently several

American aviators have turned to dirigibles.

A machine which promises to be very successful has been

constructed by Mr. Roy Knabenshue and Mr. Walter

Brookins, both well-known and famous aeroplane en-

thusiasts and aviators.

This machine is but 150 feet in length and 30 feet in di-

ameter. It contains 76,000 cubic feet of gas, and has a

lifting-power of 4,940 pounds. The balloon and balloonette

weigh 1, 1 20 pounds, and with car complete with water, 25

gallons of gasolene, and appliances, 1,378 pounds, leaving a

net lift of 2,392 pounds.

The machine is driven by a 3 5-horse-power Hansen motor,

with two propellers, which drive the dirigible at 30 miles

an hour. The car, which is suspended by Roebling steel

cable 1/8 in diameter, is 112 feet long and 7 feet below the

bag.

The car is equipped with aeroplanes in front and rear,



BE3E

3E

-

h

IB

3E

3Es




each containing 120 square feet of surface, and these, in

conjunction with rudders 6 by 10 feet, enable the balloon

to be tilted, steered, and turned withperfect

ease. In its

recent trials at Los Angeles this new American dirigible

was very successful, and its inventors are confident that it

will prove a safe and reliable means of navigating the air.

Helicopters

A common toy with which nearly every boy is familiar

is the tiny propeller that flies into the air from a spindle

when the latter is whirled rapidly by means of a wound-up

string.

These toys, known in my youth as Flying Dutchmen

(Fig. 3),are

properly knownas

helicopters, and, although




they fly splendidly as toys, yet in large man-carrying-sized

machines they never succeed.

Various men have spent time, money, and thought in de-

signing and building helicopter machines, but the greatest

altitude ever attained has been but a few inches.

While the principle of the helicopter which is a hori-

zontal propeller designed to lift the machine directly into

the air is correct in theory, yet in practice the mechanical

problems to be overcome have hitherto proved insurmount-

able.

Ornithopters

Still another class of flying-machines on which vast sums

of money and a great deal of valuable time have been

wasted are the so-called ornithopters, or birdlike flying-

machines, in which two or more wings beat the air like the

flapping wings of a bird or insect.

Like the helicopters, these devices prove successful only

in model or toy form, and all full-sized ornithopters have

proved failures, and with our present facilities and knowl-

edge of mechanics we cannot

hope

to

produceornithopters

or helicopters capable of lifting a man in flight.

Freak Aircraft

In addition to balloons, helicopters, and ornithopters,

many freak aircraft have been designed and tried.

Some of these are combinations of helicopters and orni-

thopters, while others combine the peculiarities of these

devices with some aeroplane features.

Still others are designed to fly by paddle-wheels;others

by a wavelike motion of strips of fabric, and still others

byman

-power.The

latter,known as

aviettes,have

238




actually succeeded in jumping from the earth and sail-

ing short distances; but all others have proved most dismal

failures.

That man can propel a light, properly constructed plane

with sufficient speed and power to actually lift his own

weight may yet be proved, and in France a great deal of

interest has been shown in the prize competitions, and great

efforts have been made to produce a practical aviette.

Even the smallest of power-driven aeroplanes requires

several horse-power to raise it from the ground and force

it through the air in flight, and for man to develop sufficient

energy to equal the weakest aeroplane motor is an impos-

sible task with any known mechanical devices.

Box and Tetrahedral Kites

Much of the knowledge gained in regard to the action of

air currents on planes and surfaces was due to experiments

with various forms of kites. The Hargrave box-kites (Fig.

j.)and the tetrahedral kites of Alexander Graham Bell,

as well as the man-carrying kites of S. F. Cody, were all

remarkably efficient contrivances which possessed principles

now adopted in many aeroplanes.

The box-kite, for example, is used in a modified form in

the tail construction of the Voisin, Farman, and Wright

machines, as well as in several other aeroplanes. The Codykite

proved

the

sustaining-power

of a

givensurface, and vari-

ous other important points, and its inventor, profiting by

his experiments, has had most noteworthy success with

aeroplanes, one of which is the largest biplane ever built.

The tetrahedral kites of Alexander Graham Bell are most

interesting structures, as they embody the strongest possible

construction with thelightest weight

andgreatest area,

10




and in their several odd and curious forms have proved

most wonderful kites.

Briefly, the tetrahedral kite is a kite built up of triangular

cells or compartments in various numbers and in any form.

The simplest form of all is the triangular kite shown in

Fig. 6

A A Triangular cell.

B A winged tetrahedral cell.

Four-celled tetrahedral kite. Sixteen-celled tetrahedral kite.

Fig. S> which flies even better than the Hargrave box-kite,

while it is many times stronger.

From these triangular compartments Mr. Bell developed

the true tetrahedral cell, which is illustrated in Fig. 6,

beside the plain triangular form.

240




By building up a number of such cells, each touching the

next at its points, four, sixteen, and sixty-four celled kites

were constructed, two of which are shown in Fig. 7. These

kites were exceedingly efficient, and the same principle was

used in forming round, rectangular, oval, and many ir-

regularly shaped kites, all of which proved revelations in

sustaining-power and flight.

The greatest advantage of tetrahedral-cell construction

is that the

weight

of such structures increases in exact

pro-portion to the area of surface; thus, a sixteen-cell kite will

weigh but four times as much as a four-celled one, and will

yet present just four times the latter's area to the air.

In practice the tetrahedral construction has not proved

advisable in aeroplanes owing to mechanical difficulties in-

volved and trouble in

arrangingreliable controls.

Quite recently an aeroplane has been built in which a

bank of tetrahedral cells took the place of the ordinary

wings, and this machine flew successfully, although no

better than an ordinary form of aeroplane.

Probably the greatest value obtained from the countless

experiments and discoveries in kite construction and im-provements is the knowledge secured by the United States

Weather Bureau by means of kites.

By elevating meteorological instruments with kites of the

Hargrave, Bell, or other forms records are obtained at high

altitudes, and most valuable information has been gained

in regard to weather conditions and phenomena in this

manner.

Each experiment made with kites or balloons helped tow-

ard solving the problems of flight, and vast numbers of

experiments were carried on by numerous scientific men

long before the Wrights even dreamed of flying.

Professor Langley constructed a model which actually

241




flew; Maxim built a huge aeroplane that destroyed itself

and its supports by its lifting-power; and Chanute and others

built practical gliders that, save for the motor, were very

similar to our modern aeroplanes.

Although so very new in actual results, yet aviation is

really very old, and many brilliant and earnest men have

devoted their time, money, and brains for many years to

attempts to conquer the air.

The Wright brothers made aeroplanes actually practical,

it is true, but during the same period that they were carry-

ing on their experiments in secret various American and

European aviators were also accomplishing most astonish-

ing results.

Santos Dumont actually flew in 1906; Farman in 1907

proved to all Europe that human flight was possible; and

Voisin, Bleriot, and many others obtained equally note-

worthy results.

The sudden advances made in aviation at that time and

the ultimate success of the aeroplane were due, not to any

one man or to any new discoveries in regard to aircraft, but

to the perfection of the gasolene-engine.

The explosive motor solved the problem of human flight;

it enabled us to produce submarines; it made possible the

modern automobile and the motor -boat, and to the in-

ventors of this wonderful compact, light, and powerful

motor should be given the credit for our conquest of the air.



INDEX

Flying Dutchmen, 237.

Flying-models, 68.

Flying-yachts, 192.

Forms of aviation motors, 149.

Freak aircraft, 238.

Friction-winders, 48.

Frontier motor, 157.

Fuselage, 120.

Gallaudet Bullet, 140.

Gliders, 77, 78.

Glue, 53.

Gnome motors, 153.

Ground-fliers, 61.

Gyro motor, 153.

H

Hargrave box-kites, 240.

Hargrave kites, 5.

Heads, 17.

Head resistance, 10.

Heinrich monoplanes, 138.

Helicopters, 237.

Horizontal motors, 150.

How to build a glider, 88.

How to build an Ideal Wright biplane,

161.

How to build miniature hydroaero-

planes, 197.

How to build racers, 41.

How to fly a model, 69.

How to make a measuring device, 74.

Hydroaeroplanes, 185.

Hydroaeroplane models, 65.

Hydroplanes, 186.

I

Ideal friction-winder, 48.

Ideal propeller-blanks, 40.

Inherent stability, 15.

International aeroplane records, 229.

Introduction, i.

J

Japanese fliers, 55.

Jibs, 27.

Justrite motor, 155.

K

Kemp motor, 157.

Kirkham motor, 157.

Knabenshue airship, 235.

Laminated propellers, 122.

Lateral control, 22.

Lateral stability, 22.

Lauder duration model, 60.

Long-distance fliers, 35.

Loop-the-loop glider, 34.

M

Making a glide, 85.

Mann model, 36-42.

Measuring flights, 74.

Mercury motor, 158.

Miniature aeroplanes, 159.

Miniature flying-boats, 214.Miscellaneous aircraft, 231.

Miss Columbia flying-boat, 194.

Model aeroplanes, 31.

Model clubs, 31.

Model gliders, 112.

Model hydroaeroplanes, 65.

Model machines, 31.

Model records, 42.

Monoplanes, 118, 125.

Monoplane gliders, 107.

Montgomery gliders, 107.

Motors, 143.

Moving bodies in the air, II.

Multiplanes, 119.

N

Nieuport monoplane model, 168.

Operation of four-cycle motor, 147.

Operation of rotating-motor, 152.

Operation of two-cycle motor, 145.

Opposed motors, 150.

Ornithopters, 238.

244



INDEX

Parabolic curves, 7.

Parts of aeroplanes, 120.

Peoli racer, 49.

Pierce machine, 36-53.

Pigeon-tail, 130.

Planes, 5, 120.

Point of pressure, 7.

Pontoons, 187.

Principles of gliding, 82.

Propellers, 122.

Pylons, 125.

R

Racers, 31.

Radial motors, 150.

Reaction, 4.

Red Devil biplanes, 132.

Renault motors, 158.

Resistance, 10.

Roberts motors, 157.

Rotating-motors, 152.

Rudders, 17, 18.

Rules for model contests, 70.

Running-gear, 120.

Santos Dumont, 117.

Sensations of flying, 224.

Silk fabric, 38.

Simple experiments, 9.

Simple models, 33.

Single-surfaced planes, 104.

Skeeter models, 33.

Skin friction, 12.

Some facts and figures, 225.

Speed-o-planes, 35.

Stability, 13.

Star motors, 150.

Stationary motors, 152.

Steering in the air, 17.

Stream-line form, II.

Sturtevant motor, 157.

Surfaces, 5.

Tandem surfaces, 119.

Tetrahedral kites, 5, 239.

The flying-boats, 192.

Thomas biplanes, 130.

Tools and materials, 36.

Tractors, 124.

Triplanes, 119.

Two-cycle motors, 145.

Types of aeroplanes, 117.

Types of gliders, 79.

Types of monoplanes, 136.

U

Uses of the aeroplane, 218.

Using a monoplane glider, no.

Vanniman's airship, 233.

Vertical motors, 149, 150.

Vertical rudders, 24.

Voisin-Canards, 27.

Volplane, 17.

V-shaped motors, 150.

WWaldron monoplane, 140.

Warping-wings, 20, 125.

Winders, 48.

Wood, 36, 39.

Wright aeroplanes, 118, 127.

Wright brothers, 117, 127.

Wright motors, 157.

Zephyr Skin, 38.

Zeppelin airship, 232.

THE END



14 DAY USERETURN TO DESK FROM WHICH BORROWED

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SENT ON ILL

OCT 2 1 199**

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REC.CJRC.196

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Harpers Aircraft b 00 Ver r Rich

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