Han and non-Han Imperial WomenReadings:

“Imperial marriage in the Native Chinese and non-Han State, Han to Ming”

OR“The Harem in Northern Wei Politics, 398-493 AD: A Study of Tuoba attitudes towards the institution of empress dowager and regency governments in the Chinese dynastic system during early Northern Wei” in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. The Northern Wei (398-493):

OR“Family, Marriage and Political Power in Sixth Century China: A study of the Gao Family of the Northern Qi, c.520-550”, in Holmgren, Jennifer, Marriage, Kinship and Power in Northern China. pp VI, 1-50.

OR“ Politics of the Inner Court under the Hou-chu (Last Lord of the Northern Qi, ca. 565-73” in Dien, Albert E., ed., State and society in early medieval China, pp 269-330.

Women in Non-Han Dynasties Introduction Alien Rule in China Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices: Empire Building

– Empire Building through Marriage Alliances: The Northern Qi Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices: Succession

– Succession Problems: Northern Qi Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices: Marriage

– Northern Wei– Northern Qi: Remarriages of Imperial Women– Qing: Marriage preferences of the Imperial Family

Women and Power– Sui Dynasty– Tang Dynasty– Yuan– Qing

Introduction

For about half of recorded history, China had been ruled either in part or wholly by peoples of non-Han origin.– Yan 燕 dynasties (Xianbei 鲜卑 ) (285-437)– Sixteen States era (316-399)

4 different Xiongnu 匈奴 kingdoms 4 different Qiang/Di 羌 /氐 dynasties

– Northern Dynasties (non-Han) (399-581) Northern Wei 北魏 Northern Qi 北齐 Northern Zhou 北周

– Sui (Mixed) 隋 (581-617) – Tang (Mixed) 唐 (618-906)

Introduction (2)

Liao (Qidan) 辽 (907-1125) Xi Xia (Tanguts) 西夏 (c.982-1227) Five Dynasties Era

– Later Tang (Turk)  后唐 (923-936)– Later Jin (Turk) 后晋 (936-948)– Later Han (Turk) 后汉 (946-950)

Jin (Jurchen) 金 (1115-1234) Yuan (Mongol) 元 (1260-1368) Qing (Manchu) 请 (1644-1911)

Introduction (3) The people of Han origin lived within China:The people of Han origin lived within China:

– The majority were farmers who lived in villages.The majority were farmers who lived in villages.– Some were merchants and lived in towns or cities.Some were merchants and lived in towns or cities.– A small number were the “elite” – those who were educated A small number were the “elite” – those who were educated

and had official positions.and had official positions. The people of non-Han origin who were able to conquer China The people of non-Han origin who were able to conquer China

and rule either in the north or all of China had come from the and rule either in the north or all of China had come from the north.north.– They were originally nomads – traveled from place to place They were originally nomads – traveled from place to place

depending on the seasons so that their animals can have depending on the seasons so that their animals can have food.food.

– The climate and living was harsh.The climate and living was harsh.– They had no written languages.They had no written languages.– They were good fighters.They were good fighters.

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Alien Rule in China

Conquests by non-Chinese nomadic groups can be divided into:– The nomads who conquered China as a whole, or – The nomads who took only North China, leaving

the South under national rule. All nomadic empires before the Mongols (Yuan)

were only able to conquer the north. Only the Mongols (Yuan) and the Manchus (Qing) –

descended of the Jurchens -- were able to conquer all of China.

Alien Rule in China (2)

Alien dynasties tried to control through multi-racial rule – different regulations for different ethnic groups. Example:– Qing dynasty was identified as the ruler of five peoples –

Manchus, Mongols, Tibetans, Uyghurs and Chinese.– These five languages were accepted as the official

languages. All the non-Han dynasties employed Han government

services but gave high positions to their own tribal leaders. These alien dynasties may have adopted Chinese practices

but Chinese civilization changed over time as they absorbed foreign elements and so the concept of “Chineseness” is broadened.

Alien Rule in China (3)

Chinese historians have all seen these non-Han rulers as legitimate Sons of Heaven.– The claims of these non-Han rulers to the Mandate of

Heaven was not questioned.– Their quality was judged from a practical point of view

with little regard to the ethnic factor.– The ethnic identities were not highlighted nor are they

hidden. Chinese historians felt that political survival was more

important than questions of ethnicity.– While the Chinese accepted alien rule, there was still power struggles

between the Chinese and the tribal leaders and racial hatred was a problem for the emperor who had to balance these groups.

Alien Rule in China (6)

The successful non-Han emperor tried to rule his multi-cultural people differently -- being sensitive to their tribal traditions.

As the emperor felt more secure he usually preferred to adopt the Chinese system of government as it allowed him to:– Centralize power – Control succession, and – Gain the acceptance of the majority of his subjects

who are Chinese. This, most often, would lead to rebellion of the tribal

leaders who see the erosion of their powers.

Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices:Empire Building

Han– Rebellions:

Han and Ming– Usurpations:

Xin during the Han Jin 晋 during the

Three Kingdoms Period

Southern Dynasties– Conquests:

Ten Kingdoms

Non-Han:– Conquests:

Sixteen Kingdoms Period

Northern Wei Five Dynasties Yuan Qing

– Marriage Alliances

Empire Building through Marriage Alliances: The Northern Qi

Gao Huan’s first wife, Lou, gave him the initial money to get started.

Lady Erzhu gave him claim to the Erzhu forces and territories.

Lady Li gave him some access to the Chinese official class.

Lady Cheng gave him contacts with clans who had held important posts during ED Ling’s rule.

Lady Feng gave him access to the Feng clan which had dominated the Northern Wei rule for many years.

Lady Yu gave knowledge of the rites for ceremonial occasions.

Lady Mu gave him access to the Northern Wei elites. The princess of Rouran allied him with her people.

Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices:Succession

Chinese model is lineal succession.

Primogeniture – the eldest son of the empress or if she has no son then the eldest son would succeed.

The senior widow and her relatives managed the court during the rule of an underage emperor.

The maternal relatives achieved power and controlled the court for several reigns.

The non-Han model was election of best candidate for the leadership.

Leaders were selected on the basis of maturity, military power and competence, regents ruled for a short time between the death of one ruler and the election of the next.

Consort families participated in government as heads of tribal units.

Fraternal succession was preferred as it would mean that mature leaders are in charge.

Succession Problems: Northern Qi

Gao Huan had at least 15 sons; six were the offspring of the main consort, Empress Dowager Lou.

After his death, in 547, his eldest son, Gao Cheng (Wenxiangdi: r. 547-550) controlled the puppet Eastern Wei regime.

Gao Cheng was able to hold the loyalty of most of the Eastern Wei leadership and expand the domains of the empire.

Gao Cheng was probably assassinated by his brother Gao Yang (Wenxuandi: r.550-9) who arrived to take control and executed the assassins -- two of Gao Cheng’s advisors fled the murder scene instead of protecting Gao Cheng and these very two became close advisors of Gao Yang.

Succession Problems: Northern Qi (2)

In 550, Gao Yang dictated the abdication of the last Eastern Wei emperor and formally ascended the throne as the first Northern Qi emperor.

Gao Yang executed two of the older and more influential half-brothers.

Prior to his death in 559, Gao Yang asked his next eldest brother, the future Xiaozhao (r. 560-1), not to kill Gao Yang’s son and heir should Xiaozhao decide to seize the throne.

When Gao Yang died, his son, Feidi ascended the throne but the grandmother, Grand Empress Dowager Lou preferred that her next eldest son, Xiaozhao, ascend the throne rather than her grandson.

Succession Problems: Northern Qi (3)

Feidi, reigned for less than one year before he was deposed by his grandmother.

Emperor Xiaozhao promised his mother that he would not murder the young deposed Feidi; however, ill omens were interpreted as indicating that the deposed emperor would re-ascend the throne so Xiaozhao had him strangled in 560.

In late 560 Xiaozhao made his son Bainian his heir and it upset his brother, Gao Zhan, who had expected to succeed him.

In 561, Xiaozhao was critically injured after falling from a horse and asked his brother Gao Zhan to spare the life of his son and consort but on ascending the throne as Wuchengdi (r.561-5-9), Gao Zhan ordered the death of Bainian.

Succession Problems : Northern Qi (4)

From late 563 through mid 565 Wuchengdi engaged in a series of institutional reforms designed to get resources for the imperial center, strengthen border defenses and finally, stabilize the succession.

He retired in 565 making his son the emperor but retained power in his own hands as the Retired Emperor.

He hoped that it would be more difficult to topple his son. After Wuchengdi died, Houzhu reigned until the sudden

collapse of the dynasty in 576, a full 7 years. With the exception of Gao Cheng who had inherited

power from his father, Gao Huan, at the beginning of the dynasty, Houzhu’s succession was the only successful primogenital succession in the history of the dynasty.

Contrasting Han and Non-Han Practices: Marriage

The Chinese practiced serial monogamy with concubinage.

Women were given a dowry which was inherited by her children after her death.

Family property was divided after the death of the senior patriarch.

The senior widow and her relatives managed the court during the rule of an underage emperor.

Power at the Chinese court moved between three official forces: the emperor, the senior widow, and members of the bureaucracy.

When the maternal relatives occupied senior positions in the bureaucracy, members of the bureaucracy had less power.

The non-Han marriage was:– A polygynous arrangement whereby all wives

or a group of senior wives had equal status,.– A widow can be taken in by another male in

the family through the levirate—marriage to a brother, uncle, nephew, or son of the late husband.

– Cross generational marriages were practiced.– Intermarriage with the paternal line was

permitted after a given number of generations.

– Women were integrated into the husband’s family so that they sometimes received a personal share of the husband’s inheritance apart from that given to the male offspring.

– Since a woman was integrated into the husband’s family, it was difficult for her relatives to achieve power.

– Once the non-Han ruled China they began to have a problem of women becoming powerful.

Northern Qi: Remarriages of the Imperial Women

The nomadic custom of levirate was practiced and wives of one ruler would be passed to his successor:– One of Gao Huan’s wives had two husbands before she

married him.– At least two of his wives remarried after his death. – 50% of the wives and concubines of Northern Qi rulers

with biographies who lived long enough to remarry did so. – 75% of women with biographies as empresses remarried. – 1/3 of the women who remarried became wives of the

incoming ruler -- usually a brother of the late husband. – 13% of the concubines remarried a Gao family member.

Women and Power: Northern WeiWomen and Power: Northern WeiMarriage Policy

Marriage Policy was used by the Northern Wei to prevent women and their families from achieving power.– The Tuoba 拓拔 , a clan of Xianbei 鮮卑 ethnicity,

adopted the Chinese principle of primogeniture but not succession by a son of the empress.

– Almost all empresses came from the royal families of recently conquered non-Chinese states – the naming of an empress was used to capture the loyalty of recently conquered peoples.

– These women did not have influential relatives at court and were preferred as their families posed no threat to the authority of the Tuoba elite—ruler’s male agnates.

Appointment of an empress was considered politically dangerous and not necessary and so often no empress was named.

Women and Power: Women and Power: Northern WeiSeparation of Wife’s Biological and Political

Roles To further prevent maternal relatives from taking

power, the Tuoba tried to separate the wife’s biological function of producing an heir from her political role. – Mothers of eldest sons were never named empress in their

lifetimes and might be made to commit suicide after the son was named heir to the throne.

– Eldest sons were taken from their natural mothers and assigned to the care of a concubine with few influential relatives at court.

– Mothers of the heirs were often ordered to commit suicide.– Women were chosen as empresses on the basis of their

previous lack of children and their low social status.– Empresses were named on an irregular basis and were

childless. – They did not act as titular or foster mothers to eldest sons.

Women and Power: Women and Power: Northern WeiThe Power of Foster Mothers

The Northern Wei was unable to prevent women and their allies from becoming powerful despite the law on suicide of the mothers of the heir and ensuring that the sons were brought up by foster mothers.

The foster mothers, became powerful through their influence on the emperor that they had brought up.

Examples:– As Gaozong’s foster mother, Lady Chang arranged

for him to marry another captive woman from the Northern Yan, Lady Feng, who would later become empress rule twice as regent.

– The naming of consort from the Feng family may have been Lady Chang’s strategies to maintain her privileged position in the harem and to protect the interests of Northern Yan.

Women and Power: Women and Power: Northern Wei: The Power of Foster Mothers

Empress Dowager Feng Wentong (442-490CE), from the Northern Yan, was the wife of Gaozong who ruled the Northern Wei as regent for both her foster son and her foster grandson (r.471-499).– Her brother was her only close relative and she was able to share

the traditional positions for relatives at court between him and members of the Chang clan.

– She kept the emperor’s maternal relatives from power.– The sinicization of the Northern Wei was carried out under her

guidance.– She filled the key positions in her grandson’s harem with her

brother’s daughters and brought his sons into the palace as his companions.

– The nephews were later married to Tuoba princesses. – Even after Feng’s death in 490 her grandson was unable to escape

her influence: His harem was filled with her nieces. His ministers had been chosen by her. His eldest son had been brought up by her.

Women and Power: Northern ZhouWomen and Power: Northern ZhouThe Establishment of the SuiThe Establishment of the Sui

Empress Yang Lihua Empress Yang Lihua 楊麗華楊麗華 (561-609) was the principal empress (561-609) was the principal empress of of Emperor Xuandi (r.579-579) of the Northern Zhou (557-581). Emperor Xuandi (r.579-579) of the Northern Zhou (557-581).

She had married when she was 12 and her husband was 14.She had married when she was 12 and her husband was 14. The daughter of the powerful Yang Jian The daughter of the powerful Yang Jian 楊堅 楊堅 (r.581-604) was the (r.581-604) was the

principal empress ofprincipal empress of Xuandi had five empresses.Xuandi had five empresses.

– The fifth Empress was already married and the husband’s The fifth Empress was already married and the husband’s family was insulted family was insulted and rebelled but the rebellion was crushed.and rebelled but the rebellion was crushed.

He then wanted to name this woman as the principal Empress He then wanted to name this woman as the principal Empress but to do so he would have to eliminate her powerful family but to do so he would have to eliminate her powerful family which then successfully rebelled after Xuandi’s death in 580.which then successfully rebelled after Xuandi’s death in 580.

Yang Jian then established the Sui dynasty (Yang Jian then established the Sui dynasty (581-618) and went on to unite all of China under the rule of a family of mixed ethnicity.

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Women and Power: Sui DynastyWomen and Power: Sui DynastyEmpress WenxianEmpress Wenxian

Empress Wenxian (b.544-602), wife of the founding Empress Wenxian (b.544-602), wife of the founding emperor, was from a powerful and long sinicized emperor, was from a powerful and long sinicized Xiongnu clan which had inter-married with the great Xiongnu clan which had inter-married with the great families of Northern Wei for centuries; she was a families of Northern Wei for centuries; she was a literate and cultivated woman with strong political literate and cultivated woman with strong political instincts. instincts.

The Emperor and the Empress were very close and the The Emperor and the Empress were very close and the palace attendants called them palace attendants called them ““the two sage-emperorsthe two sage-emperors””. .

She would ride with him in the carriage to the audience She would ride with him in the carriage to the audience hall and wait in side room. hall and wait in side room.

Her eunuchs would be inside the hall observing and Her eunuchs would be inside the hall observing and reporting. reporting.

When his policy decisions seemed to be mistaken she When his policy decisions seemed to be mistaken she would admonish him and when the audience was over would admonish him and when the audience was over they would go back together to their palace quarters.they would go back together to their palace quarters.

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Women and Power: Sui DynastyWomen and Power: Sui DynastyEmpress Wenxian (2)Empress Wenxian (2)

When she was about 50 years of age, her husband was attracted by When she was about 50 years of age, her husband was attracted by the charms of a young woman and she secretly killed the girl. the charms of a young woman and she secretly killed the girl.

As she became older, she became more jealous and started prying As she became older, she became more jealous and started prying into the lives and sexual habits of everyone including her sons.into the lives and sexual habits of everyone including her sons.

When the heir’s principal consort suddenly died she became very When the heir’s principal consort suddenly died she became very suspicious as the heir was infatuated with his favorite concubine.suspicious as the heir was infatuated with his favorite concubine.

The second son, Yang Guang, saw an opportunity to plot his The second son, Yang Guang, saw an opportunity to plot his brotherbrother’’s downfall and to become the heir.s downfall and to become the heir.

He and his supporters made up evidence to mislead the suspicious He and his supporters made up evidence to mislead the suspicious empress and so the heir was deposed and he was named heir. empress and so the heir was deposed and he was named heir.

After her death, the emperor lost interest in government and After her death, the emperor lost interest in government and handed over the management of state affairs to Yang Guang.handed over the management of state affairs to Yang Guang.

Yang Guang became Emperor Yangdi Yang Guang became Emperor Yangdi 隋煬帝隋煬帝 (569-618).(569-618).

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Women and Power: Tang Dynasty: Tang DynastyThe Usurpation of Empress WuThe Usurpation of Empress Wu

The most famous powerful woman in Chinese history The most famous powerful woman in Chinese history was Wu Zetian, the only woman who ruled as emperor was Wu Zetian, the only woman who ruled as emperor of China for 15 years (r. 690-705). of China for 15 years (r. 690-705).

She had helped her husband administer the empire as She had helped her husband administer the empire as he was ill.he was ill.

She increasingly assumed more power and got rid of She increasingly assumed more power and got rid of her two of her sons then became the regent for her her two of her sons then became the regent for her third son.third son.

A few months later, she exiled him and became regent A few months later, she exiled him and became regent for the fourth son, Ruizong for the fourth son, Ruizong 睿宗 睿宗 (r.684-690; 710-712).(r.684-690; 710-712).

In 690, she made Ruizong abdicate and she proclaimed In 690, she made Ruizong abdicate and she proclaimed herself emperor of a new dynasty, the Zhou dynasty herself emperor of a new dynasty, the Zhou dynasty (690-705).(690-705).

When she was 80 years old, she finally recalled her When she was 80 years old, she finally recalled her third son, Zhongzong (r. 705-710).third son, Zhongzong (r. 705-710).

Women and Power: : Tang Dynasty: Yang Guifei and the An Lushan

Rebellion Emperor Xuanzong fell in love with Yang (719-756)

who was married to his son, Li Mao ( 李瑁 ). The Emperor arranged for her to become a Daoist

nun inside the palace and gave the daughter of the general Wei Zhaoxun ( 韋昭訓 ) to Li Mao as his new wife and princess.

He officially made Yang an imperial consort -- with the newly created highest rank of Noble Consort Guifei.– Statue in Sian

Women and Power: : Tang Dynasty: Yang Guifei and the An Lushan

Rebellion (2) When the important military commander, jiedushi, An Lushan

arrived at the capital to meet Emperor Xuanzong, Emperor Xuanzong had An honor Yang as mother with free access into the palace and it was rumored that he and Yang were having an affair.

An Lushan was later provoked into rebelling when his staff members in the capital were arrested and executed.

When An and his forces were marching to the capital (756) the Emperor, Consort Yang, her family, and his immediate clan members, headed toward Chengdu.

When the soldiers complained that they were not being fed, they surrounded the Emperor’s pavilion, and urged that Yang be put to death as they felt that it was her family that caused this trouble.

The Emperor was forced to have Yang taken to a Buddhist shrine and strangled.

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Women and Power: Women and Power: Qing DynastyQing DynastyMarriage Patterns

Manchu marriages with Mongol nobles increased as the Manchu marriages with Mongol nobles increased as the Qing armies expanded into central Asia in the late 17C Qing armies expanded into central Asia in the late 17C and early 18C. and early 18C. – 25% of empresses, 16% of princes’ wives, and 55% of 25% of empresses, 16% of princes’ wives, and 55% of

princesses’ spouses were Mongol. princesses’ spouses were Mongol. Empresses and principal wives of princes and husbands Empresses and principal wives of princes and husbands

of princesses came from a small number of favored of princesses came from a small number of favored houses. houses. – Of the 641 Manchu clans, only 31 were favored with Of the 641 Manchu clans, only 31 were favored with

marriage. marriage. The number of empresses and concubines, The number of empresses and concubines,

important enough to have biographies, ranged from important enough to have biographies, ranged from Kangxi with 40 to Guangxu with only 3 – Kangxi Kangxi with 40 to Guangxu with only 3 – Kangxi lived a long life and Guangxu did not.lived a long life and Guangxu did not.

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Women and Power: Qing DynastyWomen and Power: Qing DynastyMarriage Patterns (2)Marriage Patterns (2)

For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took For political purposes, the early Manchu emperors took wives descended from the descendants of Genghis Khan, wives descended from the descendants of Genghis Khan, so that their descendants would also be seen as so that their descendants would also be seen as legitimate heirs of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty.legitimate heirs of the Mongolian Yuan dynasty.– The imperial family only married with banner families.The imperial family only married with banner families.– All Manchu, not only the imperial family, were All Manchu, not only the imperial family, were

forbidden to marry Han Chinese who were not in the forbidden to marry Han Chinese who were not in the Eight Banners.Eight Banners. Any who disobeyed this rule would be punished and Any who disobeyed this rule would be punished and

their offsprings expelled from the lineage.their offsprings expelled from the lineage. Han Chinese, not in the banners, could be taken in Han Chinese, not in the banners, could be taken in

as concubines. as concubines.

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Women and Power: Women and Power: Qing Dynasty: Qing Dynasty: Recruitment of Palace WomenRecruitment of Palace Women

Recruitment of women into the palace was done every three Recruitment of women into the palace was done every three years through drafting of daughters of officials in the years through drafting of daughters of officials in the banners. banners. – Except for certain individuals, every girl, between the Except for certain individuals, every girl, between the

ages of 13 to 14 ages of 13 to 14 sui. sui. had to appear in Beijing for had to appear in Beijing for consideration before her marriage.consideration before her marriage.

– After 1653, young girls between 13-14 had to be After 1653, young girls between 13-14 had to be presented to the palace in Beijing before they could be presented to the palace in Beijing before they could be betrothed. betrothed. Those who caught the emperor’s eye would be selected Those who caught the emperor’s eye would be selected

for the harem. for the harem. Some were be chosen to be wives for the princes, Some were be chosen to be wives for the princes,

others served in the palace for a five-year term. others served in the palace for a five-year term. Palace maids selected through a separate draft could be Palace maids selected through a separate draft could be

promoted into the harem – 16% became imperial consorts.promoted into the harem – 16% became imperial consorts.

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Women and Power: Qing DynastyImperial Women

The influence of imperial women was feared by the The influence of imperial women was feared by the Manchu. Manchu. – In the struggle for power, Nurhaci’s senior widow, In the struggle for power, Nurhaci’s senior widow,

Abahai, was forced to commit suicide and was buried Abahai, was forced to commit suicide and was buried with her husband. with her husband.

– Huang Taiji might have been acceptable as his mother Huang Taiji might have been acceptable as his mother had died by the time he became the leader of the had died by the time he became the leader of the Manchu and there would be no strong maternal Manchu and there would be no strong maternal influence during his rule. influence during his rule.

– The mother of Yongzhen emperor was separated from The mother of Yongzhen emperor was separated from her son soon after his birth, so Yongzhen was raised her son soon after his birth, so Yongzhen was raised by another imperial woman (d.1689) who was of noble by another imperial woman (d.1689) who was of noble ancestry and whose only daughter had died.ancestry and whose only daughter had died. Yongzhen was very close to his foster mother.Yongzhen was very close to his foster mother.

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Women and Power: Qing DynastyImperial Women (2)

To prevent palace women and their families from To prevent palace women and their families from power, palace regulations made it almost impossible for power, palace regulations made it almost impossible for an imperial consort to remain close to her natal kin. an imperial consort to remain close to her natal kin. – Visits home were rare and demanded that her Visits home were rare and demanded that her

parents and grandparents kneel before her. parents and grandparents kneel before her. – Imperial permission was needed for meetings with Imperial permission was needed for meetings with

parents – when a woman was pregnant or when her parents – when a woman was pregnant or when her parents were elderly.parents were elderly.

– Special permission was needed for them to send Special permission was needed for them to send servants to their family homes as messengers.servants to their family homes as messengers.

– They were forbidden to give or receive gifts from They were forbidden to give or receive gifts from family members. family members.

Motherhood usually brought promotion to the woman Motherhood usually brought promotion to the woman but the title of Empress Dowager was usually conferred but the title of Empress Dowager was usually conferred upon her by her son should he become emperor. upon her by her son should he become emperor.

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Women and Power: Qing DynastyWomen and Power: Qing DynastyImperial Women (3)Imperial Women (3)

The women who survived the power struggles became The women who survived the power struggles became very influential:very influential:– After the death of Huang Taiji (1643), the mother of After the death of Huang Taiji (1643), the mother of

the infant (Fulin: Shunzi), who was descended from the infant (Fulin: Shunzi), who was descended from Genghis khan became very important. Genghis khan became very important.

– She allied herself with prominent Manchu nobles who She allied herself with prominent Manchu nobles who were not imperial kinsmen but had been active in the were not imperial kinsmen but had been active in the conquest.conquest.

– She brought up her grandson, the future Kangxi She brought up her grandson, the future Kangxi emperor, and helped him get rid of the regent, Oboi, emperor, and helped him get rid of the regent, Oboi, and rule in his own right. and rule in his own right.

– Her political role during her son’s infancy and the Her political role during her son’s infancy and the regency of her grandson could be compared with that regency of her grandson could be compared with that of Empress Dowager Cixi who dominated the last 50 of Empress Dowager Cixi who dominated the last 50 years of the dynasty.years of the dynasty.

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Women and Power: Qing DynastyImperial Women (4)

Two regents, Cian (1837-1881) and Cixi (1835-1908), Two regents, Cian (1837-1881) and Cixi (1835-1908), dominated the final years of the Qing and ruled together dominated the final years of the Qing and ruled together after the death of Emperor Xianfeng together with the after the death of Emperor Xianfeng together with the emperor’s half-brothers.emperor’s half-brothers.– Cian was the daughter of a Duke and was the empress Cian was the daughter of a Duke and was the empress

of Xianfeng emperor (r.1850-1861).of Xianfeng emperor (r.1850-1861).– She became a regent as she was the former She became a regent as she was the former

empress.empress.– She had been named empress at the age of 16.She had been named empress at the age of 16.– She had no sons and so the 6 year-old son of a She had no sons and so the 6 year-old son of a

concubine (Cixi) succeeded to the throne as concubine (Cixi) succeeded to the throne as Emperor Tongzhi (1856-1875).Emperor Tongzhi (1856-1875).

– Cixci, Xianfeng’s concubine, became regent as she Cixci, Xianfeng’s concubine, became regent as she was the biological mother of empeor Tongzhi.was the biological mother of empeor Tongzhi. As Empress Dowager, Cixi was de facto ruler As Empress Dowager, Cixi was de facto ruler

during the last years of the Qing dynasty.during the last years of the Qing dynasty.

Women and PowerWomen and Power

Discussion Question:Discussion Question:– Were non-Han women able to achieve the same Were non-Han women able to achieve the same

level of political power as Han women?level of political power as Han women?

3636

Women in the Chinese MilitaryReading:

Young, Helen Praeger, Choosing Revolution: Chinese Women on the Long March, “Introduction” and “Conclusion”.