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Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222SECTION ONE: VALUES AND CRITERIATHIS SECTION DEALS WITH VALUES – PRO AND CON

THE CASE FOR DEONTOLOGY

1. GOOD WILL IS HIGHEST/SUPREME GOOD

George Kerner, philosopher, THREE PHILOSOPHICAL MORALISTS: MILL, KANT, AND SARTRE, 1990, p.83.According to Kant, what is really important in life and makes it worth living is not happiness or pleasure but acting from a good will. In the Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals he begins by saying that nothing is good 'without qualification' or 'limitation' but a good will. By this he means first that a good will is the supreme or the highest good, and second, that it is good in itself, that is, good regardless of its tendency to produce results which on independent grounds--hedonistic or otherwise--may be deemed desirable.

2. DEONTICS PRESERVES RESPECT FOR PERSONS

Louis Lombardi, Pf. philosophy at Lake Forest College, MORAL ANALYSIS, 1988, p.11.Kant's approach to ethics captures an important sense of personal integrity. This is often described in terms of acting on principle--even if such action requires personal sacrifices. Kant's avoidance of considerations of happiness or desire is consistent with this. One acts out of respect for persons, no matter what the consequences.

3. RESULTS DO NOT JUSTIFY MEANS

H. J. Paton, Pf. philosophy, THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, 1971, p.61.We have seen that a morally good action cannot have as its determining motive any mere inclination to produce certain results. If this is so, and if the maxim of an action is, as it were, a generalisation of the action and its motive, it follows at once that the moral maxim is not based on any mere inclination to produce certain results; it holds irrespective of the ends which the action is intended to produce.

4. TAKES DEBATE BEYOND DESCRIPTIVE LEVEL

H. J. Paton, Pf. philosophy, THE CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE, 1971, p.21.Empirical judgements are always judgements of fact. Experience can tell us what is, and it cannot tell us anything more. Moral judgements tell us what ought to be, or what ought to be done, or what we ought to do.

5. IS POSSIBLE FOR PERSONS TO FOLLOW MORAL LAW

Jaakko Hintikka, Pf. philosophy at Stanford, DEONTIC LOGIC, 1971, p.86.Moral freedom, for Kant, lies in the very fact that a man can act in the way he ought to act. On the other hand, Kant tells his readers that a man exercises this freedom in so far as he is a member of that noumenal world to which he occasionally assimilates his 'Kingdom of Ends' and which on any showing behaves like the latter. Thus the fact that the moral law is followed in that possible world which Kant calls the 'Kingdom of Ends' or the 'noumenal world' is for him a ground for claiming that it is possible for a man to follow the moral law.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222

6. FORBIDS SENSELESS KILLING

Louis Lombardi, Pf. philosophy at Lake Forest College, MORAL ANALYSIS, 1988, p.10.For Kant, then, it is reason that determines what our duties are. If we looked simply to our desires and interests, we might find many cases in which even killing could be justified.

THE CASE AGAINST DEONTOLOGY

1. NO PRACTICAL APPLICATION FOR EXTREME CASES

Louis Lombardi, Pf. philosophy at Lake Forest College, MORAL ANALYSIS, 1988, p.15.Cases in which severe, harmful consequences are likely may provide legitimate exceptions to common rules. A strict deontological theory cannot account for these cases because they raise considerations that do not fit such a system. Human beings are not just rational agents; they have physical needs and wants. Morality must take account of these.

2. DIFFICULT TO DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN DEONTIC AND LOGICAL IMPLICATIONS

Jaakko Hintikka, Pf. philosophy at Stanford, DEONTIC LOGIC, 1971, p.87.From this point of view, the obscurity of many of Kant's formulations will be but another illustration of the difficulty of telling deontic implications from logical ones--a difficulty from which modern philosophers have not been found exempt, either.

3. DEONTICALLY PERFECT WORLD OF DOUBTFUL VALUE

Fred Feldman, Pf. philosophy at U. Mass-Amherst, DOING THE BEST WE CAN, 1986, p.182.This approach is seriously flawed. The main problem seems to be that the concept of the deontically perfect world is of doubtful value. We have already seen that one person's obligations may shift from time to time.

4. DEONTICS USES FLAWED LOGIC

James Forrester, author/researcher, WHY YOU SHOULD, 1988, pp.225-26.To say that the morally deontic should be attended by rewards and sanctions is either useless or implausible. Implausibility is present when the 'should' is taken as pragmatic, for it is not always practical to enforce morals. But if the 'should' is moral, it is at best circular to assume without argument a substantive moral claim, presumably binding on all, as a basis for arguing that some substantive moral claims are binding on everyone.

5. FAVORABLE TO CHOOSE NON-DEONTIC SPEECH

James Forrester, author/researcher, WHY YOU SHOULD, 1988, p.73.Often, deontic speech is not the only way to get people to behave as one wishes. One can give suggestions or examples or look for ways to make the task attractive. Of course, one can always resort to threats or to force. Deontic speech is often more practical than these last two alternatives, I suppose, but on the whole, where nondeontic means will do the job as well as deontic speech, it is best to choose the nondeontic alternative.

6. MUST REJECT DEONTIC MORALITY TO GET TO BETTER WORLD


George Kerner, philosopher, THREE PHILOSOPHICAL MORALISTS: MILL, KANT, AND SARTRE, 1990, p.101.To go against the rules of how things are done, particularly when those rules are sanctioned by society, custom, or some other authority, is, in a sense, wrong. But it cannot be said to be wrong absolutely, for we cannot assume that the accepted social practices, institutions, and their rules are themselves ethically justified. It may be that morality sometimes demands that those rules be broken or even that a whole social practice or institution be scrapped.

THE CASE AGAINST DEONTOLOGY (cont.)

7. KANT'S FORMALISM JUST 'FANTASTIC ILLUSION'

George Kerner, philosopher, THREE PHILOSOPHICAL MORALISTS: MILL, KANT, AND SARTRE, 1990, p.107.So it has become clear that Kant's formalism fails. This is a pity, because it is exactly in this feature of his doctrine that his originality lies and on which his fame is based. The universability-with-consistency argument, as we may call it, does not, unfortunately, get us anywhere. So far, anyhow, we must judge that Kant's thesis that there is an objective ground of morality which lies 'solely a priori in the concepts of pure reason' is a fantastic illusion.

8. DEONTICS USES CIRCULAR LOGIC

Fred Feldman, Pf. philosophy at U. Mass-Amherst, DOING THE BEST WE CAN, 1986, p.182.A second problem with this approach is its circularity. Deontic perfection is defined in terms of obligation. That is, a deontically perfect world is one in which all obligations are fulfilled. In order to determine whether a world is deontically perfect relative to a given world, we have to know what's obligatory in the given world, among other things. This may be no defect for some projects, but if we hope to give a non-circular explication of some concept of obligation, it clearly would be a problem.

9. DEONTIC VIEWPOINT USED TO JUSTIFY HUMAN DOMINATION OVER SPECIES

Louis Lombardi, Pf. philosophy at Lake Forest College, MORAL ANALYSIS, 1988, p.89.Many Western philosophers have argued that only human beings have inherent worth and should be accorded moral consideration. Animals (and, obviously, plants) are not proper recipients. Such a position can be generated from a strict deontological ethics. If beings have inherent worth by being moral agents, then only humans may qualify. Other animals, though they may move on their own and actively seek to satisfy certain needs, seem incapable of understanding the distinction between right and wrong.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. MUST QUESTION THE EFFECTS OF DEONTICS

James Forrester, author/researcher, WHY YOU SHOULD, 1988, p.68.Where the making of deontic utterances is normal, a bit of reflection about the effect of a particular deontic utterance will often prove valuable in achieving one's goal. In any case, reflection is rarely downright harmful. Likewise, the person who is blind to the effects her deontic utterances have on her underlings, who is oblivious to growing boredom or incipient revolution, is rarely to be envied. Habitual, unthinking use of deontic language, without regard for probable consequences, is rarely the best course.

11. DEONTICS SHOULD BE USED ONLY MINIMALLY

James Forrester, author/researcher, WHY YOU SHOULD, 1988, p.70.Minimalism tells us not to make a deontic utterance unless we have a pressing goal, a good chance of success, and no suitable alternatives. It thereby regards as a pragmatic maxim the old conservative motto, "When in doubt, don't."

12. KANT'S VIEW OF SEEKING PLEASURE FROM DUTY IS SELF-DEFEATING

George Kerner, philosopher, THREE PHILOSOPHICAL MORALISTS: MILL, KANT, AND SARTRE, 1990, p.89.But, Kant insists again, while indulging ourselves is sometimes morally obligatory--it is, you might say a prophylactic duty--it is morally praiseworthy only if it is carried out from duty and not just doing what you feel like doing. Here, Kant seems to be lacking in wisdom. There is something absurd about the idea of following our inclinations from the motive of duty. It is impossible, I should think, say, to loiter from duty. To seek a pleasure out of duty will make that pleasure go sour.

THE CASE FOR JUSTICE

1. JUSTICE CRITICAL.

Leslie Snyder, Prof., Communication Arts & Sciences, U. Connecticut, Justice or revolution, 1979, p. 4.But to ignore justice, to seek security by appeasement and abasement, is to lose liberty, independence, prosperity, and security forever.

Leslie Snyder, Prof., Communication Arts & Sciences, U. Connecticut, Justice or revolution, 1979, p. 1.The solutions to these problems--dishonesty, lack of integrity, currency depreciation (inflation), oppressive government, rebellions, wars, etc.--lie in the study and practice of justice.

2. JUSTICE FROM BEHIND RAWLS' VEIL OF IGNORANCE.

John Rawls, Prof. Phil., Harvard U., A Theory of Justice, 1971, pp. 136-137.I assume that the parties are situated behind a veil of ignorance. They do not know how the various alternatives will affect their own particular case and they are obliged to evaluate principles solely on the basis of general considerations.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, pp. 465-466.Further, individual are behind the "veil of ignorance;" they must choose principles of justice without knowing anything about themselves that might enable them to tailor principles to their own advantage. It is as though both men and women, feminists and traditionalists, were asked to choose the proper marital institutional without knowing their sex or their particular persuasions--only on a much grander scale. Individuals, however, cannot choose if they are deprived of any motivational structures whatsoever; and so Rawls does assign "each" chooser knowledge of "primary goods"--things which it is rational for any man to want whatever else he may desire. Additionally, individuals are assumed to be rational in the sense that they want to bet as much as possible for the least cost. Finally, they are not envious and have no interests--pro or con--in the fortunes of others.

3. JUSTICE IS DETERMINED FROM ORIGINAL POSITION.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 465.Rawls' argument from the original position is basically that individuals subject to the conditions of the original position would choose his particular principles of justice over utilitarianism and several other alternatives. Individuals in the original position are, first, in the "circumstances of justice"--conditions of moderate scarcity where conflicts sometimes need to be settled but where "social cooperations makes possible a better life for all than any would have if each were to try to live solely by his own efforts." Original position choosers are also subject to what Rawls calls "the constraints of the concept of right"--i.e., the principles they choose must have characteristics necessary for a principle to count as a moral principle about what it is right or wrong to do. These constraints are: finality (the principles must be chosen once and for all); universality (the principles must apply to all societies capable of principles of justice); generality (the principles must not contain proper names or descriptions which look general but are really designed to single out particular individuals); publicity; and the ability to order the conflicting claims of individual in society.

4. JUSTICE CAN BE RATIONALIZED FROM ORIGINAL POSITION.

John Rawls, Prof. Phil., Harvard U., A Theory of Justice, 1971, p. 137.As far as possible, then, the only particular facts which the parties know is that society is subject to the circumstance of justice and whatever this implies. It is taken for granted, however, that they know the general facts about human society. They understand political affairs and the principles of economic theory; they know the basis of social organization and the laws of human psychology. Indeed, the parties are presumed to know whatever general facts affect the choice of the principles of justice.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 466.How could individuals in the original position reason to principles of justice? Rawls argues that since they would want the best possible for themselves they would begin be selecting a principle of equality. But then they would notice that sometimes inequalities can make everyone better off, as when incentives encouraged the production of things which are socially beneficial, so they would move to what he calls the general maximum conception: inequalities are permissible unless they

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222work to the advantage of the least well off individual. We must think of this theory as "rational egalitarianism."

5. JUSTICE ACCORDING TO RAWLS BASED ON PRINCIPLES.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 466.Next, because of the role of liberties in ensuring the primary goods, liberties would be singled out for protection when that protection could be sure. A special first principle, guaranteeing each person "an equal right to the most extensive, or total system of basic liberties compatible with a similar system of liberty for all" would take priority over a second principle requiring the arrangement of social and economic inequalities to work to the advantage of the least well off individual. These two principles make up what Rawls calls the "special" conception of justice. They win out what over utilitarianism, Rawls claims, because no rational individual would want to be sacrificed (unless he had interests in the interests of others, which he is assumed not to have) to the benefit of others, or even to gamble on the sacrifices for his own advantage if the possible gains are slight and the possible losses are catastrophic.

6. JUSTICE PRECLUDES VIOLENCE.

Leslie Snyder, Prof., Communication Arts & Sciences, U. Connecticut, Justice or revolution, 1979, p. 1.For when injustice invades the political sphere, rebellion ensues. The difference between rebellion and revolution is that a rebellion in a violent, desperate social action of a few, whereas revolution is a thought-out, principled political action undertaken by the majority. Yes, a rebellion is in the making; and it could overturn all the achievements of the American Revolution.

Leslie Snyder, Prof., Communication Arts & Sciences, U. Connecticut, Justice or revolution, 1979, p. 1.Re-establishing justice is the only way to regain and insure our liberties and to prevent a violent rebellion in the not too distant future.

THE CASE AGAINST JUSTICE

1. JUSTICE IS NOT DEONTIC.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 14.Justice cannot be primary in the deontological sense.

2. JUSTICE IS NOT HOMOGENOUS.

Scott Gordon, Prof. Columbia U., Welfare, justice and freedom, 1980, p. 187.The attempts of modern writers such as Rawls, Nozick and Buchanan to base a political philosophy upon a homogenous concept of justice result in untenable simplifications.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, pp. 32-33....there is no guarantee justice and its rival virtues are perfectly commensurable. The breakdown of certain personal and civic attachments may represent a moral loss that even a full measure of

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222justice cannot redeem.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. JUSTICE FAILS TO PRECLUDE EVIL.

Morris Silver, Prof. Econ., CUNY, Affluence, altruism and atrophy, 1980, p. 133.In short, a government with a social justice mandate is capable of being as much or even more despotic than the historical despotism of Pharaohs or kings, who even claimed a divine mandate or a mandate over hydraulic agriculture!

4. JUSTICE REDUCES MORAL CHARACTER.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 35....there is no guarantee that the new sense of justice can fully replace the old spontaneity, even in those cases where no injustice results. Since the exercise of justice in inappropriate conditions will have brought about an overall decline in the moral character of the association, justice in this case will have been not a virtue but a vice.

5. JUSTICE REDUCES BENEVOLENCE.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 32.To invoke the circumstances of justice is simultaneously to concede, implicitly at least, the circumstances of benevolence, or fraternity, or of enlarged affections, whatever the description might be; such as the circumstances that prevail insofar as the circumstances of justice do not prevail.

6. JUSTICE CAN'T BE CONFIRMED.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 30....if justice depends for its virtue on empirical preconditions, it is unclear how its priority could unconditionally be confirmed.

7. RAWLS REQUIRES UNSUPPORTED ASSUMPTIONS.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 17.The alternative would seem a standard external to the values and interests prevailing in society. But if our experience were disqualified entirely as the source of such principles, the alternative would seem to be reliance upon a priori assumptions whose credentials would be equally suspect, although for the opposite reason.

8. RAWLS THEORY UNREAL.

Chandra Kukathas & Philip Pettit, Institute of Advanced Studies, Australian National U., "The communitarian critique," Rawls: A Theory of Justice and its critics, 1990, p. 96.The essence of Sandel's argument is this. For liberals like Rawls, justice is the first virtue of social institution. But for this to be the case, certain things must be true of us: we must be 'creatures of a certain kind, related to human circumstances in a certain way' (Sandel, Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, 175). We must be persons independent of our particular interests and attachments, capable of standing back to survey, assess, and review them. Yet we cannot plausibly regard ourselves in this way. In the real world, we cannot detach ourselves from the interests and the loyalties which not only determine our obligations but also establish our identities.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2229. RAWLS LACKS HISTORICAL UNDERSTANDING.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 466.Others urge that even if value neutrality is possible, it is so only at the cost of excessive abstraction and the loss of historical understanding.

10. RAWLS THEORY BASED ON FAULTY PREMISE.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 467.Some socialists who are perhaps utopian challenge Rawls' assumption that beyond a certain point of economic development, moderate scarcity is endemic; they urge that with appropriate socialization and technology, scarcity can be overcome.

11. RAWLS FAILS TO HELP WORKING CLASS.

Leslie Pickering Francis Prof. Phil., U. Utah, "Response to Rawls from the Left," John Rawls' Theory of Social Justice: An Introduction, H. Gene Blocker and Elizabeth H. Smith., eds., 1980, p. 467.A more standard Marxist approach questions the mutually beneficial nature of social cooperation. Under some historical conditions, it is urged, social cooperation. Under some historical conditions, it is urged, social cooperation is not in the interest in the working class.

13. RAWLS ADVANCES POLITICAL DOCTRINAIRES.

David Schaeffer, Prof. Phil., Princeton U., Justice or tyranny: A critique of John Rawls' theory of justice, 1979, p. 56....the attempt to enforce Rawls' difference principle (is) the essence of tyranny.

14. RAWLS CALCULUS TYRANNICAL.

David Schaeffer, Prof. Phil., Princeton U., Justice or tyranny: A critique of John Rawls' theory of justice, 1979, p. 45....none of the stages of Rawls' four stage sequence is any more capable of producing reasonable standards of governing political life than the first one, the original position was. Rawls' exclusion from the minds of his constitution makers and lawmakers of critical knowledge of particular facts, as well as their conception of the good, I shall true to show, inevitably gives rise to aberrant and political destructive doctrinarianism.

15. RAWLS DOES NOT PRECLUDE COERCION.

Milton Fisk, Prof. Phil. Indiana U., Reading Rawls, 1975, p. 62.Thus the need for a coercive sovereign or a state will be seen, even in the original position, primarily as a result of the need to preserve the social order in the face of the social conflict based in inequality.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22216. RAWLS INCREASES OPPORESSION.

Milton Fisk, Prof. Phil. Indiana U., Reading Rawls, 1975, p. 59....groups that manipulate people's beliefs do so in part by manipulating the criteria for their acceptance. In short, liberal freedom of thought provides a cover for the hidden persuaders that aid oppressing groups.

17. RAWLS FSOTERS ECONOMIC INEFFICIENCY.

Scott Gordon, Prof. Columbia U., Welfare, justice and freedom, 1980, p. 105.In the economic literature the dominant critique of distributional equality is not that it conflicts with other justice criteria but that, as a practical matter, it conflicts with the aim of economic efficiency--the use of scarce resources to generate output from which all the distributive shares are drawn.

18. VEIL OF IGNORANCE FAILS.

Gerald Dworkin, Visiting Fellow, Batelle Seattle Research Center, Reading Rawls, 1975, p. 20.If the original position furnishes an argument that it is in everyone;s best interest to accept the two principles over possible bases for a constitution, it must be an argument that uses the idea of antecedent and not actual interest. It is not in the actual best of everyone to choose the two principles, because when the veil of ignorance is lifted some will discover that they would have beenbetter off if some other principle, like the principle of average utility, had been chosen.

19. VEIL OF IGNORANCE DECREASES CHOICE.

Thomas Nagel, Prof. Phil., Princeton U., Reading Rawls, 1975, p. 9.Any hypothetical choice situation which requires agreement among the parties will have to impose strong restrictions on the grounds of choice...

20. VEIL OF IGNORANCE INCREASES INEQUALITY.

Milton Fisk, Prof. Phil., Indiana U., Reading Rawls, 1975, p. 73.One could simply not risk tying one's class hands behinds its back in the class struggle. Since one is capable of class consciousness, one world, from the unclouded perspective of the original position, see that settling for stability and relinquishing struggle is, for most classes, an invitation to increasing inequality.

21. VEIL OF IGNORANCE FOSTERS INSTABILITY.

David Schaeffer, Prof. Phil., Princeton U., Justice or tyranny: A critique of John Rawls' theory of justice, 1979, p. 51.Were a community of such non-religious, amoral, self-seeking men to let itself be governed by the will of the majority, its lifespan in all likelihood fall short of that of the ancient republics, the instability of which was decried in the Federalist.


THE CASE FOR ALTRUISM

1. ALTRUISM DEFINED

Lauren Wispe, Pf. at U. Oklahoma, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SYMPATHY, 1991, p.72.Nagel's definition of altruism is compatible with our description of sympathy, which was considerably influenced by his work. He defined altruism as a "willingness to act in consideration of the interests of other persons, without the need of ulterior motives." This last proviso acknowledges that although people may be moved by sympathy or compassion, a stronger motivation is that one person may simply be moved by the needs of another person.

2. LOVE IS A FORM OF ALTRUISM NECESSARY FOR SURVIVAL

Laurence Thomas, Pf. psychology at Oberlin College, LIVING MORALLY, 1989, p.35.Love is surely a form of altruism. Morality can be grafted upon the natural affection of parental love. The capacity to love is essential not just to the survival but to the very flourishing of the human species. Parental love, in particular, is indisputably important to the flourishing of the child; and this love, I argue, has been selected for.

3. ONLY ALTRUISM IF DONE WITHOUT SELFISHNESS

Shalom Schwartz and Judith Howard, Pf. sociology at U. Wisconsin, "A normative decision-making model of altruism," ALTRUISM AND HELPING BEHAVIOR, 1981, p.190.Altruism refers to self-sacrificial acts intended to benefit others regardless of material or social outcomes for the actor, whereas helping refers to any acts that benefit others. Acts may be helpful regardless of the actor's motivation, but they are altruistic only if motivated by a desire to benefit others rather than to gain social or material rewards.

4. UNIVERSAL VALUE

Philippe Rushton and Richard Sorrentino, Pf. psychology at U. of Western Ontario, "Altruism and helping behavior," ALTRUISM AND HELPING BEHAVIOR, 1981, p.5."Regard for others" is a virtually universal value within all human societies and forms the basic tenet for most of the world's great religious, social reformist, and revolutionist movements.

5. MOST PEOPLE ARE NOT SELF-SERVING

Melvin Lerner and James Meind, Pf. psychology at U. of Waterloo, "Justice and altruism," ALTRUISM AND HELPING BEHAVIOR, 1981, p.220.In fact, for the most part, people do not act in obviously self-serving ways. As citizens, parents, spouses, good employees, etc. we devote most of what we have and our efforts for the benefit of others; and we do it as naturally, if not more so, than what we might do for "ourselves." For the most part, considerations of entitlements and deserving shape these other-oriented activities.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. OBJECTIVE RATIONALE FOR ALTRUISM

Lauren Wispe, Pf. at U. Oklahoma, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SYMPATHY, 1991, pp.72-3.According to Nagel "the recognition of others as persons like yourself permits extension of this objective interest to the needs and desires of persons in general." Thus the reasons for helping anyone are neither particularly yours, nor specifically theirs; rather, they are someone's. They are, in other words, objective reasons for altruism.

7. NECESSARY FOR HUMAN SURVIVAL

Laurence Thomas, Pf. psychology at Oberlin College, LIVING MORALLY, 1989, p.x.I have been guided by the following intuitions: (i) social cooperation is the key to human survival; (ii) there can be no genuine cooperation in the absence of altruism; (iii) the very nature of both parental love and friendship would suggest that human beings are capable of considerable altruism; and (iv) the realization of altruism in our lives contributes to our living well.

8. TRUE MORALITY EMBRACES ALTRUISM

Laurence Thomas, Pf. psychology at Oberlin College, LIVING MORALLY, 1989, p.vii.Rather, I am interested in moral motivation; and I assume without really much argument that to be moral is to be altruistic--that the true morality is an altruistic one, that is, an other-regarding morality.

9. PEOPLE'S EFFORTS AIMED AT HELPING OTHERS

Melvin Lerner and James Meind, Pf. psychology at U. of Waterloo, "Justice and altruism," ALTRUISM AND HELPING BEHAVIOR, 1981, p.220.Actually, for most adults in our society the greater part of their efforts are designed manifestly to benefit others, and whatever benefits accrue to themselves is indirect and derivative. What one does at work to acquire desired resources, how one allocates these resources, and how one expends whatever additional resources, time energy is explicitly directed toward benefitting others either directly or toward meeting one's obligations to the social unit.

10. IMPROVES GENETIC FITNESS OF HUMANITY

Lauren Wispe, Pf. at U. Oklahoma, THE PSYCHOLOGY OF SYMPATHY, 1991, p.135.The biological explanation maintains that a concern about the welfare of others improves the genetic fitness of the whole species. Sympathy has survival value, and if we do not help, we hurt.

11. ENVIRONMENT NEEDS TO ALLOW ALTRUISM TO FLOURISH

Laurence Thomas, Pf. psychology at Oberlin College, LIVING MORALLY, 1989, p.vii.My view is that while human beings are perhaps not entirely altruistic, we have a considerable capacity for altruism, and, what is more, our having this capacity is due to our biological make-up. Indeed, I regard the capacity to be altruistic rather like a natural gift or talent to sing or to play the piano or to draw or to do mathematics. Like any other natural endowment, whether our capacity to be altruistic flourishes is contingent upon the nature of our social environment.

12. ALTRUISTIC INDIVIDUALS FUNCTION BETTER THAN NON-ALTRUISTIC ONES


Laurence Thomas, Pf. psychology at Oberlin College, LIVING MORALLY, 1989, p.29.However, if altruistic motivations are a deep part of our human nature and if, because of this, such motivations are essential to the full realization of human beings as we understand them, then what should follow is this: In some way or another, individuals who do not have their altruistic motivations manifestly realized in their lives function less than those who do.

THE CASE AGAINST ALTRUISM

1. ALTRUISM DEFINED.

Harry Binswinger, ed., Objectivist Forum, Prof., Phil., Hunter College, The Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U. lexicon: Objectivism from A to Z, 1986, p. 4.Do not confuse altruism with kindness, good will or respect for the rights of others. These are not primaries, but consequences, which, in fact, altruism makes impossible. The irreducible primary of altruism, the basic absolute, is self-sacrifice--which means; self-immolation, self-abnegation, self-denial, self-destruction--which means: the self as a standard of evil, the selfless as a standard of the good.

2. ALTRUISM IS A PERVERSION OF NATURE.

William F. O'Neill, Prof., Phil., U. South Carolina, An analysis of Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U.'s philosophy, 1972, p. 63.Altruism is fundamentally evil because it is a perversion of man's essential (psychological) nature as man. It is irrational and therefore doomed to failure. "Since there is not rational justification for the sacrifices of some men to others, there is no objective criterion by which such a sacrifice can be guided in practice." The ultimate value of life can only be life itself--i.e., individual happiness attained by means of productive reason--and not experience beyond life. "Man-every man-is an end in himself, not a means to the ends of others. He is not a sacrificial animal.

3. ALTRUISM IS SENSELESS.

Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U., The virtue of selfishness, 1964, p. iii.Altruism declares that any action taken for the benefit of others is good, and any action taken for one's own benefits is evil. Thus the beneficiary of an action is the only criterion or moral value--and so long as that beneficiary is anybody other than oneself, anything goes. Hence the appalling immorality, the chronic injustice, the grotesque double standards, the insoluble conflicts and contradictions that have characterized human relationships and human societies throughout history, under all the variants of the altruist ethics. Observe the indecency of what passes for moral judgment today. An industrialist who produces a fortune, and a gangster who robs a bank are regarded as equally immoral, since they both sought wealth for their own "selfish" benefit. A young man who gives upon his career in order to support his parents and never rises beyond the rank of grocery clerk is regarded as morally superior to the young man who endures an excruciating struggle and achieves his personal ambition. A dictator is regarded as moral, since the unspeakable atrocities he committed were intended to benefit "the people," not himself.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. ALTRUISM HAS FAILED.

Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U., The virtue of selfishness, 1964, p. 35.It is not men's immorality that is responsible for the collapse now threatening to destroy the civilized world, but the kind of moralities men have been asked to practice. The responsibility belongs to the philosophers of altruism. They have no cause to be shocked by the spectacle of their own success, and no right to damn human nature: men have obeyed them and have brought their moral ideals into full reality.

5. ALTRUISM MUST BE RETRAINED.

Garrett Hardin, Emeritus Prof., Metaphysical Phil., U. Calif-Santa Barbara, The limits of altruism, 1981, p. 135.The dialectic in all three instances should remind us that in the theological concept of grace--a blessing that cannot be won by force but which can descend as a gift on those who life their lives in the right spirit. The human condition is now such that our population is deprived of providential control by other species, which means that survival under emotionally satisfactory conditions is possible only if we set limits to the practice of altruism. Though we may have attained this insight only with travail, the present is no different from the past; neither can the future be. These truths we must accept.

6. ALTRUISM PROMOTES INVASIVE GOVERNMENT.

Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U., The virtue of selfishness, 1964, p. 114.Now consider the extent of the moral and political inversion in today's prevalent view of government. Instead of being a protector of man's rights, the government is becoming their most dangerous violator; instead of guarding freedom, the government is establishing slavery; instead of protecting men from the initiators of physical force, the government is initiating physical force and coercion in any manner and issue it pleases; instead of serving as the instrument of objectivity in human relationships, the government is creating a deadly, subterranean reign of uncertainty and fear, by means of nonobjective laws who interpretation is left to the arbitrary decisions of random bureaucrats; instead of protecting men from injury by whim, the government is arrogating to itself the power of unlimited whim--so that we are fast approaching the stage of the ultimate inversion; the stage where the government is free to do anything it pleases, while the citizens may act only by permission, which is the stage of the darkest periods of human history, the stage of rule by brute force.

7. ALTRUISM LEADS TO COMMUNISM.

Kenneth J. Smith, "Any Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U.: Objectivism or existentialism," Religious humanisms, Winter, 1970, p. 27.Ayn Rand teaches that compassion and sympathy are weaknesses, that aid must never be given the unfortunate, that private selfishness must be our consistent guide. Altruism is considered the greatest single sin in history. Man must work or live for other people--only for himself. Why? Because the moment you admit responsibility your rights are then infringed upon in the name of helping the unfortunate. You are asked to live for other people, symbolized in the state. Thus altruism leads straight to Communism and the tyrannical central government.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2228. SELFISHNESS IS A SUPERIOR CALCULUS.

Harry Binswinger, ed., Objectivist Forum, Prof., Phil., Hunter College, The Ayn Rand, Prof. History, Yale and Princeton U. lexicon: Objectivism from A to Z, 1986, p. 70.The proper method of judging when or whether one should help another person is by reference to one's own rational self-interest and one's own hierarchy of values: the time, money or effort one gives or the risk one takes should be proportionate to the value of the person in relation to one's own happiness. To illustrate this on the altruists' favorite example: the issue of saving a drowning person. If the person to be saved is a stranger, it is morally proper to save him only when the danger to one's own life is minimal; when the danger is great, it would be immoral to attempt it; only a lack of self-esteem could permit one to value one's life is higher than that of any random stranger. (And, conversely, if one is drowning, one cannot expect a stranger to risk his life for one's sake, remembering that one's life cannot be as valuable to him as his own). If the person to be saved is not a stranger, then the risk one should be willing to take is greater in proportion to the greatness of that person's value to oneself. If it is the man or woman one loves, then one can be willing to give one's own life to save him or her--for the selfish reason that life without the loved person could be unbearable.

THE CASE FOR LIFE

1. LIFE HAS INTRINSIC VALUE.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 195....certain human experiences or relationships (e.g., loving another person) are valuable in themselves, beyond the pleasures they contain, and it is the having of such experiences (or the possibility of having them) that makes human life valuable. ()s in original.

2. LIFE HAS EXTRINSIC VALUE.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 196.There are few of us who have not at some time or other been awed and inspired by mankind's intellectual, artistic, scientific, or technological accomplishments. Implicit in this attitude of awe is the view that these achievements are marvelous, valuable, and worthy of admiration for reasons that transcend their usefulness to us. If this attitude is not misguided, the accomplishments of mankind in the intellectual, artistic, and scientific spheres, and the likelihood of continued progress in these fields, give us a substantial reason to wish the race to survive.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, pp. 196-197.For if the life of our species ends, so will these collective enterprises [intellectual, artistic, scientific and technological accomplishments]; while if it continues, spectacular accomplishments in such fields of endeavor are highly probable. One suspects that at least some of those who are indifferent to whether happy people will exist in the future, will not be indifferent to the continuation and progress of these admirable human enterprises, and will regard their development as a reason for wanting mankind to go on.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 198....the continuation of our species will very likely mean the continuation of its collective artistic, intellectual, and scientific accomplishments.

3. LIFE HAS UNCONDITIONAL VALUE.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 2....human survival, that is, the continued existence and evolution of the human species, has a unique and unconditional value with respect to all possible systems of human values.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 3.No other possible good can have any value for us if humanity does not survive, and in this sense, human survival, the continued existence and evolution of human life on Earth, ought to be regarded by each of us as the highest value.

4. EXISTENCE IS WORTHWHILE TO THE LIVING.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 198....human life has value and is generally a good thing to those possessing it.

5. LIFE IS THE MOST IMPORTANT VALUE.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 3.Because human survival has an unconditional value for us, it has a status which it possesses uniquely: human survival cannot be sacrificed for the attainment of any other human end, for the value of all other human ends is conditioned by the value which we place on human survival.

6. RISKING SURVIVAL UNACCEPTABLE.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 2.Since survival is a precondition of our enjoying or possessing any other good, it follows that any policy or plan which would risk or sacrifice human survival for the sake of any other good is self-contradictory and self-defeating.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 2.I argue that we ought morally will the opposite and ought to regard safeguarding the survival of the human species as the highest end of our conscious wills.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. HUMANICIDE IRRATIONAL.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 3.To say that human survival has an unconditional value, however, is not to say that human survival is somehow cosmically necessary, or logically a priori--one could will the extinction of humanity. But one cannot rationally will the extinction of humanity, or sacrifice human survival to any other human good.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 3.It would be irrational to will the extinction of the human race. Even if we thought ourselves a despicable blight on the planet, and admired the alien race as far better in every way to ourselves, still we could not rationally will that the human race be slaughtered, for in doing so our will would contradict itself. It would contradict itself because human 'dignity' whatever its worth, is conditioned by the assumption of human survival. If the human species survives, even survives only as food for an alien race, we amy hope to regain our freedom and dignity somehow, we may continue to enjoy other values, e.g., hedonistic ones, and may still meaningful lives, though we might not all like to contemplate their meanings.

Morton Emanuel Winston, Prof. Phil., Trenton State College, "The value of human survival," Contemporary Philosophy, September 1, 1985, p. 4.But, willing the extinction of humanity is, for us, the greatest evil, since it would annihilate all human values that we know of and now enjoy.

8. HUMAN MORTALITY IS NO JUSTIFICATION FOR HUMANICIDE.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 197....each of us knows that he, individually, is moral. It hardly follows that one has no reason to prolong his own life, especially if, as in the case of the species, one has reason to suppose that one's accomplishments will grow in magnitude with age.

THE CASE AGAINST LIFE

1. HUMANS OVERVALUED.

Walter H. Slack, Westminster College, The Surplus Species: Need Man Prevail?, 1982, p. 1....the disappearance of Homo sapiens from the life and history of this planet would not represent any great net substraction of value from the balance sheet of creation--however the latter might be reckoned. Man has made himself superfluous through a rare combination of rationality, frailty, and truculence multiplied by a crushing weight of numbers--a combination which will probably not be repeated in this small portion of the universe. He has become his own teleological End, and with that apotheosis, the enemy of all else in the environment in which he moves. His own multiplication of sheer numbers now threatens to destroy the ecological resources and relationships that make nay type of life possible on Earth.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Daniel Callahan, Dir., Hastings Center, The Tyranny of Survival, 1973, p. 26.The limitation of our bodies pose the first obstacle to the achievement of enduring pleasure. We suffer from our body, which is born to decay and die; the sources of pleasure are more limited than the sources of suffering. We suffer from nature, whose arsenal is full of weapons of destruction. We suffer from our relations to other men, a pain all the more difficult to bear because it seems so unnecessary: we have enough problems already, living with our finite bodies in the midst of the muscularities of nature.

2. HUMANS ARE WEEDS.

L. Margulies, Prof., Math & Science, University of Massachusetts, "From planetary atmosphere to microbial communities," Changing the Global Environment, 1989, p. 65.Homo sapiens are a recent examples of one of thirty million extant species of life on the planet. From this perspective, humankind appears as a mammalian weed, which like all weeds, grows rapidly and is destructive of its environment. Fast-growing organisms. given the opportunity, grow until their immediate environment becomes unlivable.

3. HUMANS ARE A PLANETARY DISEASE.

James Lovelock, Biologist, Healing Gaia, 1991, p. 171.For example, with the planetary disease, Disseminated Primatemia, the superabundance of humans, it is the disease agents (the people) that are sentient and the host (the planet), a lowly organism--the reverse of the situation with human disease.

4. CONTINUING HUMAN EXISTENCE IS MISERABLE.

Jonathan Bennett, Prof., Philosophy, University of British Columbia, "On maximizing happiness,"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 70.By willing the continuation of Homo sapiens one is inevitably willing profound misery for many people who would escape it is the species were allowed to die out.

5. LIFE AND DEATH SIMILAR.

P. F. Strawson, Fellow, Magdalen College, Individuals, 1959, p. 116.In proportion as the memories fade, and this vicarious living palls, to that degree his concept of himself as an individual becomes attenuated. At the limit of attenuation there is from the point of view of his survival as an individual, no difference between the continuance of experience and its cessation.

6. HUMANICIDE IS NOTHING TO GRIEVE OVER.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. *.I am led to believe that the unconscious motivation underlying Heilbroner's peroration, culminating in his exhortation to preserve humanity forever at all and any cost, stems from unexamined Judeo-Christian residues bubbling up from his former liberalism. If man is just the latest dominant animal species in a scheme of evolutionary development, there is no good factual or moral reason to regard his demise as an occasion either for sorrow or joy. It just happens--if it happens.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. EVERYTHING GOES EXTINCT.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 36.If the Neo-Malthusian scenario comes true one day and mankind becomes extinct, the event would not be unprecedented. It would be quite a normal event, an expected event in a typical evolutionary history of a species.

8. EVOLUTIONS DEMANDS HOMO SAPIENS EXTINCTION.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 37.The dominant reptiles had to fade out to make way for the incoming mammals. So why should I not give my loyalty to the evolutionary process itself, rather than to a temporary phase of it, the dominance of Homo sapiens? Why not, indeed?

9. HUMAN EXTINCTION IS INEVITABLE.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 37.From the evolutionary point of view extended far into the future, the ideal of ensuring survival of humanity is, while not flatly impossible, very highly improbable. The law of entropy, unless somehow repealed, will ensure just the opposite of eternal human survival, no matter what we do. We will all disappear from the face of the earth once our ecological niche become uninhabitable. Unless by that time we have beat a strategic retreat to a better universe next door, that will be the end of us. In time even that redoubt will crumble.

L. Margulies, Prof., Math & Science, University of Massachusetts, "From planetary atmosphere to microbial communities," Changing the Global Environment, 1989, p. 66.Most species ever to have lived are extinct. It is solipsistic nonsense to expect any fate other than extinction for Homo sapiens.

10. PERPETUAL EXISTENCE IS BORING.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 37.No sacrifice of mine or ours has the potency to stay the sentence of execution. The immortality of the species might make some kind of sense, given its Christian undertow. Without it, the sheer continuation of the human species for a certain time beyond my own death strikes me as a boring, valueless repetition.

11. LIFE IS MEANINGLESS.

Helmut Thielicke, Prof. Phil., U. Tubingin, Nihilism: Its Origin and Nature, 1961, p. 124.Expressed in terms of the category of time, one could say that life is not a line that moves toward a goal but a circle. It never gets a man anywhere but just keeps whirling him around on a whirligig.


THE CASE AGAINST FREEDOM

1. FREEDOM IS UNREAL.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 167.To submit to orders from the outside (at least in spiritual matters) appeared to be unworthy of a free man, but the conquest of his natural inclination, and the establishment of the domination of one part of the individual, his nature, by another, his reason, will or conscience, seemed to be the very essence of freedom. Analysis shows that conscience rules with a harshness as great as external authorities, and furthermore that frequently the contents of the orders issued by man's conscience are ultimately not governed by demands of the individual self but by social demands which have assumed the dignity of ethical norms. The ruleship of conscience can be even harsher than that of external authorities, since the individual feels its orders to be his own; how can he rebel against himself?

2. FREEDOM IS A MIXED BAG.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 257....we are fascinated by the growth of freedom from powers outside of ourselves and are blinded to the fact od inner restraints, compulsions, and fears, which tend to undermine the meaning of the victories freedom has won against its traditional enemies. We therefore are prone to think that the problem of freedom is exclusively that of gaining still more freedom of the kind we have gained in the course of modern history, and to believe that the defense of freedom against such power that deny such freedom is all that is necessary.

3. FREEDOM MEANS CONFORMITY.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, pp. 255-256.What then is the meaning of freedom for modern man? He has become free from the external bonds that would prevent him from doing and thinking as he sees fit. He would be free to act according to his own will, if he knew what we wanted, thought, and felt. But he does not know. He conforms to anonymous authorities and adopts a self which is not his. The more he does this, the more powerless he feels, the more is he forced to conform. In spite of a veneer of optimism and initiative, modern man is overcome by a profound feeling of powerlessness which makes him gaze toward approaching catastrophes as though he was paralyzed.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. FREEDOM BREEDS ALIENATION.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, The Sane Society, 1955, pp. 270-1.I have tried to express the same idea by elaborating on the concept of alienation and by showing psychologically what the psychological results of alienation are; that man regresses to a receptive and marketing orientation and ceases to be productive; that he loses his sense of self, becomes dependent on approval, hence tends to conform and yet to feel insecure; he is dissatisfied, bored, and anxious, and spends most of his energy in the attempt to compensate for or just to cover up this anxiety. His intelligence is excellent, his reason deteriorates and in view of his technical powers he is seriously endangering the existence of civilization, and even of the human race.

5. FREEDOM BREEDS AUTOMOTOMY.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 253.Because we have freed ourselves of the older overt forms of authority, we do not see that we have become to prey of a new kind of authority. We have become automatons who live under the illusion of being self-willing individuals. This illusion helps the individual to remain unaware of his insecurity, but this is all the help such an illusion can give. Basically the self of the individual is weakened, so that he feels powerless and extremely insecure.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 255.Psychologically the automaton, while being alive biologically, is dead emotionally and mentally. While he goes through the motions of living, his life runs through his hinds like sand. Behind a front of satisfaction and optimism modern man is deeply unhappy; as a matter of fact, he is on the verge of desperation.

6. FREEDOM BREEDS ISOLATION.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 256....one aspect of freedom: the powerlessness and insecurity of the isolated individual in modern society who has become free from all bonds that once gave meaning and security to life. We have seen that the individual cannot bear this isolation; as an isolated being he is utterly helpless in comparison with the world outside and therefore deeply afraid of it; and because of his isolation, the unity of the world has broken down for him and he has lost any point of orientation.

7. FREEDOM LEADS TO SUBMISSION.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 135....in our effort to escape from aloneness and powerlessness, we are ready to get rid of our individual self by submission to new forms of authority or by a compulsive conforming to accepted patterns.


8. FREEDOM DRIVEN LOSS OF AUTONOMY DEHUMANIZING.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, pp. 254-255.By conforming with the expectations of others, but not being different, these doubts about one's own identity are silenced and a certain security is gained. However, the price paid is high. Giving up spontaneity and individuality results in a thwarting of life. Psychologically the automaton, while being alive biologically, is dead emotionally and mentally.

9. FREEDOM BREEDS DESTRUCTIVENESS.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 179.Destructiveness is different since it aims not at active or passive symbiosis but at elimination of its object. But it, too, is rooted in the unbearableness of individual powerlessness and isolation. I can escape the feeling of my own powerlessness in comparison with the world outside of myself by destroying it. To be sure, if I succeed in removing it, I remain alone and isolated, but mine is a splendid isolation in which I cannot be crushed by the overwhelming power of the objects outside of myself. The destruction of the world is the last, almost desperate to save myself from being crushed by it.

10. FREEDOM BREEDS FASCISM.

Erich Fromm, social psychologist, Escape from Freedom [note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are same books], 1941, p. 7.Any attempt to understand the attraction which Fascism exercises upon great nations compels us to recognize the role of psychological factors. For we are dealing here with a political system which, essentially, does not appeal to rational forces of self-interest, but which arouses and mobilizes diabolical forces in man which we had believed to be nonexistent, or at least to have died out long ago.

THE CASE AGAINST LIBERTY

1. LIBERTY IS JUSTIFIED ONLY WHEN IT'S A MEANS TO A MORE IDEAL PERSON

George Wright, Prof. Law, Univ. of Chicago, SUPREME COURT REVIEW, 1985, p. 149.Mill indeed presupposes a "prior ideal of excellence" for human beings further realized by allowing liberty of action and thought. This is reflected in Mill's estimation not of mere idiosyncrasy of speech and behavior but of individual growth and the due study and preparation typically required therefor.


2. INDIVIDUAL-SOCIETAL CONFLICT INEVITABLE

Cornelius Murphy, Prof. Law. Duquesne, "Liberalism and Political Society," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, p. 126.Groups exist; but they reflect a convergence of separate interests. And the group is not a source of value in its own right. For the good is relative to the wants of distinct persons. The immediate measure of conduct lies within the individual rather than in the group to which he belongs. The individuals which constitute a society are governed by self-interest. Their actions are guided by a calculation of the most efficient means to achieve their private ends. As the goals of each are relatively independent, the objectives of different individuals tend to conflict. Either their desires are at odds, or their wants are limited by scarce resources. Reciprocal antagonism and mutual need become the perpetual themes of social life.

3. LIBERAL THEORY CAN'T DEAL WITH REAL-WORLD GOVERNMENT

Cornelius Murphy, Prof. Law. Duquesne, "Liberalism and Political Society," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, p. 143.Modern liberalism has no coherent conception of a political society. Its overriding objective is the advancement of personal liberty. As it becomes disenchanted with representative government, it revives state of nature and contractarian explanations of social life to protect its interests. These are devised to either constrict the power of political organs or to direct them towards individualistic ends. To understand the reasons for these developments, one must take into account the factors which have led to the inability of liberalism to comprehend the nature of political existence.

4. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL AUTONOMY PREVENTS SOCIAL CHANGE

Louis Henkin, Prof. Soc., Yale Univ., THE AGE OF RIGHTS, 1990, p. 182.Exalting rights deemphasizes and breeds neglect of duties. It imposes an artificial and narrow view of the public good--of national security, emergency, public order, public morals--and takes critical decisions from those chosen to govern and the only ones capable of governing. In many societies and circumstances, the idea of rights helps to immunize egotistic property interests and extravagant claims to autonomy and liberty, thereby entrenching reaction and preventing revolutionary social change.

5. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY TO ACT IGNORES COMMUNITY PRIORITIES

Phil Selznick, Prof. Law, UCLA, "Dworkin's unfinished work," CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW, May 1988, p. 509.The source of much valid criticism of liberalism is that it lacks a robust theory of community and moral ordering. Liberalism slights values of integration and solidarity and thereby undercuts social responsibility. Dworkin has done much to enrich liberal doctrine, but he has not yet got rid of some unnecessary and burdensome baggage. He has not completed the doctrinal reconstruction needed if there is to be a melding of liberal and communitarian principles.


6. INDIVIDUAL LIBERTY IS OVERLY BURDENSOME

Scott Gordon, Prof., Columbia University, WELFARE, JUSTICE, AND FREEDOM, 1980, p. 139....responsibility is burdensome. Whenever a man is able to choose among alternative courses of actions he cannot avoid bearing moral responsibility for the consequences of what he does. This burden is so heavy that, for ordinary men, it greatly outweighs the benefits of freedom.

7. CHOICE IS NOT A MEASUREMENT OF LIBERTY.

F.A. Hayek, economist, as cited in Richard Norman, Univ. of Canterbury, Philosopher, FREE AND EQUAL, 1987, pp. 38-39.The range of physical possibilities from which a person can choose at a given moment has no direct relevance to freedom. The rock climber on a difficult pitch who sees only one way out to save his life is unquestionably free, though we would hardly say he has any choice...Whether a person is free or not does not depend on the range of choice. Ellipsis in original.

8. SHOULD GIVE UP LIBERTY TO LAWS TO MAINTAIN SOCIETY

Cornelius Murphy, Prof. Law. Duquesne, "Liberalism and Political Society," AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, p. 144.Lockenian theory views the community as having only a residual political authority. In Hume, this marginal power is transformed into passive obedience. The public are subjects. They are advised to obey whoever holds governmental power, whether or not it be legitimate. Without such submission society could not subsist. The implications of this erasure of general public authority are more fully developed by Austin, who sought, without success to comprehend sovereignty within a judicial framework. As a legal positivist, Austin insisted the law must proceed from a determinate sources. Order exists when legal commands are imposed upon an indeterminate public by a common superior towards whom the bulk of the population are habitually obedient.

John Howard, staff writer, as cited in Max Rafferty, Dean of Education, Troy State Univ.,"America must return to patriotism," AMERICAN VALUES, 1984, p. 171.Each would submit peacefully to the will of the majority when it was expressed by vote, directing his own disappointments and dissatisfactions when thwarted by the majority vote, into legal and appropriate channels with the hope of subsequently making his own, the majority. The form of government was entirely dependent upon a universal commitment to certain superior goals which necessitated personal sacrifices, acceptance of restrictions and conformity where the public weal was engaged. To achieve a new level of freedom for all, certain aspects of personal freedom had to be sacrificed by all.


9. LIBERTY CONTRIBUTES TO WAR

Frithjof Bureman, Prof. Philosophy, U Mich., ON BEING FREE, 1977, p.11And with these wars [WWI and WWII] we still have not mentioned the fact that stands out like a tower for all those who judge this from the outside: the fact that the idea of individual freedom was an organic part of the culture that developed such capacities and such needs for expansion that is destroyed all other civilizations-- some by destruction totally, the rest by making them western.

10. IF THE COMMUNITY THINKS AN ACTION IS WRONG THEN IT IS

Ronald Dworkin, Prof. Law, NYU, "Liberal Community," CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW, 1989, p. 479.Very different arguments using very different concept of community have been used to attack liberal tolerance in different ways. I distinguish 4 such arguments: First, is an argument from democratic theory which associates community with majority. In Bowen, Justice White suggested that the community has a right to use the law to support its vision of ethical decency: it has a right to impose its views about ethics because it is the majority.

Ronald Dworkin, Prof. Law, NYU, "Liberal Community," CALIFORNIA LAW REVIEW, 1989, p. 481.[The first argument against liberal tolerance] argues not merely that what ever decisions the political officials elected by the majority make should be accepted as law, but that these political officials should make decisions the reflect the preferences of a majority rather than any minority. This is a substantive rather than merely a procedural argument. the argument does not assume that any minorities moral views are base or wicked, but only that when opinion decides about the proper ethical environment for a community its unfair to allow a minority to dictate to majority will.

THE CASE FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS

1. PREDICTING THE NEEDS OF FUTURE GENERATIONS NOT DIFFICULT.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 191.The features in virtue of which we regard present persons of other cultures, nations, political persuasions, and life-styles, as equal with ourselves, are quite general features that will certainly be shared by future people for very many generations. The moral status of such persons and our reason for promoting their interests are not dependent upon their sharing our substantive conception of the good life.

2. MUST DO OUR FOREMOST.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 3.Surely human beings are not only capable of caring about the fate of future generations, but must


do so if they are to live up to their full potential.

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 190.Similarly, morality advises us to take steps to insure an adequate supply of resources for future generations, despite our ignorance of the details of the desires that future people will have.

3. U.S. EMPIRICALLY FOCUSES ON FUTURE GENERATIONS.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 3.The Preamble of the Constitution makes explicit reference to concern for posterity and it seems unlikely that the founding fathers and other citizens of the thirteen colonies were concerned only for their immediate posterity. For the interests of their immediate posterity would probably have been better served if they had avoided the risk and expense of the revolution.

4. MUSTN'T SACRIFICE ALL TO FOCUS ON FUTURE GENERATIONS.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, pp. 2-3.It is one thing to argue that we must consider the impact of our actions on future generations. It is quite another to argue that we and our prosperity must sacrifice all the things that give meaning to human life in order to ensure the mere continuance of human life. The former is reasonable, the latter is not.

5. FUTURE PEOPLE ARE REAL.

Jan Narveson, Prof., Philosophy, University of Waterloo, "Future people and us,"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 39.Future people are, after all, still people; so whatever is true of our dealings with all people qua people will be true of our dealings with them. And future people are real. They differ from us by virtue of their location in time, just as others do by their location in space. This doesn't make them any more "unreal" than the Chinese, or for that matter, the Pharaohs.

R. I. Sikora, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy. University of British Columbia,"Is it wrong to prevent the existence of future generations?" Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 124....it is clear that the ontologically privileged class must be extended to include not only existing but inevitable people....

THE CASE AGAINST FUTURE GENERATIONS

1. NO ETHICAL SYSTEM CAN ADDRESS DEMANDS OF FUTURE GENERATIONS.


Hans Jonas, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, Univ. Nebraska-Lincoln, "Technology and responsibility: The ethics of an endangered future," Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, p. 29.Recognition of ignorance becomes the obverse of the duty to know and thus part of the ethics which must govern the ever more necessary self-policing of our out-sized might. No previous ethics had to consider the global condition of human life and the far-off future, even existence, of the race. Their now being an issue demands, in brief, a new concept of duties and rights, for which previous ethics and metaphysics provide not even the principles, let alone a ready doctrine.

2. PREDICTING NEEDS OF FUTURE GENERATIONS PROBLEMATICAL.

Martin P. Golding Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, "Obligations to Future Generations," Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, p. 70....given that we do not know the conditions of life of the very distant future generations, we do not know what we ought to desire for them....

Gregory Kavka, Assoc. Prof., Philosophy, UCLA, "The futurity problem," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 189....our ignorance of future people renders us less able to promote their interests than those of present people. For future people are not around to tell us what their desires are (or will be). () in original.

3. FOCUS OF FUTURE GENERATIONS IS PARADOXICAL.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 21.It must be avoided because it leads to what [Jan] Narveson calls the "jam tomorrow" paradox. Since every generation can, by making great sacrifices, provide even greater benefits to the future, it will be the duty of every generation to do so. Consequently, no one ever gets to reap the benefits created by all this sacrifice.

Jan Narveson, Prof., Philosophy, University of Waterloo, "Future people and us,"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 59.It cannot be true of each generation that if it makes the enormous sacrifices, then all future generations are non-trivially benefitted, since we should then encounter the "jam tomorrow" paradox: the benefits is always in the future, and each actual generation is miserable.


4. NO IMPERATIVE FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS.

Richard T. De George, Prof., Philosophy, University of Kansas, "The environment, rights, and future generations," Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, pp. 162-163.There is no imperative that requires each generation to sacrifice so that the next generation may be better off than it is. Parents do not owe their children better lives than they had. They may wish their children to have better lives; but they do not owe it to them. If there is to be a peak followed by a decline in the standard of living, and if such a peak to tied to the use of natural resources, then providing there is no profligate waste, there is no reason why the present rather than a future generation should not enjoy the peak. For no greater good is served by any future group in enjoying the peak, since when it comes, if enjoying the peak is improper for us. it will be improper for them also.

5. FUTURE GENERATIONS CANNOT BE WRONGED.

Mary Warren, Prof. Philosophy, University of Delaware, "Do potential people have moral rights?"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 21.If a wrong is done when a potential person is prevented from becoming a person, it isn't done to the person who might have been, since that person is purely a mythical being. And it isn't done to the merely potential person, i.e., the non-sentient stuff which might have developed into a person, either, since non-sentient stuff cannot be wronged any more than nonexistent people can.

6. NO OBLIGATIONS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 37.In conclusion, I have to confess that I go on my selfish and polluting way with a certain amount of bad conscience--as I imagine you do. But your guilty self-indulgences may bother you a little less if you try to believe--as I do--that we are not obligated to future others.

Thomas Schwartz, Assoc. Prof., Government, University of Texas, "Obligations to posterity," Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 3....we've no obligation extending indefinitely or even terribly far into the future to provide any widespread, continuing benefits to our descendants.

7. FUTURE GENERATIONS HAVE NO CLAIMS ON THE PRESENT.

Thomas Thompson, Prof., Philosophy, U. Northern Iowa, Alternative Futures: The Journal of Utopian Studies, Spring, 1978, p. 36.The demands of existent beings have a claim on me--wife, children, and a few others. There are some dim claims from all my global neighbors. But the hordes of future "neighbors" will have to put up with my indifference. Future beings, being nonbeings, can have no demands to make upon me. Even if they did, they have no reality, save potential reality, sufficient to establish an emotive

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222bond of identification with me.

Daniel Callahan, Dir., Hastings Institute of Society, Ethics and the Life Sciences, "What obligations do we have to future generations?"Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, p. 82.The claim that future generations against us is a conditional claim, in the sense that it depends upon their existing to make the claim. That we know they will exist is enough to determine that their claim is not a fictitious one; but it is conditional in the sense that a number of conditions have to be fulfilled before the claim can be entered, the most important of which is that they exist in actuality and not just potentially. Over against that situation are presently living human beings, whose claims are actualized claims, whose rights are is no sense conditional. In this respect, it is difficult to see how one could set aside these claims in the name of claims as yet not made--even though we have a moral certainty they will be made.

8. CURRENT GENERATION OUTWEIGHS FUTURE GENERATIONS.

Richard H. Blank, Prof., Political Science, U. of Idaho, The Political Implications of Human Technology, 1981, p. 108.According to [Martin] Golding, for instance, "It is highly doubtful that we have an obligations to establish social programs that would secure a 'good life' (prevent the undesirable, promote the desirable) for the community of the 'remote' future. The conditions of life then are likely to be so different from any that we can now imagine that we do not know what to desire from them." As a result, conflicts between the good of nearby generations and the good of remote generations should be resolved in favor of the former. [See UCLA Law Review, 1968, pp. 473-47.]

9. FUTURE GENERATIONS FOCUS COUNTERPRODUCTIVE.

Ronald M. Green, Assoc. Prof., Religion, Dartmouth College, "Intergenerational distributive justice and environmental responsibility," Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, pp. 98-99.All those engaged in effort to marshall support for programs protective of future generations should keep these facts in mind. It is not only that we intentionally commit an injustice against the less privileged members of our community by causing them to bear a larger share of our intergenerational distributive responsibility. It is also that, in doing so, we endanger our very efforts to protect future generations. When those who are less well-off are treated in a way they regard as unjust, they may respond with resentment and resistance, which can paralyze efforts on behalf of future generations. Indeed, the recent erosion of support for environmental programs during this recessionary period, and particularly the resistance of lower-middle-class workers fearful of losing their jobs, may serve as warning that these dangers are very real.

10. OBLIGATIONS NOT TO PLAN FOR FUTURE GENERATIONS.

Martin P. Golding Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, "Obligations to Future Generations," Responsibilities to Future Generations: Environmental Ethics, Ernest Partridge, ed., 1981, p. 70.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222One might go so far as to say that if we have an obligation to distant future generations it is an obligation not to plan for them. Not only do we not know their conditions of life, we also do not know whether they will maintain the same (or a similar) conception of the good life for man as we do.

11. ASCRIBING RIGHTS TO FUTURE GENERATIONS PRODUCES IMPOSSIBLE DEMANDS ON PRESENT GENERATIONS.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 17.De Georges voices this fear quite explicitly when he argues that the ascription of rights to future generations would lead to impossible demands on us.

Robert Scott, Jr., Prof., Philosophy, University of Delaware, "Environmental ethics and obligations to future generations,"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 84.According to Rawls, because there could be so many people in future generations and so many future generations, situations might arise where utilitarian principles would dictate imposing extreme sacrifices on the people of the present generation so as to slightly increase the total happiness of future generations. However, if the happiness of future people were discounted, this result could be avoided.

12. DISCOUNT RATE IS VERY HIGH.

Mary Warren, Prof. Philosophy, University of Delaware, "Do potential people have moral rights?"Obligations to Future Generations, eds., R. I. Sikora & Brian Barry, 1978, p. 17.Hence I think that any right to life which a potential persons as such might have is ta least a billion times as weak as that of an actual person.

John Ahrens, Prof. Poli. Sci., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 2.Thomas H. Thompson argues that human beings do not and, indeed, cannot care very deeply about the distant future, or sympathize to any extent with the fate of people who will not even exist for decades or centuries to come. The future, Thompson says, is subject to a discount rate; and if we try to look more than one or two generations ahead, the discount rate approaches 100%.


THE CASE FOR FEMINISM

1. ENDS NATION-STATE OPPRESSION

Charlotte Bunch, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS, 1987, P. 301.we must move beyond the concept of nation-state, which is another expression of patriarchy whereby groups battle for domination over each other on the basis of geographical territory. Instead, we must be global, recognizing that the oppression of women in one part of the world is often affected by what happens in another, and that no woman is free until the conditions of oppression of women are eliminated everywhere.

2. GLOBAL MATRIARCHY NEEDED TO SAVE THE PLANET

Charlotte Bunch, feminist philosopher/author, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS,1987, P. 305.If any lesson was clear in Copenhagen, it was that a global feminist movement will only come through people connecting to people, not from governments. The Forum gave us a hint of how powerful such a movement could be as well as a taste of the conflicts and creativity inherent in such a possibility. The challenge is great, but so are the stakes. The crisis of survival on our planet demands that we take the risk of trying to develop a global feminism that can add to the forces for sanity and justice at work in the world.

3. PROMOTES TRUE UNDERSTANDING

Sandra Harding, feminist philosopher/author, FEMINISM AND METHODOLOGY, 1987, P. 7.only partial and distorted understandings of ourselves and the world around us can be produced in a culture which systematically silences and devalues the voices of women.

4. PROMOTES PROPER SCIENTIFIC VIEWPOINT

Evelyn Fox-Keller, prof mathematics/humanities, Northeastern Univ, ACADEME, September/October, 1983, P. 16.In short, a feminist perspective provides us with the impetus for a psychosociology of scientific knowledge. By a psychosociology of scientific knowledge, I mean an understanding of the ways in which psychodynamics and social norms interact in the construction and acceptance of claims to scientific knowledge.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. END OF SEXUAL OBJECTIFICATION

Victoria Erickson, teacher of Church and Society, Union Theological Seminary, "Mens lives: a new paradigm", CHRISTIANITY AND CRISIS, May 25, 1992, P. 180.Living fairly will require a recognition that the "dominance-and-submission model of sex...is the domination-and-submission model in the world." Living a fair sexual ethic will demand a rethinking of all sociopolitical relationships. This is hard intellectual work. Living that ethic will be difficult because living outside of the sex-class-gender system means living outside masculine supremacy.

6. ENDS THE FEMINIZATION OF POVERTY

Charlotte Bunch, feminist philosopher/author, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS, 1987, P. 335.The heterosexist assumption that every "good" woman wants to and eventually will be supported by a man fuels the economic policies that have produced the feminization of poverty worldwide. This refusal to accept a woman who lives without a man as fully human thus allows policy makers to propose such ideas as keeping welfare payments or even job opportunities for single mothers limited since they "contribute to the destruction of the family."

7. ENDS SEXISM, CLASSISM, AND RACISM

Charlotte Bunch, feminist philosopher/author, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS, 1987, P. 311.Women are victims of many forms of domination by men that are exercised through the structures of sexism, racism, and classism. Therefore, attempts to address the situation of violence against women must incorporate strategies that look at specific problems within the larger context of creating structural changes in society in all these areas. We understand that there exists one universal patriarchal oppression of women which takes different forms in different cultures and different regions. However, all these diverse expressions of patriarchal oppression like sexual mutilation, rape, pornography, torture, forced marriages, etc. mutilate women. Economic dependency generates psychological and emotional dependency in women, and all such forms of dependency reinforce each other, making women more vulnerable. The creation of dependency on all levels results in violence against women occurring in a variety of forms, that is, through the body, through the mind, in the workplace, in education, etc.

8. ENDS OPPRESSION

Arthur Brittan & Mary Maynard, authors, SEXISM, RACISM, AND OPPRESSION, 1984, P. 217.Oppression is multi-dimensional because its operation in one domain is easily transferable to another. It is multi-dimensional because the activity of domination is premised on the objectification of the oppressed. One form of domination serves as a paradigm for another. This is why we agree with those feminist writers who argue that patriarchy can serve as a model for all oppression.


9. END SEXUAL SLAVERY/HUMAN RIGHTS ABUSES

Charlotte Bunch, feminist philosopher/author, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS, 1987, P. 336.On the international level, it is clear that female sexual slavery, forced prostitution, and violence against women operate across national boundaries and are political and human rights abuses of great magnitude. Yet, the male-defined human rights community by-and-large refuses to see any but the most narrowly defined cases of slavery or "political" torture as their domain.

10. ONLY HOPE FOR FUTURE

Charlotte Bunch, feminist philosopher/author, "Prospects for Global Feminism", PASSIONATE POLITICS, 1987, P. 304.Most cultures as we know them today are patriarchal. Hope for the future therefore requires that women create new models, allowing for diversity and drawing from the best of the past, but refusing to accept any form of domination in the name of either tradition or modernization.

11. TRANSFORMS PHILOSOPHY

Brenda Almond, NQA, "Reflections on Ethics and Gender", FEMINIST PERSPECTIVES IN PHILOSOPHY, Griffiths & Whitford--editors, 1988, P. 47.The feminine strand should contribute to an enlarged and revised universal conception of morality, in which, the ideals of compassion and care are added to the more impersonal ideals of autonomous judgement and action. She believes, then, that a morality of rights can be integrated with a morality of responsibilities--that the two conceptions are essentially complementary. This coincides with the views of some other feminist writers who have been impressed by this distinctively 'female' contribution to morality. Hester Eisenstein, for example, looks forward to women transforming the world in the image of what she calls 'the woman-centered values at the core of feminism'.

THE CASE AGAINST FEMINISM

1. FEMINISM IS DYING

Sally Quinn, freelance writer, "The death of feminism," WASHINGTON POST NAT'L WEEKLY, Jan-Feb. 2, 1992, p. 25.Is it possible that feminism as we have known it is dead? I think so. Like communism in the former Soviet empire, the movement in its present form has outlasted its usefulness. There are no true feminists in the strictest sense of the word, just as there probably were never any "pure" communists.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Sally Quinn, freelance writer, "The death of feminism," WASHINGTON POST NAT'L WEEKLY, Jan-Feb. 2, 1992, p. 25.What's happening in this country now is that more and more women are falling away from "feminism" because it doesn't represent, or more importantly, they feel it doesn't represent, them or their problems. Feminism is defined as the "principle that women should have political, economic and social rights equal to those of men." The problems arise over the "social" rights--and nobody knows what that means.

Sally Quinn, freelance writer, "The death of feminism," WASHINGTON POST NAT'L WEEKLY, Jan-Feb. 2, 1992, p. 25.There was always the suspicion that, like the commissars who preached sacrifice to their comrades and bought their caviar at the party store, feminist leaders were publicly telling mothers of three it was great to leave their husbands and be independent--and then secretly dressing up in Fredricks of Hollywood for their guys.

2. MALE PATRIARCHIES INEVITABLE

Steven Goldberg, Chairman, Sociology Dept., CCNY, "Feminism against science," NATIONAL REVIEW, Nov. 18, 1991, p. 32....among all the thousands of societies on which we have any sort of evidence, there have never been any Amazonian or matriarchal societies. The hierarchies of all societies have always been dominated by males.

3. MALE DOMINANCE IS NOT CAUSED BY SOCIETY, BUT PSYCHOPHYSIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Steven Goldberg, Chairman, Sociology Dept., CCNY, "Feminism against science," NATIONAL REVIEW, Nov. 18, 1991, p. 32.Feminists attempts to explain the universality of patriarchy, unwilling to entertain the possibility that psychophysiological factors are determinative, invariably display certain features. 1. They are unparsimonious, claiming, for example, that patriarchy is a result of capitalism, an "explanation" that requires different causal factors to explain patriarchy in the thousands of societies--primitive, socialist, and the like--that are not capitalist. 2. They beg the question by giving causal primacy to the socialization of boys and girls. This "explanation" fails to ask the central question: Why does every society's socialization associate dominance behavior with males? To give socialization causal primacy is like saying that men grow facial hair because we tell little boys and girls that facial hair is unfeminine.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. WOMEN SEE FEMINISTS AS WEIRDOS AND NOT LEADERS

Xan Smiley, staff writer, "Weird women will fail to unseat Bush," THE SUNDAY TELEGRAPH, January 26, 1992, p. 17, International.[Women] just think the feminist movement has been hijacked by an unrepresentative bunch of weirdos. The most significant recent examples of the gap between the feminist leadership and the average women of America are the Clarence Thomas and William Kennedy Smith affairs. The bottom line is that in both cases most women believed the man by large margins. [women] replaced "they" in original.

5. FEMINISM EXPLOITS LESS ABLED WOMEN

Kenneth Minogue, Professor of political science at the London School of Economics, "The goddess that failed," NATIONAL REVIEW, Nov. 18, 1991, p. 47.Feminism is a similar exploitation of the impatience of less abled women who want to make a fast leap into a future of free and easy equality. How else might one explain the astonishing indifference among feminists to the skill, ability, and resourcefulness on which the success of Western mainstream has been based?

6. FEMINIST ASSUMPTIONS ARE WRONG

Ellen Frankel Paul, Prof. Political Science, Bowling Green St. Univ., "Big girls don't cry," REASON, December 1991, pp. 35-6.**Paglia's opening bombardment is aimed squarely at the feminists; she blasts every one of their sacred assumptions. On equality of the sexes: "My theory is that whenever sexual freedom is sought or achieved, sadomasochism will not be far behind." On nature as a benign force corrupted by men: "Men, bonding together, invented culture as a defense against female nature...The very language and logic modern woman uses to assail patriarchal culture were the invention of men."** Paglia = Camille, Author of Sexual Personae & ellipsis in original.

7. FEMINISTS ARE HARRIDANS

Pat Buchanan, Journalist, in "Why we should stand up for housewives," THE SUNDAY TELEGRAPH, March 15, 1992, p. 24.Feminists are "harridans wielding the castrator's knife."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2228. FEMINISTS HURT WOMEN

Sally Quinn, freelance writer, "Sally Quinn on feminism," LOS ANGELES TIMES, Feb. 6, 1992, p. 6, Part B.Feminists have indeed killed feminism. The truth is that people do think of the feminist movement as anti-male, anti-child, anti-family, and anti-feminine, therefore, the women who go out to the public with their obvious hypocrisy ruin the work that we women have slowly accomplished over the years...

9. FEMINISM IS HIERARCHICAL

Bell Hooks, journalist, "Challenging patriarchy means challenging men to change," Z MAGAZINE, Feb. 1991, p. 34.In most of my work I have been critical of a lifestyle based on a radical feminism that sees feminist movements primarily being for and about women. Thinking about feminism this way, women cling to notion of hierarchy, privileging the experience of women as being more important and more worthy of attention than the experience of men.

10. A FEMINIST CULTURE WILL MASCULINIZE

Rebecca Klatch, Prof. Sociology, Univ. of California--Santa Cruz, WOMEN OF THE NEW RIGHT, 1987, p. 129....when women pursue self-interest, not only is the family neglected but also ultimately women become like men. Hence, "macho-feminism" is destructive because everyone perceives their own interest, no one if left to look out for the larger good, that is, to be altruistic, to be the nurturer, the caretaker, the mother. In short, the underlying fear expressed in this critique of feminism is the fear of a total masculization of the world.

THE CASE FOR COMMUNITARIANISM

1. LIBERAL RIGHTS INCREASE PROBLEMS

Patrick Neal & David Paris, Pf Pol Sci At UVM & Pf of Gov at Hamilton Coll., "Liberalism and the Communitarian Critique," THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, September 1990, p.419-420.Finally, liberalism is said to misunderstand claims of rights, treating them as transcendent principles rather than as historical and contingent features of liberal communities. Politically, the criticism is that liberal society is atomistic and therefore needs to develop or restore some sense of community. The liberal emphasis on individual autonomy and rights, it is argued, has destroyed public discourse and created or exaggerated many social problems.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. LIBERAL, INDIVIDUAL VALUES ARE INCONSISTENT

Patrick Neal & David Paris, Pf Pol Sci At UVM & Pf of Gov at Hamilton Coll., "Liberalism and the Communitarian Critique," THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, September 1990, p.431.For example, it is argued that the idea of universal rights as transcending the historical and contingent confines of liberal society is philosophically and historically inappropriate. MacIntyre argues this last point most forcefully, comparing beliefs in rights to superstitions like belief in witches. Thus liberal theory is said to be inadequate because it cannot show how its understanding of self and society, if coherent at all, can explain or justify the values of the liberal community.

3. LIBERAL THEORY LEADS TO INDIVIDUAL EXCESS

Patrick Neal & David Paris, Pf Pol Sci At UVM & Pf of Gov at Hamilton Coll., "Liberalism and the Communitarian Critique," THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, September 1990, p.438.On the other hand, communitarians are right to point out the excesses of individualism and to lay some of the responsibility for them at the feet of liberal theory. There are problems in liberal societies which raise questions about whether the notions of the "autonomous individual" or "freedom of expression" have any meaning or worth. these problems are not addressed by saying either that liberal theory cannot be blamed for the practical problems of liberal societies or that liberal theory can, or already has, accommodated views of the individual which are consistent with more public-regarding virtues.

4. PLURALISTIC RIGHTS EXIST IN COMMUNITY

Clarke E. Cochran, Pf Pol Sci at Texas Tech, "The Thin Theory of Community," POLITICAL STUDIES, September 1, 1989, p.432.No theorist on community, certainly not those considered here, believes that persons seek their goods `totally' within unchanging social roles. Communitarian theorists understand that personal identity cannot be established apart from social roles but this does not mean that social roles determine identity. Communal pluralism recognizes a number of communities and roles and therefore multiple options for personal identity.

5. COMMUNITARIANS DISLIKE RIGHTS BASED INDIVIDUALISM

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.922.The particular kind of individualism they criticize is rights-based individualism in aa representative democracy with capitalistic institutions. The United States is help up as the principle example of an individualistic society because it is the purest case, the least alloyed with preindividualist elements - as it is least alloyed with predemocratic and capitalist ones.6. PEOPLE NEED A DISCIPLINED SOCIETY IN WHICH TO LIVE

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.923.Second, it is said that people need more discipline than liberal society provides. in such a society, people are too self-regarding, and self-regardingness too easily passes into selfishness, while selfishness expresses itself in the limitless pursuit of goods that do not gratify because they have no relation to any desire but to the unappeasable desire for prestige and status: unappeasable, because prestige and status constantly fluctuate.

7. COMMUNITARIANISM IS NOT UTILITARIAN

Ralph Ellis, Pf of Phil at Clark Coll., "Towards a reconciliation of Liberalism and Communitarianism," THE JOURNAL OF VALUE INQUIRY, January 1991, p.56.Communitarianism differs from utilitarianism in that it does not necessarily advocate simply quantitatively maximizing the good, regardless of its distribution, and does not assume that the good is essentially the same for all people (i.e. happiness). Rather, it is theoretically open to attributing some intrinsic value to fairness in the distribution of goods, as over against simply maximizing the good.

8. COMMUNITARIANISM IS DIFFERENT THAT LIBERALISM

Ralph Ellis, Pf of Phil at Clark Coll., "Towards a reconciliation of Liberalism and Communitarianism," THE JOURNAL OF VALUE INQUIRY, January 1991, p.56.Communitarianism also differs from contemporary "liberalism" in holding that (i) fairness in the distribution of goods is not always sufficient to define what actions are right (particularly societal actions). (ii) Fairness in the distribution of goods can be ( and is) accomplished by manipulating people's conception of the good as well as by manipulating the formula by which goods are distributed.

9. INDIVIDUALISM DESTROYS THE COMMUNITY

Ralph Ellis, Pf of Phil at Clark Coll., "Towards a reconciliation of Liberalism and Communitarianism," THE JOURNAL OF VALUE INQUIRY, January 1991, p.58-9.The communitarian might also be correct in pointing out in this regard that the atomistic notion of individuality required by liberalism destroys community, therefore exacerbating the very problem it must remedy: Man's unjust treatment of his fellow man.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. LIBERALS SUPPORT COMMUNITY

Robert Thigpen & Lyle Downing, Pfs of Pol Sci At U. New Orleans, "Liberal and Communitarian Approaches to Justification," THE REVIEW OF POLITICS, Fall 1989, p.533-34.First, liberals are not opposed to community; instead, they think that many citizens who exercise there freedoms will create various subpolitical communities with conflicting beliefs. Liberals therefore predicate political order noting the absence of community but rather on terms of agreement that can be accepted by persons in these different communities.

11. LIBERALS AND COMMUNITARIANS AGREE ON MANY ISSUES

Robert Thigpen & Lyle Downing, Pfs of Pol Sci At U. New Orleans, "Liberal and Communitarian Approaches to Justification," THE REVIEW OF POLITICS, Fall 1989, p.534.Second, like liberals, contemporary American communitarians claim that persons must be protected from domination. The works of Alasdair MacIntyre, the most "conservative" of recent communitarians, illustrates this point. Although he thinks that moral chaos can be overcome only if people return to the classical quest for their good or telos within social roles, he claims that the hierarchical dominance of some persons by others can be avoided by the rejection of Aristotle's metaphysical biology.

THE CASE AGAINST COMMUNITARIANISM

1. COMMUNITARIANS IGNORE PRIVACY RIGHTS

William Lund, Pf Pol Sci at U. Indiana, "Communitarian Politics and Privacy," SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE, Summer 1990, p.192.Like conservative proponents of an "original intent" jurisprudence, communitarians reject the notion that there is a moral or Constitutional right to decisional privacy that can be used to "trump" democratic infringements on individual liberty.

2. COMMUNITARIAN THEORY FLAWED

William Lund, Pf Pol Sci at U. Indiana, "Communitarian Politics and Privacy," SOCIAL THEORY AND PRACTICE, Summer 1990, p.206.The communitarian theory of rights and judging is deeply flawed. While ruling out overt discrimination and repression, it restricts the review of democratic outcomes to those fair-process considerations and denies a strong right of privacy. Thus the theory leaves us with a weak and indistinct border on that part of our social map that separates citizens from their communities. And it requires that we accept (if not applaud) occasional invasions of privacy, occasional deprivations of liberty whose justifications have not been subject to serious analysis and which may ultimately retard civic participation.

3. LIBERALISM INCLUDES COMMUNITY PHILOSOPHY

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Patrick Neal & David Paris, Pf Pol Sci At UVM & Pf of Gov at Hamilton Coll., "Liberalism and the Communitarian Critique," THE CANADIAN JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, September 1990, p.420.Nothing in liberalism's treatment of the individual, it is claimed, necessarily discourages community-regarding behaviour or promotes selfishness. The communitarian critique is thus seen as a misunderstanding, if not a caricature, of liberalism. Many of the aspects of the critique, it is argued, are easily accommodated within liberal theory.

4. COMMUNITARIANISM IS INTOLERANT

Clarke E. Cochran, Pf Pol Sci at Texas Tech, "The Thin Theory of Community," POLITICAL STUDIES, September 1, 1989, p.431.The second argument of the critics of communitarian theory is that it fails adequately to support tolerance and human rights. Liberalism, whatever its faults, has sustained societies in which individual and group differences are tolerated and fundamental rights protected. Community cannot, the critics charge, provide such protection without undermining its own premises. Indeed, the exclusionary element of community positively invites tyranny in the name of shared communal values.

5. COMMUNITARIANISM DESTROYS RIGHTS

Clarke E. Cochran, Pf Pol Sci at Texas Tech, "The Thin Theory of Community," POLITICAL STUDIES, September 1, 1989, p.431-32.Liberalism values pluralism, the characteristic feature of modern life, and defends it. If the individual is viewed as constituted by roles communally or socially determined, as in communitarian theory, then the foundation is set for social domination through those roles. because communities are constituted by shared beliefs and purposes, those who do not share them may be coerced by those who do. Since human rights are not essentially part of community and are not part of the shared tradition of every community, the rights of dissenting members are not protected.

6. COMMUNITARIANISM IS NOT A LASTING MOVEMENT

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.921-22.It is not certain that the recent communitarian critique of liberal society will turn out to have made a permanently valuable theoretical contribution. A good deal of that critique seems to be dominated by an anxiety about cultural conditions that may not be long-lasting or that they are only brief but vivid fashions.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS DO NOT STOP COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.924.Let us say that there is a need for greater mutuality. i believe, however, that rights-based individualism does not theoretically preclude a fair amount of it. One of the things needed for greater mutuality is a heightened feeling of the finitude of the individual. Does rights-based individualism theoretically exclude this feeling? I do not think so.

8. COMMUNITARIANISM IS ANTI-MODERN

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.930.From the perspective of rights-based individualism, both what the communitarian critics say that the people need and what the theorists themselves appear to need are retrogressive. Communitarian views give the impression of being inspired by a longing for a lost world (that is, a world that never existed except in misinterpretation.) Communitarianism is nostalgic, anti-modern.

9. COMMUNITARIANISM IS FASCIST

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.930.I do not intend to exaggerate when I say that from the perspective of right-based individualism, communitarians show too many affinities to fascism, either in fascism's corporatist or in its ritualist and spectacular aspect.

10. COMMUNITARIANS THREATEN HUMAN DIGNITY

George Kateb, Pf Pol Sci at Princeton, "Individualism, Communitarianism, and Docility," SOCIAL RESEARCH, Winter 1989, p.931.Theorists of individualism detect in the communitarian critique a grave threat to human dignity, precisely because its hostility to rights opens the door to every sort of oppression, and its positive aspirations radiate a sense of mistrust of people and hence the desirability of gathering them up in patterns of supposedly useful or beautiful or pious activity.

11. COMMUNITARIANS DON'T FULLY ENDORSE HUMAN RIGHTS

Robert Thigpen & Lyle Downing, Pfs of Pol Sci At U. New Orleans, "Liberal and Communitarian Approaches to Justification," THE REVIEW OF POLITICS, Fall 1989, p.540.Even though communitarians implicitly endorse the shared commitment to universal human rights, they also reject the cosmopolitan justification that is fundamental to these values.


THE CASE FOR PLURALISM

1. WESTERN SOCIETAL VIEWS OPPRESSIVE/ARBITRARY

Dinesh D'Souza, staff, Heritage Foundation, "Illiberal Education," ATLANTIC MONTHLY, March 1991, P. 51.The underlying issue is not the inclusion of more works of women or more works by blacks, or more work from outside the Western tradition; that broader representation is proper and justified has been conceded. The real issues--the one underlying a wide range of campus debates--include the assumption by many that Western values are inherently oppressive, that the chief purpose of education is political transformation, and that all standards are arbitrary. Many further deny any notion of objective reality.

2. PLURALISM LEADS TO HIGHER RATIONALITY

Jamie Wurzel, author/researcher, TOWARD MULTICULTURALISM, 1988, P. 10.The attainment of a multicultural perspective is the achievement of a new mental and emotional consciousness that enables individuals to negotiate more readily new formations of reality. It entails internalizing the historical and contemporary contradictions that are embedded in the human condition. The multicultural style of thinking and feeling is tolerant of cultural differences, the ambiguities of knowledge, and variations in human perspective.

3. PLURALISTIC APPROACH TEACHES VALUES OF ALL CULTURES

John P. Bianchi, administrator--NY curriculum commission, "What Do We Have in Common?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P. 20.The reason we don't have the problem that countries like Yugoslavia are having now is that all groups except African Americans have come here voluntarily. And all those cultures deserve to be included in our definition of American. I'm not talking about cultural cheerleading. We have got to teach children that all cultures have value.

4. OBJECTIVISTS VIEW OF PLURALISM SKEWED

Dinesh D'Souza, staff, Heritage Foundation, "Illiberal Education," ATLANTIC MONTHLY, March 1991, P. 72.Objectivists, Fish said, believe in enduring intellectual, cultural, and moral standards, not realizing that "history is a crucible in which standards emerge and become sociologically and politically established."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. MUST ACKNOWLEDGE PLURALIST NATURE OF SOCIETY TO UNIFY

Antonia Hernandez, pres Mx-Am lgl dfnse fund, "What do We Have in Common?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P. 19.Unity is the completed puzzle, diversity the pieces of the puzzle. And until we recognize every piece, we cannot have true unity. That's the debate that's going on today, or that is where the debate should be aimed.

6. ACKNOWLEDGING DIVERSITY PROMOTES STRONGER UNION

Antonia Hernandez, pres Mx-Am lgl dfnse fund, "What do We Have in Common?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P. 19.By acknowledging the contributions made to our country by Native Americans, and by Hispanics, and blacks and Asians, we're really strengthening our unity.

7. PLURALIST SOCIETY INEVITABLE

William Goodenough, prof anthropology, TOWARD MULTICULTURALISM, 1988, P. 2.All human beings live in what for them is a multicultural world, in which they are aware of different sets of others to whom different cultural attributions must be made, and of different contexts in which the different cultures of which they are aware are expected to operate.

8. SHOULD RESPECT DIVERSITY

Renato Rosaldo, prof anthropology, Stanford Univ, "What Do We Have in Common?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P. 19.We have a history of treasuring our sameness, but we should also respect our diversity. Our histories should allow all students and teachers to feel like first-class citizens. A US history that only stresses a westward movement across the continent would marginalize or exclude Native Americans.

9. SECURITY BREEDS PLURALISM

Michael Walzer, staff writer for DISSENT, "Making sense of tribal strife", UTNE READER, July/August 1992, P. 86.Under conditions of security, I will identify myself with more than one tribe; I will be an American, a Jew, an Easterner, an intellectual, a professor. Imagine a similar multiplication of identities around the world, and the world begins to look like a less dangerous place. When identities are multiplied, passions are divided.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. PLURALISM ENHANCES SELF AWARENESS

Paul Leinberger and Bruce Tucker, authors, "The boomers' search for community", UTNE READER, July/August, 1992, P. 86.this sense of diminished expectations may actually open up great things to this generation as they acquire a new sense of themselves as individuals who are intricately connected to social life--and thus to other individuals. This kind of kinship is not allowed by the lonely imperatives of the self ethic, which so many baby boomers previously embraced.

11. PLURALISM ONLY WAY TO AVOID TRIBAL EXTINCTION

David Maybury-Lewis, author, "Can tribes coexist even in America?", UTNE READER, July/August, 1992, P. 92.But the prospects for most tribal societies depend on their living in a world that is sufficiently enlightened to think about living with them, rather than just steamrolling them. I think the future belongs to a world where people are much more willing to live and let live, to coexist in states where interethnic relations are a matter of multiculturalism and tolerance for other peoples' ways of life. This is by no means easy, but it's possible.

12. INDIVIDUALISM CAUSES ISOLATION THWARTS PLURALISM

David Maybury-Lewis, author, "Can tribes coexist even in America?", UTNE READER, July/August, 1992, P. 95.Many people today feel rootless because in fact they have been uprooted--they have moved from one place to another. They may have emigrated; they may have been forced out as refugees. Other people feel lonely, isolated, and alienated because of processes that are taking place in their own society. Our very emphasis on individualism has led to a certain isolation of individuals within mass society and a feeling in those individuals that they are not very strongly connected to others within the society.

THE CASE AGAINST PLURALISM

1. HOMOGENEITY AVOIDS ETHNIC AND RACIAL UNREST

Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, freelance writer, "The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad," TIME, July 8, 1991, P21.The growing diversity of the American population makes the quest for unifying ideals and a common culture all the more urgent. In a world savagely rent by ethnic and racial antagonisms, the U.S. must continue as an example of how a highly differentiated society holds itself together.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. UNIFIED NATION-STATES CHECK TYRANNIES

John McManus, staff writer, "A New World Order," NEW AMERICAN, March 26, 1991, P21.While history may indeed clearly show that evil men have often turned their nations into aggressive tyrannies, none has ever succeeded in gaining control of the entire planet. As long as individual nations exist, each serves as a break on the designs of any ambitious megalomaniac.

3. MUST SUPPORT UNITY TO AVOID BAD TRIBALISM

Henry Grunwald, fmr chief editor, "What Do We Have In Common?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P20.The top priority should be to equip children for life in the modern world, to preserve and expand the unity America needs to function better, for the sake of all, and to avoid the destructive effects of intellectual tribalism.

4. NEED SHARED HISTORY FOR SOCIETAL COHESION

Sam Allis, staff writer, "Whose America?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P13."History is part of a society's attempt to structure a self-image and to communicate a common identity," points out Eugene Weber, a professor at the University of California, Los Angeles. "No community can exist as a community without common references. In a modern nation they come from a history."

5. U.S. PROVES DESIRABILITY OF HOMOGENEITY

Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, freelance writer, "The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad," TIME, July 8, 1991, P21.On every side today ethnicity is breaking up nations. The Soviet Union, India, Yugoslavia, Ethiopia, are all in crisis. Ethnic tensions disturb and divided Sri Lanka, Burma, Indonesia, Iraq, Cyprus, Nigeria, Angola, Lebanon, Guyana, Trinidad--you name it. Even nations as stable and civilized as Britain and France, Belgium, and Spain, face growing ethnic troubles. Is there any large multiethnic state that can be made to work? The answer to that question has been, until recently, the United States.

6. PLURALISM DECREASES THE RIGHTS OF INDIVIDUALS

Sam Allis, staff writer, "Whose America?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P13.Gone too is the emphasis on the twin ideals that form the basis of the American experiment: that rights reside in the individual rather than with social or ethnic classes and that all who come to these shores can be assimilated by an open society that transforms disparate peoples into Americans. Instead there is a new paradigm that emphasized the racial and ethnic diversity of American citizens, of the many cultures that have converged here, each valuable in its own right and deserving of study and respect. 7. ETHNOCENTRISM INEVITABLE

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Jamie Wurzel, author/researcher, TOWARD MULTICULTURISM, 1988, P6.Ethnocentrism is inevitable since it is rooted in the impossibility of escaping from one's experience. What culture has given us and what we ourselves have acquired through experience is what we know. Everything is evaluated from that point of reference; all is perceived in relation to ourselves.

8. FOCUS ON ETHNIC CULTURES LEADS TO DISCRIMINATION

Richard L. Morill, prof political geography, Univ of Washington, "Dilemmas of Pluralism in the United States", PLURALISM AND POLITICAL GEOGRAPHY, 1983, P73.The United State is likely to absorb millions more migrants from Mexico. To encourage their separation and isolation by emphasizing their cultural differences and linguistic uniqueness may serve to condemn them to much longer period of economic exploitation and perceived second class status. Bilingual instruction, from my reading of history, should be a means toward integration of linguistic minorities into the general economy and culture, not a shield against it.

9. GROUP SEPARATISM INCREASES TENSION/HOSTILITY

Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, freelance writer, "The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad," TIME, July 8, 1991, P21.That is the issue that lies behind the hullabaloo over "multiculturism" and "political correctness", the attack on the "Eurocentric" curriculum and the rise of the notion that history and literature should be taught not as disciplines but as therapies whose function is to raise minority self-esteem. Group separatism crystallizes the differences, magnifies the tensions, intensifies hostilities.

10. SHARED HISTORY TRANSMITS FUTURE VALUES

Sam Allis, staff writer, "Whose America?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P13.Especially in diverse, secular societies such as the U.S. a shared sense of the past plays a pivotal role in the way values and vision are transmitted from one generation to the next.

11. U.S. HOMOGENEITY PROMOTES UNITY

Arthur Schlesinger, Jr, freelance writer, "The Cult of Ethnicity, Good and Bad," TIME, July 8, 1991, P21.The US escaped the divisiveness of a multiethnic society by a brilliant solution: the creation of a brand new national identity. The point of America was not to preserve old cultures but to forge a new American culture. "By inter-mixture with our people," President Washington told Vice President John Adams, immigrants will "get assimilated to our customs, measures and laws: in a word, soon become one people."

12. PLURALISM CAUSES REGRESSION/COMMUNICATION BREAK DOWN

Sam Allis, staff writer, "Whose America?", TIME, July 8, 1991, P17.Ultimately, multicultural thinking, for all its nods toward pluralism and diversity, can lead to

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222several regressive orthodoxies. One is the notion that truth is forever encapsulated within collective identities, that is what white males or females or blacks or Hispanics or Asians know about their experiences can be communicated only imperfectly to people beyond their pales. Those without the experience can never really know its essential features. The authority of any statement is locked within the skin of the speaker.

THE CASE FOR MERITOCRACY

1. AMERICAN NEEDS TO TRANSFORM ITSELF TO A TRUE MERITOCRACY

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 42.A Fallowsian True Meritocracy would replace our current all-purpose, go-anywhere, Eurailpass-style educational credentials with a graduated, open system of more discrete and frequent judgments of a given person's actual performance at a given job.

2. TRUE MERITOCRACY IS A NATURAL DIVISION OF LABOR

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 42.The neoconservative Irving Kristol likes to talk of the "tyranny of the bell-shaped curve"--the hard truth that human talents are distributed unequally. But there is no single bell curve of "merit." There are many different curves corresponding to the different skills necessary for human progress. The True Meritocratic idea, as Walzer puts it, "is that many bells should ring."

3. TRUE MERITOCRACY GUARANTEES SOCIAL EQUALITY

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 42-3.There's little doubt that True Meritocracy would be good for social equality. Nobody would be branded semi-permanently by tests taken early in life. If you didn't rise very far in one profession, you could start from the bottom in another. It would be far more difficult for Americans to impute a permanence to their present place in the academic or economic hierarchy. As for the specific skills rewarded by the economy, they would be harder to confuse with generalized "merit."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. CAN'T BLAME MERITOCRACY FOR OUR SOCIAL ILLS

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 102.The point is that once we set out to rebuild the public sphere, we can make fairly large improvements fairly expeditiously. It requires nothing we haven't done ourselves in the past--or that we can't copy, with appropriate modifications, from other democratic capitalist nations. We can have a health care system that almost everyone uses on an equal basis. Canada has one. Britain has one. Germany has one. We can minimize the role of money in our democracy and maximize the time we spend in egalitarian political dialogue. We can frame our obligations so that rich and poor Americans serve the nation together. We did that in World War II. We did it in the 1950s. We can have a society in which the various classes use the same subways and drop off their kids at the same day-care centers and run into each other at the post office. We don't have to repeal capitalism or abandon meritocracy to do these things. We don't have to equalize incomes or make incomes "more equal" or even stop incomes from getting more unequal to do these things. We just have to do them.

5. PREFERENTIAL POLITICS FAIL

Thomas Sowell, Hoover Institution, PREFERENTIAL POLITICS: AN INTERNATIONAL PERSPECTIVE, 1990, p. 15.Preferential programs, even when explicitly and repeatedly defined as "temporary," have tended not only to persist but also to expand in scope, either embracing more groups or spreading to wider realms for the same groups, or both...Within the groups designated by government as recipients of preferential treatment, the benefits have usually gone disproportionately to those members already more fortunate.

THE CASE AGAINST MERITOCRACY

1. MERITOCRATIC POLICIES INCREASE SOCIAL INEQUALITY

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 37.Maybe something in the ordinary workings of the economy was producing social inequality even when incomes were growing more equal. This villain would be a change in how people attain affluence, not how many are affluent or how affluent they are. Specifically, the advent of a "meritocratic" criteria for advancement may have altered the very meaning of success in a way that encourages invidious distinctions between the successful and the unsuccessful.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. GUARANTEES INEQUALITY DESPITE INCOME LEVELS

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 37.Most obviously, if education and training are increasingly necessary to get ahead, as they apparently are, that in fact in itself could produce social inequality even if it were not accompanied by greater income inequality. It's one thing to have an unequal distribution of income. It's another to have that same distribution of income rigorously based on schooling and skills. In the latter situation, those with more money will be able to claim not just that they have more money, but that they have something else, knowledge, that makes them more valuable. The pay-for-skills trend lends all income differences, small or large, a nasty meritocratic bite.

3. MERITOCRACY REDUCES PEOPLE TO TEST SCORES

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 40.There are a number of reasons why this system is especially noxious to social egalitarians. It selects and labels individuals on the basis of traits that are tested and recorded at an early age...Measuring people for all their various narrow abilities would be cumbersome. It might be difficult to tell at a glance who was superior. Our "meritocracy" makes it easy.

4. EQUALIZING STRATEGIES FAIL

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 59.After all, even if rising money inequality is a major cause of social inequality, it doesn't necessarily follow that the best way to restore social equality is to try and produce money equality...And some money-equalizing strategies will actually aggravate the meritocratic threat to social equality.

5. MERITOCRACY CAUSES SOCIAL UNREST

Mickey Kaus, lawyer and frmr White House aide, THE END OF EQUALITY, 1992, p. 163-4.Once the underclass is gone and the bottom class is the working class, the rich and the working poor will have lost their unifying enemy. Who knows how Americans will react as the income gap between the skilled and unskilled widens--as it comes to be perceived, not just as a difference in income or skills, but increasingly as a difference in "merit" (the Fairness Trap) or even inherited ability (the Herrnstein Nightmare)? When the reality of these trends begins to sink in, American society will be subject to terrific strains. Only a strong civil culture will be able to contain the potential insecurities, prejudices, and outright animosities. And nothing, certainly not money inequality itself, will produce more animosity than the seeming assertion by the successful of a money- or "merit"-based superiority. If well-off Americans keep trying to isolate themselves in suburban neighborhoods and schools even after the underclass threat recedes, it won't take long for the stench of snobbery to reach the noses of the excluded.


THE CASE FOR ECOLOGICAL IMPERATIVES

1. MUST CHANGE CULTURAL BELIEF SYSTEMS TO DECREASE CONSUMPTION

National Research Council, Comm. on the Human Dimension of Global Change Commission on the Behavioral and Social Sciences and Education , Edited by Paul C. Stern, Study Director; Oran R. Young, Chair of Institute of Arctic Studies; and Daniel Druckman, Study Director, Global Environmental Change: Understanding the Human Dimensions, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C. 1992, p.88.Widely shared cultural beliefs and attitudes can also function as root causes of global environmental change. Many analysts focus on broad systems of beliefs, attitudes, and values related to the valuation of material goods.

2. NORTHERN CONSUMPTION NOT PROMOTE INTERGENERATIONAL EQUITY--IMMORAL

Jeremy Rifkin, Biosphere Politics: A New Consciousness for a New Century,President of the Greenhouse Crisis Foundation and the Foundation on Economic Trends, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York, p.310.The cost of having the resources of the planet available at our beck and call extends far beyond the price of purchase. A global market affords the rich and wall-to-do middle classes of the first world with an opulent consumer life-style. But it does so at the expense of destroying the carrying capacity of the planet's ecosystems, undermining the health of the biosphere, and impoverishing the lives of millions of human beings in second and third world nations.

3. MUST SUPPORT HIGHER RATIONALITY TO ACHIEVE SUSTAINABILITY

David W. Orr, Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to Postmodern World, State University of New York Press, 1992, p.181-182.I do not believe that a humane version of sustainability will come about solely as the result of "economically rational" behavior. It will only come about as the result of higher and more thorough rationality. Sustainabililty, I think, will require a considerable increase in virtue throughout the society, by which I mean people motivated by a sense that their well-being is linked to that of others and to other life-forms.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. CRITERIA OF SUSTAINABILITY NECESSARY TO PROMOTE TRUE 'RATIONALITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 195-196the criteria of formal sustainability, the criteria that enable absolute critical access against all established institutions, and so they must remain formal and abstract, not substantive and cultural, not "tamed." These are the criteria of rationality and legitimacy, and so we must be able to find that particular social-natural practices--the hunting of buffalo, the harvesting of forests, the burning of oil--are not absolutely legitimate. Rather, they may be rational (sustainable) under certain historical conditions and not under others, and we can make such judgements only if the criteria for rationality are formal, in the sense of identifying the formal conditions for sustainable social-natural relationships.

5. ECOLOGICAL SCARCITY MANDATES ECOLOGICAL THEORETICAL ANALYSIS

William Ophuls and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr., Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1992, p.13.Accumulating quantitative impact has thus brought about a qualitative difference in our relation to the physical world: We are now the prime agent of change in the biosphere and are capable of destroying the environment that supports us. The radically different conditions prevailing today virtually force us to be ecological theorists, grounding our analysis on the basic problems of human survival on a finite and vulnerable planet endowed with limited resources.

6. MUST EVALUATE "TRUTH" AND "REALITY" THROUGH FORMAL SUSTAINABILITY CRITERIA

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 193-194Specific cultural actions must be legitimated in terms of conceptions of "truth" and "reality," but the validity of these conceptions must in turn be evaluated in terms of the formal criteria of sustainability. And according to these formal criteria, actions that are legitimate under certain social-natural conditions may not be legitimate under later, changed social-natural conditions, conditions that result from the effects of those legitimated actions. From a reflexive perspective, the notions of "truth" and "reality" must be subject to evaluation and criticism in terms of the formal criteria for sustainability.

7. LEGITIMATION MANDATES FORMAL CRITERIA OF SUSTAINABILITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 194the notions that legitimate specific institutions, specific cultural practices, so that the legitimacy of established institutions must always be subject to evaluation and criticism in the name of the formal criteria for sustainability. The dual necessity of social life must be understood in terms of an inherent tension, the tension between the substantive legitimation of specific practices and the formal legitimation of sustainable practices.


8. ECOLOGICAL SCARCITY MANDATES ABANDONING INDIVIDUALISM

William Ophuls and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr., Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream, W. H. Freeman and Company, New York, 1992, p.3.liberal democracy as we know it - that is, our theory or "paradigm" of politics (see Box 1) - is doomed by ecological scarcity; we need a completely new political philosophy and set of political institutions. Moreover, it appears that the basic principles of modern industrial civilization are also incompatible with ecological scarcity and that the whole ideology of modernity growing out of the Enlightenment, especially such central tenets as individualism, may no longer viable.

9. LONG TERM VIABILITY MANDATES REASSESSMENT OF MORAL/ETHICAL VALUATIONS

Alan S. Miller, prof. in Conservation and Resource Studies and Peace and Conflict Studies at the University of California, Berkeley, Gaia Connections, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc., Maryland, 1991, p.4.Long-term resolution of the more visible environmental problems will be impossible until we begin to think through and reassess the substance of our moral and ethical valuation of nature.

10. REFLEXIVE KNOWLEDGE MANDATES USE OF SUSTAINABLE RATIONALITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 195And if knowledge is recognized as reflexive, then it must be recognized as necessarily legitimating, and thus as necessarily involving an inherent tension between the substantive and the formal requirements for social legitimation. Assertions of knowledge must be able to legitimate social institutions in terms of how actions and the world can be effectively, reliably, and sustainably connected. And they must be able to criticize and delegitimate institutions that have been effective and reliable but have become ecologically irrational, in terms of the formal criteria of sustainability.

11. ECOLOGICAL RATIONALITY ENHANCES EQUALITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 218the idea of equality refers to an institutional guarantee, in the name of rationality, that all individuals can maintain effective local control over their chosen lives, and that any disruption of that local control must be legitimated in the name of a shared ecological rationality.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22212. MUST RECONCEPTUALIZE SEPARATION OF NATURE AND SOCIAL STRUCTURES

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 218The issue of ecological coherence is not separate from the traditional concerns of social theory, but rather suggests a new conceptual perspective on the understanding of those traditional concerns of the social theory, but rather suggests a new conceptual perspective on the understanding of those traditional social concerns. The issue of ecological coherence has always seemed to be separate from such social issues as justice, equality, and freedom, because the issue of ecology had to do with natural processes, and social theory routinely accepted the categorical scientific separation of nature from society.

13. MUST LOOK AT LEGITIMIZATION ASPECTS OF SCIENTIFIC "NATURE" TO = SUSTAINABILITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 218From the scientific perspective social-natural relations are very difficult to conceptualize, and they are virtually impossible to conceptualize reflexively. But if the scientific separation of nature from society is seen as an issue of legitimization, rather than as an issue of "truth" or "reality," then social-natural relations can begin to be conceptualized directly, in which case they must be conceptualized reflexively, since they are central to the very possibility of conceptualization. And in this case they must be conceptualized in the context of the formal goal of social-natural sustainability, a goal that imposes formal structural conditions--equality, critical access--on the kinds of social practices that can be legitimated as rational.

14. MUST UNDERSTAND DESTRUCTIVE NATURE OF PRESENT LANGUAGE TO FORM ECOLOGICAL RATIONALITY

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 219Social-natural relations must be conceptualized directly, in terms of a necessary but formal relationship between social actions and natural processes, and such a relationship must be understood in terms of the formal, reflexive structure of language. Thus an ecological rationality must be based on a formal understanding of language, an understanding of inherent linguistic motives structured into regulative terms such as reality and person. This is the direction that social theory must take, the direction of exploring the conceptual conditions of knowledge and social life, rather than of exploring the "natural" characteristics of individuals.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22215. SUSTAINABILITY CANNOT BE LEGITIMIZED UNLESS LANGUAGE EVOLVES

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 219social theory must begin to explore the formal social-natural structure of language, for it is only through a reference to language that the idea of knowledge can be made coherent and that knowledge can become fully "wild," fully critical. And it is only through a commitment to a truly "wild" knowledge that sustainable social institutions can be legitimized.

THE CASE FOR NIHILISM

1. NEED NIHILISM FOR HUMANITY

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 169.This confrontation with Nothingness--and this is what it actually is--expresses itself in anxiety, in horror vacui, a dreadful feeling of being adrift, exposed, and helplessly abandoned. But the anxiety must be gone through with, in order that a person may come to himself.

2. CAN'T OVERCOME NIHILISM

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 175.Nothingness cannot be overcome by setting one's face against it and taking a negative attitude toward it simply by resisting it by means of self-assertion and possibly the most extreme measure of detachment and "nausea." Anybody who attempts to hypnotize Nothingness will himself be caught in its spell.

3. NIHILISM NECESSARY FOR ETHICAL BEHAVIOR

Michael Novak, prof. philosophy, Lake Forest College, THE EXPERIENCE OF NOTHINGNESS, 1970, p. 1.The experience of nothingness is an incomparably fruitful starting place for ethical inquiry. It is a vaccine against the lies upon which every civilization, American civilization in particular, is built. It exposes man as animal, question-asker, symbol-maker.

4. NIHILISM IS OUR ONLY CHOICE

Gianni Vattima, Italian philosopher, THE END OF MODERNITY, 1988, p.23....[N]ihilism arrives at the phase of its accomplishment, that it reaches its extreme form, by consuming Being in value. This is the event that finally makes it possible, and necessary, for philosophy today to recognize that nihilism is our (only) chance.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. NIHILISM EMPIRICALLY GOOD

Nikolai Beryayev, historian, RUSSIAN THOUGHT IN NINETEENTH AND TWENTIETH CENTURIES, 1947, p. 115.Nihilism was a movement of young people with faith. When the nihilists protested against morality, they did so in the name of goodness. They exposed the lies of idealistic principles, but did so in the name of love and of plain, unvarnished truth. They were up in arms against the conventional lies of civilization.

6. NO TRUE WORLD EXISTS

Johan Goudsblom, philosopher, NIHILISM AND CULTURE, 1980, p. 26.[T]he concept of the 'true world' is a fiction comprising purely imaginary things. Here the will functions all too perceptibly as the prompter of the intellect. The 'sham' world is the only one; the 'true' world is merely a construction.

THE CASE AGAINST NIHILISM

1. NIHILISM CAUSES SOCIETAL PARALYSIS

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 30.[N]ihilism is a symptom of disease. It is resignation caused by psychic and somatic exhaustion. Thus it is also a state of paralysis.

2. CAUSES DICTATORSHIP AND POWER LUST

Johan Goudsblom, philosopher, NIHILISM AND CULTURE, 1980, p. 44.Nihilism can be a problem for those who know that the foundations of their civilization are being undermined, so that they miss in their daily life the certainties upon which others build their existence as civilized people. The problem, however, becomes vulgarized as soon as inferior minds conclude, as a consequence of the existence of the problem, that civilization can now be thrown overboard. Nihilism degenerates then into a policy; it serves as an ideological justification for an unconstrained lust for the exercise of power.

3. CAUSES MANY TERRIBLE IMPACTS

Johan Goudsblom, philosopher, NIHILISM AND CULTURE, 1980, p. 38.A radical denial of the highest truths leads irrevocably to the denial of all values. The next step may lead towards desperate experiments with morality (Raskolnikov), towards suicide (Kirilov), sadism (Stavrogin) or terrorism (Verchovensky).

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. NIHILISM DESTROYS JUSTICE

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 61.As soon as the world loses the father of the world, as soon as it is deprived of God, it must necessarily be stripped of the invisible. And among the invisibles, naturally, are norms such as justice and also the ethical laws of value that determine good and evil.

5. NIHILISM CAUSES DEHUMANIZATION

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 100.Camus likewise consistently carries out this reduction of historical, human reality to a natural process. The autonomism of the plague symbol leads him to a complete "biologization" and thus a complete dehumanization of the world.

6. NAZI GERMANY WAS CHARACTERISTIC OF NIHILISM

Johan Goudsblom, philosopher, NIHILISM AND CULTURE, 1980, p. 17.Resistance to the intellect, indifference to the truth and to the bourgeois ethic of property and lawfulness were features which Hermann Rauschning had identified as early as 1938 as the dominant characteristics of the Hitler regime--the triumph of brutality and a banal cynicism which deemed permissible the rejection of all cultural values as sentimental illusions.

THE CASE AGAINST SEXUAL EQUALITY

1. GIVING WOMEN EQUALITY CAUSES MORE VIOLENCE

Kathryn Kahler, Staff, Newhouse News Service, "Hand that rocks cradle is taking up crime," SUNDAY STAR-LEDGER (New Jersey), May 17, 1992, Section 3, p. 1.Why violent crime among women is increasing is a question that is open to debate. Some argue that the participation of women in crime parallels women's entrance into previously male-dominated roles. Rutgers University criminologist Freda Adler is one of the leading proponents of this explanation, which she has detailed in two books: "The Criminology of Deviant Women" and "Sisters in Crime: The Rise of the New Female Criminal." It's not that women are inherently more law-abiding than men, Adler argues, it's just that until recently they have lacked opportunities to commit crimes. "As the professional and social evolution of women has progressed, and they are taking a part in more of the world, more also are out committing felonies and other crimes," said Mark Mershon, the FBI's supervisor in charge of fugitives.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. WOMEN CAUSE PROBLEMS

Florence King, Author, With Charity Toward None, "She dies in the end," NATIONAL REVIEW, July 6, 1992, p. 64.Illness is to women what "fear-grinning" is to baboons: a way to disarm dangerous Alpha males. If women are once again instinctively using illness as protective coloration, it is a subconscious way of saying that they want their moral superiority back. That they seem to be placing special emphasis on pelvic and mammary disorders should come as no surprise. After all, when you think about it, there is nothing more feminine than "female trouble."

3. WOMEN ARE INFERIOR

Camille Paglia, Professor, Art, Univ. of the Arts, in Deirdre Donahue, "Paglia's rebel persona," USA TODAY, May 12, 1992, p. 1D."There is no female Mozart because there is no female Jack the Ripper,"--"If civilization had been left in female hands, we would still be living in huts."--And the one that really inflames feminists' last nerve: "There is no escape from the biologic chains that bind us."

4. THERE IS LESS SEXUAL HARASSMENT TODAY

Gretchen Morgenson, Senior Editor, Forbes, "May I have the pleasure...", NATIONAL REVIEW, Nov. 18, 1991, p. 37....sexual harassment is less prevalent today than it was five years ago. According to EEOC, federal cases alleging harassment on the job totaled 5,694 in 1990, compared to 6,342 in 1984. Yet today there are 17 percent more women working than there were then.

5. WOMEN IN COMBAT IS DISRUPTIVE

Elaine Donnelly, former member of the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, "What did you do in the Gulf, Mommy?," National Review, November 18, 1991, p. 41.In spite of Pentagon management of the news, there were many reports of illegal fraternization, genuine sexual harassment, and elevated pregnancy rates--all of which seriously affected readiness and morale.

6. WOMEN ARE NOT AS STRONG AS MEN

Elaine Donnelly, former member of the Defense Advisory Committee on Women in the Services, "What did you do in the Gulf, Mommy?," National Review, November 18, 1991, p. 41.Gender-norming is designed to fudge the truth that everyone knows: on average, women are not as physically strong as men. Faced with this inconvenient truth, the Pentagon has made "adjustments" for women.


THE CASE AGAINST RACIAL EQUALITY

1. BLACK AFRICANS ENSLAVED BLACKS FIRST

Caroline Alexander, Author, One Dry Season, "Partners in the slave trade," NEW YORK TIMES, July 10, 1992, p. A15....it is worth bearing in mind that slavery was an African institution before the appearance of Europeans on African soil: On the western coast of Africa, certain tribes, such as the Duala of Cameroon, possessed entire villages of slaves, who were not sold abroad but kept for domestic use. Contrary to popular mythology, the slave trade represented a joint enterprise. White men did not set out into the African bush in search of villages to raid; rather they waited in the relative comfort of their moored ships and coastal camps for word to spread that they had come and for the wares they sought to be brought to them. The dirty job of raid and capture was done by freed Africans working in organized tribal groups.

2. BLACKS SCORE LOWER ON I.Q. TESTS

Charlotte Allen, staff writer, "Black-and-white-controversy," WASHINGTON TIMES, January 13, 1992, p. A4.Blacks, like members of all races, range in intelligence from severely retarded up to genius level, but a lower percentage of blacks than whites score as geniuses on the **tests. Furthermore, the test scores of fully half of all blacks indicate a mental capacity to perform, at best, skilled blue-collar jobs that require no "book learning" as part of training, jobs that were plentiful, say 50 years ago, but are dwindling in a globalized U.S. economy that has exported much of its manufacturing assembly work. By contrast, only about 16 percent of whites score that low. ** equals I.Q.

3. BLACKS ARE LESS INTELLIGENT

Michael Levin, Professor, Philosophy, City College of New York, IN Charlotte Allen, "Black-and-white-controversy," WASHINGTON TIMES, January 13, 1992, p. A4.I'm interested in the justice of affirmative action. Blacks are less intelligent. That's why they don't get ahead.

4. WHITES WILL, ON AVERAGE, DO BETTER THAN BLACKS

Lynne Duke, staff writer, "Colliding racial beliefs test speech limits at CCNY," WASHINGTON POST, Nov. 9, 1991, p. A1.**Levin says it would be "permissible" to segregate young black men in guarded subway cars because he says such men are so statistically likely to perpetuate a crime that they constitute a threat to the subway riding public. But that not all. Levin also believes that "on average, blacks are less in intelligent than whites" and that's "in a multicultural society, whites will do better....It's the way should be in the sense that if you give people a lot of liberty, that's the way it'll work out statistically. ** Levin equals Michael, Prof., Phil., CCNY & ellipsis in original.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. ONE CAN NOT BLAME SLAVERY AND JIM CROW FOR BLACKS' PROBLEMS

Lynne Duke, staff writer, "Colliding racial beliefs test speech limits at CCNY," WASHINGTON POST, Nov. 9, 1991, p. A1.Slavery, segregation, lynchings--virtually the whole history of blacks in America, says **Levin, are no longer relevant in explaining the problems affecting black communities today. "I don't think a black born in the last 30 years can attribute anything about his life to Jim Crow and slavery," Levin says. "I don't think there's any evidence that it's any factor at all, certainly not in the past 25 years." He discounts studies and surveys that otherwise, suggesting they are the product of society's tendency to search for racism beneath every stone. He particularly faults "the tremendous belligerence of blacks" who he says use racism as "a bludgeon." ** Levin equals Michael, Prof., Phil., CCNY.


THE CASE FOR HOMOSEXUALITY

1. HOMOSEXUALITY MORALLY JUSTIFIED.

Robert Wood, minister, United Church of Christ, "Christ and the homosexual," Homosexuality and Ethics, ed., Edward Batchelor, Jr., 1980, p. 167.The opportunity for freedom for homosexuals who can find no moral satisfaction within heterosexual confines is what the phenomenon of homosexuality offers. In enabling the homosexual to attain fuller expression of his personality (why his personality needs such expression is not the question here), the condition of homosexuality exerts a moral influence on both the individual and society.

2. HOMOSEXUALITY IS GOD'S GIFT OF POPULATION CONTROL.

Robert Wood, minister, United Church of Christ, "Christ and the homosexual," Homosexuality and Ethics, ed., Edward Batchelor, Jr., 1980, pp. 165-166.HOMOSEXUALITY IS A GOD-CREATED WAY OF PROTECTING THE HUMAN RACE ON THIS PLANET FROM THE SUICIDE OF OVERPOPULATION. Indeed, since homosexuality appears to have existed among mankind as long as heterosexuality, can we not conclude that this form of sexuality is a built-in safety valve of human behavior devised by the all-knowing deity to permit sexual expression with a corresponding increase in population, followed by the necessity of eliminating people already born? As we become alarmed by the spiralling birth rate, and wonder how all the mouths are going to fed and all the children educated and all the hands employed, we can pause to give thanks for the presence of homosexuality and its adverse affect on the birth rate.

3. HOMOSEXUALITY IS INEVITABLE.

George Weinberg, M.D., Society and the Health Homosexual, 1983, p. 72.Civilizations have often tried to cultivate what they considered a lush garden without weeds--a wholly heterosexual population. This has never been done. Unwanted, homosexuals have sprung up apparently nurtured by the same elements as heterosexuals.

4. HOMOPHOBIA IS A WEAPON OF SEXISM.

Suzanne Pharr, founder Arkansas Women's Project, Homophobia: A Weapon of Sexism, 1988, pp. 16-17.Homophobia works effectively as a weapon of sexism because it is joined with a powerful arm, heterosexism. Heterosexism creates the climate for homophobia with its assumption that the word is and must be heterosexual and its display of power and privilege as the norm. Heterosexism is the systemic display of homophobia in the institutions of society. Heterosexism and homophobia work together to enforce compulsory heterosexuality and that bastion of patriarchal power, the nuclear family.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. HOMOPHOBIA LEADS TO AIDS DEATHS.

Sandy Rapp, Women's rights activist, God's Country: The Case Against Theocracy, 1991, pp 6-7.The homophobia which undermines gay relationships created a hotbed for sexually transmitted plague; and the government, in its coy reluctance to address matters homosexual, has resolutely exacerbated the situation. Under the tireless guidance of Senate Jesse Helms (R-NC), Congress actually defunded AIDS education programs in direct proportion to their effectiveness, i.e., their gay male specificity.

6. AIDS IS NOT GOD'S PUNISHMENT FOR HOMOSEXUALITY.

Sandy Rapp, Women's rights activist, God's Country: The Case Against Theocracy, 1991, pp. 10-11.And some "fundamentalist," persons convinced that their own "moral" point of view is a norm ordained by God, are still now, into the 1990s, proclaiming that through Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome a male god is punishing homosexuality. These claims persist in spite of the disease's ravaging infants, Africans, heterosexuals, injection drug users, and the blood-transfused, and in spite of the fact that half the country's gay people, i.e., lesbians, are at the far end of the sexual transmission chain.

THE CASE AGAINST HOMOSEXUALITY

1. BEST EVIDENCE FOR PHYSIOLOGICAL DETERMINATION IS INSUFFICIENT

Steven Goldberg, Prof. Soc. CCNY, NATIONAL REVIEW, February 3, 1992, p. 39.I too wish that there were a physiologically determinative factor, one that would refute the Freudian explanation and all explanations in which environment plays a role. Such a finding would demolish all attempts to term homosexuality "abnormal". But wishing does not make it so, and evidence like that provided by Bailey and Pillard indicates that such a physiologically determinative factor will not be found.

2. GAYS ARE NOT DOWNTRODDEN

Thomas Sowell, Hoover Inst., COMPASSION VERSUS GUILT, 1987, p. 133.Far from being downtrodden victims, homosexuals are well-heeled, well-placed, and vindictive against anyone who dares to criticize them in any way.

Thomas Sowell, Hoover Inst., COMPASSION VERSUS GUILT, 1987, p. 133.The homosexual political lobby depict themselves as a downtrodden minority. But they are not seeking to be left alone in peace. They already have that. Most people neither know nor care what they are doing.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. GAY MOVEMENT IS NOT ABOUT RIGHTS

William Dannemeyer, U.S. Congressman, SHADOW IN THE LAND, 1989, p. 74.Homosexual politics is not about protecting individuals' rights to be left alone. Homosexual politics centers upon the promotion of their way of life in public, in the media, and in the schools, to a captive audience of other people's children. It is about the symbolic glorification of homosexuals and homosexuality. It is not about their right to associate with each other, but about destroying other people's rights to decline the association, and to keep their children away from them in schools or in children's organizations.

4. GAYS HAVE NO RIGHT TO APPROVAL

Charley Reese, staff, King Features Syndicate, "Freedom demands better people, CONSERVATIVE CHRONICLE, July 22, 1992, p. 30.Gays, for example, have a right to be let alone, but they demand that others approve of them. They have no right to approval.

5. HOMOSEXUALITY IS IMMORAL.

Chief Justice Burger, concurring in Bowers v. Hardwick, U.S. REPORTS, Volume 478, 1985, p. 196.Proscriptions against sodomy have very "ancient roots." Decisions of individuals relating to homosexual conduct have been subject to state intervention throughout the history of Western civilization. Condemnation of those practices is firmly rooted in Judeo-Christian moral and ethicaL standards.

6. GAY SEXUAL ACTS ARE ANTI-HUMAN

Chief Justice Burger, concurring in Bowers v. Hardwick, U.S. REPORTS, Volume 478, 1985, p. 197.Blackstone described "the infamous *crime against nature" as an offense of "deeper malignity" than rape, a heinous act "the very mention of which is a disgrace to human nature," and " a crime not fit to be named."4 W. Blackstone, Commentaries. *refers to sodomy.

THE CASE FOR STATE EVOLUTION

1. STATES EVOLVE NATURALLY

Anthony D. Smith, prof. Sociology, London School of Economics, "The Nation: Invented, Imagined, Reconstructed?", Millennium, vol. 20, #3, winter 1991, page 353.For Karl Deutsch himself, "nation-building" signified the mutual adjustment of the processes of social mobilization and cultural assimilation, to produce the necessary complementarity of social communication and the creation of linkages between centres and regions. The activities of nationalists within these cumulative processes were of limited importance and confined to later stages of the formation of national communities.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. NEED NATIONAL COMMUNITY FOR COHESION

Anthony D. Smith, prof. Sociology, London School of Economics, "The Nation: Invented, Imagined, Reconstructed?", Millennium, vol. 20, #3, winter 1991, page 355.At this point, Hobsbawn distinguishes between the adaptation of genuine 'old' traditions to new situations and the conscious invention of essentially 'new' traditions to meet new needs. The former occurs in all societies, including those usually dubbed 'traditional'. The latter is only found in periods of rapid social change, especially in so-called 'modern' societies. In such cases, the need to create order and community in an age of innovation becomes paramount. Hence the importance of a created 'national community', one which secures the cohesion of its members in the face of fragmentation and disintegration.

3. DECREASED SOVEREIGNTY HURTS NATION BUILDING

R.B.J. Walker, prof. Int'l Relations, "State Sovereignty and the Articulation of Political Space/Time", Millennium, vol. 20, #3, winter 1991, page 454.Whether in relation to fears of authoritarianism and a crisis of legitimation or to claims about the increasing salience of both global and local processes, the established routines of democratic theory and nationalist aspiration must become increasingly tenuous once the guarantees of state sovereignty lose their credibility.

4. STATE-MAKING UNDESIRABLE

Karen A. Rasler, prof. Political Science. WAR AND STATE MAKING: THE SHAPING OF THE GLOBAL POWERS, 1989, page 211.Non-global power states share some of the history and some of the influences associated with the global power state-making experience. If only because of the example set by the global powers as pioneers of modern state making, other states cannot be separated entirely from the factors highlighted in this study. In any event, the global powers have not been a passive reference group. They have literally forced their example on the rest of the world. Consequently, a numbe rof locations around the world might be better off without states if only their populations could find a way to dispense with them.

5. INTERNAL FACTORS KEY TO STATE-BUILDING

Henri J. M. Claessen, Univ. of Lieden, Netherlands, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE: THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION (ed. Claessen, et al), 1985, page 247.As the above summary shows, Friedman's is a model of gradual, internal development, in which neither war, nor conquest, nor circumscription play a role, but where an increasing entanglement of leadership, means of subsistence, ideology, and endogamy are decisive for the emergence of new sociopolitical forms.


THE CASE AGAINST STATE EVOLUTION

1. NATIONALISM IS NOT NATURAL

Anthony D. Smith, prof. Sociology, London School of Economics, "The Nation: Invented, Imagined, Reconstructed?", Millennium, vol. 20, #3, winter 1991, page 354.It comes as no surprise, therefore, to find younger historians like John Breuilly regarding nationalism as a special, and successful, form of modern politics, used by elites to capture state power in opposition to ruling classes. Even though Breuilly accords less importance to ideology and hence intellectuals in his account, the activist tenor of his argument is clear: nationalsim serves as a vital poitical discourse able to mobilize different strata, uniting divergent social interests and legitimating their political aspirations. In other words, a political instrument of political factions, no more.

2. SOVEREIGNTY NOT NATURAL

R.B.J. Walker, prof. Int'l Relations, "State Sovereignty and the Articulation of Political Space/Time", Millennium, vol. 20, #3, winter 1991, page 451.To the extent that more cosmopolitan traditions have been considered relevant, it is only because they have been adapted to the particularistic ambitions of statist communities, witness the brilliant reconciliation of state and geometrical reason by Hobbes or state and rational history by Hegel. In this reading, the historicity of states is frequently ignore altogether, an ignorance that is further encouraged by the construction of a mythic antitradition of theories in international relations to complement the mythic tradition of theory about statist community.

3. STATES DON'T EVOLVE

M. Estellie Smith, SUNY Oswego, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE: THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION (ed. Claessen, et al), 1985, page 100.For one thing, I have a healthy skepticism concerning the frequency with which genuinely revolutionary change occurs. I think it fairly rare that a "new" form appears...Finally, though models of cultural evolution rest heavily on models of biological evolution, they often ignore "uncomfortable" features of the latter.

4. STATES ARE JUST SYSTEM FOR REPRESSION

Henri J. M. Claessen, Univ. of Lieden, Netherlands, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE: THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION (ed. Claessen, et al), 1985, page 128.For Oppenheimer, too, the state was an instrument of oppression, designed to confirm social inequality. This inequality originated in the conquest and subjugation of one people by another. This subjugation had no othe rpurpose than the economic exploitation of the conquered. Thus, conquest lay at the root of the state.


5. WAR NECESSARY FOR STATE-BUILDING

M. Estellie Smith, SUNY Oswego, DEVELOPMENT AND DECLINE: THE EVOLUTION OF SOCIOPOLITICAL ORGANIZATION (ed. Claessen, et al), 1985, page 282.With statehood, warfare is an reasonable alternative for the achievement of government ends, and warfare itself as a viable option starts to determine how state and society can be organized. War helps to make states, states make war, and therefore states are in part, and must always be, war machines.

THE CASE FOR PATERNALISM

1. SHOULD PROTECT THE CONSUMER

Richard J. Arneson, Assoc. Ed., ETHICS, "Is Socialism Dead?" April 1992, p.493.When it is reasonably expected that consumers left to themselves will make bad choices for themselves, there is a reason to replace individual control with state control to the extent that state control is likely to produce better outcomes for individuals. For this reason states prohibit by law the sale and consumption of dangerous drugs and impose state regulation on the sale and consumption of some drugs that are deemed beneficial in some uses and dangerous in others.

2. PATERNALISM SHOULD BE USED FOR IMPORTANT DECISIONS

Robert Goodin, Asst. Ed., "Permissible Paternalism," THE RESPONSIVE COMMUNITY, Summer 1991, p.44.So far as public policy is concerned, certainly, to be a fitting subject for public paternalism, a decision must first of all involve high stakes. Life-and-death issues must conspicuously qualify. But so do ones that substantially shape your subsequent life prospects. Deciding to drop out of school or to begin to taking drugs involves high stakes of roughly that sort. If the decision is also substantially irreversible-returning to school is unlikely, the drug is addictive- then that further bolsters the case for paternalistic intervention.

3. AUTONOMY IS NOT AFFECTED BY PATERNALISM

Martin D. Farrell, Pf Law- U. Buenos Aires, "Autonomy and Paternalism," RATIO JURIS, March 1991, p.54.Raz acknowledges that his doctrine of freedom deviates from some liberal writings on the subject in its ready embrace of various paternalistic measures. But he believes that paternalism affects matters which are regarded by all as of merely instrumental value, and therefore does not interfere with autonomy if its effect is to impose safety


4. PATERNALISM IS JUSTIFIED

Joel Feinberg, Pf of Phil.- U. AZ, "Legal Paternalism," PATERNALISM, ed. by Rolf Sartorius, 1983, p.3.Yet if we reject paternalism entirely, and deny that a person's good is ever a valid ground for coercion, we seem to fly in he face of both common sense and our long established customs and laws. In criminal law, for example, a prospective victim's freely granted consent is no defense to the charge of mayhem or homicide. The state simply refuses to permit people to agree to their own disablement or death.

5. THE STATE SHOULD PROTECT ITS CITIZENS

Joel Feinberg, Pf of Phil.- U. AZ, "Legal Paternalism," PATERNALISM, ed. by Rolf Sartorius, 1983, p.17.According to the strong version of legal paternalism, the state is justified in protecting people against their will, from harmful consequences even of their fully voluntary choices, and undertakings.

6. PATERNALISM CAN BE JUSTIFIED

Bernard Gert, Pf of Phil- Dartmouth U., MORALITY, 1988, p.288.In order to justify paternalistic behavior, it is necessary, not sufficient, that the moral rule violation prevent so much more evil for the person that the evil, if any, caused by it, that it would be irrational for him not to choose having the rule violated with regard to himself.

THE CASE AGAINST PATERNALISM

1. SELF-DETERMINATION ALWAYS TAKES PRECEDENCE

Dan Brock, Pf Phil at Brown U., "Paternalism and Autonomy," ETHICS, April 1988, p.557Feinberg explicitly allows that respecting the personal right to self-determination and promoting a person's good, while they usually correspond, may sometimes conflict, and he holds that whenever they do "a person's right to self-determination, being sovereign, takes precedence over his own good."

2. SHOULD REJECT STATE PATERNALISM

Jack Douglas, Pf of Sociology- UCSD, "Cooperative vs. Conflictful Paternalism," PATERNALISM, ed by Rolf Sartorius, 1983, p.198-99.It is, therefore, inherently dangerous to accept any form of state paternalism as truthful or legitimate. And it is especially dangerous to lend the prestige of scholarly analysis to the protestations of state paternalism. Moreover, it is completely unnecessary to accept any state paternalism as necessary to achieve the results desired.

3. GOVERNMENT MAKES BAD DECISIONS

Daniel Winkler, Pf Phil at U. Wisc-Madison, "Persuasion and Coercion," PATERNALISM, ed by

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Rolf Sartorius, 1983, p.43.First, there is the distinct possibility that the government that takes over decision-making power from partially incompetent individuals may prove even less adept at securing their interests than the individuals would have been if left alone. Paucity of scientific data may lead to misidentification of risk factors. the primitive state of the art in health promotion and mass-scale behavior modification may render interventions ineffective or even counterproductive.

4. PATERNALISM FAILS TO MEETS ITS GOALS

Daniel Winkler, Pf Phil at U. Wisc-Madison, "Persuasion and Coercion," PATERNALISM, ed by Rolf Sartorius, 1983, p.44-45.A third problem is that the involuntariness of some self-destructive behavior may make paternalistic reform efforts ineffective. To the extent that the unhealthy behavior is not under the control of the individual, we cannot expect the kind of financial threat involved in a "fat-tax" to exert much influence. Paradoxically, the very conditions under which paternalistic intervention seems most justified are those in which many of the methods available are least likely to succeed.

5. PATERNALISM IS DISRESPECTFUL TO THE INDIVIDUAL

Donald Vandever, Philosopher, PATERNALISTIC INTERVENTION, 1986, p.148.However, invasive paternalistic constraints on competents, who do not consent to preserve their moral good, fails to respect them as our equals with their own capacity for formulating their conception of the good and as responsible agents capable of deciding to what extent they will bend their efforts to achieve it.

6. PATERNALISM DENIES MORAL EQUALITY

Donald Vandever, Philosopher, PATERNALISTIC INTERVENTION, 1986, p.113.However, to treat them as if they lack what we have and expect to pursue, namely a conception of the good, is to deny them a certain moral equality. For if, as paternalistically inclined agents we invasively interfere with nonconsenting competent persons when they wrong no others, we act on our own conception of the good while subverting the efforts of others to act in a like manner.

THE CASE FOR DEHUMANIZATION

1. HUMANITY IS A VAGUE CONCEPT

Helmut Thielicke, Dutch philosopher, NIHILISM, 1961, p. 61.[H]umanity is an abstraction, an idea which has no demonstrable givenness. What is concretely given, however, is man himself, or more precisely, the individual man, and again, not as an ethical personality in any other way a bearer of value--for values after all, invisible--but man in puris naturalibus.

2. HUMANITY IS NOT ABSOLUTE

William Blackstone, prof. Philosophy, Univ. of Georgia, HUMAN DIGNITY: THIS CENTURY AND NEXT (ed. Gotesky and Laszlo), 1970, p.7.The danger and impoverishment of our moral perspective involved in looking upon the human

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222rights themselves as being prima facie as opposed to the actual exercise of those rights, is that this permits us to view persons as being open to forfeiture of all rights. This, it seems to me, amounts to allowing the conceptual possibility of viewing persons as things.

3. DIGNITY CAN'T BE GAINED OR LOST

Herbert Spiegelberg, prof. Philosophy, Washington Univ., HUMAN DIGNITY: THIS CENTURY AND NEXT (ed. Gotesky and Laszlo), 1970, p.7.Human dignity is a very different matter. It implies the very denial of an aristocratic order of dignities. For it refers to the minimum dignity which belongs to every human being qua human. It does not admit of any degrees. It is equal for all humans. It cannot be gained or lost. In this respect human dignity as a species of dignity differs fundamentally from the genus.

4. CONCERN WITH DIGNITY STOPS HUMAN PROGRESS

B. F. Skinner, prof. psychology, Harvard, BEYOND FREEDOM AND DIGNITY, 1971, p. 55.What we may call the literature of dignity is concerned with preserving due credit. It may oppose advances in technology, including a technology of behavior, because they destroy chances to be admired and a basic analysis for which the individual himself has previously been given credit. The literature thus stands in the way of further human achievements.

5. MUSTN'T CONCERN OURSELVES WITH DIGNITY

B. F. Skinner, prof. psychology, Harvard, BEYOND FREEDOM AND DIGNITY, 1971, p. 173.Our culture has produced the science and technology it needs to save itself. It has the wealth needed for effective action. It has, to a considerable extent, a concern for its own future. But if it continues to take freedom or dignity, rather than its own survival, as its principal value, than it is possible that some other culture will make a greater contribution to the future.

6. ALIENATION ENABLES CRITICISM AND INNOVATION

Peter Railton, assoc. prof. philosophy, Univ. Michigan, CONSEQUENTIALISM AND ITS CRITICS, 1988, p. 108.Alienation and inauthenticity do have their uses. The alienation of some individuals or groups from their milieu may at times be necessary for fundamental social criticism or cultural innovation.

THE CASE AGAINST DEHUMANIZATION

1. MODERN DAY LACKS HUMANIZATION

Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson, author and editor, prof. of American Studies, Univ. of Hawaii, THE DEHUMANIZATION OF MAN, 1983, p. xiv.The immediate evidence of its reality, within us and around us, is sufficiently compelling. If it is perhaps too much even now to declare that most men and women lead lives of quiet desperation, it is plain that many of us, much of the time, feel alone and afraid in a world we never made.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. EVERYONE HAS RIGHT TO DIGNITY

John Somerville, prof. California Western Univ., HUMAN DIGNITY (ed. Gotesky and Laszlo), 1970, p. 185.It is in this sense that it is not only possible but logically necessary to say that if everyone has innerworth than everyone has a right to be allowed to behave towards himself in a way demanded by that worth, and everyone has a right to demand of others that they behave towards him in ways demanded by his inner worth. In short, everyone has a right to lead a life of dignity himself and to be treated with dignity by others; because everyone has worth.

3. DEHUMANIZATION IS HORRIBLE

Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson, author and editor, prof. of American Studies, Univ. of Hawaii, THE DEHUMANIZATION OF MAN, 1983, p. xi.It neither kills outright nor inflicts apparent physical harm, yet the extent of its destructive toll is already greater than that of any war, plague, famine, or natural calamity on record--and its potential damage to the quality of human life and the fabric of civilized society is beyond calculation. For that reason this sickness of the soul might well be called the "Fifth Horsemen of the Apocalypse." Its more conventional name, of course, is dehumanization.

4. DEHUMANIZATION CAUSES GENOCIDE

Ashley Montagu and Floyd Matson, author and editor, prof. of American Studies, Univ. of Hawaii, THE DEHUMANIZATION OF MAN, 1983, p. xii.Behind the genocide of the Holocaust lay a dehumanized thought; beneath the menticide of deviants and dissidents, in the Gulags of Russia and the cuckoo's nests of America, lies a dehumanized image of man: in fact, it is the same thought and the same image.

5. AUTONOMY IS PREREQUISITE TO OTHER VALUES

Joseph Kupfer, prof. Philosophy, Iowa State Univ., AUTONOMY AND SOCIAL INTERACTION, 1990, p. 1.In this respect, then, the question of autonomy may be said to underlie other goods. We can always ask of any value whether it is held or sought in an autonomous fashion.

6. AUTONOMY IS A BASIC VALUE

Joseph Kupfer, prof. Philosophy, Iowa State Univ., AUTONOMY AND SOCIAL INTERACTION, 1990, p. 1.Autonomy has come to be a basic value, a priority in most of our lives. More than such established goods as happiness, virtue, and knowledge, it has become a crux of debate in both personal and political arenas.


THE CASE FOR NATIONAL SECURITY

1. NATIONAL SECURITY DEFINED

Richard Meinhold, author/researcher, BEYOND THE SOUND OF CANNON: MILITARY STRATEGY IN THE 1990s, 1992, p.2.National security is the term used to describe the product of efforts to ensure that a nation's territory, institutions, and freedom to interact with other nations are protected from outside intervention. While the term itself is relatively new, the concept can be traced to the early stages of humans development.

2. NEED TO RETAIN NATIONAL SECURITY STRENGTH

Richard Meinhold, author/researcher, BEYOND THE SOUND OF CANNON: MILITARY STRATEGY IN THE 1990s, 1992, p.158.Although the need to prepare for the future where the direction, the type, and the magnitude of any threat to the United States or its interests may not be as plain as it has been during the past forty-plus years, it is, nevertheless, clear. The period of uncertainty ahead should give impetus to establishing a national security system effective against all comers by mandating the coordinated planning in military and foreign policy needed to ensure it.

3. WORLD COMPLEXITY MANDATES CONTINUANCE OF NATIONAL SECURITY POLICY

John Weltman, Pf. international studies at John Hopkins, "The setting for American national security in the 1990s," CHALLENGES TO AMERICAN NATIONAL SECURITY IN THE 1990s, 1991, p. 14.A world of greater complexity might introduce numerous new threats to American national security as a variety of newly autonomous actors operate on the world stage. Furthermore, the very multiplicity of these newly autonomous actors may make it more difficult to predict the character, timing, or location of the threats that might arise.

4. CAN NOT ABOLISH NATIONAL SECURITY ENDEAVORS

Ted Carpenter, dir. foreign policy studies at the Cato Institute, "The case for US strategic independence," USA TODAY MAGAZINE, SEPTEMBER 1992, p.12.Just as strategic independence is not burden sharing, it is also not isolationism. The US can and should maintain extensive diplomatic, cultural, and economic ties with the rest of the world. Washington also must retain sizable and capable military forces and be prepared to take decisive action if a serious threat to America's security does emerge. A judicious, albeit aggressive, pruning of security commitments is needed, not the creation of a hermit republic.

5. STRATEGIC INDEPENDENCE VIABLE POLICY

Ted Carpenter, dir. foreign policy studies at the Cato Institute, "The case for US strategic independence," USA TODAY MAGAZINE, SEPTEMBER 1992, p.12.A policy of strategic independence is based on a more modest and sustainable security role for the

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222US and on a realistic assessment of the post-Cold War international system. It takes into account the fundamental changes that have occurred in the world in recent years and seeks to position the US to benefit from the emerging multipolar political, economic, and military environment.

THE CASE AGAINST NATIONAL SECURITY

1. IS A VAGUE VALUE--LACKS COHERENT DEFINITION

Sam Sarkesian, Pf. international relations, US NATIONAL SECURITY, 1989, p.8.These problems are well summed up by one expert: "No formal definition of national security as a field has been generally accepted; none may be possible. In general, it is the study of the security problems faced by nations, of the policies and programs by which these problems are addressed, and also of the governmental processes through which the policies and programs are decided upon and carried out."

2. MAY PROMOTE SENSELESS FANATICISM

Mel Gurtov, Pf. PoliSci at Portland St., GLOBAL POLITICS IN THE HUMAN INTEREST, 1988, p.1.Someone once defined fanaticism as "redoubling your efforts when you have lost sight of your original objective." The blind pursuit of national security fits this definition of fanaticism perfectly.

3. DESTROYS FABRIC OF DEMOCRACY

Saul Landau, Sr. fellow, Institute for Policy Studies, THE DANGEROUS DOCTRINE, 1988, p. 168.In the name of preserving democracy, national security operatives violate the very fabric and texture of it. Because in their world all information is potentially dangerous, these operatives try to control it. By shaping news or information and controlling access to it, national security managers deprive the citizens of participation in life-and-death issues, for themselves and future generations.

4. MINDSET RISKS GLOBAL DESTRUCTION

Mel Gurtov, Pf. PoliSci at Portland St., GLOBAL POLITICS IN THE HUMAN INTEREST, 1988, p.2.The human costs of global insecurity are staggering: the narrow understanding of "national security" by most state leaders keeps these costs high and mounting; the penetration of every aspect of world politics (such as alliances, the ecosystem, global finance and trade, and people's movements and exchanges) by this global crisis has created great foreboding but equally great hesitancy to take remedial action; and, as a result, the prospects for planetary survival itself are not optimistic.

5. NATIONAL SECURITY EQUALS GLOBAL VIOLENCE

Mel Gurtov, Pf. PoliSci at Portland St., GLOBAL POLITICS IN THE HUMAN INTEREST, 1988, p.18.National security thus conflicts directly with global security: the search for absolute security that preoccupies Realist leaders intensifies interstate violence, with profoundly adverse consequences for human beings.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. NATIONAL SECURITY INTRINSICALLY CAUSES EXPANSION

Mel Gurtov, Pf. PoliSci at Portland St., GLOBAL POLITICS IN THE HUMAN INTEREST, 1988, p.46.What it finds is that as their objective power increases, states, regardless of their social systems, will embrace increasingly expansive conceptions of their national security "needs." Ultimately, as with the United States and the Soviet Union, the entire globe must be secured in order for national leaders to feel confident about domestic security.


THE CASE FOR CONSEQUENTIALISM/UTILITY

1. MONISM IGNORES COMPLEXITY.

Christopher Stone, Prof., Law, USC, Earth and other ethics: The case for moral pluralism, 1987, pp. 118-119.Monism's first flaw is a failure to account for the fact that ethics involves not one but several distinct activities. One involves making personal choices: What is the right thing for me to do in these circumstances? At other times, we are prescribing conduct for others. At still other times, the emphasis shifts away from current choices, our own or anyone else's, and involves a special moral describing or grading. We may be assessing an actor (as was Napoleon, as Tolstoy argued, evil?), an action (was it wrong to drop the atomic bomb on Hiroshima?), a social rule (is the death penalty unjust?), a prevailing practice (discrimination). Sometimes we are evaluating neither actions nor character, but emotional attitudes or other mental states. Envy and vengefulness are bad; feeling guilt (in fitting circumstances) is virtuous. Sometimes moral language arises in an explanatory mode. "His goodness held him back." And moral talk comes up in other ways: in punishing and rewarding, invoking justifications and excuses, and building up moral credit.

2. MONISM IGNORES DIVERSITY.

Christopher Stone, Prof. Law., USC, Earth and Other Ethics: The Case for Moral Pluralism, 1987, p. 122.Monism's second weakness stems from the diversity of entities that have at least a colorable claim to moral recognition. Some have sentience (higher animals); some are abstract or membership class concepts (corporations, cultures, species); some have intellectual talent, at least of a sort (A.I.s and, coming soon, androids); and some are genetically human, either capable of experiencing pain (advanced fetuses) or non-sentient (early embryos).

3. UTILITY SUPERIOR TO IMPERATIVES.

Christopher Stone, Prof. Law, USC, Earth and other ethics: The case for moral pluralism, 1987, pp. 130-131.The commitment to make every moral judgment responsive to the dictates of one Big Comprehensive theory forces us to disregard some of the data, to settle for an increasingly bland generality in our rules, and to estrange our moral thought from our considered moral intuitions. Hence, the more we try to force every diverse dilemma into one common mold, the less we can expect detail, insight, and direction in the real, concrete choices we face; the less will our final judgments carry, and deserve, genuine conviction.

H. L. A. Hart, Philosopher, Law, liberty and morality, 1969, p. 38.We cannot usually in social life pursue a single value or a single mortal aim, untroubled by the need to compromise with others.

4. UTLITY DEFINED.

Stephen Priest, Prof. Phil., U. Pittsburgh, The British Empiricists: Hobbes to Ayer, 1990, p. 190.The suggestion is that some action, persons, character or other phenomenon is morally good if, and

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222only if, it is conducive to happiness, and morally wrong if, and only if, it is conducive to unhappiness or pain.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222John Stuart Mill, Philosopher, Utilitarianism, 1863, p. 257.The creed which accepts as the foundations of morals, Utility, or the Greatest Happiness Principle, holds that actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to promote the reverse of happiness. By happiness is intended pleasure, and the absence of pain; by unhappiness pain, and the privation of pleasure.

5. ACT V. RULE UTILITARIANISM.

J. C. Smart, Lect. Phil., U. London, Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Volume 8, 1967, p. 206.The first important division is between "act" utilitarianism and "rule" utilitarianism. If, in the above definition, we understand "actions" to mean "particular actions," then we are dealing with the form of utilitarianism called act utilitarianism, according to which we assess the rightness or wrongness of each individual action directly by its consequence. If, on the other hand, we understand "actions" in the above definition to mean "sorts of actions" then we get some sort of rule utilitarianism. The rule utilitarian does not consider the consequences of each particular action but considers the consequences of adopting some general rule, such as "Keep promises." He adopts the rule if the consequences of its general adoption are better than those of the adoption of some alternative rule.

6. UTILITY IS REAL.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 26....the fact that the principles of right come not from nowhere but from a thin theory of the good related to actual (if very general) human desires gives the principles a determinate ground and prevents their being arbitrary and detached from the world.

Robin Barrow, Prof. Phil., Simon Fraser U., Utilitarianism: A Contemporary Statement, 1991, p. 120.The ethical theory of utilitarianism is thus that human beings ought to device those rules absolute adherence to which would promote happiness maximally and equally, and in other respects seek to do that which of alternatives would promote most happiness. The individual's moral duty is to adhere to the rules absolutely, and in situations that are not covered by rules to do that which he sincerely believes will be most productive of happiness, taking all persons affected into account. In the latter case, what he does may or may not be morally justified depending on whether it is in fact more productive of happiness than alternative ways of proceeding.

7. UTLITY IS CALCULABLE.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 37.What the parties do know is that they, like everyone else, value certain primary social goods. Primary goods are things which it is supposed a rational man want whatever he wants, and includes such things as rights and liberties, opportunities and powers, income and wealth.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 25.Regardless of a persons values, plans or ultimate aims, it is assumed there are certain thing which he would prefer more rather than less, on the grounds that they are likely to be useful in advancing all ends, whatever ends they happen to be.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2228. UTILITY IS A PERMANENT INTEREST.

John Stuart Mill, quoted in Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 4.I regard utility as the ultimate appeal on all ethical questions; but it must be utility in the largest sense, grounded on the permanent interests of man as a progressive being.

Stephen Priest, Prof. Phil., U. Pittsburgh, The British Empiricists: Hobbes to Ayer, 1990, p. 191.Human beings have a pre-philosophical, commonsensical distinction between pleasure and pain, and this should be the foundation of ethics. Moral philosophy takes it content from people's preferences for pleasure rather than pain: "pleasure, and freedom from pain, are the only things desirable as ends."

9. UTILITY IS COMPREHENSIVE.

David Lyons, Prof. Phil., Cornell U., In the Interest of the Governed: A Study in Bentham's Philosophy of Utility and Law, 1991, p. 20.Bentham's principle of utility is a standard for appraising actions--for determining which are right and which wrong, what ought to be done and what ought not. The principle is comprehensive, covering all acts, including 'measures of government.' It is meant to be complete in that appeal to a supplementary principle is never required. Utility is also the ultimate criterion; it presupposes no other. It is therefore what some would call Bentham's 'first principle'.

10. UTLITY DECIDES RIGHTS AND JUSTICE.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the limits of justice, 1982, p. 4.The overriding importance of rights and justice makes them more absolute and overriding than other claims, but what makes them important in the first place is their service to social utility, their ultimate ground.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 4....principles of justice, like all other moral principles, take their character and color from the end of happiness. For questions of ends are ... questions about what things are desirable, and happiness is desirable, in fact the only thing desirable as an end, because people actually do desire it. Ellipses in original.

Michael J. Sandel, Prof. Phil., Oxford U., Liberalism and the Limits of Justice, 1982, p. 5.Mill goes on to claim that justice is whatever utility requires. Where the general maxims of justice are outweighed, we usually know that justice must give way to some other moral principle, but that what is just in ordinary cases is, by reason of that other principle, not just in this particular case. By this useful accommodation of language, the character of indefeasibility attributed to justice is kept up, and we are saved from the necessity of maintaining that there can be laudable injustice.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22211. UTILITY GENRRATES RIGHTS.

Robin Barrow, Prof. Phil., Simon Fraser U., Utilitarianism: A Contemporary Statement, 1991, p. 53.Utilitarianism will generate rights, such as the right to free expression, as readily as any other theory. Once the appropriate rights and rules have bee devised for a community, the theory insists on autonomy as a value, for it says that, from that point on, individuals must try to work out for themselves what is most conducive to the general happiness (regardless of the inadequacy of such a formula) and act accordingly. Integrity is a matter of adherence to moral principles, honesty and consistency, for the utilitarian as for anyone else, and no less important to him.

12. UTILITY DOES NOT DENY VALUES OTHER THAN HAPPINESS.

Robin Barrow, Prof. Phil., Simon Fraser U., Utilitarianism: A Contemporary Statement, 1991, pp. 44-45.Happiness, then, is not simply more important that anything else to the utilitarian; more than that, it is the only thing that he regards as having the quality of moral goodness in and of itself. Yet, conversely, it is not the only thing that he values in and of itself, for he may value aesthetic beauty or friendship in or of themselves from a non-moral perspective; and he may grant moral value to other things such as friendship or truth telling. either because they have extrinsic value in that they contribute to happiness or because they constitute sources of or means whereby people may acquire happiness. Thus a utilitarian may consistently value beauty for its own sake, friendship both for its own sake, friendship both for its own sake and as a source of happiness, and freedom of speech as a means of promoting happiness, provided that he continues to maintain that happiness is the only thing that is morally good in and of itself.

13. UTILITY APPLIES TO SOCIAL INSTITUTION.

Thomas Nagel, Prof. Phil., NYU, Readings Rawls, 1975, p. 3.The justice of social institutions is measured not by their tendency to maximize the sum or average of certain advantages, but by their tendency to counteract the natural inequalities deriving from birth, talent, and circumstances, pooling those resources in the service of the common good. The common good is measured by terms of a very restricted basic set of benefits to individuals: personal and political liberty, economic and social advantages, and self-respect.

14. ALL PLEASURES ARE NOT EQUAL.

John Stuart Mill, Philosopher, The Collected Works of John Stuart Mill, John M. Robson, ed., Volume 10, 1974-1991, p. 211.It is quite compatible with the principle of utility to recognize the fact, that some kinds of pleasure are more desirable and more valuable than others. It would be absurd that while, in estimating all other things, quality is considered as well as quantity, the estimation of pleasures should be supposed to depend on quantity alone.

Stephen Priest, Prof. Phil., U. Pittsburgh, The British Empiricists: Hobbes to Ayer, 1990, p. 191.It is an empirical fact that human beings seek their own pleasure at the expense of others, but Mill's utilitarianism is not to be confused with any kind of hedonism which might condone this fact. It is his opinion that what is good is conducive to the greatest happiness of the greatest number of people,

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222and what is morally wrong is conducive to the maximization of pain. Thus, in acting, a person is not to evaluate the effects only on their own pleasure or pain but on the amount of pleasure and pain existing amongst all persons.

15. ALL INTERESTS ARE NOT EQUAL.

David Lyons, Prof. Phil., Cornell U., In the Interest of the Governed: A Study in Bentham's Philosophy of Utility and Law, 1991, p. 20.More precisely, Bentham embraces a dual standard, with community interest as the test within the public or political sphere, while self-interest is to rule in 'private' matters. But these standards are also conceived by him as testing on a more fundamental principle of utility--one which says (very roughly speaking) that government should serve the interests of the governed.

THE CASE AGAINST CONSEQUENTIALISM/UTILITY

1. UTILITY FAILS.

David Gauthier, Prof. Phil., U. Pittsburgh, "On the refutation of utilitarianism," The limits of utilitarianism, 1982, p. 162.Nothing that in the perfect market, individual utility-maximizing behavior leads to an optimum, our forefathers in normative social theory assumed this optimum to be the welfare maximum, and leaped to the conclusion that maximizing individual utility and maximizing social welfare are, or should be, mutually compatible. They embraced the utilitarian creed as part of their theory of rational behavior. When this naive faith was dissipated, and the divergence between welfare maximum and market optimum became evidence, those who has been converted to the utilitarian gospel abandoned the free market for the welfare state, little realizing that in so doing, they had also abandoned the framework of value and reason that alone conferred on utilitarianism its aura of plausibility.

2. UTILITY IS NOT INEVITABLE.

Philippa Foot, Prof., Phil., UCLA, "Utilitarianism and the virtues," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, pp. 241-242....we have no reason to think we must accept consequentialism is any form.

3. UTILITY FLAWED.

Anthony Quinton, Pres., Trinity College, Oxford U., Utilitarian Ethics, 1989, p. 88.Secondly, the benevolence, the pursuit of happiness in general, is not enough. To start with, the happiness that is relevant to morality is not just that of human beings, but that of the whole sentient creation, of every being that is capable of happiness or its opposite. Sidgwick raises the question, which has become mush more pressing with the advances in reproductive technology since his time, of whether we should aim at the greatest total happiness or the greatest average happiness, given that the actual number of sentient beings of something that is to some extent dependent on our voluntary decisions. Should one have four children who attain six units of happiness each or five children who attain five? But his main point here is that not only must we increase the happiness of others, we must ensure that happiness is rightly distributed. He concludes that equal distribution is

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222the principle of just distribution that recommends itself to reason but that it is not a consequences of the, equally rational, principle of benevolence itself.

Anthony Quinton, Pres., Trinity College, Oxford U., Utilitarian Ethics, 1989, p. 93.In the first place, he says, happiness is not pleasure or a sum of pleasures. Secondly, the maximum pleasure of sentient beings is not the end of conduct. And neither, he goes on, is best achieved by deliberate pursuit. With something like Sidgwick's appeal to thoughtful intuition, he asks if the improvement of 'higher function', of virtue or perfection, at the cost of some increase of pain is not morally preferable to its opposite, an increase of pleasure accompanied by a deterioration of higher function. If anything is clear to the common moral consciousness it is that value, however much it may be a means to pleasure, is not good because it is such a means.

Anthony Quinton, Pres., Trinity College, Oxford U., Utilitarian Ethics, 1989, p. 94.More definite and original is Bradley's crucial contention that the hedonistic end of the utilitarians is a logically impossible one. The end of conflict, he says, must be 'a definite unity', 'a concerete whole', is must be systematic. All that the utilitarians have to offer is 'an infinite, perishing series'. This seems an entirely arbitrary stipulation.

4. UTILITY INCALCULABLE.

Wendy Donner, post-doctoral fellow, U. Florida, The Liberal Self: John Stuart Mill's Moral and Political Philosophy, 1991, p. 45.A second standard criticism claims that quantity and quality are incommensurable, or cannot be reduced to the same terms, or cannot be measured by a common standard. Bradley gives a standard formulation: "Given a certain small quantity of higher pleasure in collision with a certain large quantity of lower, how can you decide between them? To work the sum you must reduce the data to the same denomination." But if such quantities cannot be measures by a common standards, then an overall measure of value cannot be obtained.

Anthony Quinton, Pres., Trinity College, Oxford U., Utilitarian Ethics, 1989, p. 83.In the first place [John Grote] seems to be saying that conclusions about what is morally imperative cannot be validly derived from empirical facts about human nature and conduct, that there is no logical connection between what ought to be and what is. To the extent that utilitarians try to deduce the greatest happiness principle, as Mill does is his 'proof,' from psychological hedonism they are exposed to this criticism, at least in so far as their psychological premise is, or is taken by them to be, an empirical generalization.

5. UTILITY PLEASURE/PAIN DICHOTOMY SUSPECT.

Erich Fromm, Social psychologist, Escape from Freedom, note well: Fear and Escape from Freedom are the same book, 1941, p. 267.Many psychologists have assumed that the experience of pleasure and the avoidance of pain is the only legitimate principle guiding human action; but dynamic psychology can show that the subjective experience of pleasure is not a sufficient criterion for the value of certain behavior in terms of human happiness. The analysis of masochistic phenomena is a case in point. Such analysis shows that the sensation of pleasure can be the result of a pathological perversion and proves as little about the objective meaning of the experience as the sweet taste of poison would prove about its

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222function for the organism.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. UTILITY IGNORES CULTURAL VARIATIONS.

Robin Barrow, Prof. Phil., Simon Fraser U., Utilitarianism: A Contemporary Statement, 1991, p. 4.At the same time, though few philosophers would be so naive as to conclude directly from evidence of cultural variation that moral beliefs are simply cultural preferences, the increase in our awareness and understanding of cultural variation, thanks to the work of sociologists and anthropologists and the changing world situation, has probably given further impetus to the idea that morality is more or adequately summed up in Thrasymachus' claim that 'right' is simply 'might'--in other words, that 'morality' is just the same that we give to conventions foisted upon us by the powerful, in their own interest.

7. TESTS.

P. N. Smart, Lect. Phil., U. London, Mind, 1958, pp. 542-543.Suppose that a ruler controls a weapon capable of instantly and painlessly destroying the human race. Now it is empirically certain that there would be come suffering before all those alive on any proposed destruction day were to die in the natural course of events. Consequently the use of the weapons is bound to diminish suffering and would be the ruler's duty on negative utilitarian grounds. On the other hand, we should assuredly regard such an action as wicked. On utilitarian grounds we might defend this judgment by pointing to the positive enjoyments and happiness likely to be found in a great number of the lives destroyed.

Stephen Priest, Prof. Phil., U. Pittsburgh, The British Empiricists: Hobbes to Ayer, 1990, p. 192.Suppose a hospital ward contains several patients each dying of a different complaint. One has something wrong with the heart, another the lungs, another the liver, and so on. And then a perfectly healthy persons walks into the ward -- perhaps a visitor with flowers and chocolates for the patients. It seems that the right thing to do within the utilitarian framework is to size the visitor, dismember him and distribute the healthy parts amongst the several patients. In this way, the pain of several persons is alleviated at the expense of only one.

8. UTILITY ALIENATING.

Samuel Schieffler, Prof., Phil., U. Calif-Berkeley, The rejection of consequentialism, 1982, p. 8....utilitarianism alienates an agent from his actions by making the permissibility of the agent's devoting energy to his projects and commitments dependent on the state of the world viewed from an impersonal standpoint.

9. UTILITY TYRANNIZES.

T. M. Scanlon, Prof., Phil., Harvard U., "Rights, goals, and fairness," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, p. 78....prevailing preferences are not an adequate basis for the justification of rights. It is not relevant, for example, to the determination of rights of religious freedom that the majority group in a society is feverishly committed to the goal of making its practices universal while the minority is quite tepid about all matters of religion.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Loren Lomasky, Prof., Phil., U. Minnesota, "A refutation of utilitarianism," Journal of value inquiry, 1983, p. 272.To an undeterminable extent, the personal projects of the utilitarian are held hostage to the adventitious interests of others. He has no defenses against utility black holes who suck up aid at prodigious rates. Therefore he must eschew serious commitment to any end other than the attainments of utility in any guise it may take. A world populated by utilitarians would be one in which everything matters somewhat and nothing very much. It is a world thoroughly unlivable for being such as ourselves.

10. UTILITY DENIES AUTONOMY.

T. M. Scanlon, Prof., Phil., Harvard U., "Right, goals, and fairness," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, p. 78.The equally general response is that one has no basis on which to 'impose' values that run contrary to individual preferences. This objection draws its force from the idea that individual autonomy ought to be respected and that it is offensive to frustrate an individual's considered preferences in the name of serving his 'true interests.'

11. UTILITY DENIES LIBERTY.

Jonathan Riley, Murphy Inst. of Political Economy, Tulane U., Liberal utilitarianism: Social theory and J. S. Mill's philosophy, 1988, pp. 53-54.A major implication of Sen's Paretian liberal paradox is that a Pareto-inclusive welfarist SWFL such as Benthamite utilitarianism is logically incompatible with libertarian rights. In general, libertarians are assumed to view individual liberty as unconditional license over a protected sphere.

12. UTILITY DEHUMANIZES.

T. M. Scanlon, Prof., Phil., Harvard U., "Rights, goals and fairness," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, pp. 77-78.Williams objects that utilitarianism, in demanding total devotion to the inclusive goal of maximum happiness, fails to give adequate recognition to the importance, for each individual, of the particular projects which give his lift content.

13. UTILITY PROMOTES SUFFERING.

Samuel Schieffler, Prof., Phil., U. Calif-Berkeley, The rejection of consequentialism, 1982, p. 72.[Consequentialism] will frequently require us to ignore the misery of a few and concentrate instead on increasing the pleasures of the many, simply in order that total aggregate satisfaction may be maximized.

Samuel Schieffler, Prof., Phil., U. Calif-Berkeley, The rejection of consequentialism, 1982, p. 10....utilitarianism will frequently require us to ignore the misery of a few people and concentrate instead on increasing the pleasures of the many simply in order to maximize aggregate satisfaction. And, it is said, that is morally unacceptable.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22214. UTILITY PROMOTES INJUSTICE.

John Rawls, Prof., Phil., Harvard U., "Classical utilitarianism," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, p. 18.No doubt the strictness of common-sense precepts of justice has a certain usefulness in limiting men's propensities to injustice and to socially injurious actions, but the utilitarian believes that to affirm this strictness as a first principle of morals is a mistake.

15. UTILITY PROMOTES MASSACRE.

Bernard Williams, Prof., Phil., U. Calif-Berkeley, "Consequentialism and integrity," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, p. 29.Consequentialist rationality, however, and in particular utilitarian rationality, has no such limitations: making the best of a bad job is one of its maxims, and it will have something to say even on the difference between massacring seven million, and massacring seven million and one.

16. UTILITY LEADS TO CHARRED BABIES.

Thomas Nagel, Prof., Phil., NYU, "War and massacre," Consequentialism and its critics, 1988, p. 57.Once the door is opened to calculation of utility and national interest, the usual speculation about the future of freedom, peace, and economic prosperity can be brought to bear to ease the consciences of those responsibly for a certain number of charred babies.

17. UTILITY CONDEMNS CIVILIZATION.

Albert Blumenthal, Emeritus Prof., Wisconsin-Eau Claire, Moral responsibility: Mankind's greatest need, 1975, p. 3.At the present juncture in world history it seems that mankind is unlikely to be saved from world-wide catastrophe without unprecedented sudden increase in moral responsibility. Mankind needs a crash program to develop moral responsibility to cope with the colossal problems of overpopulation, depletion of natural resources, pollution, war, crime, poverty, traffic congestion, et al.

THE CASE AGAINST THEOLOGY

1. THEOLOGY STIFLES SOCIETAL DEVELOPMENT/DEFERS TO TRADITION

Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 9.Religious knowledge, on the other hand, always refers the validity of its explanations to some kind of social criteria, typically criteria involving traditional practices and values.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Will Wright, assoc prof sociology, Univ Southern Colorado, WILD KNOWLEDGE, 1992, P 10.a religious version of knowledge is more concerned with maintaining a particular form of traditional order than with technical achievements, and there is no sense in which the validity of the knowledge is independent of that particular traditional order. Thus religious knowledge tends to maintain particular social practices without much technical incentive, and scientific knowledge tends to encourage technical proficiency without much concern for maintaining particular practices, or even for sustaining the ecological possibility of social life. Religion tends to commit knowledge to a specific tradition and science tends to commit it to unrestrained technology, and they manage to do this by focusing the validity of knowledge primarily on either social or natural criteria, respectively.

2. THEOLOGICAL CASUISTRY ALLOWS DISCRIMINATION

John F. Tuohey, assis prof moral theology, Catholic University of America, "The C.D.F. and Homosexuals", AMERICA, September 12, 1992, P. 136.Anyone familiar with casuistry knows that there are ways of tolerating and even cooperating in the performance of evil indirectly, but never directly. With the publication of Some Considerations Concerning the Catholic Response to Legislative Proposals on the Non-discrimination of Homosexual Persons, recently sent by the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (C.D.F.) to the bishops of the United States and leaked to the public by New Ways Ministry in Washington, D.C., it appears that, on this issue at least, the end may justify the means after all. In this document, the C.D.F. tells the bishops that it is sometimes not only licit but "obligatory" to discriminate against gay and lesbian persons.

3. DISCRIMINATION AGAINST HOMOSEXUALS NOT FULFILL BURDENS OF CASUISTRY

John F. Tuohey, assis prof moral theology, Catholic University of America, "The C.D.F. and Homosexuals", AMERICA, September 12, 1992, P. 136.Discrimination, as it has been understood in the tradition, is a moral evil when it is directly intended. Since 1950, discrimination in hiring has been described as a violation of social justice. For a contemporary understanding, reference need only be made to the 1989 document from the Pontifical Justice and Peace Commission, The Church and Racism: Toward a More Fraternal Society. With casuistry, the tradition can tolerate some indirect discrimination. However, and this is critically important it can do so only when there is a proportionate reason to justify the evil. The C.D.F., in contrast to this tradition, not only calls for direct discrimination, it does so without presenting any proportionate reason that might justify it.

4. DISCRIMINATES AGAINST WOMEN

Michael H. Kenny, bishop of Juneau, Alaska, "Which Way the Pastoral?", AMERICA, August 22, 1992, P. 76.the church's position of not admitting women to ordained priesthood. Nor did it sufficiently point out the errors and dangers (in one bishop's words, "the sin") of radical feminism.


THE CASE FOR CASUISTRY

1. MORAL DEADLOCKS INEVITABLY LEAD TO CASUISTRY

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P332.the tendency for public debates about moral issues to lapse into a deadlock between rival set of principles, each advocated by moral zealots whose enthusiasm edges toward spiritual pride. However, when the matters for discussion are as pressing as they have been during the last twenty years, people find themselves forced to address the practical, specific, concrete nature of moral issues and the deliberation for which they call. And once this has happened, the exigencies of practical life fortunately lead the people involved to adopt, for their own purposes, a new casuistry that--in the nature of things--reinvents the methods of the old.

2. ON BALANCE CASUISTRY IS GOOD

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P342.Whatever weakness there may have been in a readiness to make, and allow, exceptions to general moral rules, the spectacle of principled dogmatism--legalism without equity, and moralism without charity--has never been a pretty sight either. No doubt the casuists had their faults; but they were, in our view, faults on the right side.

3. PROBLEMATIC REAL-LIFE SITUATIONS DEMAND CASUIST APPROACH

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P9.In morality, as in law and public administration, the assumption that all practical decisions need to rest on a sufficiently clear and general system of invariable rules or principles has, from a theoretical point of view, a certain attractiveness. But in the actual business of dealing with particular real-life cases and situations, such rules and principles can never take us more than part of the way. The real-life application of moral, legal, and administrative rules calls always for the exercise of human perceptiveness and discernment--what has traditionally been referred to as "equity"--and the more problematic the situations become, the greater is the need for such discernment.

4. WITHOUT CASES/CIRCUMSTANCES MORAL MAXIMS WILL LEAD TO TYRANNY

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P10.The pursuit of Justice has always demanded both law and equity; respect for Morality has always demanded both fairness and discernment. If we ignore this continuing duality and confine our discussion of fundamental moral and legal issues to the level of unchallengeable principles, that insistence all too easily generates--or becomes the instrument of--its own subtle kind of tyranny.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. CASUISTRY SOLVES MORAL MAXIM/REAL-LIFE DILEMMA

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P10.Human experience long ago developed a reasonable and effective set of practical procedures for resolving the moral problems that arise in particular real-life situations. These procedures came to be known as "casuistry" and those who employed these procedures professionally were "casuists."

THE CASE AGAINST CASUISTRY

1. DEVIATION FROM MORAL MAXIMS EXCUSES THE INEXCUSABLE

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P11.Ever since the French mathematician and philosopher Blaise Pascal attacked the Jesuit confessors of Paris in his Provincial Letters, in the mid-seventeenth century, attempts to base a general account of ethics on the analysis and classification of "cases" and "circumstances" have been objects of disrepute, both among educated laypeople and among scholars, especially academic philosophers. In their eyes moral judgements can be securely grounded only by relating them back to universal principles; and any morality of circumstances and cases seems doomed (as Pascal declared) to serve as an invitation to excuse the inexcusable.

2. CASUIST THOUGHT NOT REFLECT SOCIETY AT LARGE

Albert R. Jonsen, UC Berkeley and Stephen Toulmin, Univ of Chicago, THE ABUSE OF CASUISTRY, 1988, P339.The only kinds of ethical systems I know of which make it possible to reach specific conclusions are those of an essentially deductive kind, with well established primary and secondary principles and a long history of highly refined casuistry. The Roman Catholic scholastic tradition and the Jewish response tradition are cases in point. Unfortunately, systems of that kind presuppose a whole variety of cultural conditions and shared world views which simply do not exist in society at large.

3. TRADITION NECESSARY TO EXPAND PRACTICAL KNOWLEDGE

J. C. Nyiri, inst of philosophy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, TRADITION AND INDIVIDUALITY, 1992, P48.since practical knowledge encompasses, or serves as a foundation for, much of what we know, and since such knowledge appears to be tacit, non-propositional, and indeed inarticulable, channels of communication other than explicit discourse have indispensable functions to fulfil. Traditions represent just such channels.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. PROGRESS MUST BE BASED ON TRADITION

J. C. Nyiri, inst of philosophy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, TRADITION AND INDIVIDUALITY, 1992, P59.There is, Menger maintains, a "subconscious wisdom" manifested in those institutions that come about organically; and the meddlesome advocates of reform "would do well less to trust their own insight and energy than to leave the reshaping of society to the 'historical process of development'". In a similar spirit, today's leading exponent of the Austrian School, F. A. von Hayek stresses that "since we owe the order of our society to a tradition of rules which we only imperfectly understand, all progress must be based on tradition.

5. MUST RELY ON TRADITION TO MAKE JUDGEMENTS

J. C. Nyiri, inst of philosophy, Hungarian Academy of Sciences, TRADITION AND INDIVIDUALITY, 1992, P6.One must, writes Wittgenstein, "recognize certain authorities to make judgements at all"; authorities, for instance, like our school, or our inherited world-picture; foundations, against which any doubt is hollow.

THE CASE FOR SOCIAL CONTRACT

1. LOCKEAN CONTRACTUAL PHILOSOPHY PERVADES CONSTITUTION

Nicholas L. DiVita, West Virginia Law Student, "John Locke's theory of government and fundamental constitutional rights: a proposal for understanding," WEST VIRGINIA LAW REVIEW, June 1982, p. 829.It should come as no surprise that constitutional liberty can by analyzed in terms of the thought of an eighteenth century political philosopher. Locke's thought pervades the constitution; Locke's thought, the constitution, and constitutional law itself are but statements on the individuals' relationship to government. It seems only natural that a judge faced with a constitutional law issue should consider Locke's influence as a guide to his decision making because in a real sense a judge faced with a constitutional issue must himself act as a political philosopher.

2. OBLIGATED TO ABIDE BY SOCIAL CONTRACT

Jeffrey Paul, Bowling Green State University, "Substantive social contracts and the legitimate bases of political authority," The Monist, October, 1983, pp. 522-523....while the conventions of behavior established by an agreement are dependent for their legitimacy upon the voluntary consent of the parties to it, the agreement, itself, is self-certifying. Thereby [Michael] Robins contends, an infinite regression of agreements is avoided. Robins argues, transcendentally, that the very act of participating in a game governed by rules requires that we must think of ourselves as under a prima facia obligation to obey those rules. [see Michael Robins, "The primacy of promising," Mind, July, 1976, p. 321-340].

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Jeffrey Paul, Bowling Green State University, "Substantive social contracts and the legitimate bases of political authority," The Monist, October, 1983, p. 523.[Michael] Robins supports this contention in the following way: He maintain that our expectation of the conformative behavior which characterizes all games must be grounded in the belief that we are, prima facie, obligated to follow the rules of the game.

3. UNDER CONTRACT THE GOVERNMENT PROTECTS THE INDIVIDUAL

Nicholas L. DiVita, West Virginia Law Student, "John Locke's theory of government and fundamental constitutional rights: a proposal for understanding,"WEST VIRGINIA LAW REVIEW, June 1982, p. 826.the constitution is deeply indebted to the thought of John Locke. In fact, his philosophy has served as its foundation. The founders of the American constitution were greatly influenced by classical liberalism, and its fundamental principle of individualism. In a political sense the philosophy of individualism means that government should be created to protect the individual, not the other way around.

4. FOUNDING FATHERS INTENDED TO LIMIT GOVERNMENTAL POWERS

Nicholas L. DiVita, West Virginia Law Student, "John Locke's theory of government and fundamental constitutional rights: a proposal for understanding," WEST VIRGINIA LAW REVIEW, June 1982, pp. 827-828.Since the government formed by the social contract was by the consent of the governed, it had power to rule only to the extent that it acted within the limits imposed on it by the very reason it was created: to preserve the "lives, liberties, and estates of individuals." This is of course consonant with the importance Locke placed on individual liberty, but more significantly, foreshadows the concept of limited government embraced by the founders of the constitution.

THE CASE AGAINST SOCIAL CONTRACT

1. MAN MUST SURRENDER ALL NATURAL RIGHTS

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, p. 210.The standards of authority and justice are not to be found within man as he is alone in the world. To rise out of the conflictual condition he must rely upon that passionate desire to avoid death which inclines him towards peace. Each must surrender his natural right to pursue his happiness as though he were alone and lay down the right which makes the pursuit of individual felicity possible.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. THE LEGISLATURE BECOMES THE SUPREME POWER

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, p. 211.By way of a social contract individuals confer authority upon a society. This act, which incorporates a body politic, confers the power of majority decision. the society, in turn, establishes a government. A judicature will provide for the impartial administration of law and an executive will enforce its decisions. Supreme power is placed in the legislature. It has the purpose of enacting general laws to protect liberty and the public good.

3. LAWMAKERS BECOME RESPONSIBLE FOR MORAL DECISIONS

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, pp. 219-220.whether a law possibly embodies principles of right is a judgment which only the Lawmaker is allowed to make. The people must obey. Lawful authority primarily concerns the enactment of Laws which enforce the rights of all. It cannot justify itself in terms of the happiness of a people. If happiness were the standard of legitimacy, the results would be chaotic. The public hold conflicting conceptions of happiness and valid lawmaking authority must be grounded upon invariable principle.

4. SOCIAL CONTRACT INSURES UNRESOLVABLE CONFLICT BETWEEN RULERS AND PEOPLE

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, p. 221.Secure societies exist only where the principles of right are constant. The error of those who would allow the people to overthrow a presumed tyranny lies in their willingness to permit the uncertain principle of happiness to influence their judgment. They also take the idea of an original contract to seriously. The ultimate tension between the people and their rulers is, in one sense, unresolvable. The sovereign who wishes to make the people happy as he thinks best will become a despot; people who persist in seeking happiness in their own way become rebels.

5. SOCIAL CONTRACT IS ONLY AN IDEA; NOT A REALITY

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, p. 219.Kant also realized that the social contract was a fiction not a fact. Its existence cannot be proven as a matter of historical record. What the social contract is , in fact, is an idea of reason.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. SOCIAL CONTRACT IS A NATURAL CONSEQUENCE OF MAN; NOT AN AGREEMENT

Cornelius F. Murphy, Prof. of Law, Duquesne Univ., "Jurisprudence and the social contract," THE AMERICAN JOURNAL OF JURISPRUDENCE, 1987, p. 208.Throughout the history of the social contract those who have sought to prove that law and justice arise only form agreement have been countered with arguments designed to prove that organized life is a natural or necessary consequence of human coexistence.

THE CASE FOR LEGALISM

1. LEGALISM DEFINED

Neil MacCormick, Pf Law at U. Edinburgh, "The Ethics of Legalism," RATIO JURIS, July 1989, p.123."Legalism" is defined as requiring all matters of legal regulation and controversy ought so far as possible be conducted in accordance with predetermined rules of considerable generality and clarity.

2. LEGALISM IS NECESSARY FOR FREE GOVERNMENT

Neil MacCormick, Pf Law at U. Edinburgh, "The Ethics of Legalism," RATIO JURIS, July 1989, p.123.Critical legal studies (Unger, Kelman, Kennedy et al.) however challenge legalism's premises. But the "critical" arguments against reification merely raise, they do not settle, the issue about the politics of legalism and the desirability of legal dogmatics. With all faults, legalism is a prerequisite of free government.

3. LEGAL DISCOURSE ALLOWS US TO LEARN

James Boyd, Pf Law at U. Michigan, JUSTICE AS TRANSLATION, 1990, p.xiii.The law is a set of ways of thinking and talking, which means, as Wittgenstein would tell us, a set of ways of acting in the world (and with each other) that has its own configurations and qualities, its own consequences. Its life is a life of art. This is, after all, how we learn law, not a set of rules nor as the art of unmasking, as Swift might put it, but by participation in a culture, learning its language and how o live within it; and this is how we practice law too.

4. LEGAL THINKING DEALS WITH PRUDENT CONCERNS

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.34-35.The most typical factual judgements of legal thinking seem to involve prudential concerns about (1) future events (consequences) that are likely to happen if other events occur; (2) the utility of consequences (interests) for the welfare of given persons or groups (interest holders); and (3) the desires (values) of given persons or groups (value holders) concerning such consequences.

5. ABSTRACT LEGAL THINKING LEADS TO SOLID LEGAL PRINCIPLES

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.41.Abstract legal problems that call for identifying and interpreting legal norms by connecting them

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222with other norms and nonsituational factual materials work toward the formulation of legal principles- that is, general formulas for determining validity and meaning- that facilitate application of the norms to future situations.

6. REASONABILITY IS THE GOAL OF LEGALISM

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.97.Reasonability of meaning is used to test the interpretations, abstract or situational, of legal structures, the connections of structures with events, and the conceptualizations of total legend situations - structures, events, and circumstances - that give legal meaning to events. Reasonability of meaning is what is usually the goal of legal reasoning, and it is obviously more legalistic and less responsive to what actually happens in the real world - less "sensible" - than is reasonability of conduct.

\ THE CASE AGAINST LEGALISM

1. LEGALISM IS DANGEROUS

Charles Krauthammer, Journalist, "The curse of Legalism," THE NEW REPUBLIC, November 6, 1989, p.46.Legalism is a kind of diplomatic literalness, and, like all forms of literalness, it lacks imagination. Because it cannot imagine the infinite capacity of nation-states, for duplicity, mendacity, and malice-in short, for lawlessness- it is not only naive but dangerous.

2. LEGALISM HURTS POLICIES

Charles Krauthammer, Journalist, "The curse of Legalism," THE NEW REPUBLIC, November 6, 1989, p.50.Now, using force may be the best way to stop Libya from using poison gas. The policy decision is difficult. But it is a policy decision, not a legal judgment. In this case, as in many of the tough ones, the law-international law- is an ass. It has nothing to offer. Foreign policy is best made without it.

3. LEGALISM IGNORES MORAL NORMS

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.28.Two common characteristics shared by moral norms are first, that unlike legal norms, they do not owe their existence to the law, and second, that like legal norms, they provide standards for human behavior. Difference among moral norms arrive from their sources: community attitudes, obligations imposed by positions and individual consciences, and ideals of justice and fairness.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. NORMATIVE LEGAL CLAIMS DO NOT MAKE GOOD CONCLUSIONS

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.82.Normative structures, while purporting to cast a wider net than do positional structures, often by their terms leave decisions about their meaning, applicability, and application to the discretion of officials. And since the language and logic of legal thinking necessarily employs broad categories, they cannot automatically produce precise conclusions unaided by individual judgement; and they often seem more useful in justifying than in arriving at conclusions.

5. LEGAL JUDGEMENTS IMPOSSIBLE WITHOUT MORAL CONSIDERATIONS

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.115.Thus, while legal language is especially defined for the legal system, and while important parts of these decisions can be treated as validity is and referred to legal procedures, it is difficult either to confine these definitions to the law or avoid making reference to moral norms. For example, the definition to legal title to property involves compliance with legal formalities; but it is subject to the recognition of equitable title in some circumstances - largely defined by moral considerations of fairness - in which legal formalities are lacking.

6. LEGAL MEANING IS OFTEN UNCERTAIN

William Read, Pf Law at U. Louisville, LEGAL THINKING, 1986, p.113.When a norm's legal meaning rather than its legal validity is in question, law and morals come into tension in a different way. Meaning, unlike validity, is not a yes-or-no issue. Although the law provides procedures for determining legal meaning, these procedures do not ensure clear-cut answers as do those for determining validity; these fix tribunals and prescribe steps for the adjudication of meaning but leave meaning itself unresolved.

THE CASE FOR JUST WAR

1. WARS BY INVITATION ARE JUST

Paul Ramsey, Prof. of Religion, Princeton U., The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility, 1968, p. 37.A second and final secondary justification of intervention may be called "intervention by invitation."

2. DEFENSIVE WARS ARE JUST.

Lawrence & Charlotte Becker, Prof. of Philosophy, Hollins College, Encyclopedia of Ethics, Volume II, 1992, p. 807.The consensus of twentieth-century international law and politics is that only defensive wars are legitimate.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. WARS TO PROTECT CITIZENS FROM THEIR OWN GOVERNMENTS ARE JUST.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust War, 1977, p. 106.When a people are being massacred, we don't require that they pass the test of self-help before coming to their aid. It is their very incapacity that brings us in.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust War, 1977, p. 108.Any state capable of stopping the slaughter has a right, at least, to try to do so.

4. JUST WARS COUNTERBALANCE

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust Wars, 1977, p. 104.A legitimate government is one that can fight its own internal wars. And external assistance in those wars is rightly called counterintervention only when it balances, and does not more than balance, the prior intervention of another power, making it possible once again for the local forces to win or lose on their own.

5. JUST WARS ARE PROPORTIONAL.

Lawrence & Charlotte Becker, Prof. Philosophy, Hollins College, Encyclopedia of Ethics, Volume II, 1992, p. 808.A second conditions of just war fighting is proportionality in choice of tactical means to achieve ends within war. No greater force or destructiveness should be employed than is necessary to achieve legitimate military ends.

6. WARS JUST IF AND ONLY IF LAST RESORT.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., "Justice and injustice in the Gulf War," But Was It Just? Reflections on the Morality of the Persian Gulf War, David E. DeCosse, ed., 1991, p. 6.But sending troops into battle commonly brings with it so many unanticipated costs that it has come to represent a moral threshold: political leaders must cross this threshold only with great reluctance and trepidation. This is the truth contained in the "last resort" maxim. If there are potentially effective ways of avoiding actual fighting while still confronting the aggressor, they should be tried.

THE CASE AGAINST JUST WAR

1. ALL WARS UNJUST.

Lawrence and Charlotte Becker, Prof. of Philosophy, Hollins College, Encyclopedia of Ethics Volume II, 1992, p. 808....mass armies allied with the powerful and indiscriminate weaponry of the present age make any war too broadly destructive to be morally justified.

2. WARS DENYING SELF-DETERMINATION IS UNJUST.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust Wars, 1977, p. 89.It is not true, then, that intervention is justified whenever revolution is; for revolutionary activity is an

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222exercise in self-determination, while foreign interference denies to a people those political capacities that only such exercise can bring.

3. WARS THREATEN THE SOVEREIGNTY OF THE STATE.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust Wars, 1977, pp. 87-88.But foreign intervention, if it is a brief affair, cannot shift the domestic balance of power in any decisive way toward the forces of freedom, while if it is prolonged or intermittently resumed, it will pose the greatest possible threat to the success of those forces.

4. WARS IN THE INTERNAL AFFAIRS OF OTHER COUNTRIES UNJUST.

Michael Walzer, Prof. of Social Science, Princeton U., Just and Unjust Wars, 1977, p. 86.The principle that states should never intervene in the domestic affairs of other states follows readily from the legalist paradigm and, less readily and more ambiguously, from the conceptions of life and liberty that underlie the paradigm and make is plausible.

5. ORDER IS NO EXCUSE FOR AN UNJUST WAR.

Paul Ramsey, Prof. of Religion, Princeton U., The Just War: Force and Political Responsibility, 1968, p. 28.Order is not a higher value in politics than justice, but neither us justice a higher value than order. Both are is some respects conditional to the other. Order is a means to justice, but also justice is a means of securing order. Order is for the sake of justice, since the only real political justice is an ordered justice; yet justice is no less for the sake of order, since the only real political order in which men may dwell in community and peace is one that is just enough to command the love and allegiance of men, or at least their acquiescence and their compliance.

6. JUST WAR THEORY OUTDATED.

Richard B. Miller, Prof. of Religion, Indiana U., Interpretations of Conflict: Ethics, Pacifism, and the Just-War Tradition, 1991, p. 15.Although the just-war tradition has proven remarkably durable over the past fifteen centuries, its merits as a moral vocabulary are now in question, especially given the perils wrought by war in the modern age. With such developments in mind, ethicists of various affiliations have heeded the Second Vatican Council's mandate "to undertake an evaluation of war with an entirely new attitude."

7. JUST WAR THEORY DANGEROUS

Ronald E. Santoni, Prof. of Philosophy, Denison U., "The nurture of war: 'Just War' theory's contribution," Philosophy Today, Spring, 1991, p. 83...."just war" thinking has served to nurture and perpetuate the institution of war.

THE CASE FOR NUCLEAR WAR

1. POSSESSION OF WEAPONS IS MORAL

Paul Ramsey, Prof. Religion, Princeton, THE JUST WAR, 1968, p. 252.The question is whether "possession" of massive nuclear weapons is reducible to the crime of planning to

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222use them over civilian targets. The question is whether "having" or "possession" implies a criminal intention to use them murderously, or a conditional willingness to do so.

2. SOME USES ARE NOT IMMORAL

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Office of Tech.Assess., NUCLEAR ETHICS, 1986, p.51.Catastrophe is not necessarily inherent in nuclear technology. It is quite possible to think of uses of nuclear weapons that do not violate the jus in bello criteria.

3. THREAT OF FIRST USE JUSTIFIED

Robert L. Holmes, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. of Michigan, ON WAR AND MORALITY, 1989, p. 235.For deterrence to be rational there must be a purpose both to threatening to use nuclear weapons and to actually using them if the threat fails.

4. CAN RECOVER QUICKLY

Herman Kahn, author of ON THERMONUCLEAR WAR, in Robert L. Holmes, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. of Michigan, ON WAR AND MORALITY, 1989, p. 217.If proper preparations have been made, it would be possible for us or the Soviets to cope with all the effects of a thermonuclear war, in the same sense of saving most people and restoring something close to the prewar standard of living in a relatively short time.

5. SOME NUCLEAR WEAPONS ARE NO MORE THAN CONVENTIONAL BOMBS

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Office of Tech.Assess., NUCLEAR ETHICS, 1986, p.104-5.One can construct and aim a nuclear weapon that is so small and accurate that it will do about the same damage as conventional "iron bombs" full of high explosives. But even those miniature nuclear weapons must never be treated as normal usable weapons, because politically and technically they are closely related to their big brothers of mass destruction.

6. COMMAND AND CONTROL SYSTEMS WILL SURVIVE

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Office of Tech.Assess., NUCLEAR ETHICS, 1986, p. 51.Technically, a key factor will be the ability to maintain command, control, and communication. That will be affected by the targets chosen and the size and number of nuclear explosions. It is plausible to imagine control and communication surviving dozens or even hundreds of explosions.


THE CASE AGAINST NUCLEAR WAR

1. POSSESSION OF NUCLEAR WEAPONS IMMORAL

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Office of Tech.Assess., NUCLEAR ETHICS, 1986, p.50.For example, Jonathan Schell argues that "immorality" is inherent in the very possession of tens of thousands of nuclear weapons, whatever the doctrine. There is no conceivable way that these can be used without mass slaughter on an incalculable scale, and no theoretical sophistry can eliminate this basic fact.

2. USE OF WEAPONS IS IMMORAL

David Fischer, Res. Fellow, Nuffield College, Oxford, MORALITY AND THE BOMB: THE ETHICAL ASSESSMENT OF NUCLEAR DETERRENCE, 1985, p.59.But the devastating power of nuclear weapons makes the moral difficulties associated with this use particularly acute. Any wholesale use of strategic nuclear weapons even against military targets, still more cities, would be morally impermissable.

3. SHOULD THINK OF DESTRUCTION AS A CERTAINTY

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Office of Tech.Assess., NUCLEAR ETHICS, 1986, p.22.Jonathan Schell provides another version of the same argument: "The very existence of uncertainty about whether or not a holocaust would extinguish our species should lead us to treat the issue morally and politically as though it were a certainty.

4. NUCLEAR WAR WOULD CAUSE HUMANICIDE

John Kuhn Bleimaier, lawyer, "Nuclear Weapons and Crimes Against Humanity Under International Law," Catholic Lawyer, vol. 33, no. 2, 1990, p. 161.A nuclear holocaust represents either an individual commission of genocide or the incrementally greater crime of universal genocide and suicide. To target an enemy nation state with nuclear weapons is tantamount to planning the extinction of that nation. To engage in a nuclear exchange which will inevitably destroy all or nearly all higher forms of life on this planet must constitute mega-genocide.

5. NUCLEAR DESTRUCTION IS UNPRECEDENTED

Jayantha Dhanapala, Director, UN Inst. for Disarmament Research, "The Hierarchy of Arms Control and Disarmament Treaties," Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, Fall, 1990, p. 41.It is true that since World War II conventional wars have accounted for some 20 million deaths and must be prevented by conventional disarmament and the peaceful settlement of disputes. The destructive capacity of nuclear weapons, however, is unprecedently imperiling, for the first time in human history, the planet we live on, all human life on it and its support system.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. HUMANITY WOULD BE COMPLETELY DESTROYED

Ved Nands and Jeffrey Lowe, Prof. Law, Univ. of Denver, JD Candidate, "Nuclear Weapons and the Ecology," Denver Journal of International Law and Policy, Fall, 1990, p. 88.Even if, arguendo, one were to accept the proposition that the manufacture and possession of nuclear weapons are not in violation of international law, one cannot overstrate the threat of these weapons; should nuclear weapons ever again be used by one country against another, humanity and the world as we know it will be irrevocably altered, if not completely destroyed.

THE CASE FOR PROLIFERATION

1. NO SUPERPOWER RETALIATION RISK EXISTS

Lewis Dunn, former US ACDA, "Containing nuclear proliferation," ADELPHI PAPER #263, Autumn 1991, p.73.In this regard, war games on this subject have frequently revealed a reluctance of players from the Washington national security elite to use nuclear weapons against Third World countries, even in retaliation for nuclear use.

2. NO ACCIDENTAL WARS WILL OCCUR

Rep. Les Aspin, chairman House Armed Services Comm., "From deterrence to denuking: dealing with proliferation in the 1990s," REPORT, Feb. 11, 1992, p.7.During the Cold War, global competition, often through surrogates, provided crisis and opportunities for confrontation. In today's world, it is difficult to write a plausible scenario for bringing the respective nuclear arsenals to full alert status, so the chances of accidental launch are accordingly reduced, and will remain so in the absence of a political reversal.

3. MORE NUCLEAR WEAPONS STATES INCREASE STABILITY

Milton Kleg, Pf. Social Sciences UC-Denver; and Sam Totten, Pf. Secondary Education U. Arkansas-Fayettesville, "On teaching horizontal nuclear proliferation," SOCIAL EDUCATION, March 1990, p.139.In "The Spread of Nuclear Weapons: More may be Better," Kenneth Waltz [professor at Berkeley] concludes that "with more nuclear states the world will have a promising future." Waltz offers six reasons for this position. Among these are the suggestions that nuclear war prohibits the types of political gains that nations can achieve by conventional conflicts. Further, Waltz notes that nuclear conflict is predicable in its destructive role--if you use it, you know what goes. Third, he argues that nuclear weapons create impregnable defense systems thereby discouraging foreign attacks.(WALTZ's conclusion, NOT the author's)

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. PROLIFERATION MAKES MILITARY CONFLICT UNTHINKABLE

Joseph Fitchett, staff writer, "Atomic weapons: might security lie in proliferation?" INTERNATL HERALD TRIBUNE, March 10, 1992, p.1.As regional conflicts heat up because of the superpowers' loosening control over their protegees, the appearance of nuclear weapons might pose political accommodation in this strife by rendering a military outcome unthinkable. This contrarian logic runs counter to Western governments commitment to nonproliferation as cornerstone of global peace in the dawning second nuclear age. But the new nuclear politics has opened a fundamental reassessment of strategic axioms, according to officials in the United States, Britain, France and Russia. Like iconoclasts urging the apparently unthinkable, government officials are leery of an open debate, which would be liable to alarm public opinions by laying bare the dilemmas and threats. So they agree to express views candidly on condition of anonymity.

5. NUCLEAR WEAPONS INCREASE CAUTION

John Mearsheimer, Pf. PoliSci U. Chicago, "Disorder restored," RETHINKING AMERICA'S SECURITY, (ed. Graham Allison and Gregory Treverton), 1992, pp.226-27.Official rhetoric aside, the actual behavior of policy makers on both sides has been very cautious in the presence of nuclear weapons. There is not a single case of a leader brandishing nuclear weapons during a crisis or behaving as if nuclear war might be a viable option for solving important political problems. On the contrary, policy makers have never gone beyond nuclear threats of a very subtle sort, and have shown great caution when the possibility of nuclear confrontation has emerged. This cautious conduct has lowered the risk of war.

THE CASE AGAINST PROLIFERATION

1. NUCLEAR STABILITY DOESN'T APPLY TO NEW NUCLEAR STATES

Lewis Dunn, former US ACDA, "Containing nuclear proliferation," ADELPHI PAPER #263, Autumn 1991, p.23.Many of the conditions that underpinned the nuclear peace of the past four decades are either absent or, at best, only partly present in the Middle East, South Asia and on the Korean Peninsula. At a minimum, the transition to a stable nuclear balance among the new nuclear powers is likely to be prolonged and vulnerable to breakdown in times of crisis or confrontation.

2. NEW NUCLEAR STATES AREN'T DETERRED

Joseph Nye, director Center for Internatl Affairs, Harvard, "The cause for concern," HARVARD INTERNATL REVIEW, Spring 1992, pp.8-9.The mere presence of nuclear weapons did not create a stable balance between the former Soviet Union and the United States. Stability rested on an assured second strike capability--the ability to strike back even if the opponent launched a nuclear weapon. It also rested on a de facto set of rules and procedures which the United States and the Soviet Union learned slowly over time. Nuclear learning in the US-Soviet relationship increased dramatically after the shock of the Cuban missile crisis in 1962. New nuclear weapons states would not have had the benefit of a comparable period of learning how to manage both the command and control systems of nuclear weapons and a stable nuclear deterrent relationship with an adversary.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. PROLIFERATION WILL BE DESTABILIZING Lewis Dunn, former US ACDA, "Containing nuclear proliferation," ADELPHI PAPER #263, Autumn 1991, p.23.Whether nuclear proliferation is stabilizing or destabilizing has been hotly debated. The likely nuclear force building choices of new nuclear powers suggest that scepticism remains justified about the prospects for nuclear stability in conflict-prone regions. A brief reflection on the conditions that contributed to the non-use of nuclear weapons and the eventual transition to stable deterrence between the United States and the Soviet Union, as summarized in Table III, reinforces that concern.

4. PROLIFERATION INCREASES TENSIONS

Lewis Dunn, former US ACDA, "Containing nuclear proliferation," ADELPHI PAPER #263, Autumn 1991, p.4.The spread of nuclear weapons to conflict-prone Third World regions could, in theory, eventually result in nuclear stand-offs between new nuclear powers. But proliferation is more likely to heighten regional politico-military instabilities and tensions. Many of the political, technical and situational roots of stable nuclear deterrence between the United States and the Soviet Union may be absent in South Asia, the Middle East or other regions to which nuclear weapons are spreading. There is a high risk of nuclear weapons being used. Regardless, the transition period would be especially dangerous for countries in the region and for outsiders.

5. PROLIFERATION INCREASES CHANCE FOR CONFLICT

Trevor Tate, Centre for Internatl Relations, Queen's U., "Regime-building in the non-proliferation system," JOURNAL OF PEACE RESEARCH, 27 (4), 1990, p.405.Third, policy-makers realize that political anarchy gives rise to the security dilemma: a state that pursues the nuclear route to security unwittingly becomes a part of the threat equation of other states. The security dilemma in international relations has led to conflicts before and could do so again. A widespread diffusion of nuclear weapons would likely lead to uncertainty, instability and conflict.

THE CASE FOR HEALTH CARE

1. MORAL RIGHT TO HEALTH CARE

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.viii.Persons have a moral right to health care; many Americans have no ready access to the care to which they have a right; therefore, reforms must be made in the delivery system to ensure that these and all Americans receive the health care to which they have a right.

2. POSITIVE EXAMPLES ARE NUMEROUS

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.3.There are many positive things to be said about health care in the United States as the twentieth century draws to a close. In general, the quality of care is high, and access to it is widespread. The nation's health-related statistics are good and generally improving. Life expectancy continues to rise. Infant mortality continues to decline. Government programs and policies, especially Medicare, have met with considerable

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222success and remain highly popular.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. HEALTH CARE IMPORTANT FOR FUNCTION OF INDIVIDUAL ROLES

Sol Levine, Sr. scientist at the Health Institute (New England Medical Center), "A Response," SOCIAL POLICY, Summer 1991, pp.44-45.People seek health care to relieve pain and discomfort, to obtain assurance, and to protect or enhance their quality of life or functional performance in their work, at home, in the community, and in their relations with friends and relatives. Vision, dental, and many orthopedic problems, for example, may rarely be life threatening, but they are nonetheless important concerns.

4. A HEALTHIER POPULATION IS A NATIONAL ASSET

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.31.With less illness and a more generally healthy population, work productivity and the general quality of life would likely be enhanced. A healthier population is a national asset in innumerable ways. So too is the sense of civic fellowship and social solidarity that the guarantee of entitlement to health care might tend to generate. Thus one approach to grounding a moral right to health care is by reference to the morally significant consequences that might follow from it.

5. HEALTH CARE ENHANCES QUALITY OF LIFE

Sol Levine, Sr. scientist at the Health Institute (New England Medical Center), "A Response," SOCIAL POLICY, Summer 1991, p.44.While the impact of health care on a population's mortality and morbidity is modest compared with larger social and economic influences, it is important to note that the impact on quality of life may be considerable.

6. RIGHT TO MEDICAL CARE PROMOTES EQUALITY

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.58.Another basis for the claim of a right to medical care follows from the fundamental political rights that egalitarianism wants to ensure. Guaranteeing entitlement to health care would protect equality of opportunity by helping those disadvantaged by health status to participate more fully in life.

THE CASE AGAINST HEALTH CARE

1. PROFESSIONAL CONTROL OVER MEDICINE DISABLING

Ivan Illich, author/researcher, MEDICAL NEMESIS, 1976, p.3.The medical establishment has become a major threat to health. The disabling impact of professional control over medicine has reached the proportions of an epidemic. Iatrogenesis, the name for this new epidemic, comes from iatros, the Greek word for "physician," and genesis, meaning "origin."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. MEDICALIZATION OF LIFE LEADS TO SOCIAL CONTROL

Michael Goldstein, Pf. public health at UCLA, THE HEALTH MOVEMENT, 1992, p.4.The medicalization of everyday life has become a major feature of western society, particularly in the United States and Canada. Every transition and development in the lives of normal individuals has been proposed as an appropriate ground for medical observation, judgment, instruction, and control. Almost every imaginable facet of child-rearing and family life--from the spacing of children to their feeding schedules, discipline, and social skills--falls under the purview of pediatricians and other therapists.

3. MEDICALIZATION CONTROL EXTENDS BEYOND MEDICAL SPHERE

Michael Goldstein, Pf. public health at UCLA, THE HEALTH MOVEMENT, 1992, p.3.The medicalization process has not restricted itself to medicalizing conditions, behaviors, and attitudes that are usually considered to deviate from the norms of society. Increasingly, the medical model has been applied to aspects of "normal" life that may or may not be problematic to people. For example, birth and death--the two experiences all human beings share--have come to be seen as medical events. Typically, they are monitored, controlled, and certified by medical authorities.

4. MEDICAL RESEARCH IGNORES WOMEN

Leonard Abramson, president of US Healthcare, "Women and health care: unneeded risks," USA TODAY MAGAZINE, SEPTEMBER 1992, p.87.Women are spending more on health care than men and consume about 60% of the prescription drugs used in the US each year. Yet, medical researchers treat them with little concern, gearing many of their studies exclusively to males. Often, a physician prescribing for a woman is flying blind--extrapolating from test results based solely on the experience of men.

5. NO LEGAL RIGHT TO HEALTH CARE

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.29.If the question of the existence of a right to health care is interpreted legally, the answer in general in the United States is negative. A right to health care is not guaranteed in the Constitution, nor does it appear to follow legally from any of the substantive rights set out in that document.

6. INEQUITIES ARE THE NORM

Charles Dougherty, Pf. at Creighton U., AMERICAN HEALTH CARE, 1988, p.3.Health statistics reveal that blacks and other ethnic minorities, the poor and those with low incomes, and the less educated benefit substantially less from contemporary health care than do other Americans. Figures on access related to need and on health insurance coverage suggest the same conclusion. Health care costs continue to escalate much faster than the rest of the economy, and many of the measures taken and proposed to contain costs have aggravated or likely will aggravate the inequities in delivery of services. These unpleasant realities demand attention.


THE CASE AGAINST SCHOOLING

1. SCHOOL IS A FAILURE.

Peter Buckman, Writer, MA Balliol College, Oxford U., "Deschooling" Deschooling: A reader, Ian Lister, ed., 1975, p. 16.Compulsory schooling has achieves none of the things it set out to do. Throughout the world - with a handful of exceptions who are either ridiculed or regarded as 'backward' - a 'sentence' of at least ten years for every child is considered the most elementary sign of progress and civilization. Yet after a century of compulsory education, we are even further from a more equal society, one where all jobs are open to the best 'qualified' people.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. xiv....government monopoly schools are structurally unreformable.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 101.No amount of tinkering will make the school machine work to produce educated people; education and schooling are, as we all have experienced, mutually exclusive terms.

Ivan Illich, Center for Intercultural Documentation, Cuernavaca, Mexico, Deschooling society, 1971, p. xix.Neither new attitudes of teachers toward their pupils nor the proliferation of educational hardware or software (in classroom or bedroom), nor finally the attempt to expand the pedagogue's responsibility until it engulfs his pupils' lifetimes will deliver universal education.

2. SCHOOLING FOSTERS DEPENDENCE.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. xii....the bells and the confinement, the crazy sequences, the age-segregation, the lack of privacy, the constant surveillance, and all the rest of the national curriculum of schooling were designed exactly as if someone has set out to prevent children from learning how to think and act, to coax them into addition and dependent behavior.

Ivan Illich, Center for Intercultural Documentation, Cuernavaca, Mexico, Deschooling society, 1971, p. xix....for most men the right to learn is curtailed by the obligation to attend school.

3. SCHOOLING DESTROYS COMMUNITY.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 14.School takes our children away from any possibility of an active role in community life--in fact it destroys communities by relegating the training of children to the hands of certified experts--and by doing so it ensures our children cannot grow up fully human.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 74....schools are already a major cause of weak families and weak communities. They separate parents and children from vital interaction with each other and from true curiosity about each other's lives. Schools stifle family originality by appropriating the critical time needed for any sound idea of family to develop--then they blame the family for its failure to be a family. It's like a malicious person lifting a photograph from the developing chemicals too early, then pronouncing the photographer incompetent.

4. SCHOOLING CREATES CASTES.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 24.We live in networks, not communities, and everyone I know is lonely because of that. School is a major actor in this tragedy, as it is a major actor in the widening gulf among social classes. Using school as a sorting mechanism, we appear to be on the way to creating a caste system, complete with untouchables who wander through subway trains begging and who sleep on the streets.

Ivan Illich, Center for Intercultural Documentation, Cuernavaca, Mexico, Deschooling society, 1971, p. 24.The very existence of obligatory schools divides any society into two realms: some time spans and processes and treatments and professions are "academic" or "pedagogic," and others are not. The power of school thus to divide social reality has no boundaries: education becomes unworldly and the world becomes noneducational.

5. SCHOOLING PROMOTE INEQUALITY.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 77.Mass-education cannot work to produce a fair society because its daily practice is practice in rigged competition, suppression, and intimidation.

Ivan Illich, Center for Intercultural Documentation, Cuernavaca, Mexico, Deschooling society, 1971, p. 6.Schools by their very structure resist the concentration of privilege on those otherwise disadvantaged. Special curricula, separate classes, or longer hours only constitute more discrimination at a higher cost.

6. SCHOOLING FAILS DEMOCRACY.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, pp. 76-77....the theory and structure of mass-education are fatally flawed; they cannot work to support the democratic logic of our national idea because they are unfaithful to the democratic principle. The democratic principle is still the best idea for a nation, even though we aren't living up to it right now.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. SCHOOLING DANGEROUS.

Ivan Illich, Center for Intercultural Documentation, Cuernavaca, Mexico, Deschooling society, 1971, p. 10.The escalation of the schools is as destructive as the escalation of weapons but less visibly so.

8. FREE MARKET SCHOOLING SUPERIOR.

John T. Gatto, award-winning teacher in Manhattan's public schools, Dumbing us down: The hidden curriculum of compulsory schooling, 1992, p. 20.Some form of free-market system in public schooling is the likeliest place to look for answers, free market where family schools and religious schools and crafts schools and farm schools exist in profusion to compete with government education.

Peter Buckman, Writer, MA Balliol College, Oxford U., "Deschooling" Deschooling: A reader, Ian Lister, ed., 1975, p. 17.If compulsory schools were abolished, and if jobs were awarded on merit rather than the possession of irrelevant certificates, education could be freed from the tyranny of a curriculum. Which would mean that those good teachers, of whom there are so many, would be free to follow their enthusiasms, and to enthuse others at a pace that suited both of them. The pupil would once more become the centre of the education process, instead of just being a nut on a conveyor belt that is either tightened by the spanner of exams or rejected altogether.

THE CASE FOR SPECIES

1. LOSS INCREASES RISK TO ECOSYSTEM

David B. Gray, ecologist/author, ECOLOGICAL BELIEFS AND BEHAVIORS, 1985, P. 14.If everything is interdependent, then everything is important; it has a niche or function. Any species that is eliminated from the vast variety may affect the total system in unforseen and destructive ways. Variety seems to play a critical role in assuring the survival of an ecosystem.

2. ECOSYSTEM DESTRUCTION SNOWBALLS

Z. Wolfson, author, THE SOVIET ENVIRONMENT, 1992, PP. 59-60.If an ecosystem is affected to a significant degree by some or all of these factors, its stability decreases and a few additional destabilising endogenous or exogenous factors--like drought or overgrazing by cattle--are enough to cause the productive ecosystem to collapse. What is more, the impact on the neighbouring, still 'normal' system somehow increases and the process of degradation continues. Sometimes it may be unnoticed, but another year of drought or an ill-conceived project of irrigation or industrial development provides one more 'push'--and another ecosystem collapses. The new ecosystems differ from those already in existence not only by their lower productivity and more primitive structure but by their reduction of economic and social potential. Since they are unable to regenerate, this makes the reproduction of a normal human population (which has lived there for centuries) and the continuation of their ethnic and cultural traditions doubtful.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. DELAY WILL ACCELERATE LOSS--MULTIPLIER EFFECT

William Devall and George Sessions, profs of sociology and philosophy, DEEP ECOLOGY: LIVING AS IF NATURE MATTERED, 1985, PP. 71-72.But this in no way excuses the present complacency--the extreme seriousness of our current situation must first be realized. But the longer we wait the more drastic will be the measures needed. Until deep changes are made, substantial decreases in richness and diversity are liable to occur: the rate of extinction of species will be ten to one hundred times greater than any other period of earth history.

4. ALL LIFE IS PARAMOUNT

Hinchman and Hinchman, profs sociology, Clarkston College and St. Lawrence Univ, 'DEEP ECOLOGY' AND THE REVIVAL OF NATURAL RIGHTS, 1988, P. 210.What a thing is only reveals itself by close study of the myriad relationships through which its existence unfolds. Indeed, people cannot really understand why each organism possesses the characteristics it does until they fathom the entire animal and plant community in which it functions (Leopold 1970). What "justifies" each individual being is not its potential serviceability for human schemes, but its irreplaceable contribution to the flourishing of the whole, a totality that includes human life and purposes but is not defined by them.

5. KEY TO LIVABLE HABITAT

George J. Mitchell, Senate Majority Leader, WORLD ON FIRE: SAVING AN ENDANGERED EARTH, 1991, P. 120.While no single species may be essential to the normal functioning of the biosphere, all species together are as a noted American ecological scientist has said, the "driving force that maintains it." "The world's most important resources," George M. Woodell of the Woods Hole Research Center has written, "are biotic--the plants and animals that maintain the biosphere as a habitat suitable for life."

THE CASE AGAINST SPECIES

1. NO EVIDENCE OF MASS EXTINCTION

Charles Oliver, Assistant editor, "All creatures great and small," REASON, April 1992, p. 23.The Endangered Species Act is sacrosanct because environmentalists and their friends inside the Beltway have convinced almost everyone that massive species extinction is occurring, that it threatens to destroy entire ecosystems, and that only the extreme measures legislated by the act can prevent an ecological catastrophe. The problem is that none of these assertions is supported by hard facts.

2. THE ANIMALS BECOMING EXTINCT AREN'T IMPORTANT ANYWAY

Charles Oliver, Assistant editor, "All creatures great and small," REASON, April 1992, p. 27.Indeed, Ehrenfeld admits that "the species whose members are fewest in number, the rarest, the most likely to become extinct--are obviously the ones least likely to be missed by the biosphere. Many

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222of these species were never common or ecologically influential; by no stretch of the imagination can we make them vital cogs in the ecological machine. **Ehrenfeld is David, biologist.

3. EXTINCTION IS BENEFICIAL

Charles Oliver, Assistant editor, "All creatures great and small," REASON, April 1992, p. 27.But death, extinction, and change are natural. To attempt to preserve every species is to try to end the process of evolution. As biologist Norman D. Levine wrote in an article in the journal BioScience, "Perhaps 95% of the species that once existed no longer exist....What species preservers are trying to do is stop the clock. It cannot and should not be done. Extinction is an inevitable fact of evolution. New species continually arise, and they are better adapted to their environment than those that have died out...Would it improve the Earth if even half of the species that have died out were to return? A few starving shipwrecked sailors might be better off if the dodo were to return, but I would not be. The smallpox virus has been eliminated, except for a few strains in medical laboratories. Should it be brought back? Ellipsis in original.

4. PROTECTING SPECIES DESTROY JOBS AND CULTURES

Russ Carman, Ph.D., Wildlife Conservation, THE ILLUSIONS OF ANIMAL RIGHTS, 1990, p. 47.In what was totally an emotional appeal to "save the seals" several unique cultures are being destroyed. The Inuit seal hunters have now become wards of the state. They are losing their will to live, and their great pride is like a candle giving off its last flicker of light, that will be lost to the next generation. Like the American Indian, they have not only been defeated, they have been humiliated and degraded. White Newfoundland fishermen, and Magdalene Islanders, have likewise suffered great economic loss, damages to fish stocks and the damage to pride that poverty brings.

5. NO EVIDENCE OF EXTINCTION DOOM

William Stevens, staff writer, New York Times, "Editorial", THE VANCOUVER SUN, Sept. 14, 1991, p. B5.A minority of dissenters say that while wild habitats are indeed disappearing because of human expansion, the supposed magnitude and rate of the extinctions are unsubstantiated by hard evidence and have probably been exaggerated. In possibly overstating the risk, some critics say, conservationists may harm their own cause by setting themselves up for the charge of crying wolf.

THE CASE FOR ANIMAL RIGHTS.

1. NON-HUMAN ENTITIES HAVE RIGHTS.

David N. Mowry, Prof., SUNY Plattsburgh, "Could computers have rights?" Contemporary Philosophy, January 1, 1986, p. 16....other entities besides humans typically have rights both, some would argue, natural and civil. For example, corporate entities have civil rights. They may hold property, enter into contracts, freely pursue their interests, etc.; but corporate entities are not human.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. ANIMALS DESERVE FUNDAMENTAL MORAL RESPECT.

Tom Regan, Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, p. 329....animals have certain basic moral rights, including in particular the fundamental right to be treated with respect that, as possessors of inherent value, they are doe as matter of strict justice. Like us, therefore--assuming the soundness of the arguments that have gone before--they must never be treated as mere receptacles of intrinsic values (e.g., pleasure, or preference-satisfaction), and any harm that is done to them must be consistent with the recognition of their equal inherent value and their prima facie right not to be harmed.

3. SUFFERING ANIMALS DESERVE OUR PROTECTION

David N. Mowry, Prof., SUNY Plattsburgh, "Could computers have rights?" Contemporary Philosophy, January 1, 1986, p. 17.The capacity to suffer "marks" an individual or group as having interests relative to treatment by others and is thus a morally relevant characteristic. And again, according to both, the capacity for suffering, whatever other differences there may be between animals and humans, is a shared characteristic. And, by the principle of equality, if it is morally relevant in determining treatment and consideration of members of one groups, so should it is morally relevant in determining treatment and consideration of members of other groups.

4. HUMANS ARE OBLIGED TO ACT PATERNALISTICALLY TO ANIMALS.

Tom Regan, Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, p. 118.Because animals have a welfare, and because we sometimes intervene in their life in the name of other welfare-interests and contrary to their know present preference, there is a strong presumption to believe that we can act paternalistically toward them.

5. UNTIMELY DEATH IS A SUFFICIENT HARM.

Tom Regan, Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, pp. 117-118.Though there are some fates worse than death, an untimely death is not in the interests of its victims, whether human or animal, independently of whether they understand their own mortality, and thus independently of whether they themselves have a desire to continue to live. Though young children, like animals of comparable mental development, arguably lack any conception of their long-term welfare, lack the ability to formulate categorical desires, and lack any sense of their own mortality, the untimely death of either is a harm.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. LANGUAGE IS NOT A CRITERIA FOR ANIMAL RIGHTS.

Peter Singer, Prof., Philosophy, New York University, Animal Liberation, 1990, pp. 14-15.Human infants and young children are unable to use language. Are we to deny that a year-old child can suffer? If not, language cannot be crucial. Of course, most parents understand the responses of their children better than they understand the responses of other animals; but this is just a fact about the relatively greater knowledge that we have of our own species and the greater contact we have with infants as compared to animals. Those who have studied the behavior of other animals and those who have animals as companions soon learn to understand their responses as well as we understand those of an infant, and sometimes better.

7. SUFFERING IS IRRELEVANT.

Tom Regan, Prof., Philosophy, Duke University, The Case for Animal Rights, 1983, p. 117.Despite the importance of reducing animal suffering, it is essential that we recognize that not all harms hurt. Harms understood as deprivations detract from an individual's welfare independently of their occasioning pain or suffering. As deprivations, these harms are to be understood as losses of benefits (e.g., losses of opportunities to develop or exercise one's autonomy). In the case of both humans and animals, it was argued, what we don't know can harm us, even if what we don't know can hurt us. It is, therefore, no defense of consigning either humans or animals to environments that ignore their biological, social, or psychological interests, or that cater to some (e.g., the desire for food) at the expense of others (e.g., the interest in autonomy or social relations) to claim that these individuals do not know what they are missing and so cannot be any worse off for not having it. Environments that deny humans or animals the sort of benefits necessary for their welfare are to that extent harmful to their interests, whether they cause suffering or not.

8. ANIMALS FEEL PAIN.

Peter Singer, Prof., Philosophy, New York University, Animal Liberation, 1990, p. 15.So to conclude: there are no good reasons, scientific or philosophical, for denying that animals feel pain. If we do not doubt that other humans feel pain we should not doubt that other animals do so too. Animals can feel pain.

9. SOME ANIMALS ARE MORE RESPONSIVE THAT HUMANS.

Peter Singer, Prof., Philosophy, New York University, Animal Liberation, 1990, p. 18.Adult chimpanzees, dogs, pigs, and members of many other species far surpass the brain-damaged infant in their ability to relate to others, act independently, be self-aware, and any other capacity that could reasonably be said to give value to life. With the most intensive care possible, some severely retarded infants can never achieve the intelligence level of a dog.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. SPECIESISTS VIOLATE ANIMAL RIGHTS.

Peter Singer, Prof., Philosophy, New York University, Animal Liberation, 1990, p. 220.It is true that many problems in the world deserve our time and energy. Famine and poverty, racism, war and the threat of nuclear annihilation, sexism, unemployment, preservation of our fragile environment--all are major issues, and who can say which is the most important? Yet once we put aside speciesist biases we can see that the oppression of non-humans by humans ranks somewhere along with these issues.

THE CASE AGAINST ANIMAL RIGHTS

1. ANIMALS DO NOT HAVE RIGHTS

Mary Winters, JD candidate, "Cetacean rights under human laws," SAN DIEGO LAW REVIEW, Vol. 21, 1984, p. 935.According to many philosophers, animals do not have right simply because animals are not the kind of beings who can have rights. Kant and the Utilitarians believed only rational beings, meaning man alone, have rights and all the lowers animals are viewed as mere machines towards which man has no ethical responsibility. Descartes insisted that respect for human dignity does not require respect for animals. The Judeo-Christian belief that man was granted dominion overs animals, has been historically interpreted by the Western world to mean that because of man's immortal soul, humans are superior to animals.

2. ANIMAL RIGHTS ARE LUDDIST AND MISANTHROPIC

Charles Oliver, asst. ed., "Liberation zoology," REASON, June 1990, p. 22.Behind it all is the theology of animal rights--an ideology that is, on the surface, enormously seductive. It appeals to our desires for a less complex and more humane world. But dig behind that beautiful facade, and you find that the animal-rights philosophy is an ugly mixture of misanthropy, Luddism, and fear.

3. ANIMALS DON'T RESPECT OTHERS' RIGHTS

Staff writer, "Beastly idea," NATIONAL REVIEW, April 1, 1990, p. 15.In the first place, animals don't show any disposition to recognize each other's rights. This means that if we take their rights seriously, it's up to us the human race, to police the entire animal kingdom. For not only must we observe their rights in our own dealings with them, we must see to it that they don't violate the rights of other members of their own species or, especially, those of members of other species.

4. ANIMAL RIGHTS PITS ELITES AGAINST THE WEAK

Russ Carman, Ph.D., Wildlife Conservation, THE ILLUSIONS OF ANIMAL RIGHTS, 1990, p. 50.Animal rights is really a battle that pits the movie star against the trapper- the highly educated and elitist ideologue against the farmer- the media elite against the hunter- the consumer against the producer. It is an uneven battle that pits the rick against the poor, the powerful against the weak and the famous against the unknown.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. ANIMAL RESEARCH SAVES HUMAN AND ANIMAL LIVES

Karl Beirman, Student, Texas Lutheran College, "Why animal experimentation should continue", THE HUMANIST, July-August, 1990, p. 9.Cohen denies animals equality with humans; other animal rights opponents argue that animals have not been discriminated against, as that animal rights activists claim in their speciesism argument. While animals have been the means through which virtually all modern vaccination and surgical techniques for humans have been developed, animals themselves have also benefitted from these advances. A historical example of this is the rabies vaccine developed by Louis Pasteur using rabbits.

6. HUMANS ARE UNIQUELY PRODUCTIVE RELATIVE TO OTHER SPECIES

Paul G. Muscari, SUNY Adirondock Community College, "Is man the paragon of animals?" Journal of Value Inquiry, 1986, p. 307.Humans may not be the only moral subject, but because of their depth of awareness and their power to implement decisions, they appear to be the only moral agent.

John Ahrens, Prof. Phil., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, p. 14.Nonetheless, I do not think it is appropriate to ascribe rights to anything but human beings, at least not until we make contact with aliens who are considerably more advanced than the non-human creatures who currently share the earth with us. Rights are properly ascribed only to being who possess certain characteristics and, so far as we currently know, only human beings possess these characteristics.

Ronald Bailey, author, "Raining in their hearts", NATIONAL REVIEW, Dec. 3, 1990, p. 33.Harvard demographer Nick Eberstadt responds: "One of the reasons that Ehrlich's been so wrong in his few solid predictions is that he has no understanding of or sympathy for the economic process that human beings engage in." In nature, gazelles uncontrolled by predators do occasionally overrun their pasturage and then starve when they run out of grass. Humans, unlike gazelles, have proved extraordinary proficient at expanding the pasturage. Humans are uniquely productive creatures; unlike other species, we can increase the supply of resources available to us. And we have done so. Since 1750, the gross world product has increased more than 1,700-fold while the world's population has risen only sixfold. Let's see a gazelle herd do that.

7. ANIMALS DO NOT DESERVE RIGHTS WITHOUT DUTIES.

John Ahrens, Prof. Phil., St. Joseph College, Preparing for the Future: An Essay on the Rights of Future Generations, 1983, pp. 14-15.Another way of putting this point is to say that it is inappropriate to ascribe rights unless it is appropriate to assign duties. And if "ought" implies "can," no one who has not attained a certain level of intellectual and conceptual development can have duties. I suspect this is the reason most people find the suggestion that animals have rights simply ludicrous. Animals are simply incapable of the sort of sophisticated mental activity that is involved in recognizing one's duty and choosing to do it.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2228. ANIMALS DO NOT HAVE SELF-AWARENESS.

Paul G. Muscari, SUNY Adirondock Community College, "Is man the paragon of animals?" Journal of Value Inquiry, 1986, p. 303....there are very important factors which are systematically linked to areas of psychology other than consciousness (e.g., how memory works) which make human self-awareness different enough from non-human self-awareness to legitimize a claim to human uniqueness.

9. ANIMALS DO NOT HAVE CONSCIOUSNESS.

Paul G. Muscari, SUNY Adirondock Community College, "Is man the paragon of animals?" Journal of Value Inquiry, 1986, p. 306.Consciousness is a matter of intensity and scope (and as it relates to man it is often a matter of achievement). Undoubtedly, in a weak sense, all sentient beings are alike in that they are capable of feelings and sensations. But in a strong sense, only humans seem to have the capacity (whether they exercise it or not) to prioritize and assess their experiences, to come to grips with themselves, to see themselves in the other and the other in them, and to feel guilt and deep sorrow for what they have done.

THE CASE FOR FAMILIES

1. GOOD FAMILIES EQUAL GOOD SOCIETY

Report of the Working Seminar on Family and American Welfare Policy, THE NEW CONSENSUS ON FAMILY AND WELFARE, 1987, p.16.The family is nature's original department of health, education, and human services. When things go well in the family, the whole of society reaps many benefits. When families--in one way or another, for one reason or another--fail to accomplish their basic tasks, it is far harder for other social institutions to accomplish theirs.

2. NECESSARY FOR EFFECTIVE CAPITALIST ECONOMICS

Allan Carlson, researcher/author, FAMILY QUESTIONS, 1988, p.xvi.A capitalist economic system is critically dependent on the successful functioning of the family. The nuclear family of father, mother, and their children provides the critical matrix for human reproduction while also serving as a highly mobile unit, able to follow the market signals that would raise their incomes while also increasing market efficiency.

3. MOST LIKELY TO AVOID IMPOVERISHED CONDITIONS

Report of the Working Seminar on Family and American Welfare Policy, THE NEW CONSENSUS ON FAMILY AND WELFARE, 1987, p.45.Many single parents succeed in raising children and in keeping their household out of poverty. But, empirically, husband-wife families are more likely to exit from and to stay out of poverty. On the whole, husband-wife families offer greater income-producing and burden-sharing resources. Having both male and female adult roles in the home, and having two sets of connections to the outer world, also seems to benefit children.


4. NON-FAMILY STRUCTURES UNLIKELY TO FUNCTION AS EFFECTIVELY

Frances Goldscheider and Linda Waite, researchers with the Rand Corp., NEW FAMILIES, NO FAMILIES?, 1991, p.204.But even going beyond the problem of population replacement, nonfamily living as a system, in which many adults expect to spend much of their lives living alone, is untested. Although people may be able to maintain close and giving relationships, it is not clear that their circumstance will teach them how to do so; they will have to go out of their way to make and maintain such relationships across the distances created by residential separation. It seems likely that commitment and intimacy will be more difficult to achieve and maintain.

5. HOMEMAKING IS DESIRABLE

Frances Goldscheider and Linda Waite, researchers with the Rand Corp., NEW FAMILIES, NO FAMILIES?, 1991, p.20.Homemaking can also be an act of love. Everything people do to help, cheer, or please one another shows their love and care. Working overtime to earn a little more to buy a spouse a present, making something at school for a parent, or preparing a favorite dish for a grandchild are all ways people can express their love to warm and strengthen each other's lives. The home touches people's lives at rest, at meals, at play. As such, it is perhaps the richest environment of all for this kind of interaction. The ability to function there successfully may be the most important skill families can teach both men and women.

6. MODERN SOCIETY STILL NEEDS FAMILY CONTACTS

Frances Goldscheider and Linda Waite, researchers with the Rand Corp., NEW FAMILIES, NO FAMILIES?, 1991, p.19.Sharing an idea, an experience, or a memory, even without domination or competition, can be rewarding in itself. The overlap between family and economy that characterized human societies until the industrial revolution meant that economic exchange was tied to social and family relationships, but these relationships are not less important now that the economic threads no longer run through them so tightly. People still need warm and supportive relationships.

THE CASE AGAINST FAMILIES

1. TRADITIONAL SYSTEM IN DECLINE

Linda Majka, Pf. sociology at U. of Dayton, "Neo-conservative perspectives on economic inequalities among families," FAMILIES AND ECONOMIC DISTRESS, 1988, p.155.The traditional family system is in decline. In Europe and the United States, we are gradually no longer living in the family lifestyles traditional to our societies in the past. This creates a lag between what we assume we ought to be and what we ought to be and what we actually are in terms of real relationships.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. FAMILY ETHOS INIMICAL TO HEALTH OF ECONOMY

Jan Dizard and Howard Gradlin, sociologists, THE MINIMAL FAMILY, 1990, p.175.The plain fact is that the family ethos that conservatives cherish is inimical to the health of the economy that they are so committed to preserving. In this contest there seems little doubt but what the economy's requirements will prevail. For all the rhetoric of upholding family values, conservatives in power will be obliged to pursue economic policies whose effects will be devastating to families attempting to embody traditional familism. Alternatively, if by some miracle more and more families are able to model themselves on the family of conservative imagination, it is almost certainly going to be the case that consumer demand will decline.

3. FAMILIES REDUCE AUTONOMY

Jan Dizard and Howard Gradlin, sociologists, THE MINIMAL FAMILY, 1990, pp.201-202.Family networks simply cannot protect us. Even if they could, the protection they offer entails dramatic reductions in personal autonomy, in our capacity to develop expressive individuality. We would be, as our ancestors were, weighed down by an elaborate web of obligations the sum of which would foreclose many of the choices we now take for granted. We would live out our lives within far narrower perimeters.

4. RETURN TO TRADITIONAL FAMILIES UNDESIRABLE

David Popenoe, Pf. sociology at Rutgers, DISTURBING THE NEST, 1988, p.308.Thus a return to the traditional nuclear family is in many respects undesirable, even if it were possible. Patriarchy, the uneducated housewife, little public assistance for needy families--those are not goals that are commonly espoused or easily supported today.

5. MUST GO BEYOND TRADITIONAL FAMILIES TO ACHIEVE FAMILISM

Jan Dizard and Howard Gradlin, sociologists, THE MINIMAL FAMILY, 1990, p.24.The present crisis of the family, then, is part of a much broader crisis of the political economy and is likely to be resolved only when we confront the fact that families can no longer be expected to be the exclusive domain of familism. Indeed, we think that even traditional forms of family life are unable to sustain familism.

6. NO LONGER THE IDEAL

Jan Dizard and Howard Gradlin, sociologists, THE MINIMAL FAMILY, 1990, p.24.The conventional family, consisting of a working father and a home-based mother, is no longer the ideal toward which most people aspire. Instead, most of us seek arrangements that emphasize the autonomy of the individual family members as well as the nuclear family's independence from extended kin. This has meant that our families have grown steadily smaller and that the claims made in the name of family solidarity are reduced, often to a bare minimum.


THE CASE AGAINST POPULATION EXPLOSION

1. NO EVIDENCE OF POPULATION PROBLEM

Ronald Bailey, Author, "Raining in their hearts", NATIONAL REVIEW, Dec. 3, 1990, p. 33.Economist Julian Simon, who has tangled with Ehrlich more than once, acerbically comments, "Every prediction that Ehrlich made has proved wrong." Simon asserts that "all trends relevant to human population are moving in a positive direction." There is more and cheaper food, more and generally cheaper mineral resources; and life expectancy has been increasing worldwide, indicating better health.

2. POPULATION GROWTH IS SLOWING

Ronald Bailey, Author, "Raining in their hearts, NATIONAL REVIEW, Dec. 3, 1990, p. 33.Even the trends in population growth that so alarmed Ehrlich have turned positive in the past two decades. Demographer Carl Haub of the non-profit Population Reference Bureau says the world's population will probably level off at 10 to 11 billion in the next century. "Most countries, including those in the Third World," Haub notes, "are evidencing demographic transitions to slower population growth." Indeed, industrialized countries in Europe and the US are well on the way to zero population growth. The US population will level off at around three hundred million.

3. RICHER PEOPLE POLLUTE LESS

Rhona Mahony, free lance writer, "Dirty Deal?", REASON, May 1992, p. 50.The amount of pollution that a city pumps out initially rises with per-capita income. But after a turning point, it starts to decline steadily. Richer people are cleaner if you just let them get rich enough.

4. ENERGY, FOOD, AND RESOURCES ARE NOT SCARCE

Stephen Moore, Dir. Fiscal Policy Studies, CATO Inst., "So much for "scare resources," THE PUBLIC INTEREST, Winter 1992, pp. 97-98.For whatever the dangers the planet may face in the 1990s, on one score the 1980s have demonstrated that our fears were overblown: The predicted scarcity of material resources as a result of increasing population and increased industrial activity did not occur. Indeed, by every objective measure natural resources become more, not less, plentiful in the 1980s. Since 1980 the price of virtually every source of energy, every agricultural commodity, every one of the earth's minerals, and every forest product has declined. This finding contradicts all the frightening predictions of impending resource shortages issued in the 1960s and 1970s. The data are incontrovertible.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. FOOD IS PLENTIFUL

Stephen Moore, Dir. Fiscal Policy Studies, CATO Inst., "So much for "scare resources," THE PUBLIC INTEREST, Winter 1992, p. 102.In the introduction to his book Global Food Progress 1991, Dennis T. Avery of the Hudson Institute documents this favorable trend: More people enjoyed adequate nutrition in 1990 than ever before in the world's history. Per capita crop production continued to increase, with important gains in such countries as India and China....Given the increase in food production and the breadth of the gains in a wide variety of countries and basic food staples, there is little doubt that a higher proportion of the world's population had adequate food than ever before.

6. ALL ENERGY IS PLENTIFUL

Stephen Moore, Dir. Fiscal Policy Studies, CATO Inst., "So much for "scare resources," THE PUBLIC INTEREST, Winter 1992, p. 105.The truth is that if we "continue the way we are" energy will become less and less expensive over time. The past decade has witnessed prices reversing their 1970s upward spiral, and gradually falling for almost every form of energy, including coal, electricity, natural gas, and oil.

7. GARBAGE IS NOT A PROBLEM

Jonathan Adler, Environmental policy analyst, Competitive Enterprise Institute, "Little green lies," POLICY REVIEW, Summer 1992, p. 20.There is ample space in which to dispose of America's garbage through landfilling, should such an approach be desired. As the research of A. Clark Wiseman of Resources for the Future has demonstrated, all of the solid waste produced in America in the next 1,000 years could easily fit in a single landfill accounting for less than one-10th of 1 percent of the United States. This landfill would be approximately 44 miles on each side and only 100 feet deep.

8. MINERAL RESOURCES EXIST IN ABUNDANCE

Peter Samuel, staff writer, "Oil on the ropes," THE WASHINGTON TIMES, July 21, 1992, p. F3.Lester Brown, Paul Ehrlich and company have got burned betting with Julian Simon about resource prices. And Mr. Brown's people have completely flipped. Their 1992 "State of the World" handbook reads like a Julian Simon piece: "Regular improvements in technology have allowed the production of growing amounts at declining prices, despite the exhaustion of many of the world's richest ores. For many minerals, much of the world has yet to be thoroughly explored." The chapter on resources makes the old Simon point very nicely that reserves are really akin to working inventory in the sense that they are deposits that have been surveyed and analyzed and are ready for the dragline, or the production well. As the Worldwatch essay says: "Mineral resources, deposits whose existence is indicated by preliminary surveys...are far greater than reserves, and exploration is constantly moving deposits from the resources to the reserves category." Ellipsis in original.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2229. MORE PEOPLE ENJOY A HIGHER STANDARD OF LIVING

Julian Simon, Prof. Economics, Univ. of Maryland, "Less pop in population explosion," THE WASHINGTON TIME, May 27, 1992, p. G1.The simple fact is that the Rio gloom-and-doom about a "crisis of our environment" is all wrong scientifically. Even the Environmental Protection Agency acknowledges that our air and our water have been getting cleaner rather than dirtier in the past few decades. Every agricultural economist knows that the world's population has been eating ever better since World War II. Every resource economist knows that all natural resources have been getting more available rather than more scarce, as shown by their falling prices over the decades and centuries. And every demographer knows that the death rate has been falling all over the world--life expectancy has almost tripled in the rich countries in the past two centuries, and almost doubled in the poor countries in just the past four decades.

10. POPULATION GROWTH DOES NOT INHIBIT ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Julian Simon, Prof. Economics, Univ. of Maryland, "Less pop in population explosion," THE WASHINGTON TIME, May 27, 1992, p. G1.It is now also clear that population growth does not hinder economic development. In the 1980s, there was a complete reversal in the consensus thinking of population economists about the effects of more people. In 1986, the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences completely reversed the earlier "official" worldview it expressed in 1971. It noted the absence of any statistical evidence of a negative connection between population increase and economic growth. And it said, "The scarcity of exhaustible resources is at most a minor restraint on economic growth."

11. OVERPOPULATION IS NOT A PROBLEM

George Moffett III, staff writer, "Too many people?" THE CHRISTIAN SCIENCE MONITOR, July 8, 1992, p. 9."Why should we worry?" asks Ben Wattenberg, a scholar at the American Enterprise Institute in Washington. "We've gone from 1 [billion] to 5 billion while living standards have gone up exponentially. There's no evidence that population growth breeds declining living standards and ecological overload.

THE CASE FOR NATIONALISM

1. NEW WORLD ORDER IS SOCIALISM

John McManus, Publisher, "New world tyranny," THE NEW AMERICAN, May 4, 1992, p. 17.History shows that "new world order" signifies a world dominated by socialism and world government. Socialism, economic control of the people by government, is something that all but the most out-of-touch Americans will recognize as a growing phenomenon here in our nation. Rising taxation, mountains of regulations, expanding controls, mushrooming bureaucracy, and the ever-widening shadow of Big Brother government are the paths to socialistic dominance.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. THE UNITED NATIONS IS BELLIGERENT

John McManus, Publisher, "New world tyranny," THE NEW AMERICAN, May 4, 1992, p. 17.A look at the UN Charter, however, confirms that this "peace organization" reserves for itself the power to make war, something that the Iraq people discovered in 1991. The point can't be stressed too greatly: The United Nations Charter authorizes the organization to start a war in order to establish its version of peace.

3. FOREIGN ASSISTANCE KEEPS EVIL LEADERS IN POWER

John McManus, "Foreign aid's hidden purpose," THE NEW AMERICAN, May 4, 1992, p. 44.A totally unconstitutional program, foreign aid has taken the productivity of the American people and given it to foreign governments. It has been and continues to be a major element in the drive to create a socialistic world government whose nickname is "the new world order." Rather than help the peoples in the nations whose governments get the funds, it keeps corrupt and evil leaders in power, thereby postponing or completely negating any chance for real reform these people so desperately want and deserve. All of it should be stopped at once.

4. INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL TREATIES PREVENT SOLUTIONS

David Robertson, Prof., Australian Nat'l Univ., "The global environment," WORLD ECONOMY, March 1990, p. 111.Calling for negotiation of international treaties is an easy way for governments to divert attention from their own failure to deal with domestic pollution and environmental damage; and once proposals for international negotiations gain acceptance, no governments can afford to be left out. So Governments therefore, willingly go along with the popular demands. After all, any lack of progress or inadequacy of standards in international treaties that are negotiated can be blamed on other countries.

5. NATIONHOOD IS BENEFICIAL

John McManus, staff, "A new world order," NEW AMERICAN, March 26, 1991, p. 21.Nationhood is good. While history may indeed clearly show that evil men have often turned their nations into aggressive tyrannies, none has ever succeeded in gaining control of the entire planet. As long as individual nations exist, each serves as a brake on the designs of any ambitious megalomaniac.

6. NATIONALISM NECESSARY

Robert Kuttner, Editor American Prospect, THE END OF LAISSEZ-FAIRE, 1991, p. 9.The apparent "nationalism" of the dissenting view is not jingoist or anti-foreign, but simply a recognition that until world government arrives the nation state is necessary locus of social contracts between market and society.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. HEGEMONY PREVENTS HARMFUL NATIONALISM

Stephen Gill, Prof. Poli. Sci., York Univ., AMERICAN HEGEMONY AND THE TRILATERAL COMMISSION, 1990, p. 61.For these thinkers declining hegemony is associated with the outbreak of, and rise in, economic nationalism and a tendency towards the formation of mercantilist blocs.

8. ONLY THE UNITED STATES CAN CREATE STABILITY

Charles Krauthammer, journalist, "The unipolar world," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, 1991, p. 29.International stability is never a given. It is never the norm. When achieved, it is the product of self-conscious action by the great powers, and most particularly of the greatest power, which now and for the foreseeable future is the United States. If America wants stability, it will have to create it.

Charles Krauthammer, journalist, "The unipolar world," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, 1991, p. 33.We are in abnormal times. Our best hope for safety in such times, as in difficult times past, is in American strength and will--the strength and will to lead a unipolar world, unashamedly laying down the rules of world order and being prepared to enforce them.

9. FOREIGN POLICY MAKES NATIONAL INDEPENDENCE INEVITABLE

Ben Cohen, Prof., Econ., Tufts Univ., CROSSING FRONTIERS, 1990, p. 303.It is in the sense that one scholar has written that "the basic objective of the foreign policy of all states is preservation of territorial integrity and political independence." Preoccupation with national security is the logical corollary of the state system as we know it.

10. PATRIOTISM IS LOGICAL

Robert Heinlein, Author, "America's survival depends on patriotism," AMERICAN VALUES, 1984, p. 181.Patriotism is the most practical of all human characteristics. But in the present decadent atmosphere patriots are often too shy to talk about it- as if it were something shameful or an irrational weakness. But patriotism is not sentimental nonsense. Nor something dreamed up by demagogues. Patriotism is as necessary a part of man's evolutionary equipment as are his eyes, as useful to the race as eyes are to the individual. A man who is not patriotic is an evolutionary dead end. This is not sentiment but the hardest part of logic.

11. INTERNATIONALISM CAUSES THE U.S. TO ACT AGAINST ITS INTERESTS

Burton Yale Pines, VP, Heritage Foundation, "A primer for conservatives," NATIONAL INTEREST, Spring 1991, p. 67.Give no nation or organization a veto over American actions. Washington may find approval of its actions by other nations comforting. Yet making this a condition of such actions will paralyze foreign policy and could force American to act against its interests.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22212. MORALITY SHOULD NOT DRIVE FOREIGN POLICY

Burton Yale Pines, VP, Heritage Foundation, "A primer for conservatives," NATIONAL INTEREST, Spring 1991, p. 62.Morality should not drive foreign policy. Advancing human rights or advancing democracy should not, by themselves, drive foreign policy unless these actions directly protect Americans from threats or directly advance American interests. If they do not, it is unjust for Washington to tax Americans or put American lives at risk in pursuit of such policies.

THE CASE AGAINST NATIONALISM

1. THE NATION-STATE IS LOSING SOVEREIGNTY

Ali Khan, Professor of Law, Washburn Univ., "The extinction of nation-states," THE AMERICAN UNIV. JOURNAL OF INT'L LAW AND POLICY, Winter 1992, p. 199.The nation-state appears to be losing its monopoly on sovereignty. While politicians promoting sovereignty and juridical equality of states continue to reassert the Grotian theory, nation-states become increasingly interdependent within the fold of regional and international networks. More importantly, the conditions of global life liberate individuals from the physical and psychological boundaries of the nation-state. People living in different continents possess a new familiarity with each other. This ever-increasing proximity among peoples creates a web of complex relations giving birth to new sentiments of global harmony.

2. NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY SHOULD BE REDUCED

Walter Mondale, former Vice President, "New world order," VERMONT LAW REVIEW, 1992, p. 450....we must reassess our unquestioned respect for national sovereignty and our faith in the capacity of the nation-state to respond fully to the challenges we face. There are two areas that I want to talk about where I think this reality strikes hardest. One is human rights and the second is the protection of our environment. Each of these requires us to look beyond our own nation--these problems cannot be solved just at home--and to understand what we have in common with our fellow human beings on planet earth. Just as we have breached the corporate shield to make ours a more civilized nation, now we must breach the veil of national sovereignty to make ours a more civilized nation.

3. MODERN CONCERNS ARE BEYOND THE SCOPE OF NATION-STATES

Michael Dolan, Prof. Poli. Sci., Carleton College, IN Martti Kostkenniemi, "Future of Statehood," HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Spring 1991, p. 401.In the past, each country had separate fundamental problems; the present problems face all men in all countries; they are common problems....The problems and their solutions...are beyond the capacity of 150 separate states. The old political organization of the world corresponds no longer to the technological abilities and appetites of modern man and the consequent dangers. Ellipsis in original.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. UNIVERSAL HUMAN RIGHTS LAW COMPETES WITH SOVEREIGN STATES

Martti Kostkenniemi, Counsellor for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, "Future of Statehood," HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Spring 1991, p. 397.The emergence of a body of human rights law may seem to be "competing--if not at loggerheads--with the traditional principles of respect for sovereign equality of States and of non-interference.

5. U.S. ACKNOWLEDGING INTERNATIONAL LAW NOW

Mark Janis, Prof. Law, Univ. of Conn., "International law?" HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Vol. 32, No. 2, Spring 1991, p. 363.In the past few decades the United States has mostly enunciated a parochial rhetoric regarding international law, treating it either as a sort of extension of United States law or as a flexible framework that somehow always promoted US legal and political values. In the present, however, the United States is promoting a vision of international law as a set of legal norms and as a form of legal process that exists apart from a nationalistic interpretation by the United States and is ultimately universal in nature.

6. NATION-STATES JUSTIFY WAR

Martti Kostkenniemi, Counsellor for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, "Future of Statehood," HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Spring 1991, p. 401.Moral critics have argued that the very notion of sovereign statehood strengthens the national egoism that has been responsible for so many of the cataclysms of the present century. From this perspective, we should replace self--interested behavior with behavior that conforms to global conceptions of justice.

7. NATIONALISM IS DANGEROUS

Ali Khan, Professor of Law, Washburn Univ., "The extinction of nation-states," THE AMERICAN UNIV. JOURNAL OF INT'L LAW AND POLICY, Winter 1992, p. 232.Allegiance to the defense of the nation-state may prevent national from challenging wrong and unwise state policies, particularly against foreign people and foreign lands. National narcissism may impede respect for other cultures and civilizations, causing ill-will, contempt, and even hatred towards them. National fanaticism may even lead to aggression and genocide. Such artifacts of the nation-state could therefore endanger the physical and spiritual well-being of global life.

8. NATION-STATES REQUIRE PATRIOTISM

Ali Khan, Professor of Law, Washburn Univ., "The extinction of nation-states," THE AMERICAN UNIV. JOURNAL OF INT'L LAW AND POLICY, Winter 1992, p. 231-2.Nationality is the primary relationship that binds the individual to the nation-state. Through the concept of nationality, the nation-state imposes burdens, such as military service, and confers benefits, such as diplomatic protection. Nationality, however, is not simply a legal bond that the state uses to control its nationals; it is also a social fact of attachment by which individuals acquire sentimental pride in their nation-state.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2229. MODERN DANGERS REQUIRE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Martti Kostkenniemi, Counsellor for the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Finland, "Future of Statehood," HARVARD INTERNATIONAL LAW JOURNAL, Spring 1991, p. 402...."natural processes do not stop at human frontiers, but can be controlled only through the free cooperation of people and governments from many (if not all) countries and states." The efforts of individual states may also be insufficient to tackle such problems as AIDS, international terrorism, drug trafficking, and the control of transnational commercial business.

10. RESPECTING SOVEREIGNTY JUSTIFIES BRUTALITY

Walter Mondale, former Vice President, "New world order," VERMONT LAW REVIEW, 1992, p. 450-1.The enormity of the Kurds' suffering at the hands of their own government suggests that the principle of national sovereignty enjoys a sanctity which is no longer justified when balanced against such abuses and atrocities. The old axiom of international law and diplomacy--"no intervention in the internal affairs of another country"--too often has ended up as a shield protecting the brutality of tyrants. With the blessings of this principle, dictators have been free to do anything so long as they keep it within their own borders.

11. ENVIRONMENTAL CONCERNS REQUIRE LESS NATIONAL SOVEREIGNTY

Walter Mondale, former Vice President, "New world order," VERMONT LAW REVIEW, 1992, p. 453.We are now beginning to recognize that the claims of our global ecosystem, like human rights, must override those of any particular state or community.

THE CASE FOR DEMOCRACY

1. DEMOCRACY DECREASES VIOLENCE

Erich Weede, Prof. Political Science, Univ. Cologne, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1984, p. 649.Rummel's recent empirical findings assert that libertarianism reduces violence and that democracies are less likely to become involved in war.

2. DEMOCRACY REDUCES CHANCE OF CONFLICT

Erich Weede, Prof. Political Science, Univ. Cologne, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1984, p. 649.According to Rummel, libertarian or democratic states are less intensively involved in foreign conflict and tend to participate in wars less often than other states.

3 MUST ENCOURAGE DEMOCRACY

Peter Manica, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. of Hawaii, WAR AND DEMOCRACY, 1989, p. 390.We are now in the midst of a race between democracy and, because of the possibility of nuclear war, the destruction of human civilization. Hence, we are all obliged to make choices

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222which will foster and encourage democracy.

4. DEMOCRACY IS ONLY LEGITIMATE FORM OF GOVERNMENT

John Mearsheimer, journalist, "Why we will soon miss the Cold War," Atlantic Monthly, August, 1990, p. 46.The second argument rests on the claim that the citizens of liberal democracies respect popular democratic rights--those of their countrymen, and those of people in other states. They view democratic governments as more legitimate than others, and so are loath to impose a foreign regime on a democratic state by force. Thus an inhibition on war missing from other international relationships is introduced when two democracies face each other.

5. DEMOCRACY IS BEST FOR HUMAN PROGRESS

Harlan Cleveland, frmr US ambassador to NATO, "Rethinking international governance," The Futurist, May/June, 1991, p. 25.The movers and shakers in our unruly world will still be the political democracies and their market economies and the smaller countries that choose to associate with them.

6. DEMOCRACY GUARANTEES PERSONAL FREEDOM

Erich Weede, Prof. Political Science, Univ. Cologne, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1984, p. 653.The concepts of libertarianism and democracy are fairly similar, as Rummel's description of libertarian states is one I could accept as a definition of democracy: "those emphasizing individual freedom and civil liberties and the rights associated with a competitive and open election of leaders."

THE CASE AGAINST DEMOCRACY

1. DEMOCRACY DOESN'T LAST

Myron Weiner, Prof. Political Science, MIT, "Empirical democratic theory," PS, Fall, 1987, p. 862.Not a single newly independent country that lived under French, Dutch, American, or Portuguese rule has continually remained democratic.

2. DEMOCRACY IS SUBVERSIVE

Noberto Bobbio, Political Theorist, WHICH SOCIALISM? MARXISM, SOCIALISM, AND DEMOCRACY, 1987, p. 74.There is no automatic link between democracy and socialism, because democracy is subversive in the most radical sense of the word, because wherever it spreads, it subverts the traditional conception of power, one so traditional it has come to be considered natural, based on the assumption that power--i.e. political or economic, paternal or sacerdotal--flows downward.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. DEMOCRACY DOESN'T PROTECT ALL

Noberto Bobbio, Political Theorist, WHICH SOCIALISM? MARXISM, SOCIALISM, AND DEMOCRACY, 1987, p. 43.The objection raised to bourgeois democracy is that it has conceded freedom to the citizen and not to the producer, the worker. But there will be no new or renewed democracy, in fact there will be no democracy at all, if the freedom of the producer is not accompanied and underpinned by the freedom of the citizen.

4. NO DIFFERENCE IN WAR BETWEEN DEMOCRACIES AND NON-DEMOCRACIES

Erich Weede, Prof. Political Science, Univ. Cologne, Journal of Conflict Resolution, 1984, p. 649.Whether a nation enjoys democratic rule or suffers from dictatorship, the risk of getting involved in war is the same. This has been one of the findings of Weede. Nor was this an isolated finding.

5. TRADITIONAL DEMOCRATIC THEORY FAILS

Carol C. Gould, Prof. Philosophy, Stevens Inst. of Tech., RETHINKING DEMOCRACY, 1990, p. 3.The premise of this book is that there is a need for a new theory of democracy and for a rethinking of its philosophical foundations. This need derives, in the first instance, from the inadequacies of the traditional democratic theory of liberal individualism which, despite the strength of its emphasis on individual liberty, fails to take sufficiently into account the requirements of social cooperation and social equality.

6. DEMOCRACY FAILS ON THE INTERNATIONAL STAGE

Carol C. Gould, Prof. Philosophy, Stevens Inst. of Tech., RETHINKING DEMOCRACY, 1990, p. 307.Democratic theory with its joint requirements of self-determination, on the one hand, and human rights and justice, on the other, seems to break down when extended to the domain of international relations. For here, the principle of self-determination as the self-determination of nations would appear to require the recognition of state sovereignty and thus the principle of nonintervention in the internal affairs of any state by another. By contrast, the principles of human rights and of justice would seem to require intervention in the affairs of other states when such rights are violated, and such intervention would seem to violate the right of self-determination of nations and the sovereignty of states.


THE CASE FOR ELITES

1. ELITES NECESSARY IN ALL SOCIAL SYSTEMS

Eva Etzioni-Halevy, sr. rsch fellow in Sociology, Australia, Comparative Political Studies, April, 1988, p. 326.There is no inconsistency between democracy and elitism: elites are as necessary for democracy as they are for all political regimes. But while elites are to be found in all political regimes, the manner in which elites vie for and acquire power in which they exercise their power over the public, as well as the extent of that power, are of the first order of importance. It is in this that democracy is distinct from other regimes.

2. ELITES PROTECT AMERICAN DEMOCRACY

Thomas Dye and Harmon Ziegler, pf PS Florida State, pf PS Univ. of Oregon, THE IRONY OF DEMOCRACY, 1984, p. 15.Democratic values have survived because elites, not masses, govern. Elites in America--leaders in government, industry, education, and civic affairs; the well educated, prestigiously employed, and politically active--give greater support to basic democratic values and "rules of the game" than do the masses. And it is because masses in America respond to the ideas and actions of democratically minded elites that liberal values are preserved.

3. ELITES ARE MORE DEMOCRATIC THAN MASSES

Thomas Dye and Harmon Ziegler, pf PS Florida State, pf PS Univ. of Oregon, THE IRONY OF DEMOCRACY, 1984, p. 14-15.The irony of democracy in America is that elites, not masses, are most committed to democratic values. Despite a superficial commitment to the symbols of democracy, the American people have a surprisingly weak commitment to individual liberty, toleration of diversity, and freedom of expression for those who would challenge the existing order. Social science research reveals that most people are not deeply attached to the causes of liberty, fraternity, or equality.

4. DEMOCRATIC ELITES RULE NON-COERCIVELY

Ted Gurr, prof. political science, Univ. Colorado-Boulder, Comparative Political Studies, vol. 21, April, 1988, p. 54.The elites of democratic states have developed and employ a complex repertoire of noncoercive responses to challenges; increased channels of political participation, redistribution, symbolic and substantive shifts in public policy, cooption of opposition leaders, diversion of affect and attention on external targets.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. ELITES NEEDED FOR DEMOCRACY

John Higley, prof. political science, Univ. of Texas, American Sociological Review, February, vol. 54, 1989, p. 29.Indeed, it may be that Western policies--in particular those of the United States--have done more harm than good, often exacerbating elite disunity and thus actually weakening prospects for the elite transformations that alone appear to provide the basis for stable democracy.

6. ELITES DON'T HURT MASSES

Thomas Dye and Harmon Ziegler, pf PS Florida State, pf PS Univ. of Oregon, THE IRONY OF DEMOCRACY, 1984, p. 7.Elitism does not mean that power holders continually lock horns with the masses or that they achieve their goals at the expense of the public interest. Elitism is not a conspiracy to oppress the masses.

THE CASE AGAINST ELITES

1. ELITES GUARANTEE PRIVILEGE POLITICS

Arthur Miller, Pf. law at George Washington U., THE SECRET CONSTITUTION AND THE NEED FOR CONSTITUTIONAL CHANGE, 1987, p.67.In all of this, the hidden side is who controls and who benefits most from society, hidden in the sense that the ultimate controllers and beneficiaries are able to define the axiomatic in public discourse and justify their privileged positions without serious dissent.

2. ELITES LOCK OUT DISSENTING VOICES

Barton Bernstein, writer, CENTER MAGAZINE, March/April 1987, p.58.There is a strong pattern in industrial and so-called post-industrial societies that allows the experts not only to define particular values but also to create values that bar dissenting dialogue.

3. PARTICIPATION GUARANTEES DEMOCRACY

Alan Ware, prof. Politics, Univ. of Warwick, CITIZENS, PARTIES AND THE STATE, 1988, p. 13.On the one side are those that argue that democracy fully exists only when those who are involved in its processes are oriented towards the shared interests of the members of the polity, and not their own individual interests. This tradition, which can be traced back to Rousseau, views participation as the principal way by which people will come to place shared interests ahead of particular interests. For them, participation has a developmental function--through their interactions with others in decision-making processes, people come to appreciate the value of widely shared interests and accept the need for all to exercise restraint in the promotion of special interests.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. PARTICIPATION IS FUNDAMENTAL TO DEMOCRATIC IDEALS

Aryeh Botwinick, prof. Political Philosophy, Temple, SKEPTICISM AND POLITICAL PARTICIPATION, 1990, p. 27.However, the establishment of representative institutions and submission to majority rule does not mean that the principle of democratic participation is not primary. Participatory networks (spread across industrial, social, and political focal points of society where power was being mobilized and distributed) could serve as a first tier of decision making, which would then on pragmatic grounds be channeled through more traditional representative, majoritarian routes. The principles of political participation that follow from the skeptical epistemological premises of liberalism would not just serve as a hypothetical, idealized touchstone for assessing the validity of representative, majoritarian political decisions. Instead, these principles would find institutional embodiment and legitimacy in far-reaching participatory structures nurtured at the grass roots, to which the system of majority rule and the scheme of political representation would be continually accountable.

5. ELITES FOSTER INEQUALITY

G. William Domhoff, prof. sociology, UCal-Santa Cruz, THE POWER ELITE AND THE STATE, 1990, p. 284-5.On balance, given the power of American elites and the problems of organizing large numbers of people, the prospects for greater fairness and equality did not look very good as the 1990s began. There will be no natural evolution to a better future for everyone, only a natural evolution to the rich getting richer and the poor getting poorer, for that is how capitalism works without intervention by a countervailing political party and the state. But the power elite described in this book is precisely in the business of making sure that such intervention doesn't happen.

THE CASE FOR STATES' RIGHTS

1. ENCROACHMENT ON STATES RISKS TYRANNY

Timothy J. Conlan, asst prof Gov't and Politics, George Mason Univ, "Federalism at the Crossroads", THE JOURNAL OF STATE GOVERNMENT, January/February, 1989, P. 52.problems may result from the "tyranny of small decisions," as Laurence Tribe (1978:302) has put it : "No one expects Congress to obliterate the states, at least in one fell swoop. If there is any danger, it lies in the tyranny of small decisions--the prospect that Congress will nibble away at state sovereignty, bit by bit, until someday essentially nothing remains but a gutted shell." () in original

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. STATES ENHANCE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION

Thomas R. Dye, dept PoliSci, Florida State Univ, AMERICAN FEDERALISM: COMPETITION AMONG GOVERNMENTS, 1990, P. 177.Federalism stimulates political participation. Although fewer people vote in state and local elections than in national elections, more people run and win office at the state and local level. There are over eighty-three thousand governments in the United States: states, counties, townships, municipalities, towns, special districts, and school districts. Nearly a million people hold some kind of public office. The opportunity to exercise political leadership contributes to popular support of the political system. By providing more opportunities for direct citizen involvement in government, state and local governments contribute to the popular sense of political effectiveness and well-being. Public opinion studies consistently report that people believe that local government is more understandable, that they have greater confidence in it, and they feel more capable of affecting its policies.

3. STATES FACILITATE NATIONAL PARTY COMPETITION

Thomas R. Dye, dept PoliSci, Florida State Univ, AMERICAN FEDERALISM: COMPETITION AMONG GOVERNMENTS, 1990, P. 176.State and local governments provide a political base of offices for the opposition party when it has lost national elections. In this way, state and local governments contribute to party competition by helping to tide over the losing party after electoral defeat so that it may remain strong enough to challenge incumbents at the next election.

4. STATES BEST FOR DOMESTIC POLICY

S. Kenneth Howard, fmr exec dir, Advisory Commission on Intergovernmental Relations, STATE AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT: THE THIRD CENTURY OF FEDERALISM, 1988, P. 338."We find state and local leaders emerging as a new class of government entrepreneurs, taking the lead in spurring economic development, in containing health care costs, in rebuilding public facilities and in improving education." With columnist David Broder, whom Howard quoted, he agreed that by the mid 1980s, "more and more of the critical decisions in our domestic government {were} being made in state capitals." {} in original

5. STATES PROTECT RIGHTS BETTER

Cynthia Mitchell, staff writer, "Porn Case May Broaden Free Speech in Tennessee: State offers greater protection than U.S.", ATLANTA JOURNAL AND CONSTITUTION, June 6, 1991, P. A3.And with the current high court's more restrictive interpretations of personal rights, state supreme courts are increasingly willing to assert broader freedoms based on state constitutional language. Oregon has done so on the obscenity issue, and several state supreme courts have used their constitutions to strengthen personal protection against search and seizure.


THE CASE AGAINST STATES' RIGHTS

1. LACK OF CENTRAL AUTHORITY PROMOTES UNACCOUNTABILITY

Thomas J. Anton, Center for Public Policy and American Institutions, Brown Univ, AMERICAN FEDERALISM AND PUBLIC POLICY, 1989, P. 102.the intermingling of powers and finances in American federal politics has another consequence of enormous significance: Power sharing guarantees that relations among governments will be permanently unstable. Because several governments share authority for police services, or education, or highways, government organizations frequently bump into one another. With each bump, an opportunity is provided to challenge or affirm existing understandings regarding who should do what, on whose budget.

David C. Nice, dept PoliSci, Univ Georgia, FEDERALISM: THE POLITICS OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS, 1987 P. 18.Particularly when responsibilities for programs are shared among national, state, and local governments, citizens will have great difficulty deciding who deserves the blame or credit for the performance of individual programs or the system as a whole.

2. LACK OF CENTRAL AUTHORITY PROMOTES UNRESPONSIVENESS

David C. Nice, dept PoliSci, Univ Georgia, FEDERALISM: THE POLITICS OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS, 1987 P. 17.To some observers, federalism carries with it the risk of unresponsiveness because of the dispersal of power over so many units of government. The multiplicity of decision centers creates enormous capacity for delay and obstruction. Even if a policy is favored by a substantial majority of the public, opponents may control a number of subnational governments and effectively hamper action.

3. LACK OF CENTRAL AUTHORITY PROMOTES INEQUALITY OF SERVICES

David C. Nice, dept PoliSci, Univ Georgia, FEDERALISM: THE POLITICS OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS, 1987 P. 17.Some of the most intense criticism of federalism stem from the fact that it can produce enormous inequalities in services and even in the protection of basic rights. Public funding for education in the United States varies considerably from state to state and also from district to district in most states.

4. LACK OF CENTRAL AUTHORITY PROMOTES DISCRIMINATION

David C. Nice, dept PoliSci, Univ Georgia, FEDERALISM: THE POLITICS OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS, 1987 P. 18.Whether a black American could exercise the constitutionally guaranteed right to vote in the 1950s depended on state and local policies. Today the equality of women is constitutionally guaranteed in some states but not in others. The flexibility many see as a virtue of federalism can produce situations in which program benefits and fundamental rights enjoyed by some people are not enjoyed by others--who, by any standard except by location, are equally deserving.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222David C. Nice, dept PoliSci, Univ Georgia, FEDERALISM: THE POLITICS OF INTERGOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS, 1987 P. 18.At the local level in particular officials in some communities have devised a number of mechanisms for excluding the poor. The result of these incentives: officials at the subnational level have much more to gain form being sensitive to the desires of relatively prosperous people than to the desires of poor people. The smaller the jurisdiction the stronger the tendency.

THE CASE FOR MONEY

1. VALUE ATTACHED TO MONEY CORRELATES WITH ECONOMIC GROWTH

Richard Lynn, Professor, Psychology, Univ. of Ulster, "What makes peoples rich?" NATIONAL REVIEW, Sept. 9, 1991, p. 32.When we took the scores of individuals from each country and averaged them to get national scores, we found that competitiveness and the value attached to money were the only motives and attitudes related to rates of economic growth. The correlations were high-- approximately 0.6 for competitiveness, .76 for valuation of money. These two factors are also closely associated with each other--almost certainly because making money is a sign of competitive success. The person who has made money has completed well in the game of life.

2. BEST ECONOMIES STEM FROM LOVE OF MONEY

Richard Lynn, Professor, Psychology, Univ. of Ulster, "What makes peoples rich?" NATIONAL REVIEW, Sept. 9, 1991, p. 32.This means that about half the variability between countries in economic growth can be explained as a result of the degree to which their peoples value money and like to compete in order to make it. It is easy to understand why this should be. If a country's people are competitive and value money, they will be motivated to build up efficient business enterprises, and it is these that generate high rates of economic growth. The scores for the valuation of money obtained for 15 economically developed nations are shown in the chart. The highest scores were in the four "miracle economies" of the Pacific rim--Taiwan, Hong Kong, South Korea, and Japan. Close behind is the United States, and then Canada and France lead the low scorers: the European nations and the outposts of European culture in Australia and New Zealand.

3. PHILANTHROPY INCREASED IN THE 1980S

Richard McKenzie, Prof., Business, Univ. of Cal.--Irvine, "was it a decade of greed," THE PUBLIC INTEREST, Winter 1992, p. 92.While critics imply that Americans were less compassionate during the past decade, none appear to have actually looked at the most relevant quantitative evidence--recent patterns of philanthropy in the United States. In fact, these patterns show that the 1980s cannot fairly be described as a "Decade of Greed." On the contrary, giving by individuals and corporations jumped dramatically, regardless of how gifts are measured. Indeed, giving in the 1980s was above the level that would have been predicted from the upward trend established in the previous twenty-five years.

4. "DECADE OF GREED" CLAIMS ARE HASTY GENERALIZATIONS


Harry Markowitz, Nobel Laureate economics in Robert Bartley, Editor, Wall Street Journal, THE SEVEN FAT YEARS, 1992, p. 265.The blanket condemnation of the greedies of the 1980s blurs other important distinctions. It lumps together people who were remarkably stingy with those who were remarkably generous, either with public donations to good causes or with quiet private help to others in need. It lumps together those whose sole interest in life was the winning the financial game, as measured by their accumulating wealth, and those who played the game well, accumulated fortunes, but found time for other interests.

5. MONEY IS IMPORTANT FOR QUALITY OF LIFE

Marshall Loeb, Managing Editor, Fortune, MARSHALL LOEB'S 1989 MONEY GUIDE, 1988, p. 1....money is not an end but a means: a means to help make the most out of ourselves by being able to pay for education, travel, medical care and a worry-free retirement. The more we earn, quite obviously, the more we can spend to enhance and secure the lives of ourselves and our families, to enrich our communities, and to aid our favorite causes.

THE CASE AGAINST MONEY

1. YUPPIES ARE DEAD

Alan Patureau, staff writer, "Out of style materialism," THE ATLANTA JOURNAL AND CONSTITUTION, July 3, 1991, p. B1.Say goodbye to brie and BMWs. Red suspenders and Rolex watches. Designer water and Riviera holidays. The era of the yuppie is fading, due to the recession and changing values. "Thirtysomething," the TV series about yuppie angst, has been axed. Even the acronym for "young urban professional," coined by Chicago columnist Bob Greene in 1983, has gone out of style.

2. OVERCONSUMPTION THREATENS HUMANITY

Alan Durning, staff writer, "Limiting consumption," THE FUTURIST, July 1991, p. 11.Overconsumption by the wealthiest fifth of humanity is an environmental problem unmatched in severity by anything but perhaps population growth. The surging exploitation of resources threatens to exhaust or unalterably disfigure forests, soils, water, air, and climate.

3. ABUNDANCE DOES NOT EQUAL HAPPINESS

Alan Durning, staff writer, "Limiting consumption," THE FUTURIST, July 1991, p. 11.Ironically, abundance has not brought personal fulfillment. According to opinion polls, the percentage of Americans who report that they are "very happy" has been relatively stable since 1957, despite phenomenal growth in consumption. Indeed, most psychological data show that the main determinants of happiness in life are not related to consumption at all: Prominent among them are satisfaction with family life, especially marriage, followed by satisfaction with work, leisure, and friendships.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. THE VALUE OF GREED IS UNDESIRABLE

Bruce Gunn, Prof. Business, Florida State, "Competruism," FUTURICS, VOL. 13, 1989, p. 20.To the extent self-destructive greed and hedonism encourages people to circumvent Judeo-Christian principles eg, the golden rule, and values such as honesty, trust, self respect, integrity, loyalty, etc it undermines the marketplace.

5. MATERIALISM IS A HARMFUL VIEW

Joel Jay Kassiola, Professor, Political Science, Brooklyn College, THE DEATH OF INDUSTRIAL CIVILIZATION, 1990, p. 134.I suggest that we view industrial materialism as a misguided and harmful effort to remove and/or deny the limits to human fulfillment--whether their source lies in man's nature or biophysical environment or both! We have already noted the erroneous denial of human limits involved in the industrialization process and this denial's relation to another erroneous modern denial of limits upon the human condition: death.

6. MATERIAL ITEMS DO NOT BRING HAPPINESS

Bruce Gunn, Prof. Business, Florida State, "Competruism," FUTURICS, VOL. 13, 1989, p. 11.It should be clear that the true treasures of life are not material things but high quality relationships which bind people into the fabric of society

7. COMMERCIALISM CAN DESTROY AMERICA

Ronald Collins, visiting professor, law, Catholic University, & Michael Jacobson, executive director, Center for Science in the Public Interest, "Are we consumers or citizens?," UTNE READER, Jan./Feb. 1992, p. 57.Unchecked commercialism has the potential to destroy America. We need not, however, allow this potential to be realized. We can stem the tide, individually and collectively, by reconsidering our priorities and then acting.

DEMOCRACY DESIRABLE

1. DEMOCRACIES ARE END TO THEMSELVES.

Nurul Islam, Sr., policy analyst, International Food Policy Research Institute, "National dimensions of development strategies for the South," Facing the Challenge: Responses to the Report of the South Commission, 1993, p. 268.It should be emphasized, however, that democracy and political pluralism are desirable objectives or ends in themselves and should be pursued on their own merits. Moreover, there is enough evidence to suggest that, in most cases, political democracy does promote the achievement of other aspects of human welfare, such as wide access to health and education services.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. DEMOCRACIES OFFER THE BEST HOPE.

John Witte, Jr., Prof., Law, Emory Univ., Christianity and Democracy in a Global Context, 1993, p. 13.Among current political forms, democracy holds the most promise for peace, justice, and a better life. It offers the best hope for those who suffer from persecution and penury, discrimination and deprivation. It affords the greatest freedom to love God, neighbor, and self.

3. DEMOCRACIES ONLY HOPE FOR THE SOUTH.

Noam Chomsky, Prof., Phil., MIT, "World order, old and new," Facing the Challenge: Responses to the Report of the South Commission, 1993, p. 150.Democratization and social reform in the South are values in themselves. But there is little reason to support that steps towards internal freedom and justice will appeal to lite opinion in the West; on the contrary, they will be no less frightening than the so-called "crisis of democracy" within the rich societies (that is, the efforts of large parts of the population, since the 1960s, to enter the political arena). But in this way, the South can move towards mutually supportive relations with liberatory tendencies within Western Societies. Such developments will naturally be regarded as dangerous and subversive. However, they offer the only real hope for the great mass of people, even for the survival of the human species in an era of environmental and other global problems that cannot be dealt with by primitive social and cultural structures which are driven by short-term material gain, and which consider human beings to be instruments, not ends.

4. DEMOCRACIES SUPPORT INDIVIDUAL AUTONOMY.

Amy Gutman, Prof., Poli. Sci., Princeton, Univ., "The disharmony of democracy," Democratic Community, J. Chapman & I. Shapiro, eds., 1993, p. 128.Democracy is valuable not simply because it expresses the will of a majority of the people, but because it expresses and supports the individual autonomy under conditions of interdependence.

Ross Harrison, Lect., Phil., King's College (UK), Democracy, 1993, p. 176.Also, although it is not necessarily the case that individual power will be increased in a democracy, it is certainly normally the case that it will be.

Amy Gutman, Prof., Poli. Sci., Princeton, Univ., "The disharmony of democracy," Democratic Community, J. Chapman & I. Shapiro, eds., 1993, pp. 156-157....democracy has value for individuals apart from its instrumental satisfaction of interests, although less value to the degree that decisions are undeliberative and decision makers are unaccountable. Being a democratic citizen is part, an important part, although by no means all, of what it means for us, and an increasing number of people throughout the world, to be autonomous, self-governing individuals.


5. DEMOCRACIES SECURE FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS AND PRIVILEGES.

Amy Gutman, Prof., Poli. Sci., Princeton, Univ., "The disharmony of democracy," Democratic Community, J. Chapman & I. Shapiro, eds., 1993, pp. 128-129.Movements for democracy [in Eastern Europe] and around the world, demand policies and institutions that secure freedom of speech, press, and association, freedom from arbitrary arrest, the right to organize oppositional parties, and the right to vote in genuinely competitive elections. These demands form the core of a common ideal of democracy.

Ronald Glassman et al, Prof., Sociology, William Paterson College, "Introduction," For Democracy: The Noble Character and Tragic Flaws of the Middle Class, R. Glassman et al, eds., 1993, p. 5.There is, in short, a direct correlation between inclusivity and democracy. Similarly, as rights expand, so does democracy.

6. DEMOCRACIES ENHANCE DEVELOPMENT.

The South Commission, "The national dimensions self-reliant and people-centred development," Facing the Challenge: Responses to the Report of the South Commission, 1993, p. 22.Democratic institutions can considerably enhance the state's effectiveness by fostering national consensus on the goals of development. Accountability to the public, transparency of government activities, an independent judiciary, and the freedom of the media are essential to a democratic system. They can equally help to curb corruption, which saps development efforts and harms society.

7. DEMOCRACIES ARE LESS AGGRESSIVE.

Michael Shuman, Fellow, Institute for Policy Studies, "Participatory peace policies," Paradigms Lost: The Post Cold War Era, C. Hartman & P. Vilanova, eds., 1992, p. 138.Democracy is an important antidote to war; nations in which a small number of leaders can launch a war without popular support have shown the greatest propensity for using force.

Bruce Russett, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. Illinois, Esoteric Evidence on the "Democracies Rarely Fight Each Other?" Phenomenon, 1992, p. 1.Scholars of contemporary international relations are nearing consensus that democratically-governed states rarely go to war with each other, or even fight each other at low levels of lethal violence.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2228. DEMOCRACIES SHOULD BE ENCOURAGED.

Bruce Russett, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. Illinois, Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post- Cold War World, 1993, p. 138.If, after winning the Cold War at immense cost, the alliance of industrial democracies should now let slip a chance to solidify basic change in the principles of international order at much lower cost, our children will wonder. If history is imagined to be the history of wars and conquest, then a democratic order might in this sense represent "the end of history." Some autocratically governed states will surely remain in the system. But if enough states become stably democratic in the 1990s, then there emerges a chance to reconstruct the norms and rules of the international order to reflect those of democracies in a majority of interactions. A system created by autocracies centuries ago might now be recreated by a critical mass of democratic states.

DEMOCRACY UNDESIRABLE

1. DEMOCRACY IS MISUNDERSTOOD IN THE WEST.

Jon P. Gunneman, Prof., Theology, Emory Univ., "The promise of democracy: theological reflection on universality and liminality," Christianity and Democracy in a Global Context, J. Witte, ed., 1993, p. 153.These preliminary remarks already suggest at least one important point: that any judgment about the promise of democracy must involve attention to the way in which democracy is attached to other institutions and ideas. There is no such thing as democracy in general, only democracy of one kind or another. The word means popular sovereignty, but popular sovereignty must be translated into actual political institutions, and this translation is always deeply affected by other institutions including especially law and economy, by the organization of technology and media, and by broader cultural patterns and meanings rooted in the histories of specific peoples.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. DEMOCRACY AND SOCIALISM ARE NOT ANTITHETICAL.

John S. Pobee, World Council of Churches, "An African Christian in search of democracy," Christianity and Democracy in a Global Context, J. Witte, ed., 1993, pp. 273-274.People sometimes talk as if democracy and socialism are two opponents. But this is a nonsequitur, especially if you recall how even socialist states like erstwhile East Germany, etc. called themselves democratic. Again, nations of the West like Great Britain and the United States have presumed to arrogate to themselves the role of being paragons and paradigms of democracy. They are heard on house-tops spewing out the rhetoric of democracy. It is so-called democratic Britain that locked up African nationalists like Kwame Nkrumah of the Gold Coast (now Ghana), Jomo Kenyatta of Kenya, and others for daring to demand on behalf of Africans "Self Government Now" for the chiefs and people of the Gold coast. It is democratic United States which in the name of protecting democracy has supported dictatorships and shamelessly brutal administration in Chile under General Pinochet, in Iran under the Shah Pahlavi, in Brazil under the military, in the name of national security as in South Korea. It is democratic United States which propped up the policy state of the Republic of South Africa in the name of "constructive engagement"....

3. DEMOCRACIES PERPETUATE THE PATRIARCHY.

Stacey Mayhall, degree cand., Univ. Arizona, "Gendered nationalism and "new" nation-states: 'Democratic progress' in Eastern Europe," The Fletcher Forum, Summer, 1993, p. 92.Patriarchy appears to be central to these new democratic nation-states and, in particular, to their manipulation of nationalist ideologies. Patriarchal dynamics are revealed in familiar processes of marginalization and co-optation of women now visible across Eastern Europe.

Stacey Mayhall, degree cand., Univ. Arizona, "Gendered nationalism and "new" nation-states: 'Democratic progress' in Eastern Europe," The Fletcher Forum, Summer, 1993, p. 99.Cross-nationally it appears that on a variety of indicators, women are actually losing ground rather than gaining it. In particular, they continue to be marginalized and restricted from the public sphere of power. In terms of representation, women have been largely moved out of the empowered public space of the new parliaments and governments.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. DEMOCRACIES ARE NOT MORE PEACEFUL.

Elie Kedouri & George Urban, "What's wrong with nationalism? What's right with the balance of power: A conversation" State and Nation in Multi-Ethnic Societies: The Break-up of Multinational States, U. Ra'anan et al, eds., 1991, p. 240.The idea that war between democratic countries is unlikely is an illusion. It is, broadly speaking, the same illusion that Immanuel Kant entertained when he committed himself to the thought in his Perpetual Peace (1795) that wars would be ruled out if every state were a republic and these republics united in a universal "league of nations." In a world of scarcity there must always arise a conflict of interests between two parties, or two peoples, or two states which will covet the same possessions or advantages for (as they see it) the best possible reasons.

Ted G. Carpenter, Dir., Foreign Policy Studies, Cato Institute, A Search for Enemies: America's Alliances after the Cold War, 1992, p. 186.Even if the global democracy enthusiasts were to realize their goal, they would probably be disappointed in the results, for the "peaceful democracies" thesis is greatly overstated. Democracies have often been aggressive and expansionist. The United States engaged in at least two wars on conquest: the Mexican War in 1840, which amputated nearly 50 percent of Mexico's territory, and the Spanish-American War in 1898, which was a flagrant move to acquire overseas colonies. The U.S. experience is hardly unique. Britain's commitment to democracy did not prevent it from greatly expanding its imperial holdings in the late 1800s--including waging the brutal Boar War. France under the Third Republic pursued aggressive imperials designs in Asia and Africa, as did several other European powers. More recently, India did not hesitate to launch an attack on Pakistan in 1971 when New Delhi saw an opportunity to weaken its long-time adversary by supporting the secessionist movement in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

5. DEMOCRACIES ARE NOT IDEAL.

Edgar Pisano, Pres., Institut du Monde Arabe, "Inventing the future," Facing the Challenge: Responses to the Report of the South Commission, 1993, p. 98....the North itself, which is none the less proud of its democratic systems, is now starting to question its ageing, the indifference it now inspires in citizens, the way and means of a new pact between the civil society and the institutions that govern it. The concept of the nation state is reeling under the combined attacks of an economy that is becoming globalized, imposing its criteria, and the emergence of nationalities aspiring to a cultural expression of their own.

Bogdan Denitch, Institute for Social Values, Queens College, After the Flood,: World Politics and Democracy in the Wake of Communism, 1992, p. 142.We have completed a decade in which the citizens of advanced industrial democracies have been widely assured that it is not possible for any humanly constructed political and economic arrangements to provide a decent living for most of the people.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Bogdan Denitch, Institute for Social Values, Queens College, After the Flood,: World Politics and Democracy in the Wake of Communism, 1992, p. 142.Democracy is not long for this world if it comes packaged with insecurity, unemployment, and a drop in real living standards for the majority. Even the celebration of a renewed or restored national identity cannot provide sustained support for a new social order that demands great material sacrifices from the majority and offers great rewards to small minorities.

SOVEREIGNTY DESIRABLE

1. SOVEREIGNTY STILL NECESSARY

Leonard Silk, New York Times economics columnist, "O brave new global economy," The New Leader, April 8-22, 1991, p. 16.Indeed, it seems too early to bury the nation state, and it is by no means clear that we should be keen to do so. Half a century ago, Hannah Arendt made a strong case for nationalism as crucial to safeguarding not only the physical survival of a people but also its deepest ideals and right of self-determination. Whatever its drawbacks, nationhood still offers the possibility of protecting the freedom and human rights of a people within secure borders.

2. NATION-STATES ARE STILL CENTER OF GLOBAL POLITICS.

Stephan Haggard, Prof., Economics, Harvard Univ., Pathways from the Periphery: The Politics of Growth in the Newly Industrializing Countries, 1990, p. 270. Despite the tremendous growth of economic interdependence, states remain the central actors shaping the international political economy. They do so not simply through diplomacy and international agreements--the classical province of international relations theory--but through the control they exercise over the linkages between the international and domestic economies.

3. SOVEREIGNTY KEY TO INTERNATIONAL STABILITY.

Barry Duzan, British International Studies Association, New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, Booth, ed., 1991, pp. 49-50.There are several reasons for thinking that international society is in fairly good shape by the standards of most of this century, and that the trends are improving ones. Most basic is the near-universal acceptance of the territorial state as the fundamental unit of political legitimacy.

Barry Duzan, British International Studies Association, New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, Booth, ed., 1991, p. 50.Mutual recognition of sovereignty is the system norm, and the number of serious boundary disputes--perhaps the major source of international insecurity in an anarchic system--is declining as the now universal state system settles down.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Barry Duzan, British International Studies Association, New Thinking about Strategy and International Security, Booth, ed., 1991, p. 46.In an international anarchy, strong states are a necessary but not sufficient condition for international security. They are necessary because without them the insecurity of political fragility and disorder prevail almost by definition. They are not sufficient, because as the recent history of the European states in the first half of this century shows all too clearly, strong states can easily generate an environment of exceptional insecurity. The present international system contains more states on the weak than on the strong end of the spectrum, and thus has a massive element of international security built into itself.

4. GROUNDED IN INTERNATIONAL LAW.

Joseph Camilleri, Prof., Science and Technology, Univ. Wollongong, & Jim Falk, Prof, Politics, LaTrobe Univ., The End of Sovereignty, 1992, p. 35.The constraints imposed by international law, we are told, are fully compatible with the exercise of sovereignty since that state's right to enter into international engagements is itself an attribute of sovereignty. In obeying international law the state is not subjecting itself to the will of another states but to its own.

4. GROUNDED IN INTERNATIONAL LAW (cont.)

Joseph Camilleri, Prof., Science and Technology, Univ. Wollongong, & Jim Falk, Prof, Politics, LaTrobe Univ., The End of Sovereignty, 1992, p. 35.Internationally, only those rules are binding to which nations have consented, and even then the nature of that consent if likely to be so vague and qualified that the consenting nation's freedom of actions will hardly have been affected. Given that international legal is not normally supported by physical force, there is little that can be done to violate the territorial sovereignty of the law-breaking nation.

5. MUST RESPECT NATIONAL INTERESTS.

Alan Tonelson, Research Dir., Economic Strategy Institute, "What is the National Interest," Atlantic Monthly, July, 1991, p. 38.Interest-based thinking holds that in such a world U.S. national interests can and must be distinguished from the interests of the international system itself and from those of other individual states. This is just common sense. Because states differ in location, size, strength, natural wealth, historical experience, values, economic systems, degree and type of social organization, and many other particulars, their foreign-policy needs and wants--their interests--cannot always be identical or harmonious, and will in fact sometimes clash with those of certain other countries and those of whatever larger international community those states are supposed to belong to. Internationalism's assumption of an ultimate harmony of interests among states and between states and the larger system often obscures these critical truths.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. HUMAN RIGHTS MAY BE BALANCED WITH CLAIMS TO SOVEREIGNTY

Joseph S. Nye, Jr., Dir., Center for International Affairs, Harvard Univ., "The self-determination trap," The Washington Post, December 15, 1992, p. A23.How then is it possible to preserve some order in traditional terms of the balance of power among sovereign states, while also moving toward an order based on justice among peoples? If every ethnic group is granted its own state, the prospects are slim. The answer must reside in greater international protection of human and minority rights. In retrospect, it would have been better to have conditioned recognition of the Yugoslav successor states on their adoption of constitutions guaranteeing human rights and accepting provision for international surveillance and mediation of the condition of minorities.

7. NECESSARY TO PRECLUDE ANARCHY.

Joseph Camilleri, Prof., Science and Technology, Univ. Wollongong, & Jim Falk, Prof, Politics, LaTrobe Univ., The End of Sovereignty, 1992, pp. 19-20.The omnipotent sovereign is for Hobbes the only alternative to complete anarchy. It is precisely because individuals are autonomous and equal in the 'state of nature' that they find themselves in a position of perpetual insecurity. It is only by eliminating conditions of autonomy and equality that security or the safety of the people can be established.

8. SOVEREIGNTY IS A RESPONSE TO ECONOMIC NATIONALISM.

Robert A. Scalapino, Prof. Emeritus, Government, Univ., California-Berkeley, "The United States and Asia: Future prospects," Foreign Affairs, Winter, 1991/1992, p. 22.Nationalism, however, is also a natural reaction in democratic societies when external economic forces seem to represent the new threat. In an incredibly short space of time, societies coming from different traditions, at different stages of development and pursuing different economic strategies have been thrust together economically. Friction is inevitable, and with only rudimentary instruments of economic conflict-resolution, a political response based on themes such as a "foreign threat" or "foreign pressure" may find a receptive audience.

SOVEREIGNTY UNDESIRABLE

1. WORLD HAS EVOLVED PAST SOVEREIGNTY

Graham Fuller, Sr. political scientist, RAND, "Redefining National Interest," The Christian Science Monitor, December 17, 1992, p. 18.New world order, new world disorder, call it what you will. Astonishingly, even in its waning hours the Bush administration has grasped the nettle to deal with Somalia, a country of "no interest" to the United States. The fact is the globe is now rushing headlong into a completely new international environment calling for new vision and new policies to cope with the post-cold-war world. We'd better get used to it.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Walter Wriston, former chairman, CITICORP, "The twilight of sovereignty," The Fletcher Forum, Summer, 1993, p. 127.The global marker has moved from rhetoric to reality almost before we knew it. The old political boundaries of nation states are being made obsolete by an alliance of commerce and technology. Political borders, long the cause of wars, are becoming porous.

2. STATES HAVE LOST ABSOLUTE POWER

Graham Fuller, Sr. political scientist at RAND, "Redefining National Interest," The Christian Science Monitor, December 17, 1992, p. 18.If the ideas are not new, the chance to do something about them is. People are voting with their feet to get out from under unacceptable circumstances in the hope of finding something better. The irony of Somalia, of course, is that it does not involve warring ethnic and religious groups, but people of the same nationality, language, religion, and ethnic background. They just can't run a state in this stage of their history. As old orders based on oppression break down, people are thrust into new situations where even reestablishment of old-fashioned authoritarian regimes is much harder because the world is beginning to perceive certain limits to what regimes should be allowed to do to their own or other people - especially on television.

3. MULTILATERALISM INCREASING

Robert A. Scalapino, Prof. Emeritus, Government, Univ., California-Berkeley, "The United States and Asia: Future prospects," Foreign Affairs, Winter, 1991/1992, p. 35. As this century draws to a close, the profound changes in the nature of alliances and the character of interstate relations will continue. The old, exclusive patron-client relations of the past are fading away. Those alliances that continue will be at once more conditional and permit greater independence of action for both parties. In most cases, moreover, they will be encased in various multilateral agreements and arrangements.

4. INTERNATIONALISM IS INCREASING.

Frederick F. Chien, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Taiwan, "A View from Taipei", Foreign Affairs, Winter, 1991/92, pp. 22-23.Despite its resurgence, however, nationalism faces strongly competitive forces. On the one hand, there are growing pressures from below due to the rise of problems connected with the advanced stages of industrialization and the renewed vitality of ethnic and religious cleavages; on the other hand, pressures from above are steadily mounting in the form of internationalist imperatives due to economic interdependence and security needs. The complex interaction among localism, nationalism and internationalism will be one of the great dramas of the coming decades.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Benjamin Barber, Prof., Poli. Sci., Rutgers Univ., "Jihad vs. McWorld", Atlantic Monthly, March, 1992, p. 54.All national economies are now vulnerable to the inroads of larger, transnational markets within which trade is free, currencies are convertible, access to banking is open, and contracts are enforceable under law. In Europe, Asia, Africa, the South Pacific, and the Americas such markets are eroding national sovereignty and giving rise to entities--international banks, trade associations, transnational lobbies like OPEC and Greenpeace, world news services like CNN and the BBC, and multinational corporations that increasingly lack a meaningful national identity--that neither reflect nor respect nationhood as an organizing or regulative principle.

5. WORLD IS ECONOMICALLY INTERDEPENDENT

John Lewis Gaddis, Prof., History, Ohio Univ., "Toward the post-cold war world," Foreign Affairs, Spring, 1991, p. 103.Consider, next, economics. These days, no nation--not even the Soviet Union, or China, or South Africa or Iraq--can maintain itself apart from the rest of the world for very long. That is because individual nations depend, for their own prosperity, upon the prosperity of others to a far greater extent than in the past. Integration also means that transnational actors like multinational corporations and economic cartels can have a powerful influence on what happens to national states.

Eduard Pestel, Ph.D., German scientist, Beyond the Limits to Growth: A Report to the Club of Rome, 1989, p. 58.Contributing to this transition, in addition to the traditional political, ideological, and economic ties, are new global world problems specific to our era, such as worldwide dependence on a common stock of raw materials, problems in providing energy and food, sharing the common physical and biological environment on land, sea, and air. The world community has evolved into a "complex system," by which we mean a collection of interdependent subsystems rather than merely a group of largely independent entities. Interdependence is a fact, not a matter of choice, and this cannot be ignored.

6. INTEGRATION IS IRREVERSIBLE.

Robert A. Scalapino, Prof. Emeritus, Government, Univ., California-Berkeley, "The United States and Asia: Future prospects," Foreign Affairs, Winter, 1991/1992, p. 31. Already extensive Asian investment is taking place in Canada and Mexico as well as in the United States. Proposals to extend the North American Free Trade Area to the more advanced portions of Asia are now being heard, even before the NAFTA has come into being. Whatever the barriers, the process of economic integration is irreversible, and future policies must be planned and executed with this fact in mind.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. PRECLUDE WORLD GOVERNMENT.

John Humphrey, Prof., Law, McGill Univ., "Peace on earth and good will to men," Human Rights Quarterly, August, 1992, p. 440.There can be no supra-national government as long as states contain to retain powers that are no longer consistent with the facts of modern political, economic, and social conditions. There can be no supra-national government in a world where states still act as sovereign, separate, and independent bodies, where states retain a monopoly of control over their own citizens, where states are in exclusive control of the means of coercion at the international level, where the consent of states is still the dominating factor in the law governing them, and where states are still the only executive organs for enforcing the law.\

SLOW GROWTH IMPLICATIONS

1. GROWTH CRITICAL TO POLITICAL VIABILITY OF NEW DEMOCRACIES.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 175Higher rates of capital formation in the developing and newly market-oriented economies are critical to their economies success and, in many cases, to their political viability.

2. SLOW GROWTH CAUSES REVOLUTION.

William Rees-Mogg, editor, The London Observer, Sept. 7, 1992, qtd. in Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 173A world economic crisis is a type of world revolution. It destroys old structures, economic and political. The Soviet Union, with its rigid inability to adapt, was the first to fall before the full force of the storm. Such a crisis destroys well-meaning politicians and promotes men of power.... It destroys respect for government, as people discover that their leaders cannot control events. [.... in original]

3. SLOW GROWTH PRECLUDES SOLUTIONS TO INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 174Like the Great Depression, the current economic slump has fanned the fires of nationalist, ethnic and religious hatred around the world. Economic hardship is not the only cause of these social and political pathologies, but it aggravates all of them, and in turn they feed back on economic development. They also undermine efforts to deal with such global problems as environmental pollution, the production and trafficking of drugs, crime, sickness, famine, AIDS and other plagues.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. POST-COLD WAR WILL FOSTER TRADE CONFLICTS AMONG ALLIES OF U.S..

Jeffrey E. Garten, Prof Intl Finance and Economics, Columbia Graduate School of Business, "Clinton's Emerging Trade Policy," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 3, 1993, p. 184Despite the restrained rhetoric of summits and other high-profile gatherings, intense trade competition untempered by the need to band together against a common, Cold War enemy is likely to lead to conflict with all U.S. allies, the implications of which can only be dimly perceived.

5. SLOW GROWTH CAUSES INTERNATIONAL TENSIONS AND CONFLICT.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 167Slow growth of the world economy and rising unemployment in the industrialized world--along with the end of the Cold War, which once bound together the capitalist countries of North America, Europe and Asia--have given new life to nationalism, regionalism and protectionism in various quarters of the globe. Combating the persistence of slow growth must be a priority for the new American president and other leaders of the developed nations.

6. DEFICIT REDUCTION KEY TO PREVENT FOREIGN INVESTMENT PULLOUT.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 175America's deficits, both internal and external, could not have grown so large nor endured so long had it not been for the willingness of foreigners to invest in dollar assets. That willingness reflected the international role of the dollar and relative confidence in America's political stability and long-run growth potential. The United States must now move decisively to justify that confidence--or risk seeing it shattered.

GROWTH AND SAVINGS

1. SLOW GROWTH RESULT OF LOW SAVINGS RATE IN UNITED STATES.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 169Low savings and investment rates, it seems evident, have weakened America's productivity growth and overall economic performance. In the 1980s America's net national savings rate fell from about eight percent of national income in the preceding three decades to less than three percent, because of large federal deficits and lower private savings. Proportionally the United States saves far less as a nation than any other major industrial country.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. SAVINGS RATE KEY TO GROWTH.

William G. Gale, Rsch Assoc Brookings Economic Studies Program, "Saving Our Way Out of the Deficit Dilemma," THE BROOKINGS REVIEW, FALL, 1993, p. 8A nation saving less than 1 percent of its income cannot expect to grow much or to provide the highest living standard in the world. The best way to raise national saving is to reduce the deficit. But if political difficulties make further deficit reduction impossible, raising private savings achieves the same objective.

3. LOW SAVINGS RATES LIMIT FOREIGN AID AVAILABILITY.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 169This shortage of savings has not only constrained American growth but has also severely limited the capital the United States can supply to developing countries or the ex-communist states struggling to build market economies and effective democracies.

4. DEFICIT WILL CONTINUE TO GROW IN U.S..

William G. Gale, Rsch Assoc Brookings Economic Studies Program, "Saving Our Way Out of the Deficit Dilemma," THE BROOKINGS REVIEW, FALL, 1993, p. 6Reducing the government's budget deficit--now about $300 billion a year, or 5 percent of GDP--has been at the top of the economic policy agenda for more than a decade. Even after the recent budget package agreed to by President Clinton and Congress, the deficit is projected to be about 3 percent of GDP in 1998 and to grow rapidly thereafter. Despite everything, the long-term forecast is still "deficits as far as the eye can see."

5. DEFICIT WILL BE HARDER TO CONTROL IN FUTURE.

William G. Gale, Rsch Assoc Brookings Economic Studies Program, "Saving Our Way Out of the Deficit Dilemma," THE BROOKINGS REVIEW, FALL, 1993, p. 6Cutting the deficit further, of course, will require even more of the spending cuts and higher taxes that have both proven so bitterly contentious over the years. There is no reason to suppose the going will get any easier; in fact, it will probably be more difficult.

6. DEFICIT SUCKS UP PRIVATE SAVINGS.

William G. Gale, Rsch Assoc Brookings Economic Studies Program, "Saving Our Way Out of the Deficit Dilemma," THE BROOKINGS REVIEW, FALL, 1993, p. 8But large, continuing deficits absorb the saving of the private sector and leave little for businesses to invest in research, training, plant, and equipment. Reduced investment, and the resulting lower capital stock, will ultimately mean slower growth of living standards for future generations. Although foreign investors can and have provided financing for U.S. investment in recent years, returns on their investments accrue to them.


GROWTH AND THE U.S.

1. GROWTH ALONE CREATES RESOURCES NECESSARY TO SOLVE INTERNATIONAL PROBLEMS.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 174Growth will not solve all those problems by itself. But economic growth--and growth alone--creates the additional resources that make it possible to achieve such fundamental goals as higher living standards, national and collective security, a healthier environment, and more liberal and open economies and societies.

2. DEFICIT REDUCTION IN U.S. IS KEY TO SOLVING SLOW GROWTH.

Leonard Silk, Dist Prof Econ, Pace Univ., Snr Rsch Fellow, Ralph Bunche Inst on the U.N., Grad Cntr-CUNY, "Dangers of Slow Growth," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 175The United States, still the largest and most important economy in the world, needs to play a constructive role in raising global capital formation. It can only do so if it eliminates its huge and still growing federal budget deficits.

3. PROTECTIONISM/ISOLATIONISM WILL NOT BE U.S. TRADE STANCE.

Alan Murray, Deputy Bureau Chief, The Wall Street Journal, "The Global Economy Bungled," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 165...the election of Bill Clinton gives cause for hope. By instinct, he is an internationalist and a free trader. And his triumph in the 1992 election was a sign that protectionism and isolationism still do not sell in America.

4. DEMOCRATS WANT TRADE POLICY TO REFLECT U.S. DOMESTIC INTEREST.

Alan Murray, Deputy Bureau Chief, The Wall Street Journal, "The Global Economy Bungled," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 166But Clinton also ran on a campaign that gave little attention to the rest of the world. Once elected, he appointed a deputy director for veterans affairs before making his first foreign policy appointment. He is surrounded by advisers and Democratic legislators who urge him to "redefine" America's relations with the world by making international institutions serve more directly the domestic needs of the United States.

5. U.S. ONLY COUNTRY CAPABLE OF LEADING NEW ECONOMIC ORDER.

Alan Murray, Deputy Bureau Chief, The Wall Street Journal, "The Global Economy Bungled," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 166Only the United States is in a position to lead. Events of 1992 made clear that it may be a decade--or even decades--before Europe has sorted out its internal problems and can turn its attention to world affairs. And Japanese economic problems have set that nation back

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222even farther on its long road to assuming a global leadership role.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. AMERICAN'S PERCEPTION OF GROWTH IN U.S. KEY TO INTERNATIONAL POLICY.

Alan Murray, Deputy Bureau Chief, The Wall Street Journal, "The Global Economy Bungled," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 1, 1993, p. 166As long as Americans view themselves as being in a state of decline, or as a second-tier power, they will not provide support for the kinds of policies necessary to keep the world economic and financial systems strong.

7. PRESIDENT HAS FOCUSED TRADE POLICY AROUND DECREASING U.S. DEFICIT.

Jeffrey E. Garten, Prof Intl Finance and Economics, Columbia Graduate School of Business, "Clinton's Emerging Trade Policy," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 3, 1993, p. 183The president has focused on the most basic problems affecting America's international position. He has riveted the country's attention on the federal government's fiscal solvency, a cancerous threat to the long-term vitality of the American economy.

8. FUTURE TRADE POLICY DEFINITION TASK DAUNTING FOR CLINTON.

Jeffrey E. Garten, Prof Intl Finance and Economics, Columbia Graduate School of Business, "Clinton's Emerging Trade Policy," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 3, 1993, p. 189President Clinton's first 100 days in office were no more than the opening act of a new trade policy. It was an important start. The president could not have been expected to do more, either as a newcomer to the Oval Office or as a leader attempting to reorient the basic thinking about trade in Washington and throughout the nation. Daunting as the initial challenge was, however, the road ahead is much tougher.

9. MANDATED SAVINGS RATE WILL NOT STRUCTURALLY FIX ECONOMIC PROBLEMS.

William G. Gale, Rsch Assoc Brookings Economic Studies Program, "Saving Our Way Out of the Deficit Dilemma," THE BROOKINGS REVIEW, FALL, 1993, p. 11...even if mandated saving could offset the effects of deficits on national saving, it would not eliminate all the concerns one might have about the deficit: foreign ownership of the debt, the way the deficit hamstrings policymaker's ability to use macro-economic stabilization policy, the draining and cumulative effects of rising net interest payments, the magnitude and direction of intergenerational transfers embodied in fiscal policy, and a fundamental imbalance between what Americans want from government and what they are willing to pay.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. CLINTON SUCCESS LINKED WITH GLOBAL ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE.

Felix G. Rohantyn, Snr Partner Lazard Freres & Co., "Risking the American Dream," FOREIGN AFFAIRS, VOL 72, NO 5, 1993, p. 154At a time when we seem totally focused on the domestic economy, it might be more appropriate, for example, to consider a greater role for the State Department in developing strategy on global economic issues, instead of thinking of an American MITI. The domestic economy may have brought President Clinton to power; the international economy may be needed to keep him there.

ANTHOPOCENTRIC VIEW NOT BAD

1. IMPOSSIBLE TO BE NON-ANTRHOPOCENTRIC.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 17...any discourse on nature and ecological problems is not without presuppositions; and these presuppositions lie within the cultural background of the participants of the discourse; they are a product of history. A definition of `nature' or of ecological problems, therefore, always relates to an antrhopocentric element. Since the reference point for evaluation is human, non-anthropocentric approaches of nature preservation, so I suggest are defective.

2. ANTRHOPOCENTRIC VIEW GOOD FOR EVALUATING ENVIRONMENT.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 20The anthropocentric approach has the main virtue of offering a reference point from which to evaluate ecological problems. The reference point, as we shall see, can be defined in different ways (currently living human individuals, society, mankind, future generations) but, no matter how we define it, it establishes a clear criterion of how to judge existing ecological phemomena.

3. ECO-CENTRISM IS ANTHROPOCENTRIC.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p.24...an adherent to the ecocentric view could argue that nature `for itself' should be complex. But unless one adopts a mystical or religious standpoint, there is always a human interest behind the attitude that nature should be left out there `for itself.' The reason behind such a human interest are either of an aesthetic or a purely selfish character or spring from man's general care about his environment.

4. ECOCENTRISM CORE OF ECOLOGICAL OUTLOOK.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 2

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Among the many ideas which have shaped the debate about ecological problems in the recent years, the issues connected to the notion of `mastery over nature'; or `dominance of nature' have been of great importance. A unifying element among ecologists is the belief that the Promethean project of mankind and modern attitudes toward nature and the ultimate causes of ecological problems. From this assumption they proceed to a rejection of the modern attitude towards nature and tend to embrace an ecocentric outlook.

5. EOC-CENTRISM IS PHILOSOPHICALLY INCONSISTENT.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 20Any `eco-centric' approach, on the other hand, is bound to be inconsistent, unless it adopts a mystical standpoint. It is inconsistent becouse it pretends to define ecological problems purely from the standpoint of nature. It starts with assumptions about nature and natural laws to which all human action should adapt. But is evident that the definition of nature and ecological balance is a human act, a human definition which sets an ecological balance in relation to man's needs, pleasures, and desires.

6. SELF REALIZATION SOLVES INCONSISTENCY IN ANTHROPOCENTRISM.

Reiner Grundmann, Ph.D. Philosophy, Lctr Philosophy-Oxford, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 286Human beings have to reduce or abolish domination over each other and they have to aim at a conscious control of their actions. Marx conceived of this process as being parallel to, or even the unfolding of, human selfrealization. In putting it this way, he reconciled Enlightenment with Humanist thought.

ANTHROPOCENTRIC MECHANISMS FAIL THE ENVIRONMENT

1. OBJECTIVIST THEORY FAILS.

Alan S. Miller, Prof Conservation and Resource Studies, UC-Berkeley, Gaia Connections, p. 34...objectivist theory poses its own variety of rather apparent problems. It is characterized by rigidity in the application of the moral method. It makes historical criticism almost impossible since critics are seen as enemies of the tradition. In a fast-changing world, such theory is doomed to general social irrelevance since it is unable to admit contemporary historical development.

2. KANT INDIVIDUALIST THEORY.

Alan S. Miller, Prof Conservation and Resource Studies, UC-Berkeley, Gaia Connections, p. 41Kant's approach to moral problems is very different from that of the utilitarians with their concern for the end results of particular actions. What Kant valued is the individual; whereas in most consequence theories, the more abstract general social values are paramount.


3. KANT'S RATIONALITY FLAWED.

Alan S. Miller, Prof Conservation and Resource Studies, UC-Berkeley, Gaia Connections, p. 42As with every ethical system, there are problems with the Kantian analysis. This may be particularly true for modern people. At least three dilemmas immediately present themselves. First, it is doubtful that the rational will--for Kant, the basis of every good and moral act--is ever truly as autonomous as he considered it to be. We are not so insulated from other influences and stresses as to be always rational in the way Kant presumed.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. MUST REJECT APPEALS TO KANTIAN LOGIC.

Alan S. Miller, Prof Conservation and Resource Studies, UC-Berkeley, Gaia Connections, p. 42...the ultimate theoretical irrelevance, according to Kant, of the consequences of particular actions virtually assures a typical idealist social and political question on the part of those who rigidly apply the Kantian assumptions in everyday life. As we have learned again and again, such apolitical idealism is always made use of by those who control power to increase rather than diminish social inequalities. An ethic that has less regard for the consequences of individual or social acts than for their good intentions tends toward self-righteousness and social indifference.

5. MUST USE CONSEQUENTIAL ENVIRONMENTAL ETHIC.

Alan S. Miller, Prof Conservation and Resource Studies, UC-Berkeley, Gaia Connections, p. 11...the moral/environmental dilemmas facing humankind today are the result of atomistic and antiecological thinking. Any ethic--especially an ecoethic--will both encourage us to think holistically and place some form of limit on our scope of action.

6. CURRENT MIDSET WILL CONTRIBUTE TO BETTER DOMINATION OF NATURE.

Reiner Grundmann, Lctr Philosophy, Oxford Univ, Marxism and Ecology, 1991, p. 26One cannot escape the cultural value system of contemporary Western societies when criticizing it. This is to say that ecological fundamentalists are bound to participate in rational debates, to presuppose rationality standards, etc. As Krohn put it: "The critique of science must take the form of science in order to be effective" (Krohn 1983: 128, my translation). The results of an `ecologically inspired' research (for example, the emerging discipline of ecosystems research) may thus, again ironically, contribute to a better domination of nature.

NEED NON-ANTHROPOCENTRIC VIEW

1. MUST EVALUATE ECO PHILOSOPHY OR RISK EXTINCTION.

William Ophuls and A. stephen Boyan, Jr., Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream, 1992, p.13.Accumulating quantitative impact has thus brought about a qualitative difference in our relation to the physical world: We are now the prime agent of change in the biosphere and are capable of destroying the environment that supports us. The radically different conditions prevailing today virtually force us to be ecological theorists, grounding our analysis on the basic problems of human survival on a finite and vulnerable planet endowed with limited resources.

2. NEED INTERNAL ETHIC SHIFT NOT INTELLECTUAL.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222John Young, Prof. Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies at the University of Adelaide, Sustaining the Earth, 1990, p.36-37.Environmental responsibility in tribal society is not usually an abstract idea but a function of extended family responsibility in which continuous blood ties are periodically reinforced by rituals and ceremonies. It is difficult for bonds of such power as this to develop in the context of a voluntary democratic community held together by intellectual ties alone, especially when the motivation for communal life is not so much the welfare of society, but, as it often is, the rediscovery of self (Munro-Clark, 1986, p.33).

3. CURRENT MORAL PHILOSOPHY NOT REALIZE LIMITS.

Alan S. Miller, Prof. in Conservation and Resource Studies, at the UC Berkeley, Gaia Connections, 1991, p.10. One of our current dilemmas is that we are all products of philosophical systems that suggest human kind can indefinitely progress toward the goal of perfection. We are all, in a sense, direct descendants of the Age of Enlightenment, decrying limits of any kind, and confident in our ability to plan properly and manage well. Our dominant ecoethic has been essentially instrumental. We see nature as little more than the colorful background for working out our won little dramas of fulfillment and salvation.

4. NEED TO RESTORE MORAL COMMUNITY.

David W. Orr, Prof. of Resource Mgmt, Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to Postmodern World, 1992, p.182.there is something to be learned from older notions of virtue found in antiquity. I am referring to the sense that one's self is inseparable and inexplicable from that of a larger community which is part of an understandable cosmos. In Robert Proctor's words: "The attempt to regain moral consciousness thus becomes an attempt to regain historical consciousness as well. The modern world has destroyed the sense of belonging to a larger order which must be restored as the foundation of a Postmodern world.

5. NEED NEW MORALITY.

Alan S. Miller, Prof. in Conservation and Resource Studies, at the UC Berkeley, Gaia Connections, 1991, p.75.the time has arrived for a new ethic based on ecological self-restraint and a new morality that can respond the biological, ecological and economic necessities of the age.

6. MODERN SOCIETY PROMOTES IMMORALITY.

David W. Orr, Prof. of Resource Mgmt, Ecological Literacy: Education and the Transition to Postmodern World, 1992, p.182.Persons caught in an economy such as ours which destroys the bonds that join us together in the wider society of life cannot think well about virtue. In place of the concept of the virtuous man that MacIntyre describes or that Cicero would have recognized, we have "niceness" and the narrow, constricting, life-destroying rationality of the isolated ego. In MacIntyre's view, it is not possible to be both modern and moral since, "the fully

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222autonomous self knows not morality other than the expression of its own desires and principles."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. SCIENTIFIC OUTLOOK MAKES SOCIAL VALUES MEANINGLESS.

William Ophuls and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr., Ph.D. Political Science-Fmr Prof Oberlan and Northwestern, Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream, 1992, p. 298....scientific orthodoxy maintains that values have no epistemological standing, any statement that one value is to be preferred to another is therefore scientifically meaningless. But because science is our standard of social reality, value questions must not be socially meaningful either.

William Ophuls and A. Stephen Boyan, Jr., Ph.D. Political Science-Fmr Prof Oberlan and Northwestern, Ecology and the Politics of Scarcity Revisited: The Unraveling of the American Dream, 1992, p. 298.Yet wisdom, is only the rough and ready kind acquired by everyday living, tells us that not all values are equal and that virtue matters. In practice, science and democracy alike would be a shambles without the implicit values that govern them; indeed, "science" and "democracy" are themselves high-level values that generate the criteria by which utilitarian political decisions can be made in industrial civilization.

8. ECOLOGICAL MOVEMENTS SHARE RECURRING THEMES.

John Young, Prof. Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies at the University of Adelaide, Sustaining the Earth, 1990, p. 135There is, nevertheless, much fertile common ground which is shared by deep ecology, social ecology and ecofeminism and which is consistent with the Gaia hypothesis. Bookchin emphasizes that the distinguishing feature of the human species, its rationality, is no less a product of the evolutionary process than other aspects of evolutionary diversity and excellence such as the flight of birds, the social instincts of ants and bees, the industry of beavers or the navigational know-how of whales. `This manual we call "Nature" has produced a manual we call "Homo Sapiens," thinking man, and more significantly for the development of society, "thinking woman" (Bookchin 1987, p. 27).

John Young, Prof. Graduate Centre for Environmental Studies at the University of Adelaide, Sustaining the Earth, 1990, p. 36Those who seek a consistent environmental philosophy might therefore need to reevaluate the importance of family, with its obligations to particular children and particular parents, as likely to provide a more compelling rationale for good environmental management that individualism tempered by an abstract notion of intergenerational responsibility.

9. MORAL PHILOSOPHY ADAPTING TO INTERCONNECTEDNESS.

Alan S. Miller, Prof. in Conservation and Resource Studies, at the UC Berkeley, Gaia Connections, 1991, p. 4....a major change in moral philosophy is now under way as we come to better understand our biological interdependence--our connectedness--with the rest of the created orders and our consequently broadened sphere of ethical responsibility.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22210. VALUE SYSTEM EFFECTS RESOURCE CONSUMPTION.

Daniel Druckman et al, Study Director, National Research Council, Global Environmental Change: Understanding the Human Dimensions, 1992, p. 91It seems likely that attitudes and beliefs have significant independent effects on the global environment mainly over the long term--on the time scale of human generations or longer--and that within single lifetimes, attitudes function as intervening variables between aspects of an individual's past experience and that individual's resource use.

RIGHTS TALK IMPACTS

1. MINDSET RENDERS RIGHTS MEANINGLESS.

Mark Tushnet, Prof Law, Georgetown Univ., "Rights and Individualism: A critical look," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1371.If [activists] action was politically effective, we ought to establish the conditions for its effectiveness, not because those conditions are "rights" but because politically effective action is important.

2. RIGHTS RHETORIC TOO ABSTRACT TO GIVE COMMON MEANING.

Staughton Lynd, Legal Services Attorney, "Rights and their critics," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1418.Because the language of rights is fromalistic and indeterminate, rather than concrete and specific, the application of a "right" in a particular setting will depend on factors external to the legal concepts involved. This causes rights rhetoric to become incoherent, because decisionmakers arbitrarily select varied and often contradictory rationales to justify outcomes.

3. INCREASED RIGHTS TALK TRIVIALIZES CORE RIGHTS.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 264.[Glendon] argues that perceiving rights as absolute, all-or-nothing entitlements, causes us to "express infinite and impossible desires," admitting no possibility of moderation or compromise. Because all rights are conceived of as absolute, they are necessarily imagined to be of equivalent weight and importance. As the list of undifferentiated rights grows longer, this proliferation of rights tends to cheapen our regard for the truly fundamental rights.

4. RIGHTS TALK CORRODES FABRIC OF FUNDAMENTAL RIGHTS .

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. 15.By infiltrating the more carefully nuanced languages that many Americans still speak in their kitchens, neighborhoods, workplaces, religious communities, and union halls, [rights talk] corrodes the fabric of beliefs, attitudes, and habits upon which life, liberty, property, and all other individual and social goods ultimately depend.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. RIGHTS TALK UNDERMINES FREE SPEECH.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. x.[Rights talk] is a crisis at the very heart of the American experiment in self-government, for it concers the state of public deliberation about the right ordering of our lives together. In the home of free speech, genuine exchange of ideas about matters of high public importance has come to a virtual standstill.

6. INTERNAL DEVELOPMENT LEADS TO TYRANNY.

Allan Hutchinson and Patrick Monihan, Profs Law, York Univ., "Alternative development theory of rights in CLS," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1529.Precisely because it is a procedural device, internal development is compatible with the most pernicious and tyrannical of social worlds. Such regimes woould not be able to maintain the necessary loyalty of their members simply because of their compliance with some ideal procedural dynamic. Internal development then would be demeaned to a limp, transparent, and crude mode of political legitimation.

RIGHTS TALK AND POLITICAL ACTION

1. RIGHTS TALK PREVENTS EFFECTIVE POLITICAL DIALOGUE.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 261.Now, it may be true that the characteristics of any particular language, both grammatical and lexical, operate to constrain thought by limiting what is potentially available to be expressed within the language. Glendon is saying more, however, than that the absence of an appropriate political vocabulary prevents us from saying certain things; she is claiming that the presence of rights talk in our culture acts to preempt the field of political discourse and precludes our development of the vocabulary necessary to address important issues.

2. OBSESSION WITH INDIVIDUAL PREVENTS DISPUTE RESOLUTION.

Richard Epstein, Prof Law, Univ. of Chicago, Book review, HARVARD LAW REVIEW, March 1992, p. 1106.In [Glendon's] view, our nation is afflicted with an excessive preoccupation with individual rights and with the demands that these rights entitle their holders to make on other citizens, often through litigation. As extravagant claims proliferate, the public forum becomes a battlefield between rival political factions and interest groups that bolster their positions with loud assertions of rights. People use speech as a club to intimidate or posture, not as a tool to teach and learn.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. RIGHTS TALK BLOCKS POLITICAL SOLUTIONS.

Mark Tushnet, Prof Law, Georgetown Univ., "Rights and Individualism: A critical look," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1384.But the problem arises because of the reification of rights in the first instance. If we treated experiences of solidarity and individuality as directly relevant to our political discussions, instead of passing them through the filter of the language of rights, we would be in a better position to address the political issues on the appropriate level.

4. RIGHTS RHETORIC PREVENTS COMMUNAL SOLUTIONS.

Staughton Lynd, Legal Services Attorney, "Rights and their critics," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1419.If we desire a society in which we share life as a common creation and genuinely care for each other's needs, then [rights] rhetoric, which pictures us as separated owners of our respective bundles of rights, stands as an obstacle.

5. RIGHTS TALK UNDERMINES SOCIETAL VIRTUE/COMMUNAL VALUES.

Richard Epstein, Prof Law, Univ. of Chicago, Book review, HARVARD LAW REVIEW, March 1992, p. 1107.Our rights talk, in its absoluteness, promotes unrealistic expectations, heightens social conflict, and inhibits dialogue that might lead toward consensus, accommodation, or at least the discovery of common ground. In its silence concerning responsibilities, it seems to condone acceptance of the benefits of living in a democratic social welfare state, without accepting the corresponding personal and civic obligations. In its relentless individualism, it fosters a climate that is inhospitable to society's losers, and that systematically disadvantages caretakers and dependents, young and old.

RIGHTS DISCOURSE IS IMPORTANT

1. RIGHTS TALK JUSTIFIES A CRITIQUE.

Allan Hutchinson and Patrick Monihan, Profs Law, York Univ., "Alternative development theory of rights in CLS," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1477....[T]he current debate over rights largely ignores foundational concerns. There is rarely any explicit acknowledgement of the philosophical vision or historical circumstances that underlie any particular theory of rights. To this extent, the jurisprudential juggernaut has come adrift from its philosophical and historical moorings.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. DISCOURSE HAS REAL WORLD IMPLICATIONS--MUST CONSIDER.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. 180.Willing or no, judges and legislators can no longer afford to ignore the way in which law, especially criminal, family, and constitutional law, is aspirational and educational, expressing something about what kind of people we are and what kind of society we are in the process of creating.

3. EACH ACTION IS IMPORTANT TO CREDIBILITY OF DISCOURSE .

Staughton Lynd, Legal Services Attorney, "Rights and their critics," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1420.Further, if legal workers who use the language of rights in the courtroom wholly discredit that language in their discourse with fellow radicals, they will create a contradiction of theory and practice that has disturbing parallels in American history and that will impair the credibility of their politics.

4. DISCOURSE DIALOGUE ONLY WAY TO CHANGE FRAMEWORKS.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. xii.Americans do possess several indigenous languages of relationship and responsibility that could help to refine our language of rights. In many settings, employing a grammar of cooperative living, American women and men sound better and smarter than our current political discourse makes them out to be. The best resource for renewing our political discourse, therefore, may be the very heterogeneity that drives us to seek a simple, abstract, common language.

5. PHILOSOPHICAL FRAMEWORK DISCOURSE PROMOTES SOCIAL JUSTICE.

Allan Hutchinson and Patrick Monihan, Profs Law, York Univ., "Alternative development theory of rights in CLS," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1478.Reimmersion in philosophy is justified only if it leads to an improved understanding of our political condition. Exploration of the impoverished assumptions of contemporary jurisprudential practice can place legal theory on a sure footing. In this way, it will better contribute to the achievement of social justice. Thus refreshed, legal theory might recover the relevance and rigor it has lost.

6. RIGHTS TALK SNOWBALLS.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 259.[Glendon] observes that our rights discourse employs a rhetoric in which rights are spoken of as absolute in character, without any limitation or qualification on their scope or effect. Speaking of rights as though they were incontrovertible "trumps" leads political debate into a dead end after the mutual exchange of competing rights claims, inhibiting the chances for political accommodation and compromise.


RIGHTS TRIVIALIZATION/PROLIFERATION

1. ABSOLUTE SYSTEM OF RIGHTS NOT ALWAYS GOOD--PROPERTY RIGHTS.

Richard Epstein, Prof Law, Univ. of Chicago, Book review, HARVARD LAW REVIEW, March 1992, p. 1111.[Rent control] offers a powerful counterexample to [Glendon's] thesis because it shows how the abandonment of absolute rights can lead to a decline in levels of public discourse. Rent control does not merely set maximum rents; it protects current tenants--who are currently voters--from their landlords. The political coalition supporting rent control would dissolve instantly if landlords could expel current tenants...

2. INVOKING RIGHTS TALK CAN LEAD TO DOUBT IN SYSTEM.

Elizabeth Wolgast, Phd. Linguistics, Author, The Grammar of Justice, 1987, p. 49.The invocation of a right does not automatically fortify a conviction but may echo a doubt and in some cases the doubt, once raised, cannot be put to rest, not by the invocation of a right or by any other means.

3. ABSOLUTE RIGHTS SYSTEM CAUSES PUBLIC DISCORD.

Richard Epstein, Prof Law, Univ. of Chicago, Book review, HARVARD LAW REVIEW, March 1992, p. 1112.If the law held that any physical invasion [on property], constituted a nuisance that could subject it s creator to actions for damages and injunctions, who would prove the winner from so grotesque a scheme? Everyone would violate the rules in question and would be faced by a host of demands for damages or injunctions brought by a disgruntled or vengeful neighbors. If a system of absolute rights entails that result, surely no one should want it.

4. INEXACT RIGHTS SYSTEM MORE DESIRABLE THAN ABSOLUTE RIGHTS.

Richard Epstein, Prof Law, Univ. of Chicago, Book review, HARVARD LAW REVIEW, March 1992, p. 1113.[T]he common law rule of "live and let live" permits reciprocal, low-level interferences between neighbors and thus effectively undermines all actions for damages and injunctions. The rule fosters a dialogue of accommodation by encouraging small adjustments on each side and by imposing penalties on persons who act with malice in neighbor situations.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. PROLIFERATION OF RIGHTS PREVENTS SOLUTIONS.

Denis Goulet, Prof Education, Notre Dame, "International ethics and human rights," ALTERNATIVES, no. 17, p. 243.[T]here are too many rights, too many competing claims. It is illusory to suppose that all good things can always come together; indeed, one needs to establish priorities or hierarchies of importance. Thus, the very proliferation of rights and claims is itself an obstacle to the implementation of any of them. Also, no value consensus exists in the world about how one should rank rights hierarchially, nor is there a single agreed-upon source of ethics.

6. PROLIFERATION EXCLUDES OTHER SOLUTIONS A PRIORI.

Elizabeth Wolgast, Phd. Linguistics, Author, The Grammar of Justice, 1987, p. 28.Our commitment to [rights] language is deep, however; even in the face of bizarre consequences we hold it fast and view the consequent problems as demands for further rights. Thus our reasoning often goes on in an enclosed framework of rights, a framework from which counterexamples are excluded a priori.

RIGHTS TALK IS NOT DETRIMENTAL

1. RIGHTS TALK IS VALID POLITICAL DISCOURSE.

David Miller, Prof Philosophy, Stanford Univ., Social Justice, 1976, pp.79-80.[Rights] claims, based on need alone, are `permanent possibilities of rights', the natural seed from which rights grow. When manifesto writers speak of them as if already actual rights, they are easily forgiven, for this is but a powerful way of expressing the conviction that they ought to be recognized by states here and now as potential rights and consequently as determinants of present aspirations and guides to present policies. That usage, I think, is a valid exercise of rhetorical license.

2. RIGHTS TALK IS CULTURALLY SIGNIFICANT.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 268.Claiming a right is an act with potent significance in our culture, for it is through this act, more than any other, that the claimant achieves public acknowledgement of her status as a full-fledged member of the community. Status as a full person, entitled to be heard, cannot be claimed for oneself in private reflection but must be conferred by an open and collective recognition of that status by others.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. SHOULD NOT DISCOURAGE CURRENT RIGHTS SYSTEM.

Staughton Lynd, Legal Services Attorney, "Rights and their critics," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1419.[U]topian declarations lack the legal enforceability the Bill of Rights presently provides. Nor is the situation much improved by the suggestion that instead of talking about rights we should talk about "empowerment." To invite ourselves to think of power rather than of rights necessarily extends the same invitation to others, hostile to our utopias, who have much more power than we do.

4. RIGHTS CRITIQUES DO NOT ESTABLISH A SUPERIOR FRAMEWORK.

Allan Hutchinson and Patrick Monihan, Profs Law, York Univ., "Alternative development theory of rights in CLS," TEXAS LAW REVIEW, May 1984, p. 1490.[T]he unanswered foundational question of human existence still lingers: what are the social conditions that best foster the development of individual powers and potentialities? The tension between the individual and the community does not dissolve because of this recognition that there is no Archimedean point from which to make a choice between competing values.

5. RIGHTS TALK DEMARGINALIZES.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 269.Invocation of rights on the basis of group identity serves an analogous symbolic function for groups that have been traditionally excluded from the body politic. Given the centrality of rights discourse within our cultural context, marginalized groups must partake in the legal discourse of the dominant group to be acknowledged. In doing so, the marginalized group establishes its claim to unconditional membership status in the community at large.

RIGHTS TALK BENEFICIAL & ENTRENCHED

1. RIGHTS CLAIMS KEY TO HUMAN FULFILLMENT.

David Miller, Prof Philosophy, Stanford Univ., Social Justice, 1976, pp.73-74.What, then, would be objectionable in a society which did not recognize individual rights, even if it were a society which took good care of its members? Feinberg, who has addressed himself to this possibility, points out that such a society would necessarily lack the making of claims, which occurs when one stands upon one's rights and insists that other people perform their obligations. But, he argues, the making of claims is essential to human self-respect.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. RIGHTS ARE NECESSARY FOR RESPECT OF OTHERS.

Elizabeth Wolgast, Phd. Linguistics, Author, The Grammar of Justice, 1987, p. 31.People need to think of themselves as equal to others and thus able to claim their rights against others: that is a large part of what it is to be in the fullest sense a person. Nothing is more appropriate to a person than the possession of individual rights, rights that by their nature are given equally to everyone.

3. RIGHTS DISCOURSE GALVANIZES SOCIAL STRUGGLES.

Janet E. Ainsworth, J. D., CUNY, Rights Talk book review, NEW YORK LAW REVIEW, vol. 37, 1992, p. 268.[P]ressing rights claims in the courts and other forms of political action are not mutually exclusive tactics. In fact, the act of claiming rights can itself be politically energizing, leading to more effective political mobilization and coalition building. Politically committed lawyers have long appreciated the synergy generated between courtroom struggles and other forms of political expression and organization.

4. RIGHTS TALK ENTRENCHED IN THE POLITICAL SYSTEM.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. 4.What do seem revolutionary about the rights-related developments of the past three decades are the transformations they have produced in the roles of courts and judges, and in the way we now think and speak about major public issues.

5. RIGHTS TALK ENTRENCHED IN PERSONAL SPEECH.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. 3.Legal discourse has not only become the single most important tributary to political discourse, but it has crept into the languages that Americans employ around the kitchen table, in the neighborhood, and in their diverse communities of memory and mutual aid.

6. UNITED STATES WILL NEVER CHANGE ITS DISCOURSE.

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard Univ., Rights Talk, 1991, p. xiii.It is not at all clear that Americans really desire to engage in a potentially self-correcting dialogue about the ends of political society and the right ordering of our lives together, or that public officials are ready to take the lead by providing the necessary information, example, and opportunities for discussion. No mere "science" of politics will overcome these impediments.


POPULISM DESIRABLE/NOT UNDESIRABLE

1. NATURAL AND HARMLESS.

Benjamin Radcliff, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. Notre Dame, "Liberalism, Populism and collective choice," Political Research Quarterly, March, 1993, p. 127.Cyclical majorities are endemic to any non-dictatorial system of preference aggregation that meets certain minimal conditions of fairness.

Benjamin Radcliff, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. Notre Dame, "Liberalism, Populism and collective choice," Political Research Quarterly, March, 1993, p. 128.Given the fact, attention naturally runs to assessing the implications of cycling for the theory and practice of democracy. In what is widely regarded as the seminal treatment of these issues, Riker (Liberalism Against Populism, 1982) argues that although cyclical majorities reduce "populistic" concepts of democracy to incoherence, the matter is largely irrelevant to what he calls the "liberal" theory of democracy. He maintains that while cycles may lead to electoral "errors," such errors do not threaten the internal logic of the liberal model.

2. EASILY CO-OPTED.

Telos Staff, "Populism vs. the New Class: The Second Elizabethtown Telos Conference," Telos, Summer, 1991, pp. 10-11.Well aware of the swift and successful co-optation of growing populist sentiment within the New Right by neoconservatives, [Samuel Francis] emphasized that movement triggered by outside bureaucratic provocations are particularly vulnerable to New Class cooptation because the attention span of would-be populists is always limited by other, more pressing, needs.

Telos Staff, "Populism vs. the New Class: The Second Elizabethtown Telos Conference," Telos, Summer, 1991, p. 11.Discontent must also be organized to be effective--at least in the long run. Today there are no signs that anything resembling populism is even close to being institutionalized into a viable political organization and, if they do eventuate in effective political organizations, these will inevitably fall victim to Michel's "iron law of oligarchy."

3. MEANS HOLDING ELITES RESPONSIBLE.

Jeffrey Bell, American Enterprise Institute, Populism and Elitism, 1992, p. 180.In regimes of political quality, elites are important in setting standard. They are important because they have political and other expertise and because they can set examples on values and life-styles for popular opinion to observe and follow. But elites that want to set standards must now operate mainly by persuasion. Electorates will often allow elites to participate in setting and enforcing standards, but they will do so consciously and with great knowledge of what is happening. There will be much less political deference to the blood, knowledge, religious, and other elites that held sway in the age before equality.


Jeffrey Bell, American Enterprise Institute, Populism and Elitism, 1992, pp. 180-181.Popular standard-setting becomes more prominent with the rise of pluralism. In nations where the population is culturally and racially homogenous, as in Confucian China for much of its history, the people's way of life and belief system tend to be secure and taken for granted, and thus can remain outside active politics. For pluralism--which frequently accompanies political equality--differing value systems are will represented within a single electorate. Politics must serve as the arbiter when widely different concepts of community standards clash.

4. POPULISM PART AND PARCEL OF DEMOCRACY.

Telos Staff, "Populism vs. the New Class: The Second Elizabethtown Telos Conference," Telos, Summer, 1991, p. 19.After all, democracy is either government by the people or it is not democracy. To restrict it to the point that popular input ends up effectively excluded is counterproductive and screens out the only agency that can ultimately defend and articulate the grass-roots community values, traditions and norms [Claes] Ryne advocates.

Todd Gitlin, researcher/social scientist, "The rise of 'identity politics,'" DISSENT, Spring, 1993, p.173.Moreover, in a world where other people seem to have chosen up sides and worse, where they approach you--because you belong to a particular group, it seems a necessity to or find or invent one's strength among one's people.

Joel Handler, Prof. law at UCLA Law School, "Postmodernism, protest and the new social movements," LAW AND SOCIETY REVIEW, Winter 1992, p.721.The focus of these ["new populist"] movements is on the local level--neighborhoods, local communities, local governments--to begin the process of popular involvement in the workplace, the community, and the political system.

Todd Gitlin, researcher/social scientist, "The rise of 'identity politics,'" DISSENT, Spring, 1993, p.173.Identity politics presents itself as--and many young people experience it as--the most compelling remedy for anonymity in an impersonal world.

5. CURRENT ELITES PATRIARCHAL.

Patricia Ward, et al, Ponderosa, Inc., "Women in Elite Pools and Elite Positions," SOCIAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY, March, 1992, p. 32.Elite positions are the top administrative and policymaking offices in major economic and political institutions. In all of these institutions the weight of the evidence clearly shows that elite positions are disproportionately male.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Patricia Ward, et al, Ponderosa, Inc., "Women in Elite Pools and Elite Positions," SOCIAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY, March, 1992, p. 32.At the federal level no woman has ever held the position of president or vice-president, and only one has been nominated to the presidential ticket of a major political party. On average only 1 of 13 cabinet positions has been held by a woman. In the legislative branch women hold 5 percent of the seats of the House of Representative and 2 percent of the Senate seats.

Patricia Ward, et al, Ponderosa, Inc., "Women in Elite Pools and Elite Positions," SOCIAL SCIENCE QUARTERLY, March, 1992, p. 33.In the judicial branch only 1 of 104 Supreme Courts justice positions has gone to a woman. Women occupy 8 percent of the positions on the U.S. court of appeals including 1 of the 12 chief justice positions of the circuit courts.

6. MEANS DEMOCRATIC INTERVENTIONISM.

Michael Federici, Asst. Prof., Poli. Sci., Concord College, The Challenge of Populism: The Rise of Right-Wing Democratism in Postwar America, 1991, p. 105.Although American populism has tended toward isolationism in foreign affairs, right-wing populism in the postwar period contains an internationalist element. Among the new populists are advocates of global democracy, an idea not unique to the postwar period. Defined broadly as the belief that democratic ideals, especially those of American democracy, can be exported around the globe.

POPULISM UNDESIRABLE.

1. MISGUIDED.

Michael Federici, Asst. Prof., Poli. Sci., Concord College, The Challenge of Populism: The Rise of Right-Wing Democratism in Postwar America, 1991, p. 122.It is somewhat ironic that in an age when educational standards are declining the populist cry for direct democracy is increasing. Although many right-wing populists are aware that democracy must be buttressed by its cultural foundations, they have largely ignored the problem of rebuilding culture apart from questions of public policy. So preoccupied are most right-wing populists with influencing elections and public policy debates that they fail to consider that their methods, which they are attempting to institutionalize, may be counterproductive to their broader objectives. It may be that using the devices of direct democracy will contribute to political victories in the short run, but in the long run they will undermine the constitutional order upon which the durability of those victories depends.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. SIMPLISTIC.

Telos Staff, "Populism vs. the New Class: The Second Elizabethtown Telos Conference," Telos, Summer, 1991, p. 25.Populism still seemed like a nice political place to visit, but not a livable theoretical home. Allegedly, modern society is far too complex to be amenable to restructuring on the basis of crude moanings and groanings of a bunch of Midwestern farmers, Baltic shipyard workers, or burned-out intellectuals still looking for Nirvana after the collapse of communism.

4. DISEMPOWER POLITICAL ELITES.

Michael Federici, Asst. Prof., Poli. Sci., Concord College, The Challenge of Populism: The Rise of Right-Wing Democratism in Postwar America, 1991, p. 125.Because populism resents elites, the right-wing populists of the postwar period have not so much suggested that the current leadership be replaced with a new leadership as they have advocated institutional reforms that will diminish the participation of elites by empowering the common man.

5. ELITES MORE SUPPORTIVE OF CIVIL LIBERTIES

Paul M. Sniderman, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci, Stanford, "The Fallacy of Democratic Elitism," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, July 1991, p.349.It is now widely accepted that political elites are more committed to civil liberties than the public at large; indeed, so much so that it is commonly supposed that elites serve as a bulwark against mass intolerance.

6. ELITES PRESERVE DEMOCRATIC VALUES

Paul M. Sniderman, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci, Stanford, "The Fallacy of Democratic Elitism," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, July 1991, p.350.Previous research has stressed the extent to which the politically aware and influential support civil liberties more than ordinary citizens. In turn, this has invited the conclusion -paradoxical at first sight- that it is political elites who serve a custodians of democratic values; a conclusion drawn by researchers since Stouffer's seminal study.

7. ELITES PREVENT MASS INTOLERANCE

Paul M. Sniderman, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci, Stanford, "The Fallacy of Democratic Elitism," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, July 1991, p.368-69.According to the thesis of democratic elitism, the politically aware and influential share a consensus on civil liberties, thanks in large part to their involvement in politics, and that by virtue of this consensus they supply a protective bulwark against mass intolerance and serve as 'repositories of the public conscience'.


John Sullivan, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci., U. Minnesota, "Why Politicals are More Tolerant: Selective Recruitment and socialization Among Political Elites in Britain, Israel, New Zealand and the United States," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, January, 1993, pp. 51-52.Since the earliest days of behavioural research in the United States, scholars have discovered regular and substantial difference in political tolerate between samples of the general public and various political elites and community leaders. The public has tended to be fairly intolerant, with community elites have been more tolerant.

John Sullivan, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci., U. Minnesota, "Why Politicals are More Tolerant: Selective Recruitment and Socialization Among Political Elites in Britain, Israel, New Zealand and the United States," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, January, 1993, pp. 52-53.Broadly speaking, there are two classes of explanation why political elites and community leaders have been found to be more tolerant than the public. The first rather straightforward explanation of these differences is what might be called 'selective recruitment.' Within the electorate, there are people who are more highly educated, more affluent and live in the more cosmopolitan cities and regions of the country; they also tend to have higher levels of tolerance. According to the selective recruitment hypothesis, political elites' higher levels of tolerance are due largely to the fact that more often than not they comes from these strata.

John Sullivan, et al, Prof., Poli. Sci., U. Minnesota, "Why Politicals are More Tolerant: Selective Recruitment and socialization Among Political Elites in Britain, Israel, New Zealand and the United States," BRITISH JOURNAL OF POLITICAL SCIENCE, January, 1993, p. 69.In short, significant additional political learning sets political elites even further apart from ordinary citizens - elites appear to have learned to be more tolerant than the 'should be' give their demographic, psychological and political characteristics on which political elites and the public differ, there is still 'something' that distinguishes national legislators from ordinary people. That something we have broadly characterized as adult political socialization.

8. ELITES SYSTEMS ARE MORE EFFICIENT

Gus diZerega, Research Assoc., Univ. California-Berkeley, "Elites and Democratic Theory: Insights from the Self-Organizing Model," REVIEW OF POLITICS, Spring, 1991, p. 344.By contrast, the rules of an instrumental organization are not intrinsically egalitarian. Egalitarian goals, for example, may require treating individual participants unequally in order to guarantee an equal outcome. Participants are resources, insofar as they are members of an instrumental organization. Resources must be differentiated in order to be used efficiently.


INFORMATION AGE DESIRABLE

1. INFORMATION AGE MAKES SOVEREIGNTY IRRELEVANT.

Walter Wreston, former chairman, CITICORP, The Twilight of Sovereignty: How the Information Revolution is Transforming Our World, 1992, p. 175.As information technology brings the news of how others live and work, the pressures on any repressive government for freedom and human rights will soon grow intolerable because the world spotlight will be turned on abuses and citizens will demand their freedoms. While old power structures will resist this kind of outside interference, technology will render them obsolete.

Paul Zurchowski, Information Industry Association, "Comments on Kozmetsky and Duncan," Critical Issues in the Information Age, R. Chartrand, ed., 1991, p. 83.Information technology and information itself as well as its applications are going to lead to the withering away of the state. I'm being a little provocative there, but I think the state is going to be less and less important as people get more and more on top of their "stuff," get their act together, and create well themselves.

Orville Freeman, chairman, International Department, Popka, Haik, Schnobrick, Kaufman & Doty, Ltd., "The international dimension," Critical Issues in the Information Age, R. Chartrand, ed., 1991, p. 195.The nation-state per se begins to lose its meaning with access to globally integrated, instantaneous telecommunications systems. Or to put it another way, the application of new technology forges links between regions within and outside the country, so that if productivity grows the economic aspirations of populations become unified, thereby minimizing the national boundaries.

2. INFORMATION AGE USHERING IN DEMOCRATIZATION.

Curt Suplee, journalist, "The times they are a-changing," The Washington Post, November 18, 1990, p. 3.Call it what you will, Toffler's lushly documented thesis remains unsurprising: As civilization evolves away from heavy manufacturing and into micro-targeted, customizable knowledge and service industries, we develop a new system of making wealth -- one that is "totally dependent on the instant communication and dissemination of data, ideas, symbols and symbolism." This convulsion in turn alters the types of power that nations, groups, businesses and individuals have and wield. As personal computers make information more democratically accessible, old bureaucracies and hierarchies become obsolete.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Majid Tehranian, Prof., Comm., Univ. Hawaii, Technologies of Power: Information Machines and Democratic Prospects, 1990, p. 6....the current technological revolution in informatics promises some democratic outcomes in world development. If we view democracy as a cybernetic social system of networks in which there are many autonomous and decentralized nodes of power and information with their own multiple channels of communication, the new media are increasingly providing the technological conditions for such a system.

Majid Tehranian, Prof., Comm., Univ. Hawaii, Technologies of Power: Information Machines and Democratic Prospects, 1990, p. 12.Ironically, the new technocratic achievements of the new transnational political economy have proved to be its Achilles' heel. Complex technologies in transportation, telecommunication, and warfare are vulnerable to the challenge of dedicated mass movements or small group activists.

2. INFORMATION AGE USHERING IN DEMOCRATIZATION (cont.)

A. Fuat Firat, Arizona State University, "Powershift," Journal of Marketing, July, 1993, p. 139.Toffler observes a history where power shifted from one of violence (from those who controlled physical force) to one of wealth (to those who controlled money/capital), and, now, to one of knowledge (to those who control information and its "refinement into more general statements"). This, he argues, is also a transformation from low-quality to high-quality power; from a type of power that is unidimensional and inflexible to a type of power that is multidimensional and very flexible. Furthermore, "knowledge is the most democratic source of power."

3. INFORMATION AGE REDEFINES MASS DEMOCRACY.

Alvin Toffler, Futurist, Power Shift, 1990, p. 152.As politics becomes increasingly de-massified, leaders who once dealt with a few big, more or less predictable political constituencies are seeing these splinter into countless small, temporary, single-issue grouplets, continually forming, breaking, and re-forming alliances, all at high speeds. Any one of these, finding itself at a strategic political intersection at just the right moment, can leverage its clout.

Alvin Toffler, Futurist, Power Shift, 1990, p. 255.While we are busy celebrating the supposed end of ideology, history, and the Cold War, we may find ourselves facing the end of democracy as we have known it--mass democracy. The advanced economy, based on computers, information, knowledge, and deep communications, calls into question all of the traditional defenses of democracy, challenging us to redefine them in 21st century terms.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. INFORMATION AGE MAKES FOR GOOD DECISION-MAKING.

James Moore, "Are there decisions computers should never make?" Ethical Issues in the Use of Computers, D. Johnson & J. Snapper, eds., 1985 as cited by Geoffrey Brown, Prof., Phil., Univ. Newcastle, The Information Game: Ethical Issues in a Microchip World, 1990, p. 102....it is at least conceivable that the computer might give outstanding justification for its decisions ranging from detailed legal precedents to a superb philosophical theory of justice or from instructive clinical observations to an improved theory of mental illness so that the competent of the computer in such decision making was considered to be as good or better than the competent of human experts. Empirically this may never happen but it is not a necessary truth that it will not.

Geoffrey Brown, Prof., Phil., Univ. Newcastle, The Information Game: Ethical Issues in a Microchip World, 1990, p. 102.[James] Moore concludes that "some of the most humanistic decisions may well come from decision makers which are not human."

INFORMATION AGE UNDESIRABLE

1. INFORMATION AGE IS NOT AMORAL.

Geoffrey Brown, Prof., Phil., Univ. Newcastle, The Information Game: Ethical Issues in a Microchip World, 1990, p. 34.The assumptions and prejudices of a particular society or culture represent a further way in which the products of technology cannot be simply regarded as neutral tools carrying no presumptions as to how they might be used. Even a device which, considered simply in itself, might be regarded as capable of being deployed to support of an indefinite variety of policies, might, given a particular set of social circumstance or cultural presuppositions, be inexorably destined to further a determinate range of purposes. Even whether a certain form of technology is worth pursuing and funding at all will depend on such factors (you cannot sell nuclear missiles to people who are interested in fighting wars; and it is hard to keep them from those who are).

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. INFORMATIVE AGE EMPOWERS IMMORAL DECISION MAKING.

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, p. 3.Our argument is that the rise of information technologies in the latter part of this century has not only taken to new levels the empowerment of science and disparagement of human judgement, but also posed a significant new challenge. The combination of computing, media and telecommunication is promoting the development of an artificial intelligence, already near to rivalling human intelligence in some of its activities, and far exceeding any human individual in its global power. Yet it is substantially an unfettered intelligence, lacking the intrinsic morality (whether inherited or learned) which underwrites human judgements.

Geoffrey Brown, Prof., Phil., Univ. Newcastle, The Information Game: Ethical Issues in a Microchip World, 1990, p. 104.At the bottom of the worry concerning computers as decision makers, then, is the fact that they do not embody human values, priorities, and the like. They may have such features built into them artificially, but no guarantee is possible that their ethical responses would always be consistent with the actions of a mature human being.

3. INFORMATION AGE WIDENS RICH-POOR GAP.

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, p. 3.Information technology offers intelligence without integrity. As such it can take on whatever rules or moral standards its designers and controllers choose. This technology can and in many ways is being used for great world benefit, though many signs suggest that it will also be used to enhance discrimination, the gulf between rich and poor, and new forms of colonialism.

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, p. 116.Coupled with premium prices and a lack of after sales support is a conspicuous shortage of [information technology] generosity to poorer communities. The prevailing attitude towards technology transfer is patronising and paternalistic, based on the presumption that second best or second hand is good enough. Poor countries have become the final resting place for remnants of obsolete technology, often so out of date that there are no longer spares or supported programs to run.


4. INFORMATION AGE WIDENS INTERGENERATIONAL CONFLICT.

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, p. 9.[Information technology] has divided the generations like no other development, into those who are part of the information age, and those who preceded and are commonly alienated from it.

5. INFORMATION AGE THREATENS DEMOCRATIZATION.

Majid Tehranian, Prof., Comm., Univ. Hawaii, Technologies of Power: Information Machines and Democratic Prospects, 1990, p. 13.Genuine democracy, however, is fully interactive. It begins at the community level. But if decentralized, direct democracy is threatened everywhere by the increasingly centralized bureaucracies--including the mass media bureaucracies. Mass communication is a contradiction in terms. It imposes a cognitive tyranny by the senders of uniform messages to hypothesized, undifferentiated, and inert mass audiences. The ultimate form of this hidden tyranny is an Orwellian nightmare--a totalitarian system of mind control.

Majid Tehranian, Prof., Comm., Univ. Hawaii, Technologies of Power: Information Machines and Democratic Prospects, 1990, p. 75.However, each model of communication and democracy has also contained within itself the seeds of its own self-destruction. The couterdemocratic forces unleashed by the processes of industrialization have historically managed to undermine the institutions of liberal capitalism into Nazism and Fascism, revolutionary communism into Stalinism, and Third World Communitarianism into a variety of military and populist dictatorships.

6. INFORMATION AGE EMPOWERS TOTALITARIANS.

Majid Tehranian, Prof., Comm., Univ. Hawaii, Technologies of Power: Information Machines and Democratic Prospects, 1990, p. 14.Whereas traditional authoritarian regimes had to work with much more indirect and less efficient systems of communication, the modern totalitarian regime combines the mundane authority of the state with the mystification of its mission to achieve a higher degree of authority and efficiency. To cite just the best-known examples: the Third Reich aiming at global Aryan supremacy, the Stalinist state constructing a world socialist bastion, McCarthyist America defending the free world by purging internal enemies, and the Khomeinist state attempting to purify the Muslim world.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2227. INFORMATION AGE PATRIARCHAL.

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, pp. 9-10.Computing, with its origins in electronic engineering, and its applications roots in science, business and government, is a man's world. The extension of the computer into the home and locality is one of the most potent weapons in the male armoury to counter feminism, and has given a new lease of life to the stereotype of the decorative female keyboard operator.

7. INFORMATION AGE PATRIARCHAL (cont.)

Bryan Glastonburg, Prof., Social Work Studies, Univ. Southampton & Walter LaMendola, VP, Colorado Trust, The Integrity of Intelligence: A Bill of Rights for the Information Age, 1992, p. 118.A closer look offers a different picture. The polarization of roles has occurred: men control system development, production management, and most of the senior jobs in marketing and distribution. Women sit at computer keyboards, doing the mundane secretarial tasks, and also find themselves doing stressful and not too well paid jobs on production lines making computer components. There is no doubt which sex does the exciting work and gets the big salaries, and which does the chores for a pittance. However, far from this being a seemingly normal position, which males have accepted with resignation or not even considered, there are many sings that men in [information technology] have worked strenuously to maintain their superiority.

8. INFORMATION AGE INCREASES VULNERABILITY.

System Security Study Commission, National Research Council, Computers at Risk: Safe Computing in the Information Age, 1991, p. 7.We are at risk. Increasingly, America depends on computers. They control power delivery, communications, aviation, and financial services. They are used to store vital information, from medical records to business plans to criminal records. Although we trust them, they are vulnerable--to the effects of poor design and insufficient quality control to accident, and perhaps most alarmingly, to deliberate attack. The modern thief can steal more with a computer than with a gun. Tomorrow's terrorist may be able to do more damage with a keyboard than with a bomb.

System Security Study Commission, National Research Council, Computers at Risk: Safe Computing in the Information Age, 1991, pp. 10-11.Overall, emerging trends, combined with the spread of relevant expertise and access within the country and throughout the world, point to growth in both the level and the sophistication of threats to major U.S. computer and communications systems. There is reason to believe that we are at a discontinuity: with respect to computer security, the past is not a good predictors of the future.


METAMAN DESIRABLE

1. ITS DEFINITION.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, pp. 14-15.[Metaman is] the concept of society as a living entity, one in which humans play a part analogous to the cells in an animal's body....

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 20....the thin planetary patina of humanity and its creations is truly a living entity. It is a "Superorganism"--a community of organisms so fully tied together that it is a single living being. Rather than refer to this entity with a term filled with prior assumptions, let's start fresh and simply call it "METAMAN," meaning "beyond, and transcending, humans."

Edward Cornish, pres., World Future Society, "METAMAN," The Futurist, November, 1993, p. 37.In other words, METAMAN is Stock's proposed new name for what we customarily refer to as "civilization."

2. STOCK'S OVERCLAIMS.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 23.Understanding Metaman suggests also that humankind has before it a long and vital future in a world where the natural environment will be managed, when the nation-state will lose its dominance in world affairs, where technology will penetrate virtually every aspect of human life, where human production will be managed, and where local cultural traditions will merge into a rich global culture.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 52.Metaman's current groupings toward space suggest it will one day even reproduce, extending its form out into our solar system and beyond.

3. DEMOCRATIZATION.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, pp. 106-107.Many ongoing developments such as the emancipation of women, the spread of human rights, the breakdown of class boundaries, and the democratization of society appear to be matters of social "choice." This may be true in the short term, but over the long term, these developments are inevitable consequences of the basic forces moving Metaman forward.

4. ENERGY AND POLLUTION NEEDS.


Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 113.Renewable energy sources could largely replace fossil fuels; birth control could check population growth; new technologies could control pollution and environmental destruction. The challenge to humanity is not to find a solution but to implement them, and Metaman's role will be central.

5. WARFARE.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 116.Ending war is a goal that has seemed unattainable, yet it is well on the way to being accomplished by the internal dynamics of Metaman's development.

METAMAN UNDESIRABLE

1. PERPETUATES U.S. CORPORATE REPUBLICANISM.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, pp. 104-105.In many ways, "idealized" American culture--a multiethnic, egalitarian, technological, and materially affluent celebration of growth, change and individual freedom--is the prototype of the evolving cosmopolitan culture of Metaman.

2. REQUIRES PAINFUL TRANSITIONS.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 119.At times, painful social trauma and individual tragedy attend Metaman's spread, but we must remember that this is but a stage in humanity's journey.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 142....the birth pains of Metaman may well devastate certain cultures and populations in parts of Africa, Asia, and South America....

3. REQUIRES COMMITMENT TO TECHNOLOGY.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, pp. 128-129....Metaman's transition from its current pattern of activity will not lead toward some idyllic recasting of a bucolic past, but toward a world that makes full use of advanced technology....

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 143.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Modern Technology is the key to the transformation of Metaman's periphery into the rich patterns at its core.

4. REQUIRES COMMITMENT TO BIOGENETIC ENGINEERING.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 164.By applying biological techniques to embryos and then to the reproductive process itself, Metaman will take control of human evolution. Genetic changes that are inherited by future generations build, one upon another, and so their cumulative effects will eventually dwarf those of biological interventions not passed to one's offspring. Manipulating hormones and cells has the potential to regenerate tissues, alter growth, or even slow aging, but such interventions will not challenge the basic concept of what it is to be "human". Altering the human genome might do just that one day, by "inventing" new or more powerful beings very different from today's humans.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 169.Neither changes in human biology nor links between humans and high-technology devices would be conceivable outside of Metaman. Whether humans remain largely biological or become progressively more machinelike depends primarily on the pace at which the biological and nonbiological technologies of Metaman progress.

5. DESTROYS SPECIES.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 178.Metaman is joining together diverse ecological systems and thereby causing the extinction of endemic local species throughout the world.

5. DESTROYS SPECIES.Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 173.With Metaman extending itself across the planet, one day the only remaining "wilderness" will be the large parks, preserves, and other lands explicitly set aside for recreation, science, and other purposes.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2226. REQUIRES COMMITMENT TO POPULATION MANAGEMENT.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, pp. 207-208....procreation will undoubtedly be ever more regulated within Metaman. In the future, having children will probably be regarded as a privilege rather than an absolute right, and government regulation of reproduction will be seen as a social necessity rather than an unwarranted interference.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 209.When birth-control vaccines are developed for humans, there is the obvious possibility that some contagious, flu-like infection might be created and released, rendering large numbers of people less able to conceive children.

7. REQUIRES COMMITMENT TO CULTURAL HOMOGENEITY.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 238.But as diverse cultures fuse within Metaman, the exclusionary elements of individual religions become increasingly untenable.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 178....Metaman's development is mingling diverse human populations and sweeping away local cultural traditions.

8. REQUIRES COMMITMENT TO DISCOUNT ENTIRE POPULATIONS.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 347f.Regions where widespread unrest reigns cannot become, or perhaps even remain, actively integrated into Metaman.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 341f.Maintaining the human life is "invaluable" is all very well, but anyone who sought funding to build an intensive-case hospital for premature infants in overpopulated Bangladesh would be thought crazy. There are too many ways to using such funds to achieve a broader good.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Edward Cornish, pres., World Future Society, "Metaman," The Futurist, November, 1993, p. 37.However, [Metaman] does not include everything or even everybody: Metaman is that part of humanity, its creations, and its activities that is interdependent--joined together by trade, communications, and travel. At the moment, the superorganism is primarily the world's industrialized countries and the urban area in developing lands....

9. METAMAN UNLIKELY.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 189....we cannot foretell what the world of Metaman will eventually become....

CYBORGIZATION DESIRABLE

1. CYBORGIZATION IS AN OUTGROWTH OF METAMAN.

Gregory Stock, visiting sr. fellow, Princeton Univ., Metaman: The Merging and Humans and Machines into a Global Superorganism, 1993, p. 65.The tight, symbiotic union of machines and humans is central to Metaman....

2. CYBORGIZATION INEVITABLE

Brian Mazlish, Prof., History, MIT, The Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines, 1993, p. 6....humans are on the threshold of decisively breaking past the discontinuity between themselves and machines.

Steven Levy, Author/journalist, "We are what we make," The New York Times, October 24, 1993, p. 13.Human beings seem to have wandered off the evolutionary map. Unlike any species that came before us, we have surrounded ourselves with artifacts that radically transform our environment. Our adaptations are overwhelmingly produced by our own invention. Biology moves too slowly for us; why wait generations for natural selections to eliminate myopia and smallpox when we can grind corrective lenses and develop vaccines? And now, we are no the verge of producing machines that can evolve.

Steven Levy, Author/journalist, "We are what we make," The New York Times, October 24, 1993, p. 13....we need not wait for indisputably intelligent machines to close out the age of biological autonomy. According to The Fourth Discontinuity and Metaman, the barriers between humans and machines has already evaporated.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2223. ERRORS (MUTATIONS) ARE DESIRABLE.

Brian Mazlish, Prof., History, MIT, The Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines, 1993, p. 166.But, [Richard] Goldsmith continued, 'every once in a while a macromutation might, be sheer good fortune, adapt an organism to a new mode of life, a "hopeful monster" in his terminology. Another school is more low-keyed in her description. "Ultimately, every species has to cope with changes in the environment that are unpredictable. And it is only because it continues to produce sports by means of its mutation mechanism--including flies that are blind and unable to fly--that all the possibilities are explored. These sports, which are normally selected out, but which continue to be born from generation to generation, are to some extent the life insurance of the species."

4. CYBORGIZATION PRODUCES OMEGA MAN.

Brian Mazlish, Prof., History, MIT, The Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines, 1993, p. 173.Thus a respected molecular biologist, William Day, predicting the future evolution of humanity, tells us that "he [man] will splinter into types of humans with different mental faculties that will lead to diversification and separate species. From among these types, a new species, Omega man, will emerge, either alone, in union with others, or with mechanical amplification to transcend to new dimensions of time and space beyond our comprehension--as much beyond our imagination as our world was to the emerging eucaryotes." The means by which Omega man will arise, Day implies, is through genetic engineering.

CYBORGIZATION UNDESIRABLE.

1. HOMO COMBOTICUS WILL BE FALLIBLE.

Brian Mazlish, Prof., History, MIT, The Fourth Discontinuity: The Co-Evolution of Humans and Machines, 1993, p. 229.Having said this, I want to argue further that even this evolved human form, Homo comboticus, as I have defined him with an emphasis on the metaphorical life, will still be human, subject to the constraints of the human condition. He will still be an uncertain and erring creature, forces to make choices whose results are unknown and often unintentional. In his historical world (that is, a real existence in physical and social time and not in a laboratory or mere built environment) he will be subject to all the irrationalities, enthusiasms, and swirling economic and social movements that have characterized his past. Death will still remain the individual's fate, with all its attendant fears.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. CYBORGS AND FEMINISM/ANTHROPOCENTRISM.

Donna Haraway, Prof., History, Univ. Calif., Santa Cruz, Simians, CYBORGS, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature, 1991, p. 150.The cyborg is a condensed image of both imagination and material reality, the two joined centres structuring any possibility of historical transformation. In the tradition of 'Western' science and politics--the tradition of racism, male-dominant capitalism; the tradition of progress, the tradition of the appropriation of nature as resource for the productions of culture; the tradition of reproduction of the self from the reflections of the other--the relation between organism and machine has been a border war.

Donna Haraway, Simians, Cyborgs, and Women: The Reinvention of Nature, 1991, p. 154.From one perspective, a cyborg world is about the final imposition of a grid of control on the planet, about the final abstraction embodies in a Star Wars apocalypse waged in the name of defence, about the final appropriation of women's bodies in a masculinist orgy of war.

3. CYBORGS AND DISCRIMINATION.

Gene Stephens, Prof., Law., Univ. South Carolina, "Crime and the biotech revolution: Genetic engineering," The Futurist, November, 1992, p. 38.Clones, chimeras, CYBORGS, and other bioengineering wonders are almost certain to appear in the twenty-first century. What impacts will these developments have on justice and social order? The current difficulty of maintaining peace and order in a heterogeneous society of black and white, yellow and brown human beings will pale in comparison to trying to maintain a semblance of harmony among gilled, winged, multicolored, "mutated" humanoids.

4. CYBORGIZATION LEADS TO BEHAVIOR CONTROL.

Gene Stephens, Prof., Law., Univ. South Carolina, "Crime and the biotech revolution: Genetic engineering," The Futurist, November, 1992, p. 38.The next big step in the technological revolution will be the merging of biological and information technologies. Computers will ultimately be implanted into the human body to improve organic functioning and to simulate, increase, and enhance the capacity and capabilities of the brain. .... A further development might be to use these organic nanocomputer implants to control human behavior. The Human Genome Project will not only unlock the secrets of the body, but also shed light on how body chemicals and electrical circuitry control mental functions and emotions. Adding or subtracting a few chemicals or altering synapses could control an individual's thoughts and emotions. An organic nanocomputer in a person's brain could thus regulate chemical production and electrical impulses in the body and create whatever behavior was deemed appropriate.


METAMAN INDICTS

1. PREMISE IGNORES EXISTENCE OF EVIL.

Philip Gold, Sr. Fellow, Discovery Institute, "Metaman sees bio, high-tech utopia right around the corner," The Washington Times, September 19, 1993, p. B8.Mr Stock blithely touts a progress unimaginable to even the most optimistic philosophers and industrialists of eras and errors past. All you have to do to accept his vision is to start thinking in geological, not historical, time; conceive of a new species (part biological, part inorganic, part technological) called Metaman; and surrender your critical faculties to a breathtaking array of absolutely unprovable assertions. It also helps to ignore the matter of what less-advanced civilizations called evil.

2. CLAIMS ARE UNINTERPRETABLE.

Philip Gold, Sr. Fellow, Discovery Institute, "Metaman sees bio, high-tech utopia right around the corner," The Washington Times, September 19, 1993, p. B8.[Stock] also has an unfortunate habit of sliding between metaphorical and literal uses of [metaman].

3. SOLVENCY IS ASSERTED.

Philip Gold, Sr. Fellow, Discovery Institute, "Metaman sees bio, high-tech utopia right around the corner," The Washington Times, September 19, 1993, p. B8.All rather seductive: the future as guaranteed Elysium and the catastrophes of the past--Auschwitz, "ethnic cleansing," Masada, Hiroshima, whatever--reduced to mere trivia, important only to those who experienced them, and only for a few years after those who experienced them are gone. Mr. Stock may have a point when he argues that the evils of the past have no deterred technological advance, only deflected it. Unfortunately, the problem with this reasoning is that it ignores a single fact: These evils recur. And there is no reason to believe that the increase of human knowledge, or of power, or of consumer goods, will change human nature in the 21st century or beyond, any more than it did in the 19th or 20th.

Edward Cornish, pres., World Future Society, "Metaman," The Futurist, November, 1993, p. 37.Disappointingly, Stock fails to fulfill the promise implied by the book's title and introductory passages. He has led us to hope for the revelation of a central concept of great originality, and power that would transmute our thinking. Alas, it fails to appear. Metaman seem to be little more than a new name for civilization, and a new name alone does not constitute an epiphany.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2224. STOCK IS UNBELIEVABLE.

Edward Cornish, pres., World Future Society, "Metaman," The Futurist, November, 1993, p. 37.Hope for the future is normal and constructive, but the extraordinary confidence with which Stock speaks about the splendor of the twenty-sixth century seems curious. As a scientist, he was presumably trained to be skeptical about theories developed in the absence of relevant and verifiable data. And why has he parted company from his fellow biologists, who typically emanate gloom since, beneath the objective veneer of science, most are nature lovers compelled to watch the mass destruction of the animals and plants that they love? Perhaps Stock has fallen victim to the millennial fever now gathering force as the year 2000 approaches.

GENERATION X UNDESIRABLE

1. GENERATION X MOBILIZING.

Gary Blonston, Knight-Ridder News Service, "Generation X calls for budget restraint," The Phoenix Gazette, July 16, 1993, p. B10.They call their group Third Millennium, and they hope it will become the focus of a national effort by young Americans to coax more discipline and humanity from their government and fellow citizens than their parents did. The murmurings of this newest adult generation have been growing louder in recent years as economic stagnation and government inertia have ever more visibly compromised their futures.

2. BOOMERS HAVEN'T MOBILIZED.

Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 200.But the fact is, the boomers have yet to ban together: despite the fact that they continue to fall farther and farther behind their own parents economically, they have not yet raised their voices in collective protest or demanded that politicians pay special attention to their needs.

2. GENERATION X WANTS DEFICIT REDUCTION.

Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 212.After fifty years of sustained expansion in the United States, the bandwagon has come to a screeching halt. The brunt of the slowdown has been born by the baby BOOMERS, with more to come as their own children mature into an economy characterized by fits and starts weak recoveries, and industrial decline.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222James Pinkerton, John Locke Foundation fellow, "Deficit storm raining scuds on Washington," Los Angeles Times, May 20, 1993, p. B7.Young people in particular are angry. It's slowly dawning on the MTV-watching 20-somethings of Generation X that they will be left holding the red-ink bag package the rest of us are golden oldies. To them, Clinton's $16-billion stimulus package was just more hair of the same grody dog. They want righteous deficit reduction--$100 billion, even $300 billion a year--right here, right now.

3. GENERATION X FEELS ISOLATED.

"What's ahead," U.S. News and World Report, February 22, 1993,p. 57.As immigrants and non-whites flaunt their unique identities, may white 13ers will see themselves as endangered, sparkling social movements that others will regard as know-nothing nativism.

Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 218.The 1990s are returning us to an earlier era in which birthright determined one's fortunes. Those who can afford the better things in life will have them from the beginning, and those who do not will find it much harder to lay their hands on a middle-class identity.

4. GENERATION X BLAMES BOOMERS.

Neil Howe & Bill Strauss, 13th Gen: Abort, retry, ignore, fail?, 1993, p. 35.As they watch so many older people enrich themselves (while blaming young people for, of all things, being greedy), 13ers sometimes play the blame game themselves. When they do, they look up the age ladder and see one massive, opaque population mass--Boomer yuppies--as the culprit.

5. INTERGENERATIONAL PROTEST LIKELY.

"BOOMERS Win With Clinton Plan: It's Time for Universal Coverage," The Boomer Report, October 15, 1993, p. 1.Paying now for benefits later is the rationale behind Social Security and retirement savings. The alternative is generational warfare, where old people refuse to pay taxes to support schools their grown children no longer attend and young people refuse to pay higher premiums so the nation can have universal health care.

Gary Blonston, Knight-Ridder News Service, "Generation X calls for budget restraint," The Phoenix Gazette, July 16, 1993, p. B10.Politicians invoke them as "our children and our children's children," but many older Americans view them and their grievances as naive, whiny, arrogant and dangerously capable of sparking a political war between the generations.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 221.If the fortunes of the generations diverge to the point where they cannot see each other's legitimate claims and heartfelt dilemmas, we may well see the development of warring interest groups competing for politically sacred identities: the inviolable elderly, the deserving children, the baby BOOMERS holds IOUs because they have yet to claim their fair share, the burdened baby-bust generation that did not get to "come to the party" in the 1980s. This is a nightmare vision of American politics that we cannot afford to entertain. We cannot allow public policy debates to descend to the level of squabbles over who is spoiled, about which ethnic groups deserve the good life and which should be excluded, about who is really deserving of a decent retirement or adequate medical care.

6. GENERATIONAL WAR LIKELY.

Nail Howe & Bill Strauss, 13th Gen: Abort, retry, ignore, fail?, 1993, p. 48.America's next great generation gap--this time pitting righteous middle-aged BOOMERS against alienated adult 13ers--is heating up, on the verge of boiling over.

Forum interviewer, "Lead of Leave," The Ripon Forum, April/May, 1993, p. 28.Many in the media are predicting some type of generational war over governmental benefits, the tax burden placed upon your people.

Jon Cowan, Founder, Lead or Leave, "Lead of Leave," The Ripon Forum, April/May, 1993, p. 28.I hope there will not be a generational war. Lead... or Leave thinks one is avoidable, but we also think one will happen it we don't make the tough choices now.

7. INTERGENERATIONAL CONFLICT LIKELY.

Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 220.Boomers are likely to open a generational conversation on the subject of equity and it will not be a pleasant one, for their complaints already evoke countercharges that they are a spoiled generation with inflated expectations, a critique they sometimes level at themselves. If the economic prospects of the boomers continue to sag, the country may hear the sound and fury of promises unfulfilled and hard work gone unrewarded. And this will be just the beginning of the generational debate: in time, the "baby-bust" generation will surely ask why they should have to bear the burden of supporting the boomer generation in retirement.

"What's ahead," U.S. News and World Report, February 22, 1993, p. 57.As their stamp on culture becomes increasingly antiboomer, the 13ers will look more and more at their next elders as a generation that left behind a wasteland for their successors. Thirteeners will blast away at boomer hypocrisy and pomposity--and get blasted back for their own cynicism and wildness.

"What's ahead," U.S. News and World Report, February 22, 1993, p. 58.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Before the year 2030, events will call on 13ers to make aging boomers get real--and, perhaps, to stop some righteous old Aquarian from doing something truly catastrophic.

"What's ahead," U.S. News and World Report, February 22, 1993, p. 58.Some 13ers already wonder how they're going to cope with crusading boomer leaders who go gaga, perhaps by threatening to blow up the world just to prove the point.

8. SCENARIO: CYBERPUNKS.

Julie Caniglia, Journalist, "Cyberpunks hate you," Utne Reader, July/August, 1993, p. 96.When 1999 closes out, these young savages steeped in Sega, Nintendo, and Bart Simpson will be fully formed--and, Kid hopes, dysfunctional--adults. The third millennium presents the perfect occasion to cook up schemes to perpetuate onus technological illiterates.

Julie Caniglia, Journalist, "Cyberpunks hate you," Utne Reader, July/August, 1993, p. 89.Cyberpunks have no qualms about damaging, destroying, or capitalizing on the data they find. The scornful offspring of hackers, they regard their elders' look-but-don't-touch ethic as just plain stupid.

Julie Caniglia, Journalist, "Cyberpunks hate you," Utne Reader, July/August, 1993, p. 89.Cyberpunks use technology to get by in a world that doesn't offer them much else; they also abuse it to take out their anger at that world. It's a much more expressive, and potentially destructive, form of vandalism than graffiti or busting mailboxes. Their stunts include crashing voice-mail systems, sending nasty E-mail, and order absurd amounts of stuff in someone else's name. They can wipe out data bases, shut off phone service, and reroute calls; they can alter arrest records or delete mortgage and car payments. They destroy information by setting off logic and data bombs and installing stuff that eats programs: Trojan horses, viruses, and worms.

GENERATION X DESIRABLE/NOT UNDESIRABLE

1. GENERATION X SENSIBLE.

Joanne Serling, Journalist, "Removing the bad wrap off twentysomethings," The Plain Dealer, September 29, 1993, p. 6F.A second barb commonly aimed at under-30s is that they're so overwhelmed by today's problems - and have so little trust in government - that they're not willing to contribute to the solution. Not so, according to Cohen. This generation may simply be wiser and more realistic than earlier ones, he suggests. While its members don't profess to have "The Answer" to today's socialills, they know that it takes more than government intervention to solve large-scale problems. And in this way, they're willing to do their part - "to give back" as one young man put it, because "everyone has to help."

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. GENERATION X WANTS PART OF THE AMERICAN DREAM.

Joseph Shapiro, Staff writer, "Just fix it," U.S. News and World report, February 22, 1993, p. 56.Only by banding together, argues Strauss, will twentysomethings be able to change a nation's course and demand "older generations stop living off their future."

Jesse Malkin, Investor's Daily, Investor's Business Daily, October 11, 1993, p. 1."Generation X," as it has come to be known, may be the first generation in American history to have a lower standard of living than its parents. What infuriates twentysomethings most is their conviction that governmental policies are rigged against them. The national debt - $ 4.5 trillion, and rising - hangs on their shoulders like a sack of bricks. This youthful group sees that as a mortgage on their future.

3. GENERATION X NOT VIOLENT.

Steven Pearlstein, Washington Post Staff Writer, "The battle over "Generational Equity," The Washington Post, February 17, 1993, p. F1."This is not about kicking our grandparents in the shins," declared Rob Nelson, 28, who left a career in direct-mail advertising to build a grass-roots campaign for "generational equity." Said Nelson: "We want our grandparents to know that we need help."

4. GENERATION X PREVENTING CRISIS.

Steven Pearlstein, Washington Post Staff Writer, "The battle over "Generational Equity," The Washington Post, February 17, 1993, p. F1."These kids are telling it the way it is," said former senator Warren B. Rudman (R-N.H.), who tried in vain to get his Senate colleagues to tame the deficit monster. "And, as far as I'm concerned, they're doing a public service by calling attention to this generational thing, because frankly it will get real ugly if something isn't done."

Katherine Newman, Prof., Anthropology, Columbia Univ., Declining Fortunes: The Withering of the American Dream, 1993, p. 250.The increasing fertility rates of minorities, particularly Hispanics, in the United States may mean that whites in the boomer generation will be more dependent on racial minorities to pay for retirement needs than has ever been the case in the past. This is but one more reason for the country to attend to the racial tension growing in the cities and suburbs. For the social security system to work as it was designed, a degree of intergenerational and cross-racial commitment will be needed.


MEDICALIZATION UNDESIRABLE

1. MEDICALIZATION DEFINED.

Daniel Longo, Prof., Family and Community Medicine, Univ. Missouri, "Patient practice variation," Medical Care, Supplement, May, 1993, p. YS82.[The medical model] may best be described as one that attributes disease to purely biologic and physiologic dysfunction. Its resolution or control is through provider, usually physician, intervention. It focuses on illness and disease as opposed to health and prevention. It negates largely the role of the patient and family, including preference, satisfaction, and quality of life on both the illness and health dimensions. Finally, the medical model assumes that there is little if anything within the domain of the patient and family that may contribute to the intervention process.

Jacquelyn Slomba, Prof., Bioethics, Cleveland Clinic, "Playing with propanodol," Hastings Center Report, July/August, 1992, p. 16.Common cited examples of what has been called "cultural iatrogenesis"--medicine's usurpation of people's ability to care for themselves, making them dependent on medical professionals and other "experts"--include the medicalization of birth and death, the use of drugs to treat 'hyperactivity" in children, and the definition of alcoholism and drug abuse as diseases.

2. MEDICAL SYSTEM IS A FAILURE.

Lu Ann Aday, Prof., Public Health, Univ. Texas, "Equity, accessibility, and ethic: Is the U.S. health care reform debate asking the right questions?" American Behavioral Scientist, July/August, 1993, p. 729.Implicit in the U.S. health care reform debate is the assumption that enhance access to medical will lead to improved health. Ample evidence is available, however, to suggest that (a) substantial variation exists in how medical care is practiced, (b) many clinical protocols and technologies have little or ambiguous effects on health outcomes, (c) the overuse of medical care services leads to as many or more adverse health effects as does underuse, and (d) a variety of factors other than medical care per se (e.g., genetics, life-style, and environmental) contribute to producing and maintaining an individual's health.

Allan Brandt, Prof., Social Medicine, "Emerging themes in the history of medicine," Milbank Quarterly, 1991, p. 206The recognition that medicine could harm, even while trying to help, that it was not always effective (and that effectiveness was difficult to define and measure) led to fundamental ambivalence about the notion of medical progress.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Daniel Longo, Prof., Family and Community Medicine, Univ. Missouri, "Patient practice variation," Medical Care, Supplement, May, 1993, p. YS82.Most recently, the debates concerning breast implants, traizolam, and fluoxetine have raised additional concerns about the quality and cost of medical care from both providers and the public. Equally revealing are the studies that demonstrate that some procedures are routinely done, even when not indicated.

3. MEDICAL SYSTEM DENIES DIGNIFIED DYING.

T. N. Madan, Institute of Economic Growth, Delhi, "Dying with dignity," Social Science and Medicine, August, 1992, p. 426.Finally, in the present century, a further radical alteration in the western man's consciousness of death occurred through the 'medicalization' of death as a result of which it came to be denied. Death became a shameful thing, an embarrassment, even dirty and indecent. "Death has ceased to be accepted as a natural, necessary phenomenon. Death is a failure, a "business lost". In short, death loses contact with human dignity.

4. MEDICAL SYSTEM ALIENATES THE CLIENT PATIENT.

John Pardeck, Prof., Social Work, Southwest Missouri State Univ., and John Murphy, Prof., Sociology, Univ. Miami, "Postmodernism and clinical practice: A critical analysis of the disease model," Psychological Reports, June, 1993, pp. 1190-1191.For instance, direct control over physiological causes is not likely. Therefore, clients have no reason to believe that their efforts are instrumental in producing a cure. Consequently, the success of treatment appears to depend on the expertise of technicians. Here again, control is removed from the client.

Steve Cadwell, Clinical social worker, "Twice removed: The stigma suffered by gay men with AIDS," Smith College Studies in Social Work, June, 1991, p. 238.This society is ill-equipped to participate with someone who is dying. The period is reduced and distanced by labels: "AIDS victim" or "AIDS patient." This propensity to distance the dying is endemic in our medical institutions and has iatrogenic side-effects.

Dennis Saleebey, Prof., Social Welfare, Univ. Kansas, "Biology's challenge to social work: Embodying the person-in-environment perspective," Social Work, March, 1992.As many have argued, the initiatory act of oppression is bodily, and the path to liberation frequently begins by helping individuals reclaim the sense of their body, along with its potentials, energies, and peculiarities.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. MEDICAL SYSTEM INSULATES ITSELF.

John Pardeck, Prof., Social Work, Southwest Missouri State Univ., and John Murphy, Prof., Sociology, Univ. Miami, "Postmodernism and clinical practice: A critical analysis of the disease model," Psychological Reports, June, 1993, p. 1189.For example, referring to mental illness as a disease sounds authoritative. When this designation is reinforced by clinical instruments, classificatory schemes, and other technical protocol, only someone who would risk being known as unscientific or biased would challenge such a diagnosis. These models are standardized, while social commentary is replete with values. Consistent with dualism, this aspect of the disease model removes clinical judgments from serious scrutiny. Using scientific nomenclature, in other words, creates the imagery that clinical judgments are not sustained by assumptions made about reality.

John Pardeck, Prof., Social Work, Southwest Missouri State Univ., and John Murphy, Prof., Sociology, Univ. Miami, "Postmodernism and clinical practice: A critical analysis of the disease model," Psychological Reports, June, 1993, p. 1189.Further, science is transformed into an ideology when it is used in conjunction with the disease model. Inadvertently, intervention is guided by a host of techniques that are understood only by a small number of experts. As a result, a specific form of knowledge and a select group of persons are given primacy during the evaluation process. Thus the misconception is generated that clinical practice is data-based rather than an art, so clinicians appear able to fulfill the aims of traditional philosophers while the essence of clinical practice is preserved in an objective form.

6. MEDICAL SYSTEM DISCRIMINATES AGAINST WOMEN.

Margaret Lock, Prof., Anthropology, McGill Univ., "Ideology, female midlife, and the greying of Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies, Winter, 1993, p. 45.A potent but malleable signifier, the female body, therefore, is a forum for the delineation of sex and gender relations. At this particular historical moment debate centers on the extent to which women should be granted equity in social life (in reality and not simply in name), together with autonomy over their own bodies. The extent to which medicalization of the life cycle takes place is not only the product of changing medical knowledge and practice, nor is it simply a manifestation of the power of the medical profession, but also the result of potent, never settled, partially disguised political contexts intimately linked to surveillance and normalization of the family in late modern and postmodern society.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Margaret Lock, Prof., Anthropology, McGill Univ., "Ideology, female midlife, and the greying of Japan," Journal of Japanese Studies, Winter, 1993, p. 44.Gynecological knowledge, for example, is inevitably infused with cultural assumptions about the "nature" of women, assumption which in contemporary societies become "disguised" as scientific facts, with the result that the female body is "seen" and "managed" in various ways in different cultural settings. By extension, the position assigned to women in contemporary society, in particular the importance attributed to their participation in reproduction and nurturance of the family, is influenced by assumptions about their "natural" place is the social order, and the state frequently draws on medically related knowledge to legitimize their position.

7. MEDICAL SYSTEM DISCRIMINATES AGAINST AFRICAN-AMERICANS.

Thomas A. LaVeist, Prof., Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Univ., "The potential empowerment and health status of African-Americans: Mapping a new territory," American Journal of Sociology, January, 1992, p. 1080.For decades, sociological research on health has employed an established set of social variables such as age, sex, and marital status and personal attributes that reflect attitudes and behavior. Political power, however, has not been among them. Recently, the idea that political and community empowerment leads to improved health status of the empowered groups has received some attention from health social scientists.

Thomas A. LaVeist, Prof., Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Univ., "The potential empowerment and health status of African-Americans: Mapping a new territory," American Journal of Sociology, January, 1992, p. 1082.Although the absolute risk of infant death in the United States is rather low, there are substantial differences between various class-race categories. For example, the infant mortality rates for African-Americans is roughly double that of whites. It has been empirically demonstrated that this race disparity is in large part indicative of social inequality. It has been hypothesized that this disparity is reflective of underlying political inequality.

Thomas A. LaVeist, Prof., Health Policy and Management, Johns Hopkins Univ., "Segregation, poverty, and empowerment: Health consequences for African Americans," Milbank Quarterly, November 1, 1993, p. 41.In spite of strong achievements in improving the chances of survival for infants born in the United States, there has been little success in reducing the national black-white differential in infant mortality. The black infant morality rate has been reported consistently to be double the white rate.


MEDICALIZATION NOT UNDESIRABLE

1. MEDICALIZATION CRITIQUES SUSPECT.

John Pardeck, Prof., Social Work, Southwest Missouri State Univ., and John Murphy, Prof., Sociology, Univ. Miami, "Postmodernism and clinical practice: A critical analysis of the disease model," Psychological Reports, June, 1993, p. 1187.The problem with these critiques (Illich 1977; Ingleby 1980; Szasz 1961; Wing, 1978), however, is that they are basically atheoretical, that is, these earlier studies do not provide much insight into the epistemology that underpins the medical model and the changes that follow from the rejection of this dualistic philosophy.

2. MEDICAL SYSTEM IS LOSING CONTROL.

Michael Greenberg, Prof., Urban Studies, Rutgers Univ., "Impediments to basing government health policies on science in the U.S." Social Science and Medicine, August, 1993, p. 535.There is an anti-medical doctor movement which seeks to take away the control of health from medical doctors and give it not only to doctors of osteopathy, chiropractors, nurses, and public health scientists, but also to an empowered American population. Already at the organizational level, local and state health departments, most of which have been run by medical doctors have been bypassed by many higher-level governments.

Michael Greenberg, Prof., Urban Studies, Rutgers Univ., "Impediments to basing government health policies on science in the U.S." Social Science and Medicine, August, 1993, p. 535.For example, in responding to the 1970s public concern with pollution, the national and state governments skipped over already existing health departments to create new departments of environmental protection, occupational health and safety, and indigent medical service to tackle pollution, care of the elderly, substance abuse, and other late-twentieth century problems. Many health departments have been merged with welfare agencies, so that epidemiology, toxicology and other traditional public health sciences became secondary to social work skills.

3. MEDICAL SYSTEM HAS BEEN DEMYSTIFIED.

Michael Calnan and Simon Williams, Center for Health Service Studies, University of Kent, "Images of scientific medicine," Sociology of Health and Illness, June, 1992, pp. 248-249.First, our study supports the evidence from the previous exploratory study that the situation portrayed by some writers such as Illich (1976), of "blanket dependence or acceptance of modern medicine by the public is far too simplistic. Instead, as our findings have shown, views differ on the relative merits of modern medical technology according to which specific form of technological intervention is being considered (i.e., antibiotics, tranquilisers, hip operations, heart transplants, etc.), and also in terms of the socio-demographic characteristics of the lay populace (i.e., age, gender, class, educational status, health status, etc.).

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Michael Calnan and Simon Williams, Center for Health Service Studies, University of Kent, "Images of scientific medicine," Sociology of Health and Illness, June, 1992, p. 250.It is clear that rationalization from below has occurred, at least at the level of beliefs; it is also clear that concerning certain specific forms of modern technological medicine, traditional beliefs and values hold greater sway.

Michael Calnan and Simon Williams, Center for Health Service Studies, University of Kent, "Images of scientific medicine," Sociology of Health and Illness, June, 1992, p. 251.Thus science and medicine has, to some extent, been demystified and the ambivalence expressed by respondents in these studies may reflect, at least in part, the impact of his demystification process.

CHAOS THEORY DESIRABLE

1. CHAOS THEORY IS.

Albert Tabah, Physical Sciences & Engineering Librarian, McGill Univ., "Nonlinear dynamics and the growth of literature," Information Processing and Management, 1992, p. 61.One of the most exciting areas of scientific progress in the last 25 years has been in the field of nonlinear dynamics. Also known as "deterministic chaos," it described complicated behavior arising from simple causes. As such, it should not be confounded with the classical notion of chaos as utter disorder.

2. SOCIAL SYSTEMS ARE CHAOTIC.

Laurent Dobuzinskis, Prof., Poli. Sci., Simon Frazer Univ., "Modernist and postmodernist metaphors of the policy process: Control and stability vs. chaos and reflexive understanding," Policy Sciences, November, 1992, p. 363.The indeterminacy of social systems is a matter of almost daily experience. Professional forecasts often turn out to be wrong because the extrapolate trends that are continually shifting or, in the vocabulary of the Prigoginean model, "bifurcating." In particular, when groups that have suffered from various forms of exclusion for a long time finally succeed to moving close to power centers, sudden reversals of long established policies or new departures can be observed. The civil rights movement of the early 1960s in the United States or the sudden move after 1989 of native rights to the top agenda of constitutional reform in Canada come to mind in this respect.

3. CHAOS THEORY EXPLAINS COUNTERINTUITIVE.

Theodore Gordon, consultant, futures research and planning, "Chaos in social systems," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 1992, p. 1.Dynamic systems that have nonlinear elements can exhibit stable, oscillatory, divergent or chaotic behavior. In many instances the behavior of such systems is surprising and counterintuitive.

4. CHAOS THEORY EXPLAINS APPARENTLY DYSFUNCTIONAL SYSTEMS.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Theodore Gordon, consultant, futures research and planning, "Chaos in social systems," Technological Forecasting and Social Change, 1992, p. 15.So what does chaos mean to the analysis of social systems? A great deal. Look for nonlinearities. Look for feedback paths. Observe whether speeding up the system leads to oscillations or apparently random behavior. Question whether externalities are always the cause of performance anomalies. A system that is noisy and fails to respond as anticipated is not necessarily inoperative; it may be operating in an unanticipated regime. The so-called second-order effects may be, and we suspect often are, controlling.

5. CHAOS THEORY EXPLAINS THE IMPOSSIBLE.

Randolph Roth, Assoc. Prof., History, Ohio State Univ., "Is history a process? Nonlinearity, revitalization theory, and the central metaphor of social science history," Social Science History, Summer, 1992, pp. 203-204.Nonlinear mathematics allows scientists to mimic with mathematical precision natural phenomena commonly considered undescribable or unexplainable, like turbulence in fluids or the coherence of subatomic particles. These phenomena behave in ways that linear mathematics cannot describe. For example, the cyclonic disturbance known as Jupiter's red spot never diffuses, despite the fact that it is subject to powerful atmospheric disturbances and is apparently not sustained by volcanic eruptions or other geothermal activity on the planet's surface. Complex polymers can emerge suddenly from a medium of simply organic compounds once a critical threshold of diversity among the compounds is reached. Successful eradication programs do not prevent periodic outbreaks of rabies. According to linear mathematics, these outcomes are impossible, but they happen.

6. CHAOS EXPLAIN DRAWBACKS TO PREDICTIVE MODELS.

Dean Hoover & David Kowalski, Alfred Univ., Journal of Conflict Resolution, March, 1992, p. 143.Unidirectional estimation is inappropriate. As additional variables are added, the complexity increases enormously, making prediction difficult. Even simple systems may reveal chaotic behavior.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Randolph Roth, Assoc. Prof., History, Ohio State Univ., "Is history a process? Nonlinearity, revitalization theory, and the central metaphor of social science history," Social Science History, Summer, 1992, p. 214.The implications of nonlinear science for social science history, its causal imagery, its processual metaphors, and its models and heuristics are many. Insofar as social and cultural processes are nonlinear--and most nonquantitative theorists believe most are--we can no longer hope to predict the joint impact of tow forces on a human community by studying the separate impact of those forces, because nonlinear processes are not additive. We can no longer assume that small or accidental changes will have minor consequences for human communities or that massive social movements will be of major consequence, because nonlinear processes are not proportional. We can no longer assume that human communities will respond in the same way at different times to a particular environment, because nonlinear processes are reflexive. They allow communities to alter their environments, and vice versa. We can no longer assume that the outcomes of properly modeled cultural or social processes are predictable within stochastic limits, because the outcomes of deterministic nonlinear processes can be altered drastically by minute changes in causal variables that can never be measured precisely.

Philip Tetlock, Lect., Personality and Social Research, Univ. California--Berkeley, "Good judgment in international politics: Three psychological perspectives," Political Psychology, September, 1992, p. 523.Chaos theorists have also recently reminded us of the limits on predictability. They note the ease with which small effects can be either muted or amplified through complex causal systems. The most widely cited examples is the "butterfly effect" in which a tiny data entry error in a computer model of global climate led to major perturbation in the unfolding of simulated storms (an effect analogous in magnitude to the flapping of a butterfly's wings in Beijing causing to tornado in Iowa). More generally, there may be a pervasive tendency for large, causally interactive systems (plate tectonics, ecosystems, financial markets) to evolve toward "critical states" in which minor events are sufficient to trigger catastrophes. If so, this tendency bodes ill for efforts to predict the behavior of all such systems.

7. CHAOS THEORY HIGHLIGHTS HOW SMALL CHANGES AND PRODUCE LARGE RESULTS.

Barry Markovsky, Prof., Sociology, Univ. Iowa, "Network exchange outcomes: Limits of predictability," Social Networks, December, 1992, p. 285.Like weather systems, social exchange systems manifest a key property of non-linear dynamic systems: sensitive dependence on initial conditions. Changing either a single network relation, one of the rules of exchange, or one actor's decision strategy is frequently sufficient to alter outcomes across most or all network positions as exchange processes unfold.


8. CHAOS EXPLAINS POPULATION DYNAMICS.

Albert Tabah, Physical Sciences & Engineering Librarian, McGill Univ., "Nonlinear dynamics and the growth of literature," Information Processing and Management, 1992, p. 63.Recent work on nonlinear dynamics threatens to change a number of widely held opinions concerning linearity and population equilibrium in ecological models, ideas of competition, and population genetics. Most importantly, it states that population fluctuations are not solely based on external factors that that there are internal mechanisms at work.

9. CHAOS EXPLAINS INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS.

Walter Hill, Prof., Poli. Sci., St. Mary's Univ., "Deterministic quasi-periodic behavior of an arms race model," Conflict Management and Peace Science, Winter, 1992, pp. 92-93.Chaotic behavior has been recognized in several fields. Beyond Lorenz's work in meteorology, equations displaying chaos also appeared in biology and in description of thermodynamic structures. May's (1974) model used different equations, and chaotic behavior occurred with one variable (in addition to time) as opposed to the three variables in the Lorenz system. Yet another model displaying chaotic behavior has appeared in the studies of government behavior. Saperstein (1984) proposed a different equation model of the arms race. His model is similar to that of May, however he repeatedly acknowledges that his model is "crude." We immediately recognize that, unlike models in the Richardsonian tradition, Saperstein's model has no burden term explicitly retarding growth. He chose to consider the proportion of money going to the military, and worked with a logistic equation that gives upper and lower bounds to spending. In later work with a much more complex model, Saperstein and Mayer-Kress (1988) found chaos associated with the development of a strategic defense initiative (SDI) system.

10. CHAOS THEORY EXPLAINS ECONOMICS.

Randolph Roth, Assoc. Prof., History, Ohio State Univ., "Is history a process? Nonlinearity, revitalization theory, and the central metaphor of social science history," Social Science History, Summer, 1992, pp. 214-215.Economists and demographers are already incorporating nonlinear terms and equations into their models in hopes of making them more realistic. Economists are currently exploring feedback loops among investment, savings, consumption, and income in neoclassical economic models. They have already demonstrated that nonlinear models can generate regular and irregular fluctuations in economic activity, even when the models are isolated from external disturbances. Demographers have demonstrated that feedback loops among birthrates, capital stocks, opportunities, and aspirations can generate periodic oscillations in population growth.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22211. CHAOS THEORY CAN HELP EXPLAIN THE POST-U.S.S.R. WORLD.

George Breslauer et al, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. California--Berkeley, "One year after the collapse of the USSR: A panel of specialists," Post-Soviet Affairs, October-December, 1992, p. 305.It is a demanding exercise, for there are things about the underlying dynamics we may not be able to understand for some time year. Chaos theorists, moreover, might argue that even this exercise is pointless, for the smallest triggers might send things off in totally different, unpredictable directions. Hence, once we acknowledge that many things are delicately and precariously balanced in the former Soviet Union, we can do little more than wait and watch.

CHAOS THEORY UNDESIRABLE.

1. CHAOS THEORY PRECLUDE HYPOTHESIS BUILDING.

George Breslauer et al, Prof., Poli. Sci., Univ. California--Berkeley, "One year after the collapse of the USSR: A panel of specialists," Post-Soviet Affairs, October-December, 1992, p. 305.Perhaps chaos theory is the better part of theoretical wisdom, but I have my doubts. I am not willing simply to retreat to purely long-term range historical analysis. By engaging in a provisional analysis of recent trends, set against last year's predictions by the bold or the reckless, we have the opportunity at least to highlight alternative assumptions....

2. CHAOS INHERENTLY PRODUCES CONTRADICTORY RESULTS.

T. R. Young, The Red Feather Institute, "Chaos and social change: Metaphysics of the postmodern, Social Science Journal, 1991, p. 293.The theoretical point upon which to focus it that causality itself is fractal and thus, truth statements about such phenomena are fractal. Chaotic dynamics produce contradictory research results. Validation, replication and ever closer approximations to eternally true propositions are a casualty of chaos theory.

3. CAN'T CORRELATE EVIDENCE OF A SYSTEM AFTER STABILITY SHIFT.

T. R. Young, The Red Feather Institute, "Chaos and social change: Metaphysics of the postmodern, Social Science Journal, 1991, p. 291.These variations, together, mean that it is sometimes possible to postulate stable relationships between two or more variables; that sometimes similar systems will behave similarly; that sometimes a lose causality may be specified but those dynamics are fractal; they can change to greater nonlinearity as a system moves from a stable or near-stable equilibrium.

4. RESEARCHERS DON'T UNDERSTAND THE CONCEPT OF STABILITY.

T. R. Young, The Red Feather Institute, "Chaos and social change: Metaphysics of the postmodern, Social Science Journal, 1991, p. 293.Researchers can be certain that the whole system is somewhere on the surface of the three dimensional torus but cannot say just where. The concept of stability gets very fuzzy.

5. CHAOTIC SYSTEMS CAN'T BE CONTROLLED.


T. R. Young, The Red Feather Institute, Chaos and social change: Metaphysics of the postmodern, Social Science Journal, 1991, p. 293.It is when the torus begins to expand that change becomes chaotic while prediction more and more difficult. In practical terms, the ability to control the system fades.

6. CHAOS CREATES COUNTERPRODUCTIVE ORDERING SYSTEMS.

Stuart Chandler, Harvard Univ., "When the world falls apart: Methodology for employing chaos and emptiness as theological constructs," Harvard Theological Review, 1992, p. 491.It is unfortunate that scientists have not yet realized that all systems of ordering the universe breed chaos: chaos is endemic to the ordering process. Chaos will not disappear upon the refinement and clarification of even the radical reconstruction of the present ordering of the world. Chaos is hydra-headed: the very process of rectifying the inconsistencies and inadequacies of the present world view creates new problems.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222SECTION 2: POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY

THE FOLLOWING SECTION EXAMINES COLLECTIVES VS. INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS AND A GENERAL INDICTMENT OF IDEO-POLITICAL THEORY FOLLOWS.

COLLECTIVE VERSUS INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS FOCUS

1. SUPPORTING COLLECTIVE RIGHTS CONFLICTS U.S. DOMESTIC POLICY

Robert Cullen, reporter-New Yorker, "Human Rights Quandry", FOREIGN AFFAIRS, WNTR 92/93, P. 85....the expansion of internationally recognized colletive rights could lead to conflict with American domestic policies. The United States cannot, without a fatal measure of hypocrisy, demand that foreign governments grant minority languages equal status and simultaneously insist on the dominant role of English within its own borders.

2. SUPPORTING COLLECTIVE SELF DETERMINATION CAUSES CONFLICT

Morton Halperin et al, Carnagie Endowment for International Peace, Self-Determination in the New World Order, P. 5.The carnage in, and refugee flows from, Bosnia-Herzegovina remove any doubt that the drive for self-determination is fraught with danger for the people involved and serious consequences for the rest of the world. The real issue is whether the United States and the world community can simply stand by and watch violent struggles unfold in country after country.

3. COLLECTIVE RIGHTS IN C.I.S. THREATEN WORLD PEACE

Robert Cullen, reporter-New Yorker, "Human Rights Quandry", FOREIGN AFFAIRS, WNTR 92/93, P. 79.Now that the artificial order of Soviet power has vanished, the unbridled assertion of collective rights, most often expressed as an aspiration to national self-determination, has become a major threat to global stability. The United States can no longer afford to be vague in its thinking about individual and nationality rights.

4. WILL TAKE YEARS TO SETTLE ISSUE OF COLLECTIVE SELF-DETERMINATION

Morton Halperin et al, Carnagie Endowment for International Peace, Self-Determination in the New World Order, P. 72....the challenges of self-determination in the new world order cannot and should not be tackled all at once. This will be a multi-year process, much as the imposition of international human rights principles on all countries has taken many years--and there is hardly full compliance yet.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2225. UNITED STATES MUST DEVELOP POLICY ON SELF DETERMINATION

Morton Halperin et al, Carnagie Endowment for International Peace, Self-Determination in the New World Order, P. 2....the possibility of recognizing Yugoslavia's seceding states and by ultimately doing so, brought leaders of Croatia and Bosnia-Herzegovina to believe that they could lead their republics out of Yugoslavia with the military support of at least a few major powers. Those leaders learned quickly, however, that the world community would essentially acquiesce in a central government's aggressive use of force to slaughter ethnic rivals and seize sovereign land with impunity.

6. CONFLICTING COLLECTIVE CLAIMS CAUSE ESCALATION

Robert Cullen, reporter-New Yorker, "Human Rights Quandry", FOREIGN AFFAIRS, WNTR 92/93, P. 81-82....conflicting assertions of collective rights cannot be resolved by simply endorsing the right to political self-determination via referendum in a given geographic area. Populations are not cleanly divided. There are too many areas with two, three, or four claimants. For the Trans-Caucasus area of the former Soviet Union, one historian, an Armenian American, devised 11 different shadings for a map illustrating the claimants and combinations of claimants to a territory the size of North Dakota. Finally, in the absence of countervailing factors there is more than enough suffering and injustice in the history of virtually any national group to prompt it toward vindictiveness and vengeance against its neighbors.

7. INTERNATIONAL LAW BROADENING SCOPE ON SELF-DETERMINATION

Morton Halperin et al, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Self-determination in the New World Order, P. 53....international law is beginning to evolve in the post-Cold War period toward a more expansive view of issues that bear directly upon the demands for self-determination. Governments, particularly in Europe and North America, are broadening their own understanding of international law on self-determination, human rights, and the use of force.

8. SELF-DETERMINATION CLAIMS OUTPACE INTERNATIONAL LAW

Morton Halperin et al, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Self-determination in the New World Order, P. 72....international law is at bottom the guardian of the global status quo, just as the law of any nation favors the domestic status quo. We discuss at some length in this book developments--some quite provocative--in international legal and political circles that may or may not become binding and enforceable international law in the years ahead. It is inevitable that the political process of responding to self-determination claims will at times overreach established international law.

9. COLLECTIVE RIGHTS NECESSARY TO PROTECT MINORITY RIGHTS

Morton Halperin et al, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Self-determination in the New World Order, P. 58.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Though weakly stated, this provision of the Copenhagen Document suggests that democracy and individual human rights guarantees alone may not adequately protect minorities--that it may be necessary to devolve to a minority group as a whole certain political functions and powers (presumably within a portion of the territory of the state) in order to protect not only minority rights but also the territorial integrity of the state.

10. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS SOLVES CONFLICT

Robert Cullen, reporter for The New Yorker, "Human Rights Quandary", FOREIGN AFFAIRS, WNTR 92/93, P. 87....all the successful multi-ethnic models that exist start with strict respect for individual human rights.

11. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS PROTECTS MINORITY RIGHTS BEST

Robert Cullen, reporter for The New Yorker, "Human Rights Quandary", FOREIGN AFFAIRS, WNTR 92/93, P. 84-85.The cornerstone of the solution to this dilemma is a human rights policy focused firmly on individual, rather than collective, rights. The demise of communism has not ended assaults on individual rights. In some areas of the world communism's disappearance has only increased the number of actors, governmental and nongovernmental, bent on depriving individuals of their rights to free speech, to security from torture, to travel and to all the rights enumerated in the 1948 U.N. Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

12. SELF-DETERMINATION CLAIMS FAIL WITHOUT RECOGNITION

Morton Halperin et al, Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, Self-determination in the New World Order, P. 65.Recognition by the international community is essential to the ultimate survival of a self-determination movement whose aim is to break away from an existing state.

13. COLLECTIVE RIGHTS NOT HUMAN RIGHTS

Jack Donnelly, prof at UNC, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, 1989, P. 145The idea of collective rights represents a major and at best confusing conceptual deviation. Groups, including nations, can and do hold a variety of rights. But these are not human rights. Whatever their relative importance,(individual) human rights and (collective) peoples' rights are very different kinds of rights and should be kept distinct.

14. MUST HAVE KNOWLEDGE OF HISTORICAL CLAIMS OR FAIL

Ronald R. Garet, prof law, Univ So Cal, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 901....to apply to the full range of problems posed by contemporary governmental treatment or mistreatment of ethnic, religious, or "national" minorities. Consider, as an example, the claims and counterclaims being made today in Europe and Asia by many groups that previously were subject to direct or indirect rule by the Soviet Union. Without a deep familiarity with the history and culture of these peoples or societies, one would find it impossible even to interpret their communal ways of life; surely it would be otiose to offer proposals in ignorance of these

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222ways and the frictions between them.

15. SUPPORTING COLLECTIVE RIGHTS MAKES HUMAN RIGHTS MEANINGLESS

Jack Donnelly, prof at UNC, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, 1989, P. 21.There is no special class of human rights that are rights of society or any other collectivity. Collectivities may indeed have rights. Society does have legitimate claims against individuals. Individuals do have important duties with respect to society. But the rights of society are not human rights, and cannot be human rights, unless we are to redefine the term. We must not fall into the trap of calling everything good a human right, thus draining all meaning from the term.

Denis Goulet, prof Education, Notre Dame, "International ethics and Human Rights", ALTERNATIVES, #17, 1992, P. 243.The present intellectual climate and the political conjuncture are both favorable to a serious discussion of human rights and of policies on their behalf. But a monumental problem arises: there are too many rights, too many competing claims. It is illusory to suppose that all good things can always come together; indeed, one needs to establish priorities or hierarchies of importance. Thus, the very proliferation of rights and claims is itself an obstacle to the implementation of any of them. Also, no value consensus exists in the world about how one should rank rights hierarchically, nor is there a single agreed upon source of ethics.

16. COLLECTIVE RIGHTS CAUSES SLIPPERY SLOPE TO POLITICAL ABUSE

Jack Donnelly, prof at UNC, Universal Human Rights in Theory and Practice, 1989, P. 146.The rhetoric of the rights of peoples or the masses too often seems to have little purpose other than to justify the denial of most specific (human and other) rights of most people. The dangers of political abuse are especially strong when the collective body held to possess these third generation human rights is the state.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22217. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS PUTS DEMOCRACY AT RISK

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard University, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse,1991, P. 138.When individual rights are permitted to undermine the communities that are the sources of such practices, they thus destroy their own surest underpinning. The paradox of liberalism seems to be that the strong state, the free market, and a vital civil society are all potential threats to individual citizens and to each other, yet a serious weakness in any one of them puts the entire democratic enterprise in jeopardy.

18. FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS CAUSES CIVIL DISORDERS

Mary Ann Glendon, Prof Law, Harvard University, Rights Talk: The Impoverishment of Political Discourse,1991, P. 15.By indulging in excessively simple forms of rights talk in our pluralistic society, we needlessly multiply occasions for civil discord. We make it difficult for persons and groups with conflicting interests and views to build coalitions and achieve compromise, or even to acquire that minimal degree of mutual forbearance and understanding that promotes peaceful coexistence and keeps the door open to further communication.

19. NO CLEAN THEORY OF GROUP RIGHTS

Ronald R. Garet, prof law, Univ So Cal, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 902.Such an immense universe of international and domestic issues is simply too broad to respond sharply and cleanly to any theory of group rights. But it is possible to entertain more modest hopes than this. One can bring to the investigation of these issues a concern for what is valuable about groupness, as well as an appreciation for the ways in which that value and many other human values tend to go unmet.

20. GROUP RIGHTS ARE IDENTIFIABLE

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 862....there actually are such things as groups; and that though there are lots of them, we can classify them and have a sensible discussion about them. Not only is the subject discussible, but it comprises much of what is interesting in constitutional law today.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 22221. SHOULD ACCEPT DIFFERENCES OF GROUPS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 864....we are now reassessing the conventional wisdom in civil rights law--the ideas that there are no essential differences between blacks and whites, between men and women, and that the law should be blind to matters of race and gender. The ascendant ideology holds that there are differences among groups--maybe not biological, but at least psychological and sociological--and that the law should take account of them in the short run (and maybe in the long run too).

22. GROUP RIGHTS CAUSE DISCRIMINATORY LEGAL INTERPRETATIONS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 873.Whatever one may think of Gomillion, the case did usher in a new era whose importance has only increased in the intervening thirty plus years. Because the economic and property arguments carried no weight, the case was argued and interpreted as a race case involving bad motives, and most relevant to the issues here, as a case involving group rights: if all persons shut out of the city had been white, then no one would have thought any constitutional claim was presented, no matter what the increase or decrease of the relative fortunes of the two groups. The key element in the case was that of racial animus--a special class of takings. It was not merely people hurting people. It was whites hurting blacks, hurting them because of the differences in color, and the separation of people with two different colors.

23. CONSTITUTION NOT ELUCIDATE GROUP RIGHTS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 877....the protections found in both the Bill of Rights and the Reconstruction Amendments, for example, are all keyed to the person, or to the nature of the liberty that is protected. There is no mention of group rights as such being accorded special status under the Constitution.

24. GROUP RIGHTS ALLOW FOR IGNORANCE OF ENDS OF GROUP

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 878.The emphasis upon the role of liberty in dealing with freedom of association makes it clear that the ends for which groups are organized, and the criteria they choose for selection, are of no concern whatsoever to the state. These individuals only wish to share with each other the rights that they otherwise enjoy singly. They do not claim through association any right to impose additional burdens or duties on those persons that, for whatever reason, are not invited to join their ranks.

25. EXTENTIONALIST THEORY OF GROUP RIGHTS NO FOUNDATION IN LAW

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 879.The rights of the individuals that compose the group, no more and no less, are transferred to the group itself. The process is therefore simply additive. If speech, property, and religion are

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222rights that are protected in the individual group members, then they are protected in the groups themselves. This attitude is of course at sharp variance with modern law. Collective bargaining statutes, for example, create unions that were not formed by voluntary means.

26. GROUP MAJORITY RULE INVALIDATES GROUP RIGHTS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 879.With voluntary groups, all members can be bound by group decisions in accordance with decision rules that were announced and accepted at the time the individual joined the union. But that source of legitimacy is denied when membership in the group is determined by majority rule. It is therefore no surprise that the Justices of the Supreme Court are wholly unable to agree about what activities a group can undertake with the funds of members that were forced to join the group against their will in the first place.

27. ANTI-DISCRIMINATION LAW OUTWEIGHS GROUP RIGHTS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 879.There is thus a moral tension between the enforcement of anti-discrimination principles for private voluntary associations and the principle of group autonomy I have just defined. It is quite clear that the Supreme Court does not believe that the principle of freedom of association can trump or limit the operation of anti-discrimination law. Indeed, it has on numerous occasions taken the undefended position that the elimination of private discrimination is a "compelling state interest," which justifies limitations on the freedom of association, however grounded in the Constitution.

28. MUST HAVE INDIVIDUAL RIGHTS SECURED FIRST TO HAVE GROUP RIGHTS

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 880-881.The safety and freedom of some groups can never be secure, unless the safety and freedom of all groups are secure. Freedom is indivisible for friend and foe alike. We have learned that lesson the hard way under the First Amendment, where selective forms of content restriction are deservedly greeted with the highest levels of judicial scrutiny. No system of government can claim the allegiance of all its citizens if it extends its protections to only those that are fortunate enough to fall within a protected class.

29. UPHOLDING MINORITY/WOMENS RIGHTS INSTITUTIONALIZES DISCRIMINATION

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 882.All too often we hear today that women and minorities should never be excluded form any organization that they wish to join for reasons of sex or race, but should have the power to exclude others from the organizations that they wish to form. The risks of this special pleading are serious. The appetite for preferences can never be satisfied, so what is advertised as a short term palliative against some past discrimination becomes embedded as a long term structural feature in the political culture.


30. INSTITUTIONALIZED DISCRIMINATION CAUSES AUTHORITARIANISM

John H. Garvey, prof law, Univ of Kentucky, `The Rights of Groups', KENTUCKY LAW JOURNAL, Summer 1992, P. 882.The language of subordination, of victimization, of hierarch becomes a tool for a new authoritarianism that is no better, nor less dangerous, than the older versions that it replaces. The dangers of unconstrained self-interest should always be kept at the fore, and these are best controlled by public systems of formal equality that keep any and all interest groups form appealing to their own special needs in order to commandeer the legal and moral power of the state.

POLITICAL TOLERANCE UNDESIRABLE

1. TOLERANCE INCREASES MAJORITY RULE

Herbert Marcuse, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. California at San Diego, "Repressive Tolerance," A CRITIQUE OF PURE TOLERANCE (ed. Wolff et al), 1969, p. 82.Tolerance is extended to policies, conditions, and modes of behavior which should not be tolerated because they are impeding, if not destroying, the chances of creating an existence without fear and misery. This sort of tolerance strengthens the tyranny of the majority against which authentic liberals protested.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 2222. TOLERANCE IS TOOL FOR REPRESSION

Herbert Marcuse, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. California at San Diego, "Repressive Tolerance," A CRITIQUE OF PURE TOLERANCE (ed. Wolff et al), 1969, p. 85.Within the framework of such a social structure, tolerance can be safely practiced and proclaimed. It is of two kinds: (1) the passive toleration of entrenched and established attitudes and ideas even if their damaging effect on man and nature is evident; and (2) the active, official tolerance granted to the Right as well as to the Left, to movements of aggression as well as to movements of peace, to the party of hate as well as to the party of humanity. I call this non-partisan tolerance "abstract" or "pure" inasmuch as it refrains from taking sides--but in doing so it actually protects the already established machinery of discrimination.

3. DEMOCRATIC TOLERANCE IS GENOCIDAL

Herbert Marcuse, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. California at San Diego, "Repressive Tolerance," A CRITIQUE OF PURE TOLERANCE (ed. Wolff et al), 1969, p. 109.The distance between the propaganda and the action, between the organization and its release on the people had become too short. But the spreading of the word could have been stopped before it was too late: if democratic tolerance had been withdrawn when the future leaders started their campaign, mankind would have had a chance of avoiding Auschwitz and a World War.

4. TOLERANCE DOES NOT HAVE POSITIVE BENEFITS

Herbert Marcuse, Prof. Philosophy, Univ. California at San Diego, "Repressive Tolerance," A CRITIQUE OF PURE TOLERANCE (ed. Wolff et al), 1969, p. 117-8.Under the conditions prevailing in this country, tolerance does not, and cannot, fulfill the civilizing function attributed to it by the liberal protagonists of democracy, namely, protection of dissent. The progressive historical force of tolerance lies in its extension to those modes and forms of dissent which are not committed to the status quo of society, and not confined to the institutional framework of the established society. Consequently, the idea of tolerance implies the necessity, for the dissenting group or individuals, to become illegitimate if and when the established legitimacy prevents and counteracts the development of dissent. This would be the case not only in a totalitarian society, under a dictatorship, in one-party states, but also in a democracy (representative, parliamentary, or "direct") where the majority does not result from the development of independent thought and opinion but rather from the monopolistic or oligopolistic administration of public opinion, without terror and (normally) without censorship.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222IDEO-THEORY (A) HERE ARE SOME PIECES OF RESEARCH INDICTING OVERALL POLITICAL THEORIES. THE INDEX WILL HELP.

THEORY:All ideologies equally bad (A1-A2)Ideological theory suspect (A3-A5)All systems suspect (A6)State theory suspect (A7-A8)Systems oversimplified (A9)Must have alternatives (A10)Postmaterialism (A11-A12)Postmodernism (A13-A19)Kritiks (A20-A22)

SPECIFIC SYSTEMS:No preconditions for democracy (A23-A26)Socialism and capitalism compatible (A27)Both socialism and capitalism have merits (A28-A29)

DRULESEfficiency (A30)Equality (A31)Morality (A32-A33)Growth (A34-A35)Militarism (A36-46)Social stratification (A47-A49)

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A1/Edward Nell, Prof., Econ., New School for Social Research, "The failure of demand management in socialism," Socialist Economies in Transition: Appraisals of the Market Mechanism, M. Knell & C. Rider., eds., 1992, p. 100.Capitalism tends to stagnate, socialism to run shortages, but both tendencies meet countervailing pressures and stay within limits. One source of such pressures is external trade, but others can be found within the domestic economy itself.

A2/Kyung-won Kim, Pres., Inst. Of Social Sciences, South Korea private research center, “Marx, Schumpeter, and the East Asian experience,” Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited, L Diamond & M. Plattner, eds., 1993, p. 24.The collapse of communism leaves no room for socialism in its doctrinally pure form, while the cumulative experience of procapitalist governments that have inherited and managed programs inaugurated by "socialist"' predecessors makes doctrinaire antisocialist capitalism seem less and less relevant.

A3/Justin Schwartz, Ohio State Univ., “The paradox of ideology,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy, December, 1993, p. 554.A sustained tendency to maintain a theory by ad hoc modifications in the face of anomaly or frustration or a sustained downgrading of ends to the limits of theory indicates theoretical inadequacy.

A4/Justin Schwartz, Ohio State Univ., “The paradox of ideology,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy, December, 1993, p. 553.If some belief or theory frustrates sustained practical success in satisfying the noncognitive social interests that ultimately produce it, that is evidence that it is probably false or that acceptance of it is unjustified, i.e. that it is ideological.

A5/Justin Schwartz, Ohio State Univ., “The paradox of ideology,” Canadian Journal of Philosophy, December, 1993, p. 551.While some beliefs and values tend to be systematically distorted because they are driven by particular interests, others tend to be systematically corrected because they are driven by other interests. Ideological beliefs and values are suspect not because they are interested or positional, but because they are informed by suspect, truth -distorting interests or partial positions. Beliefs and values informed by truth-promoting interests or positions may be thereby justified even though the connection between these interests or positions and truth is contingent and causal.

A6/W. J. Stankiewicz, PPS, U. British Columbia, In Search of a Political Philosophy: Ideologies at the Close of the Twentieth Century, 1993, pp. 267-268.A democratic political system can be converted into a tyranny without a revolution or change of basic institutions, simply by an appeal to the means-end dichotomy: make a sacrifice of 'freedom' in the sense 'desired' so as to attain the desirable, 'true' freedom later on. The serious danger of this appeal lies in its seeming ethical element: the abandonment of personal hedonist standards (one's present feelings) for those of genuine ethics - 'freedom' as agreed on by everybody, whether liberal, conservative or socialist (or, for that matter, Communist, Fascist, etc.).

A7/Clyde Barrow, PPS, U. Massachusetts-Dartmouth, Critical Theories of the State: Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Post-Marxist, 1993, p. 10.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222Hence, political theories must also advance a methodological position that enables scholars to specify what kinds of research and evidence are necessary to test those hypothetical claims and to provide rules about what counts as an adequate explanation of the state.

A8/Clyde Barrow, PPS, U. Massachusetts-Dartmouth, Critical Theories of the State: Marxist, Neo-Marxist, Post-Marxist, 1993, p. 10.Moreover, the inconclusive (and often vacuous) results of previous forays into the metatheory of the state make it highly dubious whether there is any grand synthesis that can transcend the existing array of competing theories. Indeed, it is my contention that there is no single, overarching synthetic standpoint from which the state is fully comprehensible.

A9/W. J. Stankiewicz, PPS, U. British Columbia, In Search of a Political Philosophy: Ideologies at the Close of the Twentieth Century, 1993, p. 315.When people begin to specular about the convergence of ideologically disparate systems -- as was the case in the 1960s -- by arguing that similarities in economic structures and the need to solve common problems 'scientifically' will make the Communist countries and Western democracies almost indistinguishable, it is apparent that ideological considerations are being dismissed as of no great significant in human affairs.

A10/Franz J. Hinkelammert, Departmento Ecumenico de Investigaviones, Costa Rica, "The crisis of socialism in the Third World," Monthly Review, July-August, 1993, p. 113.Nonetheless, we must never cease to proclaim that there will be no human survival unless an alternative is found to the system that is being celebrated. Alternatives will arise only when all of the world's population is clamoring for them. Alternatives are not extruded from a sausage machine. They are discovered or invented only when it becomes perfectly, clear that we cannot survive without them.

A11/James L. Gibson & Raymond M. Duch, Univ. Of Houston, “Postmaterialism and the emerging Soviet democracy,” Political Research Quarterly, March, 1994, p. 9.The development of postmaterial values was also abetted by rising levels of education and improved working conditions through the application of advanced technology.

A12/James L. Gibson & Raymond M. Duch, Univ. Of Houston, “Postmaterialism and the emerging Soviet democracy,” Political Research Quarterly, March, 1994, p. 9.“Postmaterialists" are those who assign a high priority to personal autonomy and self-expression, whereas materialists" tend to be preoccupied with basic economic concerns.

A13/Alison Jaggar, Prof., Phil., Univ. Colorado, “Moral justification, philosophy, and critical social theory,” Monthly Review, June, 1993, p. 19....radical historicists insist that it makes no sense to postulate such essences or categorizes. Human knowers can never transcend their particular place in history by attaining some Archimedean epistemic standpoint, outside history, which will afford insight into necessary, universal, and permanent realities. Human knowledge is inevitably historical and fallible.

A14/Alison Jaggar, Prof., Phil., Univ. Colorado, "Moral justification, philosophy, and critical social theory," Monthly Review, June, 1993, pp. 17-18.The ironic skeptics are faddish postmodernists, followers of Michel Foucault and Jacques Derrida, who talk about the subtle relations of rhetoric, knowledge, and power, yet remain silent about concrete ways in which people are empowered to resist and what can be gained by

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222such resistance.

A15/Alison Jaggar, Prof., Phil., Univ. Colorado, “Moral justification, philosophy, and critical social theory,” Monthly Review, June, 1993, p. 20.Thus, even as postmodernists and new historicists present an overt challenge to the Western philosophical tradition, their skeptical, cynical, and relativist conclusions betray a continuing covert adherence to the classical dichotomies of being and becoming, reality and appearance, knowledge and opinion.

A16/Jorge Lorrain, Dept. Cultural Studies, Birmingham Univ., “The postmodern critique of ideology,” The Sociological Review, May, 1994, p. 312.Paradoxically, therefore, the aggressive position of postmodernism against the concept of ideology fails fully to eradicate - and implicitly postulates - the totalising perspective it sought to abolish, and therefore ends up contradicting itself. It rejects the critique of ideology but introduces a sort of ideology critique in its attack against metanarratives and in its analyses of diverse social phenomena which. seem to conceal a deeper reality.

A17/Jorge Lorrain, Dept. Cultural Studies, Birmingham Univ., “The postmodern critique of ideology,” The Sociological Review, May, 1994, p. 297.As postmodernism questions our ability to reach a truth which is not relative to a particular discourse, and doubts the existence of fundamental social relations and contradictions, the epistemological judgement implicit in ideology critique becomes impossible.

A18/Alison Jaggar, Prof., Phil., Univ. Colorado, “Moral justification, philosophy, and critical social theory,” Monthly Review, June, 1993, pp. 22-23.Only by abandoning the old philosophic dichotomies can we escape epistemic skepticism, explanatory nihilism, and historical cynicism and turn to the urgent political task of developing historically specific accounts of structures such as modes of production, state apparatuses and bureaucracies, and socially detailed analyses of how such structures shape and are shaped by cultural agents. These theoretic analyses will make no pretensions to philosophic necessity; instead, their adequacy will be determined experimentally and empirically. They will be fallible but still rationally and empirically "warranted.”

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A19/Jorge Lorrain, Dept. Cultural Studies, Birmingham Univ., “The postmodern critique of ideology,” The Sociological Review, May, 1994, pp. 312-313.The postmortem relativism and distrust of reason make it impossible for anyone to believe in a better future or in the possible resolution of major societal problems. Consciously sought change and politics in general seem to lose all sense. In the end, reality and agency themselves have been dissolved. In openly attacking the concept of ideology but secretly using it to unilaterally criticize the theories (metanarratives) which propose critical concepts of ideology, postmodernism not only contradicts itself it also becomes a convenient ideology of the status quo. By suspecting those who suspect the established system, postmodernism explains away the problems of, and hence cannot but implicitly support, the status quo.

A20/David Schweickart, Prof. Phil., Loyola Univ. - Chicago, “Economic democracy: A worthy socialism that would really work,” Science & Society, Spring, 1992, p. 23.Although the society is democratic, it would not be feasible to attempt a popular vote on each investment project. Not only does the sheer number of projects render such a procedure unworkable, but it would negate a major benefit of socialized investment: the conscious adoption of a reasonably coordinated coherent set of investment priorities.

A21/Jorge Lorrain, Dept. Cultural Studies, Birmingham Univ., “The postmodern critique of ideology,” The Sociological Review, May, 1994, pp. 306-307.Ideology must be eliminated because it undermines the plurality of discourses, in other words it undermines democracy.

A22/Jorge Lorrain, Dept. Cultural Studies, Birmingham Univ., “The postmodern critique of ideology,” The Sociological Review, May, 1994, p. 307....one can only exclude a universal discourse or metanarrative by means of another, equally universal metanarrative, which is implicit in the very act of exclusion.

A23/Baohui Zhang, Univ. Texas, Austin, “Corporatism, totalitarianism, and transitions to democracy,” Comparative Political Studies, April, 1994, p. 110....there may be no single precondition of democracy (Karl, 1990, p. 5). Political experience in the last two decades has led many political scientists to accept this view. Indeed, the creation of democracy or democratization is such a situationally complex phenomenon that it is unlikely to be associated consistently with one or another socioeconomic variable. As political scientists in the postbehavioral era abandoned the notion of finding broad patterns in the social world and building generalizable theories to explain these patterns, they came to appreciate the effects of unique national historical experiences and contingent factors in the shaping of social and political institutions.

A24/Baohui Zhang, Univ. Texas at Austin, “Corporatism, totalitarianism, and transtion to democracy,” Comparative Political Studies, April, 1994, p. 110.This futile search for preconditions of democracy leads to the conclusion that there may be no single precondition of democracy (Karl, 1990, p. 5). Political experience in the last two decades has led many political scientists to accept this view. Indeed, the creation of democracy or democratization is such a situationally complex phenomenon that it is unlikely to be associated consistently with one or another socioeconomic variable.

A25/Baohui Zhang, Univ. Texas at Austin, “Corporatism, totalitarianism, and transition to democracy,” Comparative Political Studies, April, 1994, p. 109.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222The best-known early theory on democracy, modernization theory, holds- that once a society reaches a certain level of economic development, stable democracy is likely to emerge and consolidate. The logic for this argument tog is that higher levels of literacy, education, and urbanization are usually associated with high levels of economic development, and they provide civil understandings and supports necessary to democratic institutions and practices.

A26/Baohui Zhang, Univ. Texas at Austin, “Corporatism, totalitarianism, and transition to democracy,” Comparative Political Studies, April, 1994, p. 108....although the right-contingent choices by elites during the transition is important, political pact making depends on certain institutional conditions. Thus only some types of authoritarian regimes can follow this path of democratization. Others, especially those with strong totalitarian legacies, lack the necessary institutional conditions.

A27/Adam Przeworski, Ryerson PPS, Univ. Chicago, “The Neoliberal fallacy,” Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited, L. Diamond & M. Plattner, eds., 1993, P. 40.Neoliberal ideology, emanating from the United States and various multinational agencies, claims that the choice is obvious, there is only one path to development, and it must be followed. Proponents of this ideology argue as if they had a Last Judgment picture of the world, a general model of economic and political dynamics that allows them to assess the ultimate consequences of all partial steps. Yet this model is no more than a mixture of evidence, argument from first principles, self-interest, and wishful thinking.

A28/349/Claude Ake, Dir., Center for Adv. Social Sciences, Univ. of Port Harcourt, "Devaluing democracy," Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited, L. Diamond & M. Plattner, eds., 1993, P. 30.Capitalism bests socialism economically because it is more conducive to economic growth. Capitalism bests socialism politically by being more conducive to democracy, but it engenders democracy by fostering economic growth.

A29/Claude Ake, Dir., Center for Adv. Social Sciences, Univ. Of Port Harcourt, “Devaluing democracy,” Capitalism, Socialism, and Democracy Revisited, L. Diamond & M. Plattner, eds., 1993, P. 29.Socialism too represents some democratic possibilities, possibilities that are complementary to those associated with the capitalist system.

A30/Paul Bowles et al, Saint Mary’s Univ., “Review articles: Socialist economics, which way now?” Review of Radical Political Economics, 24:3/4, 1992, p. 193.The failings of the Soviet model illustrate that any new form of socialist economic organization will need to find ways of achieving a reasonable level of efficiency so defined. Furthermore, the (often externally imposed) isolation of many 20th Century socialist economies is not a viable option for the future. It is likely that socialist economies will have to interact with a predominantly capitalist world economy, and pressures of international competition will require that a certain basic level of “economic efficiency” is achieved.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A31/Thomas E. Weisskopf, Dept. Econ., Univ. Michigan, “Toward a socialism for the future, in the wake of the demise of socialism of the past,” Review of Radical Political Economics, 24:3/4, 1992, p. 1....as against the capitalist reality of great inequalities of income and wealth, socialism calls for an egalitarian distribution of economic outcomes and opportunities by class, race, gender, region, etc.

A32/Istvan Meszaros, former chairman, Dept. Phil., Univ. Of Sussex, “Marxism-politics-morality,” Monthly Review, June, 1993, p. 34.The relationship between morality and politics is not only very intricate. It also happens to be a necessary or inescapable one, notwithstanding the attempts of some brands of politics to set themselves above or "beyond" morality. This inescapable link between politics and morality applies also to the theoretical considerations of the subject. For whenever it is difficult to confront the problems and contradictions of politics in the prevailing social order, theories of morality suffer the consequences of such-far from academic-difficulty. It is therefore by no means accidental that the twentieth century is so poor in theories of morality and ethics.

A33/John B. Foster, Prof. Socio., Univ. Oregon, “Introduction to a symposium on the ethical dimensions of Marxist thought,” Monthly Review, June, 1993, p. 10.Moral nihilism and strong relativism are often presented as dangerous doctrines because in strongly relativizing all ethical values they deprive humanity of universal standards of conduct and open the way to the notion that Thrasymachus' position that "might is right" has as much validity as any other moral stance.

A34/Kishore Mahbubani, Dep. Sec. Gen., Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Singapore, “The West and the rest,” A World Fit for People, U. Kirdar & L. Silk, eds., 1994, p. 9.Western societies struggled to eliminate the gross inequalities that resulted from the early years of industrialization. This they, essentially did. Now they are faced with a much, much larger proletariat on their doorsteps - one drawn irresistibly by an awareness of Western affluence and opportunity. Western Europeans are beginning to understand this. If something goes wrong in, say, Algeria or Tunisia, the problems will impact on France. In the eyes of the North African population, the Mediterranean, which once divided civilizations, has become a mere pond. What human being would not cross a pond in order to improve his or her livelihood? Through all previous centuries, men and women have crossed oceans and mountains to seek a better life, often, suffering terrible hardship in the process. Indeed, it is this drive that explains the wide geographic span of "Western' societies outside their origins in continental Europe, stretching from North America through South Africa to Australia and New Zealand. Today, many more people feel that they can make similar journeys. So far Western Europeans have only seen the beginnings of such mass movements, and already they are deeply troubled.

A35/Louis Emmerij, sr. Advisor to the president, Inter-American Development Bank, “The relationship between political freedom and economic efficiency,” A World Fit for People, U. Kirdar & L. Silk, eds., 1994, p. 103.G.A. O'.Donnell has shown that in the Latin America of the 1960s and 1970s, high rates of economic growth produced what he calls "bureaucratic authoritarianism." These were somber years of military rule from which Latin America has only recently emerged.

A36/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. of Notre Dame, "Military policies and the

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222state system as impediments to democracy," Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 232.We can democratize world society by demilitarizing security, and we can demilitarize security by democratizing world society. But we can do neither by following the current military policies of the great powers. The end of the cold war provides an unusual opportunity, which remains tragically unutilized, for all democrats to embark with new purpose and urgency upon a transformation of the code of international conduct and the establishment of transnational institutions that will move us closer to a warless world in which democracy can flourish.

A37/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, pp. 230-231.The undemocratic, psychologically unhealthy conditions surrounding the conception, gestation and life of modern military policies have given birth to monstrous problems for democracies. Beyond their immediate effects, they have also introduced long-term malignant growths in the life of democracy more generally. Indeed, nuclear weapons by their very existence, forever obliterate the occasion of "peace", thereby ... depriving a democratic polity of one of its most essential preconditions'. For the nuclear powers, 'democracy, as a political framework, seems to be a permanent casualty of the nuclear age, although democratic forms, as an increasingly empty shell, can persist ... '." Underneath the shell, US military policies have extinguished democracy over central aspects of US society and its future security.

A38/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 230.Policies governing high levels of military preparedness in general and weapons of mass destruction in particular have escaped democratic control over the past four decades, regardless of who has been in power.

A39/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 230.Thirdly, contemporary military policies discourage democracy internationally by obstructing multilateral diplomacy; by impeding the growth of intergovernmental institutions and transnational reformulations of sovereignty; and by reinforcing the sovereign separation of states and thereby their irresponsibility toward people in neighbouring societies.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A40/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 230.Secondly, contemporary military policies discourage democracy domestically by legitimizing military and political institutions that are hierarchical and authoritarian; by insisting on secrecy and practising deception in decision-making; by mounting covert operations; and by skewing political and economic resources away from equitable service of people's needs into the inequitable service of those with vested interests in the military-industrial complex.

A41/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 230.First, [the military] discourage democracy within people's minds and psychological dispositions by requiring citizens to accept life-and-death policies flowing from their own government even though they exercise no genuine control over those policies; by asking citizens to be willing to shorten or extinguish the lives of millions of other people, whether through economic hardship unnecessarily exacerbated by military priorities or through war, without any determination as to whether the victims' fate at the hands of US military policies is justifiable; and by inhibiting people in other countries from enjoying democracy, in a transnational sense, because they have no reliable representation in the decision-making councils of the US or other external governments.

A42/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 230.In short, the contemporary military policies of the US and presumably of all nuclear powers severely limit the practice and threaten the lifeblood of democracy. These policies produce anti-democratic consequences in three domains.

A43/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 228.Whether future conflict is east-west, north-south, or some presently unforeseen configuration, the underlying point remains the same: contemporary security policies continue to reinforce adversarial military relations among national sovereignties, not serious diplomatic programmes to include the adversary within a system of universal rules and a form of transnational governance that would deliberately induce a nation-state to give up its own national war-making function of sovereignty in return for other governments throughout the world doing the same. Yet there can be little doubt that the human species must move soon in this direction if it is to survive, and to survive with dignity. Equally important but more surprising, the species must also move in that direction if any state is to enjoy democracy in the future.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A44/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 227.Military policies act as an anti-democratic force because they channel a society's energies into the maintenance of traditional sovereign boundaries at a time when 'the very process of governance is escaping the reach of the nation-state.”

A45/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 227.Despite the unacceptability of concentrating power over human civilization and the biosphere in the hands of one or several persons, we must recognize also that the more widely and democratically the powers of deliberation and decision-making are spread, the less effective the nuclear deterrent may become, because instantaneous response becomes difficult if not impossible. It does seem that either democracy or weapons of mass destruction must be given up. If war is not abolished, democracy will be.

A46/Robert C. Johansen, Prof., Government, Univ. Of Notre Dame, “Military policies and the state system as impediments to democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 216.In sum, to the extent that the military mind pervades society, authoritarianism is promoted and democracy is undermined. In addition to the fundamental conflict between democratic and military worldviews, there are several other reasons why the presumed 'requirements' of national security have impeded the fulfilment of the democratic principle. The technical complexity of weapons and strategies, the secrecy in policy planning and execution, the deception used to confound other countries and domestic political opponents, the speed of response required in time of crisis, the extreme concentration of power in the hands of a few decision-makers, and the unavailability, disuse, or undemocratic nature of global governance to manage reliably the needs for security enhancement - all these, to which we now turn, undermine democracy.

A47/1035/Paul Hirst, Prof., Politics, Open Univ., “Associational democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, pp. 114-115.Unless effective work and welfare are offered, in a way that both targets and empowers the members of this 'class', then the way is open to an escalating conflict between crime and deviance and disablingly authoritarian measures which aim at the protection of the majority. The members of the 'underclass' are not stupid. They know that wealth and success are in part capriciously distributed; that is, that they depend on the chances of social position and geographical location.

A48/Paul Hirst, Prof., Politics, Open Univ., “Associational democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 116.We need a principle of renewal that will offer extensive and equitable welfare, but is prey to fewer of the authoritarian dangers of collectivism. Whether power is held by the extreme left or the radical right matters less than the existence of institutions that make such concentrated power possible.

Berube – Value Criteria Task Book of 222A49/Paul Hirst, Prof., Politics, Open Univ., “Associational democracy,” Prospects for Democracy: North, South, East, West, D. Held., ed., 1993, p. 114.The main threats to western societies are no longer external and organized but internal and diffuse. They are none the less real for that, but centralized bureaucratic structures cope so badly with these more amorphous threats of crime and drug addiction, for example, that this can hardly provide them with a convincing raison d”etre.

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