Chapter 10 Development of Language and Communication Skills

FIVE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

Phonology – knowledge of language’s sound system (phonetics)

Morphology – rules specifying how words are formed from sounds

Semantics – meanings expressed in wordsFree morphemes – stand alone wordsBound morphemes – cannot stand alone,

change meaning of free morphemes when added

FIVE COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

Syntax – rules specifying how words are combined to produce sentences

Pragmatics – principles governing how language is used in different social situations

Also requires interpretation of nonverbal signals

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The Learning (Empiricist) PerspectiveImitation, reinforcement and correction are

responsible for learning languageEvaluation of Learning Perspective

Imitation and reinforcement are importantSyntax (grammatical correctness) not reinforced

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The Nativist PerspectiveHumans are biologically programmed to

acquire languageLanguage acquisition device – activated by verbal

input (Chomsky)Universal grammar – common set of rules

Language-Making Capacity (Slobin)

Figure 10.1 A model of language acquisition proposed by nativists.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Support for the Nativist PerspectivePresence of linguistic universalsLanguage is species specificBrain Specialization and Language

Broca’s area – speech productionWernicke’s area – speech comprehension

Sensitive-Period Hypothesis – language most easily acquired - birth to puberty

Figure 10.2 As shown here, there is a clear relationship between the age at which immigrants arrived in the United States and their eventual adult performance in English grammar. Those who arrived early in childhood end up performing like native speakers of English, whereas those who arrived as teenagers or adults perform much more poorly.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Problems with the Nativist ApproachOther species show auditory discrimination early in

lifeDoesn’t explain language developmentOverlooked the role of the environment

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

The Interactionist PerspectiveBiological and Cognitive Contributors

Biologically prepared to acquire languageGradually maturing nervous system, develop

similar ideas at same ageBiological maturation affects cognitive

development, affecting language

Figure 10.3 Grammatical complexity increases as a function of the size of children’s productive vocabulary.

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Environmental Supports Language is a means of communicatingLessons from Joint Activities

Conversations require taking turnsLessons from Child-Directed Speech

Short, simple sentences (motherese)Becomes more complex with language

development

THEORIES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

Environmental Supports, continuedLessons from Negative Evidence

Respond to ungrammatical speech o Expansion – corrected and enriched versiono Recast – new grammatical forms

Importance of ConversationMust be involved in using language, exposure to

speech is not sufficient

Figure 10.4 An overview of the interactionist perspective on language development.

BEFORE LANGUAGE:THE PRELINGUSITC PERIOD

Early Reactions to Speech3 days old, prefer mother’s voiceCan distinguish phonemes adults cannotThe Importance of Intonational Cues

Sensitive to cues from birth7 months sensitive to phrase units

BEFORE LANGUAGE:THE PRELINGUSITC PERIOD

Producing Sounds: Prelinguistic Vocalizations2 months – cooing (vowel sounds)4-6 months – babbling (vowel + consonant)10-12 months – vocables – reserving sounds

for particular situations

BEFORE LANGUAGE:THE PRELINGUSITC PERIOD

What Do Prelinguistic Infants Know about Language and Communication?7-8 months, vocal turn takingGestures and Nonverbal Communication

8-10 monthsDeclarative – directing attention Imperative – alter others’ behavior

BEFORE LANGUAGE:THE PRELINGUSITC PERIOD

Do Preverbal Infants Understand the Meaning of Words?12-13 months – yesReceptive language (understanding) develops

earlier than productive language (expression)

ONE WORD AT A TIME: THE HOLOPHRASE PERIOD

Holophrase – one word “sentences”Early Semantics: Building a Vocabulary

Vocabulary grows one word at a timeNaming explosion – 18-24 monthsTalk most about manipulable objectsMultimodel motherese – exaggerated

sentences by an adult accompanied by an action explaining the words

Table 10.1 Types of Words Used by Children with Productive Vocabularies of 50 Words. SOURCE: Adapted from Nelson, 1973.

ONE WORD AT A TIME: THE HOLOPHRASE PERIOD

Individual and Cultural VariationsReferential style – word refer to people or objects

(Western cultures)Expressive style – personal/social words (Eastern

cultures)Birth order influences language style

ONE WORD AT A TIME: THE HOLOPHRASE PERIOD

Attaching Meaning to WordsFast-mapping – quickly acquiring a word after

hearing it applied a few timesGood at 13-15 months, better for

understanding, difficult retrieving words from memory

ONE WORD AT A TIME: THE HOLOPHRASE PERIOD

Common Errors in Word UseOverextension – overgeneralizationUnderextension – using word for small range of

objectsStrategies for Inferring Word Meanings

Use of social and contextual cuesProcessing constraints

Object scope; Mutual exclusivity; lexical constraint

Table 10.2 Some Processing Strategies, or Constraints, That Guide Young Children’s Inferences about the Meaning of New Words.

ONE WORD AT A TIME: THE HOLOPHRASE PERIOD

Syntactical Clues to Word MeaningSyntactical bootstrapping – learning meaning from

sentence structureo Noun – objecto Adjective – characteristic of objecto Causation – action word

THE TELEGRAHPIC PERIOD: FROM HOLOPHRASES TO SIMPLE SENTENCES

Telegraphic speech – 18-24 monthsSimple sentences, containing only critical

words (no grammatical markers)More common in languages where word

order is more important than grammatical markers

A Semantic Analysis of Telegraphic Speech

Table 10.3 Similarities in Children’s Spontaneous Two-Word Sentences in Four Languages. SOURCE: Adapted from Slobin, 1979.

THE TELEGRAHPIC PERIOD: FROM HOLOPHRASES TO SIMPLE SENTENCES

A Semantic Analysis of Telegraphic SpeechFollows some grammatical rulesContext is also vital for understanding

meaningThe Pragmatics of Early Speech

2 year olds – good at vocal turn-takingPrefer to talk about unshared informationMonitor responses to clarify meaningUnderstanding need to be polite

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Preschool period (2 ½-5) sentences become complex and adultlike

Grammatical DevelopmentDevelopment of Grammatical Morphemes

Grammatical morphemes – modifiers give more precise meaning to sentences ‘s’ for plurality; ‘ed’ for past tense ‘ing’ for present progressive

Table 10.4 Samples of One Boy’s Speech at Three Ages.

Table 10.5 Order of Acquisition of English Grammatical Morphemes.

Figure 10.5 A linguistic puzzle used to determine young children’s understanding of the rule for forming plurals in English.

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Grammatical Morphemes - continuedAcquired in a specific orderOverregularization – overextend new grammatical

morphemeso Relatively rare

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Mastering Transformational RulesTransformation grammar – rules for creating

variations of declarative sentencesAsking questions

o Yes/no – rising intonationo Wh- questions (who, what, where, when, why) o Moving auxiliary verb

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Producing Negative Sentenceso Negative before sentenceo Move negative inside sentenceo Combine negative with auxiliary verb

Producing Complex Sentenceso Age 3 - clauses, conjunctions first, embedded

sentences nexto 5-6 good grammar

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Semantic Development2-5 understand and express relational

contrasts Big/little; tall/short; in/on; here/there

Frequently misinterpret passives

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Development of Pragmatics and Communication Skills3 year olds – illocutionary intent – real

meaning may be different than literal meaning of words

3-5 – must tailor messages to communicate effectively

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Referential CommunicationAbility to detect ambiguities in others’ speech and

ask for clarificationPreschool – fail to detect linguistic ambiguities

o Generally successfully guessAssume own uninformative sentences are clearBetter in natural environment than lab

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING MIDDLE CHILDHOOD AND ADOLESCENCE

Later Syntactical DevelopmentMiddle childhood – syntactical refinement

Subtle rules, complex structuresSemantic and Metalinguistic Awareness

Rapid vocabulary growth – Morphological knowledge – meaning of morphemes

to determine new wordsAdd abstract words

9 to 11 – recognize and make inferences

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Metalinguistic awarenessThinking about language and comment on

propertiesGrammatical awarenessPhonological awareness – linked to reading

achievement

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

Further Development of Communication SkillsDramatic improvement in referential

communication skills by 6 or 7Less egocentric, more role-taking9 - 10 years old – more clarification for ambiguous

information

Table 10.6 Typical Idiosyncratic Descriptions Offered by Preschool Children When Talking about Unfamiliar Graphic Designs in the Krauss and Glucksberg Communication Game.

LANGUAGE LEARNING DURING THE PRESCHOOL PERIOD

What Role Do Siblings Play in the Growth of Communication Skills?Promotes effective communication

Siblings less likely to adjust speech, but then more likely to monitor and fix ambiguous messages

Less likely to interpret ambiguous message from younger sibling – forcing them to adjust

Table 10.7 Important Milestones in Language Development.

Bilingualism: Challenges and Consequences of Learning Two Languages

Exposure to 2 languages prior to age 3, proficient in both

Preschool children, often learn second language to proficiency in 1 year

Cognitive advantagesScore higher on IQ tests, metalinguistic

awareness, better selective attention

Bilingualism: Challenges and Consequences of Learning Two Languages

English-only instruction Causes LEP children to struggle academicallyDo not acquire sufficient level of skill in

English

Bilingualism: Challenges and Consequences of Learning Two Languages

Two-way bilingual educationHalf day in English, half in second languageBeneficial for both students with limited

English proficiency and students fluent in English