Growing˘up˘Bengali˘in˘the˘UK˘- editorial An˘Interview˘with˘Mona-Lisa˘Mukherjee 23-3... ·...
Transcript of Growing˘up˘Bengali˘in˘the˘UK˘- editorial An˘Interview˘with˘Mona-Lisa˘Mukherjee 23-3... ·...
news and views for intercultural people editors: sami grover and marjukka grover
editorial
2006Volume�23Number�3
Growing�up�Bengali�in�the�UK�-An�Interview�with�Mona-Lisa�Mukherjee
Mona-Lisa�with�her�mum,�Shukla
Can�you�give�a�short�description�of�yourfamily�background?
My�family�are�originally�from�Kolkata(Calcutta),�in�Bengal,�India,�although�I�havegrown�up�in�the�UK�all�of�my�life.�Mybrother�was�born�in�India�in�1975,�but�myfamily�moved�to�England�a�few�years�later.
What�was�the�language�environment�like�inyour�family�when�you�were�growing�up?
When�we�were�young,�my�parents�made�aconscious�decision�to�speak�English�to�meand�my�brother.�They�were�concerned�thatwe�wouldn't�pick�up�English�and�that�oureducation�would�suffer�if�we�were�spokento�in�Bengali�at�home.�They�spoke�mainlyBengali�between�themselves�however,�sowhilst�my�brother�and�I�didn't�learn�to�speakmuch�Bengali�when�we�were�young,�wecertainly�understood�a�fair�amount.
Did�your�family�remain�in�close�contactwith�relatives�in�Bengal?
We�certainly�retained�close�contact,�andmy�grandparents�visited�a�couple�of�timeswhen�we�were�small,�but�it�wasn't�until�Iwas�7�that�I�first�visited�India.�After�thatwe�started�going�back�more�regularly.
What�were�your�first�impressions�onreturning�to�India?
It's�funny,�but�I�felt�immediately�at�home.�Imight�have�expected�to�feel�a�little�isolatedor�alienated,�particularly�given�that�I�didn'tspeak�much�Bengali.�However,�thanks�togrowing�up�hearing�the�language,�I�couldactually�understand�a�great�deal.�Asidefrom�the�language,�the�main�thing�Iremember�about�these�visits,�andsomething�that�still�impresses�me,�is�theimportance�of�hospitality�in�Indian�culture.Everyone�was�so�kind�and�open-hearted.They�went�out�of�their�way�to�make�surethat�we�all�felt�at�home.�This�couldsometimes�be�a�little�irritating�too�ofcourse.�They�don't�appear�to�have�muchconcept�of�privacy.�It�is�perfectly�normalfor�someone�to�just�walk�straight�into�youroom�-�something�that�the�English�side�ofme�found�difficult�to�accept.
Now,�as�a�grown�up,�one�thing�that�I�cansee�made�me�feel�at�home�was�theintegration�of�spirituality�into�everydaylife.�I�wouldn't�consider�myself�activelyreligious�in�terms�of�an�organised�faith�oranything,�but�I�have�always�been�interestedin�spirituality.�I�guess�you�could�categorisemy�beliefs�as�fairly�"new�agey",�but�theyseemed�to�fit�well�with�my�relatives�inIndia.�Religion�wasn't�something�that�wasparcelled�off�into�one�part�of�your�life,
Continued�on�Page�2
“Our�children�can�potentially�be�blessedwith�more�than�bilingual�brains,�as�theirlanguage�experience�can�affect�theirvalues�and�viewpoint.�Bilinguals�ownmuch�more�than�two�languages.”
As�Colin�Baker�points�out�on�page�5,bi/multilingualism�is�often�only�onesmall�part�of�what�it�means�to�grow�upbetween�two�(or�more)�cultures.�Food,customs,�traditions�and�even�wholeworld-views�are�such�a�vital�part�of�ourintercultural�heritage.�Not�only�is�thisimportant�in�its�own�right�in�terms�ofsupporting�self-esteem�and�sense�ofidentity,�a�child's�attitude�to�their�'other'culture�can�often�also�play�a�pivotal�rolein�determining�whether�bilinguallanguage�aquisition�is�successful�or�not.
Whether�its�Mona-Lisa�Muklherjee'sinsightful�comments�on�her�BritishAsian�heritage,�Maria�Gavrilova's�articleon�cultural�and�linguistic�immersionnursery�education,�or�Ann�Giles'�articleon�teaching�the�minority�language�athome,�all�of�our�correspondents�in�thisissue�show�what�a�vital�part�culture�andheritage�play�in�forming�a�balancedmulticultural�identity.�Ultimately�thiscan�only�be�a�good�thing,�not�only�forthe�individual�concerned,�but�for�societyas�a�whole.
Finally,�on�a�separate�note,�I'd�like�tosay�a�big�thank�you�to�all�whoresponded�to�our�request�for�morematerial.�The BFN really�cannot�existwithout�you,�so�please�do�keep�thestories�coming.
Sami�Grover
-�Thoughts�on�a�British�Asian�Upbringing-�Signing�and�Spoken�Language�Acquisition-�A�Russian-Immersion�Nursery�in�London-�Colin�Baker's�Thoughts�on�Parenting-�Teaching�the�Home�Language�in�School�Time
IN THISISSUE
prayer�was�an�important�part�of�everydaytasks.�This�was�deeply�important�andinfluential�for�me.
I�understand�you�then�went�on�to�learnBengali?
Yes.�Once�we�were�teenagers,�and�it�wasclear�that�our�English�was�good�enough,my�parents�encouraged�us�to�learn�Bengali.I�attended�a�Bengali�Saturday�school�fromaround�the�age�of�14�to�16�and�completeda�GCSE�exam�[this�is�the�standardassessment�exam�for�school-leavers�in�theUK�-�Ed.]�in�Bengali.�This�was�easily�themost�important�GCSE�for�me�and�the�onlyone�I�can�say�I�was�genuinely�proud�of.Although�I�could�already�speak�thelanguage�quite�well,�the�formal�educationgave�me�good�reading�and�writing�skills.My�brother�and�I�also�developed�our�ownEnglish/Bengali�hybrid�language�which�weused�between�ourselves.
You've�spoken�about�Indian�culture�inIndia.�How�about�the�Anglo-Indian�culturethat�you�grew�up�with?
This�is�perhaps�more�of�a�love/hate�thing.Hospitality�still�plays�a�huge�role�and�thisis�wonderful,�as�are�the�close�family�ties.�Ifsomeone�is�in�trouble,�then�you�can�rely�onan�extended�network�of�family�and�friendsto�help�out.
Having�said�that,�I�can�also�see�thenegative�sides�to�it.�I�find�the�pressure�tosucceed�very�difficult.�If�a�young�persondoesn't�do�well�at�school,�or�in�their�career,or�if�they�choose�a�different�or�'alternative'career�path,�this�can�create�a�lot�of�gossipor�bad�feeling�within�the�community.
Equally,�balancing�some�of�the�moreliberal�views�and�attitudes�that�I�hold�withthe�more�conservative�attitudes�I�see�inIndian�culture�can�be�difficult.�Women,�forexample,�are�still�expected�to�be�a�wifefirst,�and�anything�else�second.�Whilst�it�ispossible�to�pursue�a�career,�you�still�reallyhaven't�succeeded�until�you�are�married.And�the�situation�is�even�worse�for�younggay�or�lesbian�Asians.�They�often�have�tolead�a�double�life,�with�marriages�set�upjust�to�hide�their�true�identity.
It's�very�different�for�me�now.�I�grew�up�inGrimsby,�surrounded�by�a�largeAnglo-Indian�community,�so�the�positivesand�negatives�were�immediately�aroundme.�I�then�moved�to�Hull�to�study,�andlater�to�Bath,�both�much�more�'white'towns.�I�now�find�myself�missing�much�ofthe�hospitality�and�the�community�feeling,but�I�also�feel�it�would�be�difficult�toassimilate�back�in�to�the�community�andface�the�pressures�of�"when�are�you�goingto�find�yourself�a�nice�man?"�etc.
One�very�frustrating�thing�aboutAnglo-Indian�culture�is�how�thecommunity�is�represented�in�popular
Films like “East is East” and“Bhaji on the Beach” seem torepresent such a clichéd viewof Indian communities. Themost irritating thing is thatthey are often written byAnglo-Indian writers.
Can�Signing�Help�Spoken-Language�Aquisition?
As we all know, parenting isessentially a series of decisionmaking processes. For those who areraising children to be bilingual, thesedecision making processes arefrequently more transparent andconscious. Your decision to useMakaton is particularly interesting.
Let�me�start�with�some�backgroundinformation�about�how�young�childrenstart�to�learn�language.�Most�parent�–child�interactions�are�usually�initiatedby�the�child.�The�child�cries,�points,moves�and�the�adult�responds.�For�thevery�young,�i.e.�children�under�1�year,the�initiation�may�not�becomprehensible.�It�can�be�sound,babble,�cry�etc.�The�mother�isguessing�what�the�child�needs.�Frombirth�up�to�the�age�of�18�months,�theinteractions�are�instrumental,�they�areabout�meeting�the�child’s�needs�andwants.
These mother – child interactionsfollow a distinctive pattern. The motherrepeats what she thinks the child hassaid, i.e. standardises the child’sutterance to make it resemblesomething comprehensible. She is ofcourse, making a calculated guess atwhat the child intends. She then repeatsthe utterance and extends or elaboratesit in some way. This particular patternof interaction is sometimes calledmotherese, fatherese or unclese,depending upon the adult speaker.
The�sound�of�language�plays�a�veryimportant�part�in�early�learning.Research�suggests�that�even�beforebirth,�the�unborn�child�respondsphysically�to�different�sounds.�Theymove in response to music, loudnoise, and of course, the sound of themother’s voice. Research by ThomasLee Hun in Hong Kong demonstratesthat even newborn babies are
sensitive to subtle distinctions inlanguage spoken to them. After just afew days babies can distinguishbetween the sounds (phonemes andphonology) of the language systemspoken by their mother and otherlanguages. For this reason it isimportant that the child is exposed tospoken language. These vocalisationsare laying the foundations of thelanguages the child is learning. It isinteresting to note that the babblingsof a 10 month old child reflect thephonetic characteristics of theirmother’s language. So talking�to�yourbabies�is�important.
However,�learning�language(s)�is�notjust�about�the�sounds�of�language�andtalking.�During�these�earlyconversations,�gestures�and�bodylanguage�also�play�an�important�role.
Continued�on�Page�4
I�am�an�Australian�married�to�a�Dane,living�in�Denmark.��We�have�twochildren�aged�2�and�4years�of�age,�andfollow�the�one�parent�one�languageapproach.��As�a�speech�pathologist�Iwas�worried�that�our�children�wouldexperience�a�delay�in�their�earlyspeech�development.��I�therefore�usedsome�basic�keyword�signing�withthem�from�around�10�months,�as�wellas�lots�of�language�stimulation.�I�usedMakaton�sign�language,�a�key�wordsign�system�based�on�British�SignLanguage�in�Britain�and�on�Auslan�inAustralia,�which�is�typically�used�with
children�with�disabilities�or�delayedlanguage.�I�stopped�signing�with�eachchild�as�soon�as�their�speech�began�todevelop.
Neither�child�has�experienced�a�delayin�their�speech�and�language�skills,and�I�am�wondering�whether�this�wasluck�or�whether�signing�helped�linkthe�meaning�of�the�languages.��Doyou�know�of��any�research�that�hasinvestigated�using�sign�language�toassist�children�in�bilingual�families?
Sydelle�Holmgaard,�Denmark
Growing�Up�Bengali�in�the�UKContinued�from�Page�1
culture.�Films�like East�is�East and Bhajion�the�Beach seem�to�represent�such�aclichéd�view�of�Indian�communities.�Themost�irritating�thing�is�that�they�are�oftenwritten�by�Anglo-Indian�writers.�I�justthink�we�could�do�a�lot�better�and�show�amore�diverse,�vibrant�vision�of�what�itmeans�to�be�a�British�Asian�today.
You�say�you�live�in�a�much�more�'white'town�now.�Is�racism�a�problem�for�you?
Up�until�11th�of�September,�2001,�I�canhonestly�say�that�I�had�experienced�verylittle�racism.�I�can�only�remember�one�ortwo�isolated�instances�from�my�childhood.However,�soon�after�the�attacks�in�NewYork�and�Washington,�I�was�confronted�bya�young�guy�in�Hull�who�started�yelling�atme,�telling�me�"I�should�be�inAfghanistan"�and�that�I�should�be�"beingbombed".�I�was�shocked�and�confused.�Myinitial�thoughts�were�to�explain�to�him�thatI�wasn't�from�Afghanistan,�and�that�myfamily�were�Hindu,�not�Muslim,�so�heshould�take�his�anger�elsewhere.�I�thenthought�about�it,�and�realised�how�wrongthis�would�be.�It�would�imply�that�hisanger�would�be�justified,�had�he�happenedto�choose�someone�else�who�was�aMuslim,�or�was�from�Afghanistan.�Theidea�that�someone�could�be�heldaccountable�for�someone�else's�actions,�justbecause�of�their�skin�colour,�or�theirreligion,�or�culture,�or�nationality,�washorrible�to�me.
Since�then�I've�experienced�a�number�ofincidents�of�abuse.�Of�course,�last�year'sbombings�in�London,�and�the�shooting�ofan�innocent�man�on�the�undergroundafterwards,�haven't�helped�the�situation.Many�Asians�are�a�little�more�careful�aboutwhat�we�wear,�how�we�stand�on�publictransport�etc.�We�joke�about�it,�but�youcan't�help�wandering�what�people�think�ofyou�if�you�are�on�a�bus�with�a�backpack.
You�have�since�worked�for�an�organisationworking�to�combat�racism.�Was�this�adirect�result�of�your�own�experiences?
Yes�and�no,�I�guess.�I've�always�beenconcerned�about�justice�and�fairness,�andabout�protecting�those�who�need�help�toempower�themselves.�It's�just�alwaysseemed�like�the�right�thing�to�do,�so�I�don'tlike�to�think�of�that�work�as�just�being�aresult�of�my�own�ethnic�background.Having�said�that,�as�I�applied�for�the�job,�Idid�become�increasingly�aware�of�howracism�can�develop,�and�becameincreasingly�passionate�about�theimportance�of�doing�something�to�stop�it.This�was�obviously�influenced�by�my�ownexperiences.
The�one�sad�thing�about�the�job�was�that�Icould�see�how�people�reacted�differentlyto�me�because�of�my�skin�colour�orheritage.�The�organisation, STAR�-Support�and�Training�Against�Racism�forUnder�8s�and�their�Workers,�works�withschools�and�youth�clubs�to�make�sure�thatthey�use�appropriate�materials�whichinclude�positive�role�models�for�allchildren,�something��that�is�so�importantfor�building�a�good�sense�of�self-esteem.This�might�mean�making�sure�that�picturebooks�depict�children�from�all�cultures,�orthat�teachers�are�aware�of�the�cultures�thattheir�pupils�come�from.�Whilst�I�mightsuggest�something�to�a�teacher�aboutchanging�their�materials,�displays,�orlanguage,�and�they�will�apparently�takethese�comments�on�board,�I�have�heardfrom�non-minority�colleagues�who�havebeen�giving�the�same�advice,�only�to�heara�response�of:�"Sure,�great,�but�it�is�all�abit�over�the�top,�isn't�it?"�If�people�arereacting�in�this�way�to�my�advice�too,�thenI�wish�they�could�speak�up�and�we�coulddiscuss�it�openly.
Perhaps�this�is�a�slightly�silly�question,�butdo�you�consider�yourself�Indian,�English,or�both?
It's�not�a�silly�question�at�all.�I�identifywith�both,�definitely.�My�Indian�heritage�isa�huge�part�of�me,�and�I'm�very�proud�ofit.�There�are�so�many�things�that�haveshaped�me�and�my�personality.�This�isequally�true�of�my�English�heritage.
Can�you�name�one�thing�in�your�life�thatyour�Indian�heritage�has�had�aparticularly�strong�influence�on?
Soon after the attacks inNew York and Washington, Iwas confronted by a youngguy who started yelling atme that "I should be inAfghanistan" and that Ishould be "being bombed".
Food,�without�a�doubt!�Food�is�such�anintegral�part�of�Indian�culture,�andsomething�that�I�absolutely�hold�dear.�Iremember�from�my�earliest�trips�to�Indiahow�dishes�would�often�take�a�whole�dayto�prepare,�with�the�glorious�smells�fillingup�the�house.�There�is�no�doubt�thatIndians�equate�good�hospitality�with�goodfood.�Food�is�love.�There�is�actually�anIndian�saying,�regarding�table�manners.During�an�Indian�meal,�once�you'vecleared�your�plate,�and�your�hostess�offersmore,�you�can�say�no�and�you'll�still�getfood.�Once�you've�cleared�your�plate�asecond�time,�you�can�put�your�hands�overthe�plate,�and�you'll�still�get�food.�Onceyou�get�to�the�third�time�of�clearing�yourplate,�the�best�move�is�to�take�the�plate�andhide�it�under�the�table!
One�final�point�I'd�like�to�make,�and�whichyou�must�print,�is�that�my�Dad�is�the�besthost,�and�my�Mum�makes�the�very�bestcurries�in�the�world!
For�more�information�about STAR�-Support�and�Training�Against�Racism�for
Under�8s�and�their�Workers:
Email:�[email protected]
Website:�www.star4diversity.com
Mona-Lisa's�Dad,�Sanjay
Unfortunately�Suzanne-Barron�Hauwert'sregular�column�has�been�postponed�thisissue�as�Suzanne�is�busy�moving�continentsagain.
In�the�meantime,�her�book LanguageStrategies�for�Bilingual�Families isavailable�at�20%�discount�from:
www.multilingual-matters.com
You�can�also�read�more�of�Suzanne'swritings�with�the�history�of�the�OPOLfamily�and�how�it�all�started�at:
http://opol-family.blogspot.com/
Notes�from�the�OPOL�family�should�appearas�normal�in�the�winter�issue�of�the�BFN.
Notes�from�the�OPOLFamily
Moving�Again
Contact details removed
AZBUKA�–�bringing�UK�minority-languageeducation�into�the�21st�century
Maria�Gavrilova
I�didn’t�get�my�first�big�culture�shock�untilI�had�been�living�in�London�for�about�10years,�triggered�by�the�birth�of�my�firstdaughter.�I�was�shocked�to�find�so�littlesecond�language�culture�in�this�country.�Icould�find�no�Russian�nurseries�and,�infact,�very�few�foreign�language�nurseriesat�all.�I�could�find�no�purely�bilingualschools,�few�publications�onmultilingualism,�and�those�publicationsthat�did�exist�were�mostly�specialistacademic�research.�Relatively�fewsecond-generation�children�are�fluent�intheir�mother�tongue�here�and�there�was�anapparent�total�“multilingual�void”�in�thesupposedly�multicultural�metropolis�calledLondon.�Such�a�renowned�multiculturalcity�should�potentially�be�a�haven�forbilingual�education�and�bilingualism.
My�second�big�shock�was�in�fact�asub-culture�shock,�from�my�own�Russianspeaking�community.�When�we�searchedfor�a�Russian�language�play�group�andfound�out�there�wasn’t�one,�this�led�us�tothe�obvious�solution�–�start�your�own.AZBUKA started�with�a�play�group�andthen�a�proper�nursery�school.�We�wereexpecting�to�see�parents�queuing�up�for�aplace.�That�didn’t�happen.�Why?
Knowledge is everything. The absence ofaccurate information and advice onbilingualism in this country is the reason forpeoples’ fears. It is a proven fact that it ispossible to bring up a child bilingually in amonolingual environment. The centralquestion - i.e. how best to do this? - shouldbe discussed, shared and debated by bothlinguists and the general public.Unfortunately, if there is a debate, thesubject is normally around “foreignlanguages for children” and not the entirelydifferent issue of bilingual education.
True,�many�issues�related�to�languageacquisition�and�bilingualism�are�beingconstantly�discovered�and�researched,�butcertain�things�that�have�become�commonknowledge�and�everyday�practice�in�othercountries�are�not�known�in�England.�Thosebasics,�that�have�proven�successful�inbilingual�education�programmes�around
the�world,�became�a�foundation�ofAZBUKA�org –�Russian�nursery,�schooland�Club.
AZBUKA�Russian�Nursery
At�the�time�of�writing,�I�have�just�receivedanother�call�from�a�Russian�family�upsetthat�despite�the�home�language�beingRussian,�their�child�goes�to�an�Englishnursery�and�at�the�age�of�3�already�speaksmostly�English�with�her�Russian-bornfriends.�Yesterday�I�had�a�similarconversation�with�a�Russian�mother�andEnglish�father�whose�child�has�been�sent�toan�English�nursery.
Why�is�a�minority-language�nursery�soimportant?�2�–�5�years�old�is�the�age�whenany�language�develops�spontaneously.�Thisis�the�crucial�age�when�children�can�pickup�any�language�through�simple�play�andcommunication�with�other�people�–especially�other�children.�In�a�country
where�structural�bilingual�educationprogrammes�are�rare,�the�nursery�stage�isthe�only�time�where�you�can�have�a�solidfoundation�in�a�minority�language�beforethe�child�moves�on�to�primary�school.
When�considering�bilingual�education,parents�often�express�the�fear�that�theirchild’s�English�will�suffer.�In�the�vastmajority�of�cases�this�proves�to�beunfounded.�Bilingual�education�in�aminority�language�is�unlikely�to�affect�thechild’s�English,�or�any�other�‘majoritylanguage’.�This�is�also�supported�byresearch�on�the�subject,�particularly�in�theUSA.
In�everyday�life�many�of�us�may�knowpeople�who�may�have�immigrated�fromanother�country�in�early�childhood.Usually�they�develop�the�same�commandof�the�majority�language�as�their�friends,providing�they�had�a�standard�socialexposure�to�the�language�outside�the�home.From�the�age�of�8,�approximately,�thisability�falls�(especially�regardingpronunciation).�Try�to�think�of�any�of�yourfriends�who�came�into�the�country�in�their
Eye�contact,�touch,�smiles,�andmovements�are�also�important.�The
young�baby�is�even�able�to�mirror�someface�expressions.�The�approach�you�haveadopted�to�teaching�your�young�childrencombines�spoken�language�withgestures.�Using�these�natural�responsesis�well�established�in�teaching�languagesto�young�children.�They�combinephysical�movements�(sometimes�calledTotal�Physical�Response)�with�spokenlanguage.�Normal�childhood�activitiesinclude�learning�nursery�rhymes,�actionrhymes�and�songs�that�capture�thechild’s�interest�by�combining�words�withactions�and�movements.�This�is�anapproach�now�increasingly�used�forteaching�languages�in�kindergarten�andprimary�schools.�As�well�as�teaching�theform�of�the�language�they�also�teach�acultural�heritage.
I�am�not�aware�of�any�research�that�hasbeen�carried�out�into�the�use�of�Makatonspecifically.�However,�BSL�and�Auslanare�established�language�systems,�taughtin�some�bilingual�educationprogrammes.�The�approach�you�suggestdoes�seem�to�combine�vocalising�withgesture�and�this�reflects�the�naturalistway�in�which�babies�approach�languagelearning�and�interactions.�Makaton�maybe�useful�for�basic�keyword�signing,�andnaming�or�labelling�is�the�earliest�stagein�language�development.�Children�learnthrough�practice�so�it�is�not�possible�toguess�the�role�of�Makaton�signs�in�yourchildren’s�language�learning�nor�topredict�if�they�will�remember�them�intolater�childhood.
I’m�sorry�I�can’t�be�of�more�direct�helpbut�I�do�hope�that�you�find�thesecomments�of�interest.�As�a�speechpathologist�you�may�welcome�a�moredetailed�and�technical�account�oflearning�languages�in�the�home�andschool.�If�so,�may�I�recommend�mybook:
Foley,�J.�&�Thompson.�L.��(2003)Learning�Language:�A�Lifelong�ProcessISBN�0-340-76282-9��(pbk)
Linda�Thompson,Nanyang�Technological�University
Query�- Bilingualism�and�SigningContinued�from�Page�2
We don’t learn Russian, welearn through play - inRussian. The childrenacquire the language bybeing immersed in thelanguage environment withtheir classmates and peers.
The BFN cannot�exist�without�thecontributions�of�its�readers.�We�welcomearticles,�anecdotes,�queries�and�letters�onall�aspects�of�language�learning�andintercultural�living.�Please�contact�us�todiscuss�the�possibilities:
the BFN needs�you...
teen�years�or�later.�Some�of�them�willprobably�be�OK�on�the�conversation�side,but�may�well�retain�the�strong�foreignaccent�for�example.�In�the�case�of�acountry�where�English�dominates�in�allareas�of�life,�the�pre-school�age�is�the�bestchance�to�acquire�the�foundations�of�theminority�language.
Minority�language�immersion�at�that�agehas�to�be�solid�and�consistent�–�a�few�hoursa�week�won’t�do�–�a�daily�nurseryenvironment�is�much�better.�In�someEuropean�countries,�sending�a�child�to�afull-time�foreign�language�nursery�isstandard�practice.�So�what�do�we�do�atAZBUKA�Nursery?�We�discover�the�world,we�experiment�with�different�materials,�welearn�through�play,�we�introduce�childrento�music�and�sounds,�we�dance�andexperiment�with�movements,�we�act,�weperform,�we�sing,�we�enjoy�theatre,�wecreate,�we�read,�we�ask�questions�and�learnto�think,�we�develop�socially,�we�learn�andwe�have�fun.�We�don’t�learn�Russian,�welearn�through�play�–�in�Russian.�Whether�achild�has�Russian�support�at�home�or�not,they�will�acquire�the�language�by�beingimmersed�in�the�language�environmentwith�their�classmates�and�peers.
AZBUKA�Russian�School
In the most successful bilingualprogrammes, such as those in NorthAmerica, once the child has a solidfoundation in a second language theycontinue learning a percentage of subjectsin that language in secondary school.Unfortunately, schools like this are virtuallyunheard of in the UK (the first bilingualFrench school is supposed to be opening inLondon), and most minority languages areleft with the Saturday school option.
Whilst�it�would�be�wrong�to�overgeneralise,�many�Saturday�schools�havenext�to�no�knowledge�of�bilingualism.Their�minority�language�teaching�is�oftenbased�on�text�books�designed�formonolingual�kids�from�their�own�country.Many�employ�very�good�languageteachers,�but�all�too�often�they�too�havelittle�or�no�knowledge�of�bilingualism.Some�of�these�Saturday�schools�are�ineffect�stuck�in�the�last�century�in�regards�totheir�methodology.
Successful�second�language�schoolshave�specially�developed�programmes,technical�resources,�and�teaching�ideasthat�have�not�simply�been�imported�fromschools�for�monolingual�children.��Theyshould�stimulate�the�child’s�spokenlanguage�and�give�them�a�chance�anddesire�to�practice�that�language�withother�children�spontaneously.�Special“project�based”�methods�are�alsodeveloped�for�teaching�reading�andwriting.�Why�do�we�communicate?�What
The�Professor�as�Parent:�Colin�Baker
Apart from writing books on bilingualism,you and Anwen successfully raised threebilingual children? Yet in your books youalmost never talk about your own experience.
True.�Anwen�and�I�have�three�fullybilingual�children�–�although�they�are�nowage�20�to�25.�When�writing,�I�need�to�beas�general�as�possible.�And�the�danger�isthat�my�personal�experience�is�notgeneralisable.�So�I�have�tried�not�to�usemy�own�family�for�evidence�of�whatworks�and�does�not�work.
Were�all�three�children’s�routes�tobilingualism�easy?
No.�One�of�the�three�required�specialistlanguage�advice.��The�other�two�werestraightforward.�The�oldest,�a�girl,�wasvery�language�oriented�and�could�translatebetween�English�and�Welsh�at�two�yearsof�age�with�ease.�There�was�a�specificmoment�when�I�realised�how�easybilingualism�was�for�a�young�child.�Sara,age�two,�was�asked�by�her�mother�inWelsh�to�tell�her�English�grandparentsthat�food�was�ready.�She�turned�to�mymother�and�father�and��translatedperfectly.�The�monolinguals�werestunned;�the�bilinguals�just�thought�thiswas�very�ordinary.
The�second�born,�a�boy,�always�playedwith�language,�full�of�witticisms�andcreativity�when�speaking.�His�bilingualhumour�can�relieve�the�most�tense�ofsituations.
The youngest experienced language delay.He understood everything in both Welshand English, but would rarely speak. Someof our friends blamed it on bilingualism. Iknew from close observation that it wasnothing to do with bilingualism. Aspecialist agreed. In retrospect it seems acombination of his two older siblingsanswering for him, a preference formathematics and not words (he is currentlystudying mathematics), and just being avery lovable and loving ‘cool dude’.
You�support�OPOL�–�One�Parent�OneLanguage.�Yet�I’ve�been�told�you�spokeWelsh�to�your�children�when�they�werevery�young.�Why�is�that?
I�do�support OPOL.�The�evidence�isoverwhelming�that�it�works.�My�concernis�when�a�child’s�bilingualism�will�be�acombination�of�a�minority�language�and�amajority�language.�Take�Wales�as�anexample.��English�is�so�strong�in�thestreet,�shops�and�screen,�and�of�such�high
status in the teenage years, that it seems anearly balance towards the minoritylanguage will ensure firm grounding beforeEnglish becomes so strong in a youngperson’s life. I talked Welsh to the childrenboth to ensure a strong linguisticgrounding, but also to convey that Ithought Welsh was important and valuable.
But�was�your�second�language�Welsh�agood�model?
No. My Welsh is not that proficient, soaround the age of two I gently switched tousing English with the children. We movedfrom early monolingualism into OPOL andit worked.
Do�your�children�value�theirbilingualism?
I�suppose�you�would�have�to�ask�them.My�daughter�works�in�a�hospital�and�Iknow�her�interactions�with�patients�utilizeboth�languages.�She�recognizes�that�caringfor�someone�includes�speaking�theirpreferred�language�–�both�forunderstanding�their�medical�care�and�forbuilding�relationships.�My�elder�son�is�ina�job�that�requires�good�customer�relationsand�he�uses�both�languages�for�thatpurpose.�The�younger�son�uses�Welsh�inhis�social�and�love�life�in�University,�andEnglish�in�studying�mathematics.
Despite�them�knowing�that�I�studybilingualism,�I�don’t�think�any�of�themhave�read�a�page�of�what�I’ve�written!�Sotheir�valuing�of�bilingualism�is�gainedthrough�experience�rather�than�lectures.
Are�the�children�Welsh�or�British�orEuropeans�or�what?
I�think�they�are�all�of�these,�andsometimes�differ�according�to�who�theyare�with�and�what�they�are�doing.�Isuppose�one�thing�I�am�proud�of��is�thatthey�are�not�anti-English�or�anti-British.They�value�different�languages,�differentcultures�and�different�lifestyles.�Thatseems�to�be�an�important�aim�in�raisingbilinguals,�that�they�become�tolerant�ofdiversity,�even�non-racist,�due�to�themoperating�in�different�cultures.�Becausebilinguals�have�different�languages,�atbest�they�appreciate�difference�in�others.Our�children�can�potentially�be�blessedwith�more�than�bilingual�brains,�as�theirlanguage�experience�can�affect�theirvalues�and�viewpoint.�Bilinguals�ownmuch�more�than�two�languages.
Continued�on�Page�6
Colin�Baker�is�one�of�the�leading
experts�on�bilingualism.�His�books,
including A�Parents�and�Teachers
Guide�to�Bilingualism and�the�new
fourth�edition�of Foundations�of
Bilingualism�and�Bilingual
Education are�available�at�20%
discount�from:
www.multilingual-matters.com
is�the�language�for?�Trying�to�answerthese�questions�will�make�any�Saturdayminority�language�school�both�moreenjoyable�and�more�effective.
At AZBUKA School we have beendeveloping a structured Russian languageprogramme for bilingual kids. Theprogramme is designed to keep up anddevelop all levels of language – bothspoken language and reading and writingskills. We run teaching blocks thatincorporate different methods (theatre,games, internet, new media, music, dance,movement, game based projects etc.). Theprogramme is content based. It means thatif a child is interested in the content (whatthe lesson is about) and methods (how thelesson is taught) their language will bestimulated and they will want tocommunicate spontaneously. Ourprogramme also incorporates projects forthe children to do at home – languagesupport during the week, not just for thefew hours on Saturdays, is essential.
AZBUKA�Russian�Club
Language�is�linked�to�a�culture.�Themore�you�are�interested�in�the�culture,the�more�you�wish�to�speak�thelanguage.�Many�second�generation�kidsbecome�detached�from�the�culture�andhistory�of�their�parents,�through�no�faultof�their�own�of�course.�Often�they�arejust�unlucky�not�to�have�access�to�astimulating�language�school�or�a�club�orany�other�cultural�environment�that�isn’tdominated�by�English.�This�is�why,�inaddition�to�the�education�programmesabove,�we�run AZBUKA�Club which�putson�cultural�events,�theatre�productionsand�celebrations. AZBUKA�Club is�foreveryone�–�children�learning�Russian,their�parents,�Russian�languageenthusiasts,�teachers�and�other�peoplewho�have�an�interest�in�bilingualism.�Itis�also�there�to�share�knowledge�onbilingual�education�with�parents�throughthe�events,�our�library�and�newsletter.
For�me,�to�be�bilingual�and�enjoy�morethan�one�culture�is�a�gift�that�is�way�tooimportant�to�lose.�Bilingual�children’sacquisition�of�languages�is�so�differentfrom�their�monolingual�peers,�andunderstanding�the�nature�of�thesedifferences�is�everything�in�developingsuccessful�educational�programmes�witheffective�methodology�that�keep�thesecond�language�alive.�Has�anybody�metan�adult�speaking�two�languages�whowas�not�grateful�to�their�parents?
www.AZBUKA.org�–�Ofsted�registerednursery�and�Saturday�school�Club
If�anyone�is�interested�in�joint�projectswith�AZBUKA�(for�any�other�minority
Taking�Your�Language�Home�–Teaching�the�Minority�Language�in�School�Time
Ann�Giles
We�are�a�family�of�four�living�in�England.My�husband�is�British�and�I�amSwedish.We�have�a�son,�Ian,�who�is�17and�a�daughter,�Helen,�13.�Ever�since�Ianwas�born�we�have�used�the�OPOL�method,and�it�seems�to�have�worked�fairly�well.Ian�now�speaks�Swedish�fluently�andwithout�much�of�an�accent,�reads�a�bit�andwrites�very�little.�He�said�nothing�inSwedish�to�me�until�he�was�seven�when�hesuddenly�switched,�having�first�“practised”it�on�my�mother�for�a�few�months.
Helen�started�saying�things�a�lot�earlierand�with,�initially,�a�much�better�accent,but�after�a�while�it�became�clear�shewasn’t�progressing�much�from�there�on.However�she�has�always�been�able�tomimic�my�accent�very�closely.�It�took�usyears�to�work�out�that�Helen�has�AspergerSyndrome�(AS)�and�we�had�a�long�periodof�fighting�her�primary�school�for�a�bit�ofsimple�sympathy�and�understanding.�Themove�to�secondary�school�was�a�good�oneand�she�has�now�grown�much�calmer.
Language�wise�Helen�has�been�far�behindher�brother�in�Swedish,�but�I�havepersevered,�with�only�some�words�beingreinforced�with�a�translation�into�Englishas�well.�Helen�has�also�been�more�cautiouswith�English�and�sometimes�uses�phrasesthat�sound�like�those�a�non-native�speakermight�use.�She’s�clearly�intelligenthowever,�and�does�very�well�at�mostsubjects�at�school,�as�long�as�languageisn’t�allowed�to�get�in�the�way.
Last�year,�in�Year�7�at�school,�she�startedGerman.�This�went�quite�well,�perhapsbecause�of�the�similarities�with�Swedish,and�Helen�seemed�confident.�This�was�incontrast�to�her�attempt�at�French�in�an�afterschool�club�where�she�simply�got�toobewildered�and�gave�it�up.�Helen’ssecondary�school�starts�pupils�on�a�secondforeign�language�in�Year�8,�which�in�her
case�would�be�French.�For�Y9�she�wouldthen�be�required�to�drop�one�of�thelanguages�again,�and�it�felt�obvious�itwould�be�the�French.�It�appeared�pointlessto�start,�struggle�with,�and�stop�a�fourthlanguage�when�her�energies�could�be�betterused�on�the�three�she�wanted�to�be�good�at.
I�was�inspired�by�something�I’d�readseveral�years�ago�in�the�BFN�about�a�fatherwho�had�claimed�the�right�to�teach�theminority�language�during�school�hours.�Ifelt�this�might�be�the�way�forward�for�us,as�Helen�is�generally�so�exhausted�after�hernormal�school�day�that�I�couldn’t�just�addmore�for�her�to�do.�I�approached�Helen’sschool�referring�to�the�parent�from�theBFN�and�asked�to�be�allowed�to�teach�herSwedish�during�the�three�one�hour�lessonsper�fortnight�when�the�rest�of�her�formlearnt�French.�They�agreed��and�inSeptember�2005�we�got�started.�I�have�adegree�in�English�and�Swedish,�but�verylittle�experience�of�teaching.
We�started�with�Swedish�pre-schoolexercise�books,�to�learn�colours,�numbers,food�and�so�on.�Previously�Helen�hadalways�resisted�being�taught�anything�anddidn’t�listen�to�much�I�tried�to�tell�her.Now�that�Swedish�had�turned�into�a�schoolsubject�I�got�a�lot�more�attention.�Fromearly�on�we�also�tackled�magazine�articlesin�Swedish,�either�on�subjects�relevant�tous�or�on�fascinating�topics�like�BritneySpears.�I�started�reading�aloud�from�a�childdetective�type�of�novel�and�Helen�listenedto�Harry�Potter�on�cassette�in�Swedish.
All�in�all�we�did�both�far�more�than�herfriends�did�in�French�and�also�less.��All�thelessons�were�in�Swedish�and�a�lot�of�thevocabulary�was�at�anything�but�beginner’slevel.�At�the�same�time�we�did�very�littlegrammar�and�spelling,�unlike�a�“proper”school�lesson.�My�emphasis�was�always�inimproving�Helen’s�spoken�language�and�tomake�it�possible�for�her�to�read�occasionaltexts.�I�wanted�to�make�her�feel�more�partof�Swedish�life�and�less�like�a�Martiandropped�from�outer�space.�We�did�try
AZBUKA - Continued�from�Page�5
I was inspired by somethingI’d read several years ago inthe BFN about a father whohad claimed the right toteach the minority languageduring school hours.
vocabulary�lists�and�writing,�but�even�inEnglish�that’s�not�really�her�thing.
After�only�a�few�weeks�Helen�started�usingmore�Swedish�when�talking�to�meprivately.�She�has�also�grasped�the�ideathat�it’s�fairly�handy�to�have�a�secret�codewhen�you’re�with�other�people.�This�wasalways�something�that�didn’t�work�in�thepast;�if�I�said�something�trying�to�bediscreet,�Helen�would�suddenly�get�veryhelpful�and�translate�into�English...
Next�I�introduced�Helen�to�my�family,�pastand�present.�We�go�to�Sweden�quite�a�bit,but�I�have�very�little�close�family�left.Apart�from�the�people�she�has�met�a�lot,Helen�has�always�found�it�difficult�toremember�people�and�to�understand�aboutthose�she’d�never�met.�We�drew�a�familytree�and�glued�photos�of�everyone�onto�alarge�sheet�of�paper.�Helen�now�knows�notonly�terms�like�cousin�and�second�cousin,but�who�they�are.�She�wrote�letters�to�thosewe�needed�photos�of�or�more�informationfrom,�and�had�letters�back�and�emailaddresses.
From�here�we�started�looking�at�the�atlasand�went�through�where�everyone�camefrom.�I�tried�getting�in�a�little�bit�of�history,made�more�relevant�because�of�thepersonal�connection.�I�started�writingstories�from�my�childhood,�using�the�exactlanguage�I’d�have�used�then,�and�with�noallowances�for�a�learner.�My�hope�is�thatboth�the�language�and�the�memories�willbe�useful.�I�can�now�point�to�a�spot�and�say“this�is�where�the�ice�cream�fell�off”�andshe�knows�what�I�mean.�For�someone�whohas�had�such�difficulty�with�anythingabstract�that’s�a�giant�step�forward.�Wealso�listened�to�some�songs�by�one�ofSweden’s�most�successful�pop�groups(Gyllene�Tider)�that�are�set�in�“our”�part�ofSweden.�She’d�heard�them�before�but�forthe�first�time�she�could�now�take�in�the�factthat�her�grandmother�had�known�the�boys’parents�and�that�was�exciting.�One�songdescribes�the�road�to�where�we�spend�oursummer�holidays,�and�she�can�nowvisualise�it�when�she�hears�it.
My�next�idea�was�to�ask�permission�tomake�a�school�trip�to�Sweden.�We�go�oftenanyway,�but�in�the�company�of�Englishspeaking�daddy�and�older�brother�who�willalways�speak�English�to�Helen.�The�schoolhas�a�week�in�July�earmarked�for�specialactivities,�so�this�year�Helen�and�I�will�goto�Stockholm�for�a�week,�at�our�ownexpense.�The�aim�is�to�enable�her�to�haveconversations�without�me,�and�for�her�toask�for�things�in�shops�and�restaurants.
We�have�already�tried�some�of�this�bystaying�longer�after�the�May�half�term�inorder�to�see�the�Studentexamen,�orschool-leaving�ceremony,�of�my�friend’sdaughter.�For�me�this�is�part�of�my�culture,but�it�always�happens�during�English�term
time,�making�it�impossible�to�share�withthe�children.�We�also�met�up�with�a�fewnew�(for�Helen)�relatives�and�she�chattedso�much�I�didn’t�know�how�to�stop�her.
Helen�found�herself�playing�with�a4-year-old�at�a�party�recently,�which�shewould�have�found�hard�before�this�year.�Itmade�me�think�that�she�could�do�withbeing�able�to�read�simple�stories�aloud,�incase�she�needs�to�entertain�young�onesagain.�I’ve�dug�out�some�younger�booksand�will�have�Helen�practise�her�readingskills.�Currently�I�find�that�translations�ofJacqueline�Wilson�and�Louise�Rennisonwork�better�than�the�homegrown�Swedishfiction�we’ve�tried.�Many�Swedish�booksfor�children,�both�recent�and�slightly�olderhave�a�very�“ancient”�style�that�make�themquite�inaccessible�to�an�impatient�learner.
All�in�all,�this�has�been�a�success,�althoughit�didn’t�quite�happen�as�I’d�imagined�it.�Ithas�taken�a�lot�of�time,�which�I�couldmanage�as�I�am�a�housewife�with�freedomto�use�my�time�as�I�like.�It�has�cost�money,but�with�care�I�could�easily�have�spentless.�There�are�obviously�drawbacks�to
having�your�teenager�being�able�to�ask�formore�chocolate�cake�or�buying�shoes�inanother�language,�but�I’ll�happily�put�upwith�that.�I’ll�even�get�Helen�a�copy�of�oneof�the�rather�dreadful�gossip�magazines,now�that�I�can�see�a�deeper�meaning�infinding�out�about�Crown�PrincessVictoria’s�boyfriend.
I can recommend this to anyone who feelsthe need to do more. We can’t all haveaccess to Saturday school and, contrary towhat many would have us believe, not allbilingual children are perfectly bilingual.Whereas my main aim was to easeconversation with my daughter, as a parent Ican’t help dreaming further afield. There areno longer GCSE type exams in Swedish. Wehave searched for some form of paperqualification in order to formalise what isactually quite a bit of work on the childen’sbehalf. Most of our admiring bystandersseem to believe it just happens. Some evenbelieve that it happens without us talking tothe children in the second language! Somemonolinguals are horrified that I take mychildren out of school on occasion “becausethey already speak Swedish”. I’ll soon haveto produce a written statement explainingwhat I do and why, as I rarely can think ofsuitable retorts.
Helen�still�can’t�always�tell�her�Tuesdaysfrom�her�Thursdays,�but�we’ll�work�on�that.She’s�now�much�more�tolerant�of�beingtold�things,�so�hopefully�the�teaching�cancontinue�during�everyday�life�from�now�on.And�some�of�her�classmates’�parents�wouldbe�shocked�to�know�that�their�childrenasked�if�they�could�learn�Swedish�too.
There�are�obviouslydrawbacks��to�having�yourteenager�being�able�to�askfor�more�chocolate�cake�orbuying�shoes�in�anotherlanguage,�but�I’ll�happilyput�up�with�that.
Foundations�of�Bilingual�Education�and�Bilingualism�-4th�Editionby�Colin�Baker (University�of�Wales�Bangor)
“I�remain�awed�by�Baker’s�ability�to�represent�allpositions�and�include�all�viewpoints,�while�remainingsimple�and�straightforward.�It�is�its�scholarlyexhaustiveness�and�complexity,�coupled�with�a�simplicityof�style,�that�makes�this�text�invaluable�for�students�andscholars�alike.” Ofelia�Garcia,�Colombia�University
The 4th edition of this best-selling bookprovides a comprehensive introduction tobilingualism and bilingual education. Writtenas an introductory text from across-disciplinary perspective, 19 chapterscover individual and societal issues inminority and majority languages; childhooddevelopment perspectives; the history ofbilingual education in the US, and recentchanges in US language and educationpolicy, dual language schools and other formsof bilingual education, the mainstreaming ofbilingual children, the achievement gapamong language minority children, classroomeffectiveness for bilingual teaching and
learning, literacy, biliteracy and multiliteracy,bilingual special education, the assessment oflanguage minority children, the spread ofEnglish as a global language, Deaf bilinguals,endangered languages, language planningand language revival, language identity andmultiple identities, the WWW andbilingualism, and political perspectives.
Colin�Baker�holds�a�Personal�Chair�of�theUniversity�of�Wales,�and�teaches�in�theSchool�of�Education�at�the�University�ofWales,�Bangor.��He�is�a�member�of�theWelsh�Language�Board�-�one�of�Europe’spremier�Language�Planningorganisations.
Hbk�ISBN�1-85359-865-8�������������������������US$79.95/CAN$99.95/£44.95Pbk�ISBN�1-85359-864-X�������������������������US$34.95/CAN$42.95/£19.95
The�editors,�with�the�help�of�the�International�Editorial�Board,�are�happy�toanswer�any�queries�you�may�have�on�bilingualism�/biculturalism.�Wereserve�the�right�to�edit�any�letters�published.
Editors: Sami�Grover &�Marjukka�Grover
Editorial�Board:
Alathea�Anderssohn, El�Jadida,�Morocco.
Colin�Baker,�Bangor, Wales,�Great�Britain.
Suzanne�Barron-Hauwaert, Kuala�Lumpur,�Malaysia.
Jayson�Campeau, Chatham,�Ontario,�Canada.
James�Crawford, Silver�Spring,�USA.
Terry�Haywood, Milano,�Italy.
Christine�Helot, Strasborg,�France.
Carolyn�Letts, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,�Great�Britain.
Li�Wei, Newcastle-upon-Tyne,�Great�Britain.
Iman�Makeba-Laversuch, Zürich,�Switzerland
Anne-Maria�de�Mejíá, Cali,�Colombia.
Eugenia�Papadaki, Milano,�Italy.
Michael�Rosanova, Oak�Park,�Illinois,�USA.
Tracey�Tokuhama-Espinosa, Quito,�Ecuador.
Masayo�Yamamoto, Nara,�Japan.
If�you�do�not�already�subscribe,�use�the�form�below�to�enter�a
subscription�for�the�next�four�issues.�If�you�know�of�any�other�families
who�may�be�interested�in�BFN,��enter�their�address�on�the�form�and�we
will�send�them�a�free�sample�of�a�recent�issue.
Multilingual�Matters
Frankfurt�Lodge,�Clevedon�Hall,�Victoria�Road
Clevedon,�England.�BS21�7HH
Tel:�+�44-(0)1275-876519;�Fax:+44-(0)1275-871673
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Vol.23,�No.3,�2006
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ISSN�0952-4096�©�2006�Multilingual�Matters�Ltd
Printed�on�Greencoat�Plus�recycled�paper�containing�80%waste�fibre�and�20%�chlorine�free�pulp.
GermanyDr.�Kathleen�Rose����������������������������Tel:�49-89-70907784Chinese�(Mandarin)�playgroups�in�Munich�seeking�childrenbetween�2�and�8�years�of�age�to�join.�We�have�a�beginner�and�anative�speaker�group�which�will�meet�once�a�week�startingSeptember�2006�in�a�private�home.
USAOPOL�family�seeking�other�Spanish/English�speaking�familieswith�kids�in�the�US�(preferably�New�York�area).��Languagesspoken�English�and�Spanish.�Email:�[email protected]
Real�Book�NewsFor�adults�helping�children�learn�English�as�a�foreign�language�oradditional�language.�Each�issue�introduces�suitable�real�picturebooks�for�beginners�in�English�and�also�includes�a�Feature�Articleof�interest�to�parents�helping�their�children�learn�English.��Freecopies�available.tel:�+20-7359�8893e-mail:�[email protected]
Two�Language�or�MoreThe�National�Education�Agency�and�the�Rinkeby�Institute�ofMultilingual�Research�(Sweden)�have�published�a�veryinformative�28�page�booklet Two�Language�or�More in�Swedish,Albanian,�Arabic,�Bosnian,�English,�Finish,�Somali,�Spanish�andTurkish.�Price�10�Swedish�Kronor�(Swedish�Crowns/approx.£1.00�sterling�equivalent).�Available�from:Liber�Distribution�Publikationstjänst,�162�89�Stockholm,�SwedenTel:�+46�8�690�95�76email:�[email protected]
Glossary
Process�Approach�in�Language�Teaching: This�isparticularly�used�in�teaching�children�to�write�whereplanning,�drafting�and�revising�are�used�to�improve�writingcompetence.�The�process�rather�than�the�product�is�regardedas�an�important�learning�experience.
Process�Instruction: An�emphasis�on�the activity of�aclassroom,�rather�than�creating�a�product.�A�focus�onprocedures�and�techniques�rather�than�on�learning�outcomes,learning�"how�to"�through�inquiry�rather�than�learningthrough�the�transmission�and�memorization�of�knowledge.
Productive�Bilingualism: Speaking�and�writing�in�the�firstand�second�language�(as�well�as�listening�and�reading).
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