Growing up unequal: gender and socioeconomic differences...

GRO

WIN

G U

P UN

EQU

AL: G

END

ER AN

D SO

CIOECO

NO

MIC D

IFFERENCES IN

YOU

NG

PEOPLE’S H

EALTH

AN

D W

ELL-BEING

The WHO Regional Office for Europe

The World Health Organization (WHO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations created in 1948 with the primary responsibility for international health matters and public health. The WHO Regional Office for Europe is one of six regional offices throughout the world, each with its own programme geared to the particular health conditions of the countries it serves.

Member States

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GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEINGHEALTH BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN (HBSC) STUDY: INTERNATIONAL REPORT FROM THE 2013/2014 SURVEY

This book is the latest addition to a series of reports on young people’s health by the Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study. It presents findings from the 2013/2014 survey on the demographic and social influences on the health of young people aged 11, 13 and 15 years in 42 countries and regions in the WHO European Region and North America. Responding to the survey, the young people described their social context (relations with family, peers and school), health outcomes (subjective health, injuries, obesity and mental health), health behaviours (patterns of eating, toothbrushing and physical activity) and risk behaviours (use of tobacco, alcohol and cannabis, sexual behaviour, fighting and bullying). For the first time, the report also includes items on family and peer support, migration, cyberbullying and serious injuries.

Statistical analyses were carried out to identify meaningful differences in the prevalence of health and social indicators by gender, age group and levels of family affluence. The findings highlight important health inequalities and contribute to a better understanding of the social determinants of health and well-being among young people.

Through this international report on the results of its most recent survey, the HBSC study aims to supply the up-to-date information needed by policy-makers at various levels of government and nongovernmental organizations and professionals in sectors such as health, education, social services, justice and recreation to protect and promote young people’s health.

Data presented in this report can be accessed at the WHO Regional Office for Europe’s health information gateway (http://portal.euro.who.int/en/) and via the WHO European health statistics mobile application (http://www.euro.who.int/en/data-and-evidence/the-european-health-statistics-app).

World Health Organization Regional Office for Europe UN City, Marmorvej 51, DK-2100 Copenhagen Ø, Denmark Tel.: +45 45 33 70 00 Fax: +45 45 33 70 01 E-mail: [email protected] Website: www.euro.who.int

HEALTH BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN (HBSC) STUDY:INTERNATIONAL REPORT FROM THE 2013/2014 SURVEY

Growing up unequal: gender and socioeconomic differences in young

people’s health and well-being

HEALTH POLICY FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS, NO. 7

Growing up unequal: gender and socioeconomic

differences in young people’s health and well-being

HEALTH BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN (HBSC) STUDY:

INTERNATIONAL REPORT FROM THE 2013/2014 SURVEY

HEALTH POLICY FOR CHILDREN AND ADOLESCENTS, NO. 7

Edited by:Jo Inchley, Dorothy Currie, Taryn Young,

Oddrun Samdal, Torbjørn Torsheim, Lise Augustson,Frida Mathison, Aixa Aleman-Diaz, Michal Molcho,

Martin Weber and Vivian Barnekow

5GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

PART 2. KEY DATA | CHAPTER 5. RISK BEHAVIOURS

157HEALTH BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN (HBSC) STUDY: INTERNATIONAL REPORT FROM THE 2013/2014 SURVEY

ALCOHOL USE

Adolescence is a period of discovery and experimentation during which many young people start to explore what they perceive as adult behaviours, such as drinking alcohol. This may be interpreted as a natural, perhaps even healthy, curiosity about transitioning to adult life in which alcohol is used, but not misused. A combination of factors that include not understanding the limits for safe alcohol consumption and requiring less alcohol to experience drunkenness means that for some adolescents, experimentation can turn into excessive rates of use, with the physical, mental and social risks this brings.

Alcohol is one of the most widely available and most commonly used drugs for adolescents (1,2). Young people may use alcohol to fulfil social and personal needs, intensify contacts with peers and initiate new relationships (3). Adolescent alcohol use nevertheless constitutes a major public health concern in many European and North American countries and regions. Risky drinking, including early and frequent drinking and drunkenness, is associated with adverse psychological, social and physical health consequences, including academic failure, violence, accidents, injury, use of other substances and unprotected sexual intercourse (4). It has also been suggested that drinking alcohol during adolescence may negatively affect brain development and functioning, although research on this topic is still in a preliminary phase (5).

MEASURES

Weekly drinkingYoung people were asked how often they drink any alcoholic beverage and were given a list of drinks: beer, wine, spirits, alcopops or any other drink that contains alcohol. Response options ranged from never to every day.

Drunkenness initiationYoung people were asked at what age they first got drunk.

DrunkennessYoung people were asked whether they had ever had so much alcohol that they were really drunk. Response options ranged from never to more than 10 times.

Supplementary data on first alcohol use at age 13 or younger and drinking beer, alcopops, wine or spirits at least once a week are provided in the Annex.

158 HEALTH BEHAVIOUR IN SCHOOL-AGED CHILDREN (HBSC) STUDY: INTERNATIONAL REPORT FROM THE 2013/2014 SURVEY

GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEINGPART 3. KEY DATA | CHAPTER 5. RISK BEHAVIOURS ALCOHOL USE

BOYSGIRLS

SIGNIFICANTTRENDS

Perc

enta

ge-p

oint

diff

eren

ce in

pre

vale

nce

betw

een

LOW

and

HIG

H fa

mily

aff

luen

ce g

roup

s

Prev

alen

ce d

ecre

ases

with

hig

her f

amily

aff

luen

cePr

eval

ence

incr

ease

sw

ith h

ighe

r fam

ily a

fflu

ence

15

20

25

10

–15

–20

–25

–10

–5

0

5

Bulg

aria

Gre

ece

Czec

h Re

publ

ic

Den

mar

k

Alb

ania

Aus

tria

Belg

ium

(Fre

nch)

Gre

enla

nd

Russ

ian

Fede

ratio

n

Italy

Engl

and

Belg

ium

(Fle

mis

h)

Fran

ce

Rom

ania

Mal

ta

Croa

tia

Luxe

mbo

urg

Ger

man

y

Arm

enia

Net

herla

nds

Port

ugal

Pola

nd

Switz

erla

nd

Spai

n

MKD

a

Swed

en

Esto

nia

Latv

ia

Wal

es

Slov

akia

Nor

way

Slov

enia

Lith

uani

a

Scot

land

Hun

gary

Repu

blic

of M

oldo

va

Icel

and

Cana

da

Irela

nd

Isra

el

Associations between family a�uence and indicators of health, by country/region and gender:weekly alcohol consumption

HBSC survey 2013/2014

a The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Note: low- and high-a�uence groups represent the lowest 20% and highest 20% in each country. ◆ means less than +/-0.5%.No data were received from Finland and Ukraine.

BOYSGIRLS

SIGNIFICANTTRENDS

Perc

enta

ge-p

oint

diff

eren

ce in

pre

vale

nce

betw

een

LOW

and

HIG

H fa

mily

aff

luen

ce g

roup

s

Prev

alen

ce d

ecre

ases

with

hig

her f

amily

aff

luen

cePr

eval

ence

incr

ease

sw

ith h

ighe

r fam

ily a

fflu

ence

15

20

25

10

–15

–20

–25

–10

–5

0

5

Fran

ce

Den

mar

k

Esto

nia

Bulg

aria

Mal

ta

Arm

enia

Gre

ece

Slov

akia

Czec

h Re

publ

ic

Switz

erla

nd

Slov

enia

Aus

tria

Belg

ium

(Fre

nch)

Finl

and

Hun

gary

Rom

ania

Luxe

mbo

urg

Ger

man

y

Repu

blic

of M

oldo

va

Engl

and

Alb

ania

Net

herla

nds

Russ

ian

Fede

ratio

n

Italy

Spai

n

Wal

es

Ukr

aine

MKD

a

Swed

en

Icel

and

Belg

ium

(Fle

mis

h)

Latv

ia

Nor

way

Pola

nd

Port

ugal

Scot

land

Isra

el

Croa

tia

Cana

da

Lith

uani

a

Irela

nd

Associations between family a�uence and indicators of health, by country/region and gender:first drunkenness at age 13 or younger


a The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. Note: low- and high-a�uence groups represent the lowest 20% and highest 20% in each country. ◆ means less than +/-0.5%.No data were received from Greenland.

35


GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEING

PART 3. KEY DATA | CHAPTER 5. RISK BEHAVIOURS ALCOHOL USE

BOYSGIRLS

SIGNIFICANTTRENDS

Perc

enta

ge-p

oint

diff

eren

ce in

pre

vale

nce

betw

een

LOW

and

HIG

H fa

mily

aff

luen

ce g

roup

s

Prev

alen

ce d

ecre

ases

with

hig

her f

amily

aff

luen

cePr

eval

ence

incr

ease

sw

ith h

ighe

r fam

ily a

fflu

ence

15

20

25

10

–15

–20

–25

–10

–5

0

5

Den

mar

k

Bulg

aria

Russ

ian

Fede

ratio

n

Alb

ania

Aus

tria

Luxe

mbo

urg

Port

ugal

Belg

ium

(Fre

nch)

Italy

Nor

way

Fran

ce

Rom

ania

Wal

es

Swed

en

Gre

ece

Gre

enla

nd

Belg

ium

(Fle

mis

h)

Slov

enia

Switz

erla

nd

Mal

ta

Net

herla

nds

Spai

n

Ger

man

y

Ukr

aine

Engl

and

Isra

el

Esto

nia

Pola

nd

Lith

uani

a

Arm

enia

Repu

blic

of M

oldo

va

Latv

ia

Scot

land

Hun

gary

Icel

and

Irela

nd

Czec

h Re

publ

ic

Croa

tia

Slov

akia

Cana

da

Associations between family a�uence and indicators of health, by country/region and gender:having been drunk on two or more occasions


Note: low- and high-a�uence groups represent the lowest 20% and highest 20% in each country. ◆ means less than +/-0.5%.No data were received from Finland and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.


BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)

Note. no data were received from Finland

42HBSC average (gender)

3HBSC average (total)

16

15

11

12

9

8

7

7

6

6

5

4

5

4

5

3

3

4

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

5

6

5

4

4

3

3

4

3

4

4

2

2

1

3

3

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

Armenia

Israel

Republic of Moldova

Romania

Bulgaria

Croatia

Albania

Italy

Slovenia

Hungary

Czech Republic

Austria

Lithuania

Poland

MKDa

Russian Federation

Portugal

Luxembourg

France

Canada

Greece

Belgium (French)

Wales

Slovakia

Malta

England

Greenland

Estonia

Iceland

Latvia

Switzerland

Germany

Scotland

Belgium (Flemish)

Sweden

Netherlands

Ireland

Spain

Denmark

Norway

11-year-oldswho drink alcohol

at least once a week



a The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia.

RESULTS

Weekly drinkingFindings presented here show the proportions who reported drinking any alcoholic beverage at least every week.

Age Prevalence increased significantly between ages 11 and 15 in almost all countries and regions for boys and girls. Increases were particularly large between ages 13 and 15.

Gender Overall, weekly drinking was more common among boys. The gender difference increased with age: at age 15, the difference was greater than 10 percentage points in 12 countries and regions.

Family affluence Family affluence was associated with weekly drinking in 16 countries and regions for boys and six for girls. It was higher among high-affluence groups in most, but three countries and regions showed the opposite relationship among boys.

Drunkenness initiationFindings presented here show the proportions who reported first getting drunk at age 13 or younger.

Age Data are presented for 15-year-olds only.

Gender Boys were more likely to report first drunkenness at or before age 13 in less than half of countries and regions. Gender differences of 10 percentage points or more were found in three (Croatia, Lithuania and Romania).

Family affluence No significant association was found with family affluence in most countries and regions. In those that showed an association, no clear overall pattern emerged.

Drunkenness Findings presented here show the proportions who reported having been drunk on two or more occasions.

Age Prevalence increased significantly and substantially between ages 11 and 15 for boys and girls in all countries and regions, with the exception of girls in Armenia.

Gender A significant gender difference was found in less than half of countries and regions, with boys more likely to report it. Girls reported it more often in Greenland (11-year-olds), Scotland (13-year-olds) and England (15-year-olds).

Family affluence An association was found in eight countries and regions for boys and 12 for girls. Drunkenness was more prevalent among high-affluence groups in most, but the opposite relationship was evident in Lithuania for boys and Iceland for girls.


35BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)

Note. no data were received from Finland and Ukraine



20

17

16

15

15

15

13

13

11

13

10

9

7

8

7

8

9

6

7

7

7

6

5

5

4

4

5

3

5

4

4

4

3

3

3

3

2

3

2

2

1

13

9

9

8

7

6

8

7

7

4

4

5

6

4

5

4

3

4

3

3

2

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

2

1

2

1

0

Bulgaria

Romania

Albania

Croatia

Israel

Greece

Italy

Republic of Moldova

Hungary

Armenia

Slovenia

Czech Republic

Russian Federation

Slovakia

Wales

Malta

Lithuania

Poland

France

Austria

MKDa

Luxembourg

Canada

Belgium (French)

Germany

Portugal

England

Scotland

Finland

Latvia

Switzerland

Estonia

Belgium (Flemish)

Greenland

Sweden

Denmark

Spain

Netherlands

Ireland

Iceland

Norway




BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)



32

32

32

33

29

29

29

30

24

20

23

23

20

18

19

18

18

19

18

18

16

14

17

16

14

18

12

13

13

12

12

11

11

12

11

10

11

8

5

6

3

3

26

17

18

13

18

18

11

10

13

14

10

11

12

13

11

11

11

8

10

9

11

12

9

8

9

7

10

9

6

8

7

8

6

6

4

4

2

4

4

4

4

2

Malta

Bulgaria

Italy

Croatia

Hungary

Greece

Israel

Romania

Republic of Moldova

Czech Republic

Albania

Austria

Denmark

Netherlands

Slovakia

Belgium (Flemish)

Slovenia

Germany

Ukraine

MKDa

Scotland

Wales

Belgium (French)

France

Luxembourg

Armenia

England

Poland

Lithuania

Canada

Estonia

Spain

Switzerland

Russian Federation

Portugal

Latvia

Greenland

Finland

Sweden

Ireland

Norway

Iceland






Note: indicates significant gender difference (at p<0.05). 0 means less than +/-0.5%. No data were received from Finland (11-year-olds) and Ukraine (11- and 13-year-olds).


BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)

Note. No data were received from Finland (11-year-olds) andthe former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (11- and 13-year-olds).



7

3

4

4

3

2

3

3

3

3

2

3

1

2

2

1

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

0

1

1

0

0

1

0

0

0

2

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

0

1

0

2

1

1

1

0

0

0

1

1

0

0

1

1

1

0

0

0

0

0

1

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

Armenia

Bulgaria

Croatia

Albania

Ukraine

Hungary

Republic of Moldova

Romania

Lithuania

Belgium (French)

Poland

Israel

Greenland

Czech Republic

Slovenia

Slovakia

Latvia

Portugal

Ireland

Wales

Belgium (Flemish)

Italy

Luxembourg

Estonia

Russian Federation

Canada

England

Greece

Austria

France

Malta

Spain

Switzerland

Norway

Scotland

Sweden

Denmark

Netherlands

Germany

Iceland

11-year-olds whohave been drunk on

two or more occasions



BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)

Note. No data available from Greenland



25

21

19

14

14

12

16

12

12

11

10

11

16

9

13

13

9

10

11

12

9

8

10

7

7

8

8

7

6

7

5

6

5

4

5

7

6

4

5

3

3

15

17

13

12

12

12

6

10

9

10

10

9

4

10

6

6

9

8

6

4

7

8

6

6

6

5

4

5

5

4

5

3

5

4

3

1

2

3

2

3

2

Lithuania

Estonia

Bulgaria

Latvia

Finland

Scotland

Croatia

Slovakia

Czech Republic

Denmark

Wales

Hungary

Romania

England

Ukraine

Albania

Malta

Canada

Slovenia

Republic of Moldova

Germany

Poland

Austria

France

Spain

Greece

Armenia

Ireland

Portugal

Switzerland

Luxembourg

Belgium (French)

Sweden

Netherlands

Russian Federation

Israel

MKDa

Belgium (Flemish)

Italy

Norway

Iceland

15-year-olds who reportfirst drunkenness at

age 13 or younger


a The former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. No data were received from Greenland.


BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)




15

16

12

8

10

12

7

9

8

12

7

10

9

7

7

5

7

5

7

6

5

6

4

4

3

3

2

4

4

4

4

2

3

3

3

2

2

2

2

2

1

10

8

6

9

6

4

8

6

6

2

7

3

3

5

5

7

4

6

4

4

4

4

5

4

4

4

4

3

3

2

2

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

Bulgaria

Lithuania

Croatia

Wales

Latvia

Armenia

Slovakia

Poland

Hungary

Republic of Moldova

Estonia

Albania

Romania

Finland

Czech Republic

Scotland

Slovenia

England

Greece

Russian Federation

Belgium (French)

Ukraine

Germany

Malta

Canada

Spain

Greenland

France

Denmark

Austria

Italy

Portugal

Belgium (Flemish)

Switzerland

Israel

Luxembourg

Sweden

Netherlands

Ireland

Norway

Iceland




BOYS (%)GIRLS (%)




39

41

41

38

32

40

28

33

31

32

32

25

30

29

26

26

26

23

27

21

22

23

21

23

30

28

19

20

17

17

18

15

16

19

15

17

16

19

15

19

15

6

38

34

33

30

33

24

34

28

29

29

27

31

26

26

28

26

23

25

20

23

21

19

21

18

12

10

19

16

16

16

15

18

16

14

14

11

11

7

8

4

5

6

Denmark

Hungary

Lithuania

Bulgaria

Scotland

Croatia

Wales

Slovenia

Estonia

Czech Republic

Finland

England

Latvia

Slovakia

Malta

Poland

Germany

Greenland

Austria

Canada

Greece

Belgium (Flemish)

Spain

Belgium (French)

Romania

Republic of Moldova

Norway

Ukraine

Netherlands

France

Portugal

Sweden

Ireland

Italy

Luxembourg

Russian Federation

Switzerland

Albania

MKDa

Armenia

Israel

Iceland




35GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC

DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEINGPART 3. KEY DATA | CHAPTER 5. RISK BEHAVIOURS

ALCOHOL USE

Note: indicates significant gender difference (at p<0.05). 0 means less than +/-0.5%. No data were received from Finland (11-year-olds) and the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (11- and 13-year-olds).



Note: HBSC teams provided disaggregated data for Belgium and the United Kingdom; these data appear in the map above.

Less than 5%

25% or more20–25%15–20%10–15%5–10%

No data

15-year-old girls who drink alcohol at least once a week



Less than 5%

25% or more20–25%15–20%10–15%5–10%

No data

15-year-old boys who drink alcohol at least once a week



35GROWING UP UNEQUAL: GENDER AND SOCIOECONOMIC

DIFFERENCES IN YOUNG PEOPLE’S HEALTH AND WELL-BEINGPART 3. KEY DATA | CHAPTER 5. RISK BEHAVIOURS

ALCOHOL USE


Less than 5%

20% or more15–20%10–15%5–10%

No data

15-year-old girls who report first drunkenness at age 13 or younger



Less than 5%

20% or more15–20%10–15%5–10%

No data

15-year-old boys who report first drunkenness at age 13 or younger





Less than 10%

30–35%25–30%20–25%15–20%10–15%

No data

35% or more

15-year-old girls who have been drunk on two or more occasions



Less than 10%

30–35%25–30%20–25%15–20%10–15%

No data

35% or more

15-year-old boys who have been drunk on two or more occasions


35




ALCOHOL USE:SCIENTIFIC DISCUSSION AND POLICY REFLECTIONS

SCIENTIFIC DISCUSSIONAdolescent alcohol use has decreased in most European and North American countries and regions since the beginning of the 21st century (6). The findings indicate that the decrease is ongoing in all age groups and among boys as well as girls.

The findings confirm previous HBSC data showing that prevalence rates of weekly alcohol use and (early) drunkenness increase substantially with age (especially between 13 and 15) for boys and girls in all countries and regions. It still tends to be more common among boys, but gender differences appear to be decreasing, particularly in relation to weekly drinking and drunkenness on more than one occasion. This finding is consistent with a pattern of gender convergence that has been observed since the beginning of the century (7,8): evidence has even emerged of girls in some northern European countries and regions reporting more alcohol use than boys.

Overall, family affluence is not found to have a large effect on adolescent use, a finding that is consistent with the literature (9). Parenting behaviours, such as providing support and monitoring adolescents’ behaviour, and social position among peers may be more important than family SES in predicting adolescent alcohol use (10).

POLICY REFLECTIONSA range of factors, including changes in disposable income, marketing, prevention approaches, changes in adult drinking behaviours and shifts in teen culture, may have influenced the general decrease in adolescent weekly drinking (6,8,11). Policies are in place in many countries and regions to limit underage access and restrict use among those of all ages (11,12), and stricter prevention policies are emerging (13). Changes in social norms, such as stronger societal disapproval of adolescent drinking, may also have contributed to the observed trends (6). More stringent policies and changing social norms may be related to greater insight into the potentially harmful effects of alcohol on adolescent brain development. Evidence suggests the need for more effort to address the increase in alcohol consumption between ages 13 and 15 that is evident across all countries and regions.

Evidence to support particular policies that contribute to reductions in adolescent use is growing. At country level, the absence of a minimum purchasing age and weak restrictions on alcohol availability and advertising are associated with adolescent use (11). Research on the effectiveness of school-based interventions is mixed (14), but programmes that target not only adolescents, but also their parents, can have considerable effects (15). Some generic psychosocial and developmental prevention programmes on life skills and healthy lifestyle may also be effective and can be considered as policy and practice options (16). Family interventions are effective in delaying alcohol initiation and reducing frequency of consumption among adolescents (16). Family treatments focused on change in maladaptive behaviours, multidimensional family therapy and group-administered cognitive behavioural therapies have received considerable empirical support (17).

REFERENCES

1. Anderson P, Baumberg B. Alcohol in Europe. A public health perspective. Brussels: European Commission; 2006 (http://ec.europa.eu/health/archive/ph_determinants/life_style/alcohol/documents/alcohol_europe_en.pdf, accessed 24 August 2015).

2. Johnston LD, O’Malley PM, Miech RA, Bachman JG, Schulenberg JE. Monitoring the future. National survey results on drug use, 1975–2014: overview, key findings on adolescent drug use. Ann Arbor (MI): Institute for Social Research, The University of Michigan; 2015 (http://www.monitoringthefuture.org/pubs/monographs/mtf-overview2014.pdf, accessed 24 August 2015).

3. Engels RCME, ter Bogt T. Influences of risk behaviours on the quality of peer relations in adolescence. J Youth Adolesc. 2001;30(6):675–95.

4. Boden JM, Fergusson DM. The short and long term consequences of adolescent alcohol use. In: Saunders J, Rey JM, editors. Young people and alcohol: impact, policy, prevention and treatment. Chichester: Wiley-Blackwell; 2011:32–46.

5. Feldstein Ewing SW, Sakhardande A, Blakemore S. The effect of alcohol consumption on the adolescent brain: a systematic review of MRI and fMRI studies of alcohol-using youth. Neuroimage Clin. 2014;5:420–37.

6. De Looze M, Raaijmakers Q, ter Bogt T, Bendtsen P, Farhat T, Ferreira M et al. Decreases in adolescent weekly alcohol use in Europe and North America: evidence from 28 countries from 2002 to 2010. Eur J Pub Health 2015;25:S69–72.



7. Kuntsche E, Kuntsche S, Knibbe R, Simons-Morton B, Farhat T, Hublet A et al. Cultural and gender convergence in adolescent drunkenness. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2011;165:152–8.

8. Simons-Morton B, Farhat T, ter Bogt T, Hublet A, Kuntsche E, NicGabhainn S. Gender specific trends in alcohol use: cross-cultural comparisons from 1998 to 2006 in 24 countries and regions. Int J Pub Health 2009;52:S199–208.

9. Hanson MD, Chen E. Socioeconomic status and health behaviors in adolescence: a review of the literature. J Behav Med. 2007;30:263–85.

10. Viner RM, Ozer EM, Denny S, Marmot M, Resnick M, Fatusi A et al. Adolescence and the social determinants of health. Lancet 2012;379(9826):1641–52.

11. Bendtsen P, Damsgaard MT, Huckle T, Casswell S, Kuntsche E, Arnold P et al. Adolescent alcohol use: a reflection of national drinking patterns and policy? Addiction 2014;109:1857–68.

12. Brand DA, Saisana M, Rynn LA, Lowenfelds AB. Comparative analysis of alcohol control policies in 30 countries. PLoS Med. 2007;4:e151.

13. Anderson P, Møller L, Galea G, editors. Alcohol in the European Union. Consumption, harm, and policy approaches. Copenhagen: WHO Regional Office for Europe; 2012 (http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0003/160680/e96457.pdf, accessed 24 August 2015).

14. Carney T, Myers BJ, Louw J, Okwundu CI. Brief school-based interventions and behavioural outcomes for substance-using adolescents. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2014;2:CD008969.

15. Koning IM, Vollebergh WAM, Smit F, Verdurmen JE, Van den Eijnden, ter Bogt T et al. Preventing heavy alcohol use in adolescents (PAS): cluster randomized trial of a parent and student intervention offered separately and simultaneously. Addiction 2009;104(10):1669–78.

16. Foxcroft DR, Tsersvadze A. Universal school-based prevention programs for alcohol misuse in young people. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2011;5(5):CD009113.

17. Smit E, Verdurmen J, Monshouwer K, Smit F. Family interventions and their effect on adolescent alcohol use in general populations: a meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2008;97(3):195–206.

Growing up unequal: gender and socioeconomic differences...

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