Group 3 Current Trends of Distance Education Development ... · learning. Open Universities Open...

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Group 3 – Current Trends of Distance Education Development Brian Lehman, Tracey Chambers, LaShenda Soule, John McCoy, & Melinda Parsons

Current Trends:

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE

Theories/Ways of Understanding

Institutional & Operational

Development (Operating Systems)

Teaching/ Learning Methodologies (role of teacher/ role of learner

Predominant Technologies

Key Authors

In order to learn about the cause of the SARs outbreak, Scientists started sharing information. (Siemens, 2011). People are changing jobs constantly. They will need to constantly update their skill and knowledge to keep abreast of current technology (Siemens, 2004). “Knowledge is growing exponentially. In many fields the life of knowledge is now measured in months and years” (Siemens, 2004).

The fourth wave consisted of changes that brought about learning methods that still apply today. In today’s information technology, information has become more accessible. This changed the dynamics of traditional learning. Connectivism was integrated based on principles, network, and the theory of complexity and self-organization. Connectivism is driven by the understanding that decisions are based on altering foundations (Siemens, 2004). Siemens (2004) identifies the principles of

Emerging technologies themselves are at the center of important cultural transformations around our use of media” (Jenkins, 2006; Keen; 2007; Postman, 1994; Stephens, 1998; Surowiecki, 2005, p.109). “Teleconferencing and the PC are altering the pedagogical concept of distance education to such an extent that we are now referring to a second and third generation

Asynchronous Learning should be done where and when the student wants to learn. Only when all resources have been exhausted should a student seek synchronous (face to face) learning opportunities (Clark, 2011). Asynchronous learning shares some qualities with Charlotte Danielson’s Common Core, which place less emphasis on teacher centered instruction and much greater emphasis on collaborative and student centered learning.

Open Universities Open Universities have a open door policy that allows anyone to take classes. Most classes are non- credited and some are free to take. MOOCs A Massive Open Online Course designed for unlimited number of participants and access via the web. Mobile Phones Mobile/ smartphones allow a person to access information anywhere through different applications. Twitter/Facebook

George Siemens Siemens is the founder of the term, connectivism. You learn through people different environments, diversity, and opinions (Siemens, 2004). Terry Anderson Anderson discusses about different emerging technologies that are now being brought into Distance education. Anderson also talks about the “re-invention” of some technologies to make them more efficient in DE (Anderson, 2010).

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“Informal learning is a significant aspect of our learning experience” (Siemens, 2004). It is no longer sufficient to teach students content. Students need to learn how to learn. The world is changing very quickly. Students will need to be capable of learning new information in order to keep themselves employable in the future. The technology is changing the way people learn. People can access vast amount of information easily and communicate with one another synchronously and asynchronously.

connectivism as: 1) Diversity in learning and knowledge based on opinions; 2) Learning is a process of connecting specialized sources creating an outcome; 3) Learning may reside in non-human appliances; 4) The ability to know more is more critical than current knowledge; 5) Maintaining connections is needed for continual learning; 6) The ability to see connections between ideas and concepts is a core skill; 7) Currency is aligned with accuracy,, up-to-date knowledge, which is the intent of all connectivist learning theories and activities; 8) Decision-making is a step in the learning process. Heutagogy transitions from the educator taking control of what’s learned and how a student determines and views learning. Heutagogy places the onus of learning primarily on the student. Students are responsible for the success of their learning experiences.

of this form of learning and teaching”(Peters, 2001, p.128). Audio and video conferencing are other forms of communication within DE between instructor and student. “The World Wide Web (WWW) began online learning” (Swan, 2010 p.110). The biggest technological use within DE is the internet. Without this, the power of presenting learning material would not be available, and the wide spread of education would indeed be limited. “Digital multimedia makes it possible to access, evaluate, manipulate, create and share ideas in a

Pedagogy of Nearness Anderson mentions the pedagogy of nearness as a “a teaching and learning approach that is a mixture of face-to-face and online (blended learning) -- a continual, uninterrupted process characterized by degrees of distance” (Anderson, 2010). This is a fusion of traditional face to face and distance education philosophies that is striking a balance that some school systems and higher education institutions are more comfortable with, and as such are willing to adopt in some programs. Complexity Theory The implications of complexity learning upon distance education can be found at two levels. For the student, complexity theory “supports the learner’s acquisition of skill and power such

Types of social media that allows a person to network between companies, and also a way for a person to stay in touch with news, family and friends. Wikipedia A “free access, free content Internet encyclopedia” listed as one of the most popular general reference works on the Internet. Blog Often used within DE courses as a platform for discussion and presenting information.

Otto Peters Peters discusses a realistic approach of digital information and communication. Peters also discusses how people who take distance education classes need to have a different behavior than students in a traditional classroom (Peters, 2001). Stewart Hase Hase discusses that distance education has gone to an andragogy approach to Heutagogy. In today’s adult DE, classes need to develop capable people. Capable people are more likely to do better at efficiently helping the world/environment (Hase & Kenyon, 2000). Chris Kenyon Kenyon discusses that distance education has gone to an andragogy approach to Heutagogy. In today’s

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Hase and Kenyon (2000) argues that at the rate of change in society which is referred to as the “so-called information explosion”, suggests that we should view it as an educational approach where the student determines what, how, and when learning should take place. The Heutagogical approach recognizes the need to be flexible in the learning process where the educator provides the means but the learner designs the actual course he or she might take by negotiating the learning (Hase and Kenyon, 2000).

variety of media formats” (Swan, 2010, p.111). Many institutions are utilizing another form of technology within DE, setting a platform for information. “Technological innovation has produced a suite of digital applications collectively...labeled Web 2.0” (Swan, 2010, p.112) The use of technology within DE comes in many forms, each bringing their own specific uses within adding to or enforcing educational material. We have YouTube, Google, FaceBook, Twitter, etc. and all these are able to bring something important and different to the table of relevance in DE courses.

that he or she can articulate and achieve personal learning goals (Anderson, 2010, p. 43). For the teacher or administrator, complexity theory emphasis finding the balance between enough structure to encourage independent learning, but not too much to inhibit such learning.

adult DE, classes need to develop capable people. Capable people are more likely to do better at efficiently helping the world/environment (Hase & Kenyon, 2000).

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DE requires a certain level of social presence for the course to even be successful, this is where the Community of Inquiry Framework (COI) comes in. Social presence in DE “refers to the degree to which learners feel socially and emotionally connected with others in an online environment”(Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2010, p.123). Cleveland-Innes & Garrison (2010) explains the main factors of the COI which are: Educational Experience, then Supporting Discourse, Selecting Content, Cognitive Presence, Social Presence, Setting Climate, hugely Teaching Presence (Structure/Process).

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Current Trend References

Anderson, T. (2010). Theories for learning with emerging technologies. In G. Veletsianos (Ed.), Emerging technologies in distance education (pp. 23-40). Canada:

Athabasca University Press. Retrieved from http://www.aupress.ca/books/120177/ebook/99Z_Veletsianos_2010-Emerging_Technologies_in_Distance_Education.pdf

Bates, T. (2014). Online Learning and Distance education Resources Retrieved from: http://www.tonybates.ca/tag/mooc/ Clark, D. (2011). More pedagogic change in 10 years than last 1000 years – all driven by 10 technology innovations. [Blog post.] Retrieved from

http://donaldclarkplanb.blogspot.com/2011/12/more-pedagogic-change-in-last-10-years.html

Hase, S., & Kenyon, C. (2000). From andragogy to heutagogy. In UltiBase Articles. Retrieved from http://ultibase.rmit.edu.au/Articles/dec00/hase2.htm Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education: Analysis and interpretations from an international perspective (p.128). London and New York:

Routledge. Schwier, R. (2011). Connectivism. 30 minute video interview with George Siemens. Retrieved from http://rickscafe.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/interview-with-

george-siemens-about-connectivism/ Siemens, G. (2004). Connectivism: A learning theory for the digital age. elearnspace.com. Retrieved from

http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm Swan, K. (2010).Teaching And Learning In Post-Industrial Distance Education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison, An introduction to distance education:

Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 109-123). New York and London: Routledge.

http://www.aupress.ca/books/120177/ebook/99Z_Veletsianos_2010-Emerging_Technologies_in_Distance_Education.pdf

http://www.aupress.ca/books/120177/ebook/99Z_Veletsianos_2010-Emerging_Technologies_in_Distance_Education.pdf

http://www.tonybates.ca/tag/mooc/




http://rickscafe.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/interview-with-george-siemens-about-connectivism/

http://rickscafe.wordpress.com/2011/08/05/interview-with-george-siemens-about-connectivism/

http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm



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Group 3 – Wave 3 of Distance Education Development Brian Lehman, Tracey Chambers, LaShenda Soule, John McCoy, & Melinda Parsons

Third wave of Development: Internet/Web-based Communication (1995…)

Forces dominant in the larger context

that drove development of DE






Key Authors

Globalization, the World Wide Web, the use the digital multimedia, and digital blended learning were the dominant forces that drove the development of DE in the third wave. “...information-driven economy and everyday life, digitized society…globalization, expansion of the service sector, increased significance of knowledge and knowledge media, the rise of the knowledge worker,........., virtual factories, virtual workplaces, the

Wave Three The third wave of distance education has brought about significant academic changes in analyzing the way in which students study/learn and teachers teach. 3rd Wave - Theories in DE Autonomous Learning, Peters (2010a) asserts that digitized learning has caused a compromise in the way students learn. For complete success, students must learn to develop five skills in a virtual environment; “self-determination/orientation, selection and decision-making abilities, instrumental-

In the third generation came the emergence of technologies within DE. “DE introduced interactive technologies: first audio, then text, video, and then web and immersive conferencing” (Anderson & Dron 2011, p.2). In the third wave, the use of technology is often used to drive the teacher/learner approach in DE. These technologies were apart of DE, but most importantly have specific needs to support the

Collaborative-constructivist approach Recent methodologies have emphasized collaborative learning approaches to distance education. Whereas previous methods had focused on linear relationships, for example student-content or student-teacher as the primary method of instruction, new scholarship emphasis collaborative and group based assignments, activities, and discussions. Traditional face to face institutions are also embracing collaborative approaches to distance education since it

Integrated Modes of Presentation Otto Peters asserts that the spoken word will no longer dominate the high education classroom, and the written word will no longer predominate (2010b, p. 147). Rather, modern technology will allow for a synthesis of both forms of content delivery. Moving Pictures Film has the potential to be an effective integrated mode of presentation. The ability to quickly and easily access films with

Key Authors 1995-1999 Otto Peters According to Peters (2007), distance education allows students to become self-motivated with his/her own learning. Garrison Garrison believes in the concept of two way communication between teachers & students (2009). Terry Anderson Anderson discusses that there are many types of interactions between students and teacher (2003).

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increasing role of services, of information and of theoretical knowledge…” (Peters, 2010a, p. 12). The use of Web 2.0 tools which allowed students to collaborate on a large scale (Swan, 2010). Enormous amounts of information available via the WWW (Swan, 2010). “Growth of digital multimedia and ready availability of relatively inexpensive multimedia tools” (Swan, 2010, p. 111). The use of asynchronous and synchronous technology (Anderson, 2011). Many Universities became dual mode. Blended learning was used to save money on classroom space.

qualifications acquisition, construction-qualificator acquisition, and learning/organizing skills” (p. 138). Cognitive-Behaviorism, Focuses on the way in which learning was predominantly defined, practiced and researched later in the 20th century. Behavioral learning theories began with the idea that learning is generally defined as a change in behavior as a result of how an individual’s responds to stimuli (Anderson & Dron, 2011, p. 82). Constructivism, Is described as a philosophy of learning based on the idea that individuals develop a meaningful understanding as they experience the world of distance education. Learning is viewed as a process of creating and regulating mental prototypes to accommodate new and improved educational

teaching/learning model. “The availability of technologies to support different models of learning strongly influence what kinds of model can be developed” (Anderson & Dron 2011, p.2). “It is therefore not surprising that programmed computer-supported learning was practiced first in digital learning environments” (Peters, 2010, p.143) Web delivery is used but serves an integral part of asynchronous learning. “This form of distance delivery places a premium on quality student-student interaction that is supported in a format that allows for asynchronous reflection and

mirrors philosophies of “critical discourse amongst a community of collaborative learners” (Garrison, 2009). Autonomous Learning Otto Peters argues that distance education provides an opportunity to meet an educational ideal, autonomous learning. In part, modern technology provides immense scaffolding in which information can be easily accessed by the student. Using the understanding that “learning is the development and reconstruction of individual knowledge, and of behavioral and experiential structures,” Peters believes that modern computer and communication technology is extremely conducive to autonomous learning (Peters, 2001, p.145).

modern technology, in addition to new understandings of how to integrate moving pictures with the spoken word (Peters, 2010b, p. 148). Virtual University The massive amount of technological innovation, and the new found uses of that technology in distance education over the last fifty years, and brought forth the potential for the virtual university, in which all the different forms and methods of content delivery are integrated into one learning experience. Students can attend virtual lectures and seminars, collaborate via discussion and email, teleconference, and access all manner of support services (Peters, 2010b, p. 152).

Swan Discusses about post-industrial education (2010).

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More classes can be held in the same amount of space (Vaughan, 2010).

experiences (Swan, 2010, p. 127). Connectivism, Is described as a learning process. One that is the process of building networks of information, contacts, and educational resources that are used to apply to real life circumstances and situations that will occur. Connectivism was developed on the basis of the “information era” which has evolved into a universe of countless accessibility to networked technologies (Anderson & Dron, 2011, p. 87). Connectivism also focuses on building and maintaining current connections that can be applied to developing problems (Anderson & Dron, 2011, p. 87). Community of Inquiry, The Community of Inquiry Model (CoI) serves as a framework for teaching and learning, informing styles/approaches (methodologies) and

scholarly expression in text format” (Anderson, 2003, p.10). The capacity of the web not only serves the needs of students within learning, but also serves instructors. “It is notable that social constructivist models only began to gain a foot-hold in distance education when the technologies of many-to-many communications became widely available” (Anderson & Dron 2011, p.6). “Teleconferencing was perhaps the most successful means available but came with associated costs and complexity that limited its usefulness”, (Anderson & Dron 2011, p.4).

Traditionalist This is used when the teacher wants to dominate the course. The teacher will give lectures, and when it is time, the teacher will give out exams to test the students’ knowledge. There is no other projects, and/or students directed projects (Peters, 2010a). Interaction Terry Anderson writes in support of “getting the mix right” in reference to balancing collaborative interaction between students and more traditional teacher and content based instruction. Anderson writes that both forms help create a diverse learning environment in which the needs and learning style of all students can be attempted to be met (Anderson, 2003)

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specific styles to design and deliver. Col is based on social constructivist and the education theory. Research, identifies and measures three principle elements critical to a successful online learning environment; (1) social, (2) cognitive, and (3) teaching presences. Virtual learning and the interaction that will involve one of three categories: · Social Presence – Promoting open communication for reciprocal and respectful exchanges to acknowledge another’s contributions. · Cognitive Presence – Promoting interaction to create critical thinking · Teacher Presence – Assessing social and cognitive issues to meet desirable academic outcomes on the part of an educator and student Interaction Equivalency Theorem

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There doesn’t need to be a balance amongst the three theories; but that one component is enough for a successful online learning experience. In other words, one doesn’t supersede the other. Three components: (1) Student/Content (2) Student/student (3) Student/instructor Flipped Learning Blended form of learning that allows students to view lessons via videos & podcasts providing a guided and collaborated class time consisting groups with an instructor.

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Wave 3 References

(2015). Flipped classroom. Knewton. Retrieved on April 4, 2015 from http://www.knewton.com/flipped-classroom/

Anderson, T. (2003). Getting the mix right again: An updated and theoretical rationale for interaction. International Review of Research in Open and Distance

Learning (IRRODL), 4(2), 1-14. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/149/230

Anderson, T. (2011, November). The third wave of distance education. [Online video]. Edmonton, AB, Canada. Available from http://vimeo.com/32596395

Anderson, T., & Dron, J. (2011). Three generations of distance education pedagogy. International Review of Research in Online and Distance Learning

(IRRODL), 12(3), 80-97. Retrieved from http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/890

Garrison, D. R., Anderson, T., & Archer, W. (2000). Critical inquiry in a text-based environment: Computer conferencing in higher education. The Internet and

Higher Education, 2(2-3), 87-105. Retrieved from http://communitiesofinquiry.com/sites/communityofinquiry.com/files/Critical_Inquiry_model.pdf

Garrison, R. (2009). Implications of online learning for the conceptual development and practice of distance education. International Journal of E-Learning and

Distance Education, 23(2), 93-104. Retrieved April 1, 2015, from http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/471/889

Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education: Analyses and interpretations from an international perspective. London: Kogan Page.

Peters, O. (2010a). A pedagogical model for using virtual learning spaces. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues (5th edition),

(pp. 119-139). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Available from

http://www.box.com/shared/ktx7ipccetotqrr11mct

Peters, O. (2010b). Digitized learning environments: New chances and opportunities. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and issues

(5th edition) (pp. 141-153). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky Universität Oldenburg. Available from


http://www.knewton.com/flipped-classroom/

http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/149/230

http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/149/230

http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/890

http://www.irrodl.org/index.php/irrodl/article/view/890

http://communitiesofinquiry.com/sites/communityofinquiry.com/files/Critical_Inquiry_model.pdf

http://communitiesofinquiry.com/sites/communityofinquiry.com/files/Critical_Inquiry_model.pdf

http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/471/889

http://www.ijede.ca/index.php/jde/article/view/471/889






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Swan, K. (2010). Teaching and learning in post-industrial distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance

education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 108-134). New York & London: Routledge.

Vaughan, N. D. (2010). Blended learning. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and

learning in a new era (pp. 165-178). New York & London: Routledge.

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Second Wave of Development: Systems Approach to Education (1960’s …)

Forces dominant in the larger context that

drove development of DE






Key Authors.

Peters (2010) talks about the Development of Open Universities based on the UK model and the development of the “examining university.” This allowed students to study material on their own at any time or place and go to the university to take an exam to prove that they know the material. Being able to study material in this manner is a major principles of distance education. “A major force driving the establishment of the open universities was an ideological bent toward higher

During the second wave of Distance Education (DE), there was influx of theories published by well-known scholars. The changes in DE were significant. Institutions that focused solely on DE, like single mode institutions and open universities were becoming available. Scholars dedicated journals to the field of DE, allowing discussion to take place based on their research. Elements Theory Keegan (Moore &

Kearsley, 2012) stated

in 1980 in an issue of

the Australian journal

Distance Education

The Institutional & Operational Development within distance education evolved greatly within its technologies. However, “a key factor in running a successful distance operation within a university has been the budget allocation process” (Shale, 2011, p. 94). “In the late 1960’s...through the 1970’s, the ubiquity of radio and television strongly influenced the next major organizational development in distance education” (Shale, 2011, p. 95).

In the last 50 years Distance Education has sought to bridge the gap between traditional face-to-face instruction and previous incarnations of DE using the latest technological developments. As communicative technology improves new theories and methodology about how the DE teacher/instructor should interact with students in these new mediums have emerged. In addition, distance education scholars have debated the best methodological approaches in regards to engaging the

Perhaps the single greatest technological development within the wider field of education has been the computer and all subsequent technological developments as a result. Distance Education has been profoundly shaped by the increasing power, flexibility, and affordability of computer based technologies. “Increasing recognition of the potential of computer mediated communications, computer supported collaborative work, computer learning environments, and

Tony Bates Bates joined the British Open University in 1969. The main reason why Bates was hired was to do research for the University to find other models of Distance Education (DE). He found that DE benefited adults that wanted to improve themselves by studying and working hard. Bates, T. (2011): Second Wave of DE and History. Malcolm Knowles Knowles wrote a book called The Modern Practice of Adult Education. Malcolm

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education at a time when people should have an opportunity to participate in it and thus improve their lots in life.” (Shale, 2010, p. 96). Another major force driving development was “The technology used to deliver and support learning” (Shale, 2010, p. 97). Radio and television allowed students with different learning styles to be successful distance education students. Institutions coming together to offer courses that everyone could use at a small price. This helped cut down of the cost of producing materials and allowed for specialization. (Miller, 2010).

defined the following

elements as a part of

DE, “1) separation of

educator and student;

2) influenced by an

educational

organization through

the preparation of

learning materials; 3)

technical media; 4)

provision of two-way

communication; 5)

participation in the

development of

education; and 6)

occasional roundtables.

The following six

elements were

developed and defined

by scholars Holmberg,

Moore, Peters and the

July 1971 Law of

France.” (Moore &

Kearsley, 2012)

Constructivism Theory Newly implemented forms of technology during the second wave reinforced elements related to the instructional design. This allowed

Media departments were also a huge part of operating systems in the 1970’s and 1980’s. “the programs were often imaginative in terms of exploiting the visual and audio aspects of television...in the area of mathematics were they created simulations and modeling to explain the concepts behind the mathematical formulae” (Bates, 2011). Bates (2011), felt that “the idea of integrated, explicitly designed materials based on sound pedagogic principles...led to the success of the Open University”. “Individual telephone conversations between teachers and students are common in the UK’s Open University”, (Peters, 2004, p.63). Within learner support, “learners worked with

students, especially as DE becomes increasingly geared towards adults as potential students. Reflecting these trends, some school districts (such as Howard County, Maryland) have begun to experiment with “blended” courses in their comprehensive summer school program. These courses are conducted both face to face and in the traditional distance education style. The blended courses both recognize the potential of DE within the traditional classroom and perhaps reveal reservations still from secondary school districts about the full merit and impact of DE on their curriculum. Regardless, the trend is evident that the emergence of DE on such a wide scale in the last 50 years is beginning to gain

computer based cognitive tools, have encouraged innovative approaches to the design of distance learning.” (Jonassen, 1995, p. 15) “Interactive teleconferencing: the delivery of credit courses and noncredit courses and workshops as live, interactive media events through a variety of telecommunication services, ranging from the telephone to the internet...” (Cleveland-Innes and Garrison, 2010, p. 35). Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Bannan Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26.

Knowles researched meaning theories about the characteristics of adults learning and different element of the Andragogy approach. Bullen, M. (1995). Andragogy and university distance education. Lord Crowther First Chancellor of the Open University stated on 1969, “We are open ‘as to people’; ‘as to places’; ‘as to methods’; and finally’ to ideas” (Peters, 2010, p. 62). Alan Tait (1989-1998) Editor of the Journal Open Learning. (2007-1010) President of the European Distance Education Network (EDEN)

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constructivism the ability to gain position in DE. The following four elements have been encompassed of the constructivism theory, 1) Active and authentic learning; 2) learning-by-doing (visual); 3) Scaffolded learning; and 4) Collaboration. (Harasim, 2011). Guided Didactic Conversation Theory In 1981, Holmberg theorized that teaching should be done in conversation or “guided didactic.” Empathy plays a significant part in the teaching/learning process in DE; thus using the conversation instead of the scholarly approach would aid an educator in displaying empathy through instruction, promoting motivation. (Holmberg, 2004). Andragogy Theory In 1970, Malcom Knowles, (Knowles, Swanson & Holton,

resource materials...integrating their new knowledge with their own understandings and their lifestyles.” (Tait, 2003, p.57) “From 1971 to 1997 all undergraduate students...had access to a personal tutor-counsellor who offered support and advice throughout their career.” (Haughey, 2010, p.58)

momentum even within secondary curriculum. Constructivism “Constructivist environments and tools can replace the deterministic, teacher controlled model of distance instruction…” (Jonassen, 1995, p.15). Andragogy Andragogy is the philosophical approach to educating adults, often times seen as the opposite of pedagogy, or the philosophical approach to educating children. As Distance Education develops greater acceptance as a method for continuing education into adulthood, the field of andragogy has emerged as an important field of study in education. “...suggest that applying andragogy to distance education course design will allow adults to make more decisions about their learning and encourage

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2011), developed the theory of andragogy in education for adults. Advocating for choice and the flexibility, Knowles believed that the process in teaching adults and adult learners should be far different than teaching children, emphasizing that adults are self-directed and expected to take responsibility for decisions. The following six elements are associated in the holistic and learner-centered approach, 1) Need to know; 2) Self-concept of the learner; 3) learner experience; 4) Willingness to learn; 5) Orientation to learning; and 6) Motivated to learn. (Knowles, Swanson, & Holton, 2011). Industrialized Education Theory In 1967, Peters (2010) theorized that comparing the techniques of DE and the industrial process were similar,

them to become self-directed and independent learners.” (Bullen, 1995, p. 2). Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. Paper presented to the 17th conference on the International Council for Open and Distance Education, Birmingham, UK. Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Bannan Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26.

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systematically, and in the workplace, producing mass materials, automation, quality control, and using modernized technology through communication. (Peters, 2010). Transactional Distance: Dialogue, Structure, and Learner Autonomy Theory Moore & Kearsley (2012) stated, “The theory of transactional distance suggests that structure and dialogue are critical factors that are critical to the learner autonomy.” Moore & Kearsley (2012), further states that there are different levels of dialogue; thus in transactional distance there are lower levels of dialogue opposed to there being more dialogue resulting in higher levels of transactional distance. (Moore & Kearsley, 2012).

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Wave 2 References Bates, A. W. (2011, November). The second wave of distance education and history of the Open University United Kingdom. [Online Video} Bullen, M. (1995, June). Andragogy and university distance education. Paper presented to the 17th conference on the International Council for Open and

Distance Education, Birmingham, UK. Cleveland-Innes, M.F., & Garrison, D.R. (2010). An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era. (pp. 91-107). New

York & London: Routledge.

Holmberg, B. (2004). The empathy approach to distance education. [Lecture video]

Jonassen, D., Davidson, M., Collins, M., Campbell, J., & Bannan Haag, B. (1995). Constructivism and computer-mediated communication in distance education. The American Journal of Distance Education, 9(2), 7-26.

Knowles, M.S., Swanson, M.A., & Holton, E.F. (2011). The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development (7th ed.).

New York:Taylor & Francis.

Miller, G. E. (2010). Organization and technology of distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 26-45). New York & London: Routledge

Moore, M.G., Kearsley, G. (2012). Distance Education: A systems view of online learning. New York: Cengage Learning. Peters, O. (2010). The greatest achievement of industrialized education: Open universities. In O. Peters, Distance education in transition: Developments and

issues (5th edition) (pp. 57-81). Oldenburg, Germany: Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education: Analyses and interpretations from an international perspective. London: Kogan Page. Shale, D. (2010). Beyond boundaries: The evolution of distance education. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison (Eds.), An introduction to distance

education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 91-107). New York & London: Routledge. Wiseman, K. L. (2013). Learning Theory and Online Technologies - By Linda Harasim. Teaching Theology & Religion, 16e13-e14. doi:10.1111/teth.12071

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First Wave of Development: Correspondence/Independent Study- 1840~

Forces dominant in the larger context that

drove development of DE






Key Authors.

The Industrial Era was one of the forces that drove development of DE. The University of London allowed people who were not students to take exams - “The University of London … functioned as an examining institute which does not require that their examinees are students of the university” (Holmberg, 2005, p. 14). Correspondence education allowed more people to continue their education“..correspondence education became something of a

According to Peters (1967), the impulse for the interpretation of distance education (DE) as an industrialized form of teaching and learning, came thirty years ago. Pre-Industrial Era Story books and traditional text-books were published as a way to exchange ideas. Industrial Era (1750-1850) In 1750, the Industrial Revolution created a cultural & economic shift resulting in the development of mass printing. Publishing companies were established to

The development of distance education took place over 100 years ago. The operational development of distance education has evolved, first with the stroke of a pen on paper, through delivered correspondence and personal testing, to developing a more real-time teacher/learning environment at a distance. Distance education was eventually a part of institutions making education available to those with conflicting schedules. According to Peters (2004), the foundation

When it comes to distance education there are many roles of the educator and the student. The educator (professor/trainer) needs to be aware of all the students needs and to make sure that all needs are met. The educator should also incorporate different learning styles to keep the students engaged. The educator must also be trained and fully aware on how assistive technology works so the educator can teach the students effectively. The student is responsible for their education and for

There are many predominant technologies in distance education. In the beginning, distance education used the postal service as a main source. Professors were able to mail assignments and graded assignments In Teaching and Learning in Distance Education before the Digital Age, Haughey (2010) describes many examples of students receiving lessons via mail and returning them when they were completed.

The first wave of Distance Education (DE) consisted of scholars who researched and studied the origins of independent and correspondence and how they foresaw how it would apply today. Charles Wedemeyer According to D.R. Garrison and M.F. Cleveland-Innes (2010), Charles Wedemeyer was a pioneer when it came to theoretical development of distance education. Charles Wedemeyer believed that distance education could help socially disadvantaged individuals (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010).

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilde

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godsend to many who… wanted to improve their education and thus their chances for promotion in work and society” (Holmberg, 2005, p.19). WWII prompted France to open correspondence schools - “In France a state correspondence school was created in 1939 to cater for the education of children (c)shose schools because of the war could not stay open” (Holmberg, 2005, p. 20). In the aftermath of WWII, governments recognized the need for education and adults wanted it: “..Post war governments recognized that post-secondary education was essential for their economic growth and the development of their citizens.” (Haughey, 2010, p.49).

provide various educational tools for the traditional style of education. Victorian Era (1837-1901) “The Victorian Era brought industrialization & change to society along with public communication. In 1840, The Penny Post was created which was the first organized mailing service established in England. Isaac Pitman, the first to recognize the communication potential and establish one of the 1st correspondence schools.” (Visser, 2005) Concept Conceptual confusion has been created with the advent of new terminology (virtual, distributed and distance education), new technologies, new program demands, new audiences, and new

of Distance Education dates back to the Apostle Paul, who wrote his famous epistles in order to teach Christian Communities.

The Industrial Era- “The emergence of correspondence education was a direct result of developments in communication technology; specifically the mail system and the ability to distribute course materials economically.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010, p.14). “Wedemeyer was a pioneer in the theoretical development of distance education...He focused on the characteristic of independent study that provided access to socially disadvantaged individuals.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010, p.14)

making sure they complete all work/readings that are assigned. Students are also responsible for learning the technologies that are being used and to ask questions if the students are having problems.

Borje Holmberg Holmberg (2005) founded theories in the field of DE by 1840 and had many other contributions during the 18th century Desmond Keegan Dr. Keegan was one of the few who interpreted research and understand the field of distance education (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010). Keegan was also a pioneer researcher for distance education. He also contributed to the changes of distance education of today. Otto Peters Otto Peter believes that distance education as a special purposes and has a lot of different aspects that are not present in traditional face-to-face classrooms (Peters, 2011). According to Peters (2007), distance education allows students become self-

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“growing numbers of adults desired post secondary schooling.” (Haughey, 2010, p.49). Rural Free Delivery (RDF).

commercially competitive providers. (Garrison, 2000) 1960, DE was viewed as disregarded by pedagogics and in order to grasp the concept of DE, it was required to look at the structural differences between “traditional” and the effects of online learning. (Peters, 1997)

“The adoption of audio-conferencing technologies in the 1980’s raised questions about the trade-off of independence and interactions” (Daniel & Marquis) (1979), as cited by Garrison & Cleveland-Innes (2010) p.16 “The first electronic technology adopted by distance education was radio in the early part of the 20th century.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010 , p.17). “The open university movement began in the 1960’s when Great Britain established the first open University…”(Cleveland-Innes & Garrison, 2010 p.33). “The Open University reflected a commitment to creating a fully autonomous institution totally organized around the needs of

motivated with his/her own learning.

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nontraditional students.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010, p.33) “Certainly online communication and discussions have been adopted by distance education institutions.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes, 2010 p.17) Post-Industrial Era- “A new era of distance education appears to be emerging that has capitalized on the Internet and new communications technology.” (Garrison & Cleveland-Innes 2010 p.18) “The correspondence model has certainly proved its value in practice...it contributed to the success of commercial distance-teaching schools and colleges.” (Peters, 2001, p. 19) “A further step towards reducing the distance

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between teachers and students was taken when people started to interpret distance education as the simulation of a conversation between teacher and student.” (Peters, 2001, p. 20)

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Wave 1 References

Cleveland-Innes, M.F., & Garrison, D.R. (2010). An introduction to distance education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era. New York, NY:

Routledge.

Garrison, R. (2000). Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A shift from structural to transactional issues

Haughey, M. (2010). Teaching and learning in distance education before the digital age. In M. F. Cleveland-Innes & D. R. Garrison, An introduction to distance

education: Understanding teaching and learning in a new era (pp. 46-66). New York and London: Routledge.

Holmberg, B. (2005). The evolution, principles, and practice of distance education (pp. 13-36). Oldenburg, Germany: BIS-Verlag der Carl von Ossietzky

Universität Oldenburg.

Peters, O. (2001). Learning and teaching in distance education: Analyses and interpretations from an international perspective. London: Kogan Page.

Visser, Y.L. (2005). Trends & Issues in Distance Education: International Perspectives

Wedemeyer, C.A. (1971). Independent Study

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