Griffin Chap16 Motivation

35
CHAPTER CHAPTER 16 16 Managing Employee Motivation and Performance Copyright Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin © by Houghton Mifflin Company. Company. All rights reserved. All rights reserved. PowerPoint PowerPoint Presentation Presentation by Charlie Cook by Charlie Cook

Transcript of Griffin Chap16 Motivation

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CHAPTERCHAPTER

1616

Managing Employee Motivation and Performance

Managing Employee Motivation and Performance

Copyright Copyright © by Houghton Mifflin Company.© by Houghton Mifflin Company.All rights reserved.All rights reserved.

PowerPoint PresentationPowerPoint Presentation by Charlie Cook by Charlie Cook

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Learning ObjectivesLearning Objectives

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Characterize the nature of motivation, including its

importance and basic historical perspectives.– Identify and describe the major content perspectives on

motivation.– Identify and describe the major process perspectives on

motivation.– Describe reinforcement perspectives on motivation.– Identify and describe popular motivational strategies.– Describe the role of organizational reward systems in

motivation.

After studying this chapter, you should be able to:– Characterize the nature of motivation, including its

importance and basic historical perspectives.– Identify and describe the major content perspectives on

motivation.– Identify and describe the major process perspectives on

motivation.– Describe reinforcement perspectives on motivation.– Identify and describe popular motivational strategies.– Describe the role of organizational reward systems in

motivation.

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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline• The Nature of Motivation

– The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace

– Historical Perspectives on Motivation

• Content Perspectives on Motivation

– The Need Hierarchy Approach– The Two-Factor Theory– Individual Human Needs

• Process Perspectives on Motivation

– Expectancy Theory– Equity Theory– Goal-Setting Theory

• The Nature of Motivation– The Importance of Motivation in

the Workplace– Historical Perspectives on

Motivation

• Content Perspectives on Motivation

– The Need Hierarchy Approach– The Two-Factor Theory– Individual Human Needs

• Process Perspectives on Motivation

– Expectancy Theory– Equity Theory– Goal-Setting Theory

• Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation

– Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations

– Providing Reinforcement in Organizations

• Popular Motivational Strategies– Empowerment and Participation– New Forms of Working

Arrangements

• Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance

– Effects of Organization Rewards– Designing Effective Reward

Systems– Popular approaches made to

client

• Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation

– Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations

– Providing Reinforcement in Organizations

• Popular Motivational Strategies– Empowerment and Participation– New Forms of Working

Arrangements

• Using Reward Systems to Motivate Performance

– Effects of Organization Rewards– Designing Effective Reward

Systems– Popular approaches made to

client

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The Nature of MotivationThe Nature of Motivation

• Motivation– The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain

ways.– The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and

minimize undesirable behaviors.

• The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace– Determinants of Individual Performance

• MotivationMotivation—t—the desire to do the job.he desire to do the job.

• AbilityAbility—the capability to do the job.—the capability to do the job.

• Work environmentWork environment—the resources —the resources to do the job.to do the job.

• Motivation– The set of forces that cause people to behave in certain

ways.– The goal of managers is to maximize desired behaviors and

minimize undesirable behaviors.

• The Importance of Motivation in the Workplace– Determinants of Individual Performance

• MotivationMotivation—t—the desire to do the job.he desire to do the job.

• AbilityAbility—the capability to do the job.—the capability to do the job.

• Work environmentWork environment—the resources —the resources to do the job.to do the job.

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The Motivation FrameworkThe Motivation Framework

Search for waysto satisfy need

Choice ofbehavior to

satisfy need

Determination offuture needs andsearch/choice for

satisfaction

Evaluation ofneed satisfaction

Need ordeficiency

Figure 16.1

The motivation processes through a series of discreet steps. Content, process, and reinforcement perspectives on motivation address different parts of this process.

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Historical Perspectives on Historical Perspectives on MotivationMotivation

• The Traditional Approach– Frederick Taylor (Scientific Management)– Assumptions:

• Managers know more than workers.Managers know more than workers.

• Economic gain (money) is the primary Economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance.motivation for performance.

• Work is inherently unpleasant.Work is inherently unpleasant.

• The Human Relations Approach– Emphasized the role of social processes in the workplace.– Assumptions:

• Employees want to feel useful and and important.Employees want to feel useful and and important.

• Employees have strong social needs, more important than money.Employees have strong social needs, more important than money.

• Maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important.Maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important.

• The Traditional Approach– Frederick Taylor (Scientific Management)– Assumptions:

• Managers know more than workers.Managers know more than workers.

• Economic gain (money) is the primary Economic gain (money) is the primary motivation for performance.motivation for performance.

• Work is inherently unpleasant.Work is inherently unpleasant.

• The Human Relations Approach– Emphasized the role of social processes in the workplace.– Assumptions:

• Employees want to feel useful and and important.Employees want to feel useful and and important.

• Employees have strong social needs, more important than money.Employees have strong social needs, more important than money.

• Maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important.Maintaining the appearance of employee participation is important.

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Historical Perspectives on Historical Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)

• The Human Resource Approach– Assumptions:

• Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization.and the organization.

• Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.

• Management’s job is to encourage participation Management’s job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that and create a work environment that motivates employees. motivates employees.

• The Human Resource Approach– Assumptions:

• Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee Employee contributions are important and valuable to the employee and the organization.and the organization.

• Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.Employees want to and are able to make genuine contributions.

• Management’s job is to encourage participation Management’s job is to encourage participation and create a work environment that and create a work environment that motivates employees. motivates employees.

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Content Perspectives on Content Perspectives on MotivationMotivation

• Content Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,

“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

• Content Perspectives of Motivation– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Aldefer’s ERG Theory– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory– McClelland’s Achievement,

Power, and Affiliation Needs

• Content Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,

“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”

• Content Perspectives of Motivation– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Aldefer’s ERG Theory– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory– McClelland’s Achievement,

Power, and Affiliation Needs

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Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Need Hierarchy Approach– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.– Belongingness needs for love and affection.– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition

and respect from others.– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal

growth and development.

– Weakness of Maslow’s theory• Five levels of need are not always present.Five levels of need are not always present.• Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.• Cultural differences.Cultural differences.

• The Need Hierarchy Approach– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

• People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:People must, in a hierarchical order, satisfy five groups of needs:– Physiological needs for basic survival and biological function.– Security needs for a safe physical and emotional environment.– Belongingness needs for love and affection.– Esteem needs for positive self-image/self-respect and recognition

and respect from others.– Self-actualization needs for realizing one’s potential for personal

growth and development.

– Weakness of Maslow’s theory• Five levels of need are not always present.Five levels of need are not always present.• Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.Ordering or importance of needs is not always the same.• Cultural differences.Cultural differences.

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsMaslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness

Security

PhysiologyFood

Achievement

Status

Friendship

Stability

Job

Friends

Pension

Base

NEEDS

General Examples Organizational Examples

jobChallenging

title

at work

plan

salary

Figure 16.2

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Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The ERG Theory (Alderfer)– People’s needs are grouped into three overlapping

categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.– Maslow’s hierarchy is collapsed into three levels:

• Existence needsExistence needs related to physiological and security needs. related to physiological and security needs.

• Relatedness needsRelatedness needs that are similar to belongingness and esteem by that are similar to belongingness and esteem by others.others.

• Growth needsGrowth needs encompass needs for self-esteem and self- encompass needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.actualization.

– ERG theory assumes that:• Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute

hierarchy of needs).hierarchy of needs).

• If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (pursue that need (frustration-regressionfrustration-regression).).

• The ERG Theory (Alderfer)– People’s needs are grouped into three overlapping

categories—existence, relatedness, and growth.– Maslow’s hierarchy is collapsed into three levels:

• Existence needsExistence needs related to physiological and security needs. related to physiological and security needs.

• Relatedness needsRelatedness needs that are similar to belongingness and esteem by that are similar to belongingness and esteem by others.others.

• Growth needsGrowth needs encompass needs for self-esteem and self- encompass needs for self-esteem and self-actualization.actualization.

– ERG theory assumes that:• Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute Multiple needs can be operative at one time (there is no absolute

hierarchy of needs).hierarchy of needs).

• If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and If a need is unsatisfied, a person will regress to a lower-level need and pursue that need (pursue that need (frustration-regressionfrustration-regression).).

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Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)– People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by

two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.

– Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:• Motivational factorsMotivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges (work content) are on a continuum that ranges

from satisfaction to no satisfaction.from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

• Hygiene factorsHygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

• Motivation is a two-step process:Motivation is a two-step process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking

motivation.

– Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.

• The Two-Factor Theory (Herzberg)– People’s satisfaction and dissatisfaction are influenced by

two independent sets of factors—motivation factors and hygiene factors.

– Theory assumes that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are on two distinct continuums:• Motivational factorsMotivational factors (work content) are on a continuum that ranges (work content) are on a continuum that ranges

from satisfaction to no satisfaction.from satisfaction to no satisfaction.

• Hygiene factorsHygiene factors (work environment) are on a separate continuum (work environment) are on a separate continuum that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.that ranges from dissatisfaction to no dissatisfaction.

• Motivation is a two-step process:Motivation is a two-step process:– Ensuring that the hygiene factors are not deficient and not blocking

motivation.

– Giving employees the opportunity to experience motivational factors through job enrichment.

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The Two-The Two-Factor Factor

Theory of Theory of MotivatioMotivatio

nnSatisfaction No satisfaction

Motivation Factors• Achievement• Recognition• The work itself• Responsibility• Advancement

and growth

Dissatisfaction No dissatisfaction

Hygiene Factors• Supervisors• Working conditions• Interpersonal relations• Pay and security• Company policies and

administration

Figure 16.3

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Content Perspectives on Motivation Content Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Individual Human Needs (McClelland)– The need for achievement

• The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past.past.

– The need for affiliation• The desire for human companionship and acceptance.The desire for human companionship and acceptance.

– The need for power• The desire to be influential in The desire to be influential in

a group and to be in control a group and to be in control of one’s environment.of one’s environment.

• Individual Human Needs (McClelland)– The need for achievement

• The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the The desire to accomplish a goal or task more effectively than in the past.past.

– The need for affiliation• The desire for human companionship and acceptance.The desire for human companionship and acceptance.

– The need for power• The desire to be influential in The desire to be influential in

a group and to be in control a group and to be in control of one’s environment.of one’s environment.

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Process Perspectives on Process Perspectives on MotivationMotivation

• Process Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that focus on why people choose

certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.

• Process Perspectives of Motivation– Expectancy Theory– Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Equity Theory– Goal-Setting Theory

• Process Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that focus on why people choose

certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.

• Process Perspectives of Motivation– Expectancy Theory– Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Equity Theory– Goal-Setting Theory

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Expectancy Theory– Motivation depends on how much we want something and

how likely we are to get it.– Assumes that:

• Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and environmental forces.environmental forces.

• People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.

• Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.

• People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.that leads to a desired outcome.

• Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (leads to various outcomes that have value (valencevalence) to employees.) to employees.

• Expectancy Theory– Motivation depends on how much we want something and

how likely we are to get it.– Assumes that:

• Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and Behavior is determined by a combination of personal and environmental forces.environmental forces.

• People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.People make decisions about their own behavior in organizations.

• Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.Different people have different types of needs, desires, and goals.

• People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that People choose among alternatives of behaviors in selecting one that that leads to a desired outcome.that leads to a desired outcome.

• Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and Motivation leads to effort, when combined with ability and environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, environmental factors, that results in performance which, in turn, leads to various outcomes that have value (leads to various outcomes that have value (valencevalence) to employees.) to employees.

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Elements of Expectancy Theory– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

• The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance.high level of performance.

– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy• The employee’s perception of the probability The employee’s perception of the probability

that performance will lead to a specific that performance will lead to a specific outcomeoutcome——the consequence or reward the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational for behaviors in an organizational setting.setting.

• Elements of Expectancy Theory– Effort-to-Performance Expectancy

• The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a The employee’s perception of the probability that effort will lead to a high level of performance.high level of performance.

– Performance-to-Outcome Expectancy• The employee’s perception of the probability The employee’s perception of the probability

that performance will lead to a specific that performance will lead to a specific outcomeoutcome——the consequence or reward the consequence or reward for behaviors in an organizational for behaviors in an organizational setting.setting.

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d)– Valence

• An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.

• It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.– Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive

outcomes have negative valences.

– Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.

– For motivated behavior to occur:• Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome

expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.

• The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.

• Elements of Expectancy Theory (cont’d)– Valence

• An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.An index of how much an individual values a particular outcome.

• It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.It is the attractiveness of the outcome to the individual.– Attractive outcomes have positive valences and unattractive

outcomes have negative valences.

– Outcomes to which an individual is indifferent have zero valences.

– For motivated behavior to occur:• Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome Both effort-to-performance expectancy and performance-to-outcome

expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.expectancy probabilities must be greater than zero.

• The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.The sum of the valences must be greater than zero.

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Expectancy Model of Motivation• The Expectancy Model of Motivation

Environment

Motivation Effort Performance

Ability

Outcome

Outcome

Outcome

Valence

Outcome Valence

Outcome Valence

Valence

Valence

Figure 16.4

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Assumptions:

• If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied.rewards, people will be more satisfied.

• High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.

– Types of rewards:• Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties

(e.g., (e.g., pay and promotions).pay and promotions).

• Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory– Assumptions:

• If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair If performance in an organization results in equitable and fair rewards, people will be more satisfied.rewards, people will be more satisfied.

• High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.High performance can lead to rewards and high satisfaction.

– Types of rewards:• Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties Extrinsic rewards are outcomes set and awarded by external parties

(e.g., (e.g., pay and promotions).pay and promotions).

• Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., Intrinsic rewards are outcomes that are internal to the individual (e.g., self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).self-esteem and feelings of accomplishment).

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory

• The Porter-Lawler Extension of Expectancy Theory

Intrinsicrewards(outcomes)

PerformancePerceivedequity

Satisfaction

Extrinsicrewards(outcomes)

Figure 16.5

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Equity Theory– People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards

they receive for performance.– Equity is an individual’s belief that the treatment he or she

receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others. – Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs

of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people.

• Equity Theory– People are motivated to seek social equity in the rewards

they receive for performance.– Equity is an individual’s belief that the treatment he or she

receives is fair relative to the treatment received by others. – Individuals view the value of rewards (outcomes) and inputs

of effort as ratios and make subjective comparisons of themselves to other people.

outcomes (self)inputs (self)

=outcomes (other)

inputs (other)

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Equity Theory (cont’d)– Conditions of and reactions to equity comparisons:

• Feeling equitably rewarded. Feeling equitably rewarded. – Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate.

• Feeling under-rewardedFeeling under-rewarded—try to reduce inequity.—try to reduce inequity.– Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off.

– Change outcomes by demanding a raise.

– Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others.

– Leave situation by quitting the job.

– Change comparisons by choosing another object person.

• Feeling over-rewarded.Feeling over-rewarded.– Increase or decrease inputs.

– Distort ratios by rationalizing.

– Help the object person gain more outcomes.

• Equity Theory (cont’d)– Conditions of and reactions to equity comparisons:

• Feeling equitably rewarded. Feeling equitably rewarded. – Maintain performance and accept comparison as fair estimate.

• Feeling under-rewardedFeeling under-rewarded—try to reduce inequity.—try to reduce inequity.– Change inputs by trying harder or slacking off.

– Change outcomes by demanding a raise.

– Distort the ratios by altering perceptions of self or of others.

– Leave situation by quitting the job.

– Change comparisons by choosing another object person.

• Feeling over-rewarded.Feeling over-rewarded.– Increase or decrease inputs.

– Distort ratios by rationalizing.

– Help the object person gain more outcomes.

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Goal-Setting Theory – Assumptions

• Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions.Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions.

• Setting goals influence the behavior of people in organizations. Setting goals influence the behavior of people in organizations.

• Characteristics of Goals– Goal difficulty

• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.

• Goals should be difficult but attainable.Goals should be difficult but attainable.

– Goal specificity• Clarity and precision of the goal.Clarity and precision of the goal.

• Goals vary in their ability to be Goals vary in their ability to be stated specifically.stated specifically.

• Goal-Setting Theory – Assumptions

• Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions.Behavior is a result of conscious goals and intentions.

• Setting goals influence the behavior of people in organizations. Setting goals influence the behavior of people in organizations.

• Characteristics of Goals– Goal difficulty

• Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.

• People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.People work harder to achieve more difficult goals.

• Goals should be difficult but attainable.Goals should be difficult but attainable.

– Goal specificity• Clarity and precision of the goal.Clarity and precision of the goal.

• Goals vary in their ability to be Goals vary in their ability to be stated specifically.stated specifically.

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Process Perspectives on Process Perspectives on Motivation(cont’d)Motivation(cont’d)

• Characteristics of Goals (cont’d)– Acceptance

• The extent to which persons accept a goal The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.as their own.

– Commitment• The extent to which an individual is The extent to which an individual is

personally interested in reaching a goal.personally interested in reaching a goal.

• Characteristics of Goals (cont’d)– Acceptance

• The extent to which persons accept a goal The extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.as their own.

– Commitment• The extent to which an individual is The extent to which an individual is

personally interested in reaching a goal.personally interested in reaching a goal.

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Process Perspectives on Motivation Process Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)(cont’d)

• The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation• The Expanded Goal-Setting Theory of Motivation

Goal-DirectedEffort

Organizationalsupport

Performance Satisfaction

ExtrinsicRewards

Individualabilities andtraits

Goal commitment

Goaldifficulty

Goalspecificity

IntrinsicRewards

Goalacceptance

Figure 16.6

Source: Reprinted by permission of the publisher, from Organizational Dynamics, Autumn/1979, copyright © 1979, copyright © 1979 by American Management Association, New York. All rights reserved. (http://www.amanet.org)

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Reinforcement PerspectivesReinforcement Perspectiveson Motivationon Motivation

• Reinforcement Theory– The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or

remain the same over time.– Assumes that:

• Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.less likely to be repeated.

• Reinforcement Theory– The role of rewards as they cause behavior to change or

remain the same over time.– Assumes that:

• Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be Behavior that results in rewarding consequences is likely to be repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is repeated, whereas behavior that results in punishing consequences is less likely to be repeated.less likely to be repeated.

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Reinforcement Perspectives on Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)

• Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations– Positive reinforcement

• Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.desired behavior is performed.

– Avoidance • Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that

would result if the behavior is not performed.would result if the behavior is not performed.

– Punishment• Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or

unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.

– Extinction• Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing

that behavior.that behavior.

• Kinds of Reinforcement in Organizations– Positive reinforcement

• Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a Strengthens behavior with rewards or positive outcomes after a desired behavior is performed.desired behavior is performed.

– Avoidance • Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that Strengthens behavior by avoiding unpleasant consequences that

would result if the behavior is not performed.would result if the behavior is not performed.

– Punishment• Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or Weakens undesired behavior by using negative outcomes or

unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.unpleasant consequences when the behavior is performed.

– Extinction• Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing Weakens undesired behavior by simply ignoring or not reinforcing

that behavior.that behavior.

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Reinforcement Perspectives on Reinforcement Perspectives on Motivation (cont’d)Motivation (cont’d)

• Providing Reinforcement in Organizations– Reinforcement schedules

• Fixed interval scheduleFixed interval schedule——reinforcement applied at fixed time reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior.intervals, regardless of behavior.

• Variable intervalVariable interval—r—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals.einforcement applied at variable time intervals.

• Fixed ratioFixed ratio —r—reinforcement applied after a fixed number of einforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.

• Variable RatioVariable Ratio—r—reinforcement applied after a variable number of einforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.

– Behavior modification (OB mod)• A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in

an organizational setting.an organizational setting.

• Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.

• Providing Reinforcement in Organizations– Reinforcement schedules

• Fixed interval scheduleFixed interval schedule——reinforcement applied at fixed time reinforcement applied at fixed time intervals, regardless of behavior.intervals, regardless of behavior.

• Variable intervalVariable interval—r—reinforcement applied at variable time intervals.einforcement applied at variable time intervals.

• Fixed ratioFixed ratio —r—reinforcement applied after a fixed number of einforcement applied after a fixed number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.

• Variable RatioVariable Ratio—r—reinforcement applied after a variable number of einforcement applied after a variable number of behaviors, regardless of time.behaviors, regardless of time.

– Behavior modification (OB mod)• A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in A method for applying the basic elements of reinforcement theory in

an organizational setting.an organizational setting.

• Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.Specific behaviors are tied to specific forms of reinforcement.

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Popular Motivational StrategiesPopular Motivational Strategies

• Empowerment and Participation– Empowerment

• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence. decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.

– Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about

their work.their work.

– Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.Making decisions about their jobs.

• Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).

• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product Participating in decision making about broader issues of product quality.quality.

• Empowerment and Participation– Empowerment

• The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make The process of enabling workers to set their own work goals, make decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence. decisions, and solve problems within their sphere of influence.

– Participation• The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about The process of giving employees a voice in making decisions about

their work.their work.

– Areas of Participation for Employees• Making decisions about their jobs.Making decisions about their jobs.

• Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).Decisions about administrative matters (e.g., work schedules).

• Participating in decision making about broader issues of product Participating in decision making about broader issues of product quality.quality.

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Popular Motivational Strategies Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)(cont’d)

• Techniques and Issues in Empowerment– Using work teams

• Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their work.control their work.

– Changing the overall method of organizing the firm by becoming more decentralized.

– Conditions necessary for empowerment:• Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.

• Organization must be committed to empowering workers.Organization must be committed to empowering workers.

• Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers.workers.

• Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.

• Techniques and Issues in Empowerment– Using work teams

• Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and Collections of employees empowered to plan, organize, direct, and control their work.control their work.

– Changing the overall method of organizing the firm by becoming more decentralized.

– Conditions necessary for empowerment:• Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.Organization must be sincere about spreading power to lower levels.

• Organization must be committed to empowering workers.Organization must be committed to empowering workers.

• Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower Organization must be systematic and patient in its efforts to empower workers.workers.

• Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.Organization must be prepared to increase its commitment to training.

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Popular Motivational Strategies Popular Motivational Strategies (cont’d)(cont’d)

• New Forms of Working Arrangements– Variable Work Schedules

• Compressed work scheduleCompressed work schedule—W—Working a full forty-hour week in less orking a full forty-hour week in less than five days.than five days.

• Flexible work schedules (flextime)Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, —Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work.within broad parameters, the hours they will work.

• Job sharingJob sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.

• TelecommutingTelecommuting—Allowing employees to spend —Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usuallypart of their time working off-site, usuallyat home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and at home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.other forms of information technology.

• New Forms of Working Arrangements– Variable Work Schedules

• Compressed work scheduleCompressed work schedule—W—Working a full forty-hour week in less orking a full forty-hour week in less than five days.than five days.

• Flexible work schedules (flextime)Flexible work schedules (flextime)—Allowing employees to select, —Allowing employees to select, within broad parameters, the hours they will work.within broad parameters, the hours they will work.

• Job sharingJob sharing—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.—When two part-time employees share one full-time job.

• TelecommutingTelecommuting—Allowing employees to spend —Allowing employees to spend part of their time working off-site, usuallypart of their time working off-site, usuallyat home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and at home, by using e-mail, the Internet, and other forms of information technology.other forms of information technology.

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Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate PerformanceMotivate Performance

• Reward System– The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee

performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.

• Effects of Organizational Rewards– Effect of Rewards on Attitudes

• Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received.person thinks should have been received.

• Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.

• The rewards of others are often misperceived.The rewards of others are often misperceived.

• Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

• Reward System– The formal and informal mechanisms by which employee

performance is defined, evaluated, and rewarded.

• Effects of Organizational Rewards– Effect of Rewards on Attitudes

• Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the Satisfaction is influenced by how much is received and how much the person thinks should have been received.person thinks should have been received.

• Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.Satisfaction is affected by comparison with others.

• The rewards of others are often misperceived.The rewards of others are often misperceived.

• Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with Overall job satisfaction is affected by employee satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.intrinsic and extrinsic rewards.

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Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate Performance (cont’d)Motivate Performance (cont’d)

• Effects of Organizational Rewards (cont’d)– Effect of Rewards on Behaviors

• Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.

• Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.

• Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.

– Effect of Rewards on Motivation• Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.

• Employees will work harder if Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed performance is closely followed by rewards.by rewards.

• Effects of Organizational Rewards (cont’d)– Effect of Rewards on Behaviors

• Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.Extrinsic rewards affect employee satisfaction and reduce turnover.

• Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.Rewards influence patterns of attendance and absenteeism.

• Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.Employees tend to work harder for rewards based on performance.

– Effect of Rewards on Motivation• Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.Employees will work harder when performance will be measured.

• Employees will work harder if Employees will work harder if performance is closely followed performance is closely followed by rewards.by rewards.

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Using Reward Systems toUsing Reward Systems toMotivate Performance (cont’d)Motivate Performance (cont’d)

• Designing Effective Reward (cont’d)– Reward system must meet an individual’s needs.– Rewards should compare favorably with other organizations.– Distribution of rewards must be perceived to be equitable.– Reward system must recognize different needs.

• New Approaches– Merit system

• A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance.the year depending on their overall job performance.

– Incentive system• A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each

pay period in proportion to what they do.pay period in proportion to what they do.

• Designing Effective Reward (cont’d)– Reward system must meet an individual’s needs.– Rewards should compare favorably with other organizations.– Distribution of rewards must be perceived to be equitable.– Reward system must recognize different needs.

• New Approaches– Merit system

• A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of A reward system whereby people get different pay raises at the end of the year depending on their overall job performance.the year depending on their overall job performance.

– Incentive system• A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each A reward system whereby people get different pay amounts at each

pay period in proportion to what they do.pay period in proportion to what they do.