GREENSTONE-HOSTED QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN DEPOSITS ...

Dubé, B., and Gosselin, P., 2007, Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits, in Goodfellow, W.D., ed., Mineral Deposits of Canada: A Synthesis ofMajor Deposit-Types, District Metallogeny, the Evolution of Geological Provinces, and Exploration Methods: Geological Association of Canada, MineralDeposits Division, Special Publication No. 5, p. 49-73.

GREENSTONE-HOSTED QUARTZ-CARBONATE VEIN DEPOSITS

BENOÎT DUBÉ AND PATRICE GOSSELIN

Geological Survey of Canada, 490 de la Couronne, Quebec, Quebec G1K 9A9Corresponding author’s email: [email protected]

Abstract

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits typically occur in deformed greenstone belts of all ages, espe-cially those with variolitic tholeiitic basalts and ultramafic komatiitic flows intruded by intermediate to felsic porphyryintrusions, and sometimes with swarms of albitite or lamprophyre dyke. They are distributed along major compressionalto transtensional crustal-scale fault zones in deformed greenstone terranes commonly marking the convergent marginsbetween major lithological boundaries, such as volcano-plutonic and sedimentary domains. The large greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are commonly spatially associated with fluvio-alluvial conglomerate (e.g.Timiskaming conglomerate) distributed along major crustal fault zones (e.g. Destor Porcupine Fault). This associationsuggests an empirical time and space relationship between large-scale deposits and regional unconformities.

These types of deposits are most abundant and significant, in terms of total gold content, in Archean terranes.However, a significant number of world-class deposits are also found in Proterozoic and Paleozoic terranes. In Canada,they represent the main source of gold and are mainly located in the Archean greenstone belts of the Superior and Slaveprovinces. They also occur in the Paleozoic greenstone terranes of the Appalachian orogen and in the oceanic terranesof the Cordillera.

The greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits correspond to structurally controlled complex epigeneticdeposits characterized by simple to complex networks of gold-bearing, laminated quartz-carbonate fault-fill veins.These veins are hosted by moderately to steeply dipping, compressional brittle-ductile shear zones and faults withlocally associated shallow-dipping extensional veins and hydrothermal breccias. The deposits are hosted by greenschistto locally amphibolite-facies metamorphic rocks of dominantly mafic composition and formed at intermediate depth (5-10 km). The mineralization is syn- to late-deformation and typically post-peak greenschist -facies or syn-peak amphi-bolite-facies metamorphism. They are typically associated with iron-carbonate alteration. Gold is largely confined tothe quartz-carbonate vein network but may also be present in significant amounts within iron-rich sulphidized wall-rockselvages or within silicified and arsenopyrite-rich replacement zones.

There is a general consensus that the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are related to metamorphicfluids from accretionary processes and generated by prograde metamorphism and thermal re-equilibration of subductedvolcano-sedimentary terranes. The deep-seated, Au-transporting metamorphic fluid has been channelled to highercrustal levels through major crustal faults or deformation zones. Along its pathway, the fluid has dissolved various com-ponents - notably gold - from the volcano-sedimentary packages, including a potential gold-rich precursor. The fluidthen precipitated as vein material or wall-rock replacement in second and third order structures at higher crustal levelsthrough fluid-pressure cycling processes and temperature, pH and other physico-chemical variations.

Résumé

Les gîtes de filoniens à veines de quartz-carbonates dans des roches vertes reposent généralement au sein de cein-tures de roches vertes de tout âge, mais tout particulièrement dans celles qui présentent des basaltes tholéiitiques à tex-ture variolaire et des coulées ultramafiques komatiitiques dans lesquels se sont mis en place des intrusions porphyriquesde composition intermédiaire à felsique et, parfois, des essaims de dykes d’albitite ou de lamprophyre. Ces gîtes sontrépartis le long d’importantes zones de failles d’échelle crustale formées dans un régime allant de la compression à latranstension, au sein de terrains de roches vertes déformés, où elles coïncident habituellement avec d’importantes lim-ites lithologiques qui témoignent d’une marge convergence, comme celles qui séparent des domaines sédimentaires dedomaines volcano-plutoniques. Les plus gros gisements du genre sont souvent associés, sur le plan spatial, à des con-glomérats fluvio-alluvionnaires (p. ex. le conglomérat de Timiskaming) répartis le long d’importantes zones de faillesd’échelle crustale (p. ex. la faille de Destor-Porcupine). Cette association suppose un lien empirique aussi bien temporelque spatial entre les gros gisements et les discordances régionales.

Les gîtes de ce type sont plus abondants et importants, quant au contenu total en or, dans les terrains archéens.Cependant, de nombreux gisements de calibre mondial reposent aussi dans des terrains protérozoïques et paléozoïques.Au Canada, ils constituent la principale source d’or et sont concentrés dans les ceintures de roches vertes archéennesdes provinces du lac Supérieur et des Esclaves, mais on en a aussi découvert dans le terrains de roches vertes paléo-zoïque de l’orogène des Appalaches et dans les terrains océaniques de la Cordillère.

Ces gîtes constituent des minéralisations épigénétiques à contrôle structural complexe caractérisées par des réseauxsimples à complexes de filons de quartz carbonates laminés porteurs d’or produits par le remplissage de failles. Cesfilons sont logés dans des failles et des zones de cisaillement à comportement fragile-ductile formées en régime com-pressif, qui présentent un pendage moyen à fort, auxquels sont associés, par endroits, des brèches hydrothermales et desveines d’extension à faible pendage. Les gîtes, qui se sont formés à des profondeurs intermédiaires (de 5 à 10 km), sontencaissés dans des roches métamorphiques, de composition principalement mafique, du faciès des schistes verts et, parendroits, du faciès des amphibolites. La mise en place de la minéralisation est contemporaine des phases intermédiaireset tardives de la déformation et s’est déroulée après l’atteinte des conditions maximales du métamorphisme au facièsdes schistes verts ou lors de l’atteinte des conditions maximales du métamorphisme au faciès des amphibolites. Laminéralisation est généralement associée à une altération à carbonates de fer. L’or est en grande partie piégé dans unréseau de filons de quartz-carbonates, mais il est aussi présent en quantités importantes dans les épontes de rochesencaissantes sulfurées riches en fer ou de zones des remplacement silicifiées et riches en arsénopyrite.

Definition

Simplified DefinitionGreenstone-hosted quartz-car-

bonate vein deposits occur asquartz and quartz-carbonate veins,with valuable amounts of gold andsilver, in faults and shear zoneslocated within deformed terranesof ancient to recent greenstonebelts commonly metamorphosedat greenschist facies.

Scientific DefinitionGreenstone-hosted quartz-car-

bonate vein deposits are a subtypeof lode gold deposits (Poulsen etal., 2000) (Fig. 1). They are alsoknown as mesothermal, orogenic(mesozonal and hypozonal - thenear surface orogenic epizonalAu-Sb-Hg deposits described byGroves et al. (1998) are notincluded in this synthesis), lodegold, shear-zone-related quartz-carbonate or gold-only deposits (Hodgson and MacGeehan,1982; Roberts, 1987; Colvine, 1989; Kerrich and Wyman,1990; Robert, 1990; Kerrich and Feng, 1992; Hodgson,1993; Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994; Robert, 1995; Groves etal., 1998; Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000;Poulsen et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001; Robert andPoulsen, 2001; Groves et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., 2005;Robert et al., 2005). The focus of the following text is mainlyon Canadian examples and particularly those deposits foundin the Abitibi Archean greenstone belt. For a complete globalperspective, readers are referred to the above list of selectedkey references.

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits arestructurally controlled, complex epigenetic deposits that arehosted in deformed and metamorphosed terranes. They con-sist of simple to complex networks of gold-bearing, lami-nated quartz-carbonate fault-fill veins in moderately tosteeply dipping, compressional brittle-ductile shear zonesand faults, with locally associated extensional veins andhydrothermal breccias. They are dominantly hosted by maficmetamorphic rocks of greenschist to locally lower amphibo-lite facies and formed at intermediate depths (5-10 km).Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are typi-cally associated with iron-carbonate alteration. The relativetiming of mineralization is syn- to late-deformation and typ-

ically post-peak greenschist-facies or syn-peak amphibolite-facies metamorphism. They are formed from low salinity,H2O-CO2-rich hydrothermal fluids with typically anomalousconcentrations of CH4, N2, K, and S. Gold is mainly con-fined to the quartz-carbonate vein networks but may also bepresent in significant amounts within iron-rich sulphidizedwall rock. Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein depositsare distributed along major compressional to transpressionalcrustal-scale fault zones in deformed greenstone terranes ofall ages, but are more abundant and significant, in terms oftotal gold content, in Archean terranes. However, a signifi-cant number of world-class deposits (>100 t Au) are alsofound in Proterozoic and Paleozoic terranes. Internationalexamples of this subtype of gold deposits include Mt.Charlotte, Norseman, and Victory (Australia), Bulyanhulu(Tanzania), and Kolar (India) (Fig. 2). Canadian examplesinclude Sigma-Lamaque (Québec), Dome and Pamour(Ontario), Giant and Con (Northwest Territories), SanAntonio (Manitoba), Hammer Down (Newfoundland), andBralorne-Pioneer (British Columbia). Detailed characteris-tics and references are found in the text below. The readermay refer to Appendix 1 for a list of geographical, geologi-cal, and economical characteristics of Canadian golddeposits with more than 250 000 oz Au in combined produc-tion and reserves (data from Gosselin and Dubé, 2005b).

B. Dubé and P. Gosselin

50

EPITHERMAL CLAN

Granitoid Shear zone

Vo lcani c

Ir on formatio n

W ack e-shal e

GREENST ONE VEIN AND SLA TE BEL T CLANS

TURBIDITE-HOSTED VEI N

GREENST ONE-HOSTED QUARTZ-CARBONA TE

VEIN DEPOSITS

BIF-HOSTED VEI N

P ALEOPLACER LOW SULFIDA TION

ADV ANCED ARGILLI C

ARGILLI C

HOTSPRING HIGH-SULPHIDA TION

sea level

Carbonat e r ocks

INTRUSION-RELA TED CLAN (mainly from Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990)

Pe rmeabl e Uni t

PORPHYR Y AU

SERICITE

Dyk e

Stock

ST OCKWORK- DISSEMINA TED

AU

Ve in

AU MANT O

AU SKARN

CARLIN TYPE

BRECCIA-PIPE AU

AU-RICH MASSIVE SULPHIDE (mainly fro m Hannington et al., 1999)

Rhyolite dome

10

5

km 0

1

FIGURE 1. Inferred crustal levels of gold deposition showing the different types of gold deposits and theinferred deposit clan (from Dubé et al., 2001; modified from Poulsen et al., 2000).

On croit que l’existence des gîtes de filons de quartz-carbonates dans des roches vertes est liée à celle de fluidesmétamorphiques issus de processus d’accrétion, et qu’ils sont le produit d’un métamorphisme prograde et d’une remiseen équilibre thermique de terrains volcano-sédimentaires subductés. Les fluides métamorphiques de grande profondeurqui ont transporté l’or se sont élevés dans la croûte en empruntant d’importantes failles ou zones de déformationd’échelle crustale. Le long de leur parcours, ils ont dissous divers éléments, dont l’or, dans les assemblages volcano-sédimentaires, qui pouvaient comprendre un précurseur riche en or. Les fluides ont ensuite précipité sous forme deveines ou ont remplacé les roches encaissantes dans des structures de deuxième et de troisième ordres, à des niveauxcrustaux supérieurs, selon une succession de cycles liés à des variations de la pression hydrostatique, de la température,du pH et d’autres paramètres physico-chimiques.

Greenstone-Hosted Quartz-Carbonate Vein Deposits

51

Economic Characteristics of Greenstone-HostedQuartz-Carbonate Vein Deposits

Summary of Economic CharacteristicsThe total world production and reserves of gold, including

the Witwatersrand paleoplacer deposits, stands at more than126 420 metric tonnes Au (Gosselin and Dubé, 2005a). Worldproduction and reserves for the greenstone-hosted quartz-car-bonate vein deposit subtype is 15 920 metric tonnes Au(Gosselin and Dubé, 2005a), which is equivalent to 13% ofthe total world production and puts them in second place forworld productivity behind paleoplacers. Total Canadian pro-duction and reserves, at 9 280 metric tonnes Au, represent 7%of the world total. However, Canadian production andreserves for the greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein sub-type are 5 510 metric tonnes, which constitutes 35% of theworld production for this deposit subtype, and 59% of thetotal Canadian production and reserves of gold. The Superiorprovince contains 86% (4 760 metric tonnes) of Canadiangold production and reserves for greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits (Gosselin and Dubé, 2005a,b). TheAbitibi sub-province is the main source and represents 81%(4 470 metric tonnes) of the total Canadian gold.

There are 103 known greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonatevein deposits world-wide containing at least 30 tonnes (~1 Moz) Au (production and reserves), including 31 Canadiandeposits, whereas 33 other deposits in Canada, and severalhundred worldwide, contain more than 7.5 tonnes (~250 000oz) but less than 30 tonnes (Gosselin and Dubé, 2005b). Aselect group of 41 world-class deposits contains more than100 tonnes Au, including 11 giant deposits with more than250 tonnes. In this group of world-class deposits, six are fromthe Abitibi greenstone belt of the Canadian Archean SuperiorProvince (Fig. 3). The Superior Province is the largest andbest preserved Archean craton in terms of greenstone-hostedgold endowment, followed by the Yilgarn craton of Australia.

The temporal and geographic distribution of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits is shown on Figure 2.Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits occur ingreenstone terranes of all ages. Although they are present inPaleozoic to Tertiary terranes, they are mainly concentratedin Precambrian terranes, and particularly in those of lateArchean age. In Canada, all the world-class deposits but one(Bralorne-Pioneer) are of late Archean age. Their concentra-tion in the Archean is thought to be related to 1) continentalgrowth and the related higher number of large-scale colli-sions between continental fragments (and/or arc complex),and 2) the associated development of major faults and large-scale hydrothermal fluid flow during the supercontinent cycleand mantle plume activity (cf. Barley and Groves, 1992;Condie, 1998; Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001).

Grade and Tonnage CharacteristicsGreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are sec-

ond on total tonnage of gold only to the Witwatersrand paleo-placers of South Africa. The largest greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposit in terms of total gold content is theGolden Mile complex in Kalgoorlie, Australia, with more than1800 tonnes Au (Gosselin and Dubé, 2005a). The Hollinger-McIntyre deposit in Timmins, Ontario, is the second largestdeposit of such type ever found with 987 tonnes Au (Gosselinand Dubé, 2005a). In contrast to the Golden Mile complex,open pit mining of the Hollinger-McIntyre deposit is nowimpossible due to housing, which leaves a significant part ofthe total gold content of the deposit inaccessible.

The average grade of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonatedeposits is fairly consistent, ranging from 5 to 15 g/t Au,whereas the tonnage is highly variable and ranges from a fewthousand tonnes to over 100 million tonnes of ore, althoughmore typically these deposits contain only a few milliontonnes of ore (Fig. 4).

Archean Greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonatevein deposit

CenozoicMesozoic

PaleozoicPhanerozoic

PrecambrianProterozoic Proterozoic-Phanerozoic

Legend

Treadwell

YatelaEl Callao

Mother Lode SystemAlleghany District

PlutonicMazoeShamva

Bulyanhulu

Cam & Motor

BibianiPoura

Syama

Baguamiao

Qiyiqiu No. 1

Zun-Holba

Akbakay

Stepnyak

Berezovskoe

Olimpiada

Zarmitan

Aksu

Svetlinskoe

Kochkar

Omai

Meekatharra

Sons of Gwalia

Morning Star / Evening Star

Lancefield

Granny Smith

New CelebrationRoyal

Norseman

Golden MileMount Charlotte

Bronzewing

Day Dawn

Sunrise Dam - Cleo

Victory-Defiance

Golden ValleyLonely

Dalny

BlanketGlobe and Phoenix

ShebaNew ConsortFairview

Navachab

Larder LakeRenabie

Yellowknife

Discovery

San Antonio

New Brittannia

Casa Berardi

Val d'Or

TimminsKirkland Lake ?

Chibougamau

Kolar

Grass Valley District

Alaska-JuneauDuolanasayi

Hutti

Fazenda Brasileiro

Lega Dembi

Passagem de Mariana

Erjia

Paishanlou

Amesmessa

Gross Rosebel

Karalveem

Woxi

Gympie

Daugyztau

Morila

Obuasi

Morro do OuroMorro Velho

Darasun

WenyuHetai

Shanggong

Bralorne-Pioneer

La Herradura

FIGURE 2. World distribution of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits containing at least 30 tonnes of Au.


52

Comparison of Grade and Tonnage Characteristics withthe Global Range

In Canada, this type of gold deposit is widely distributedfrom the Paleozoic greenstone terranes of the AppalachianOrogen on the east coast (e.g. Hammer Down and Deer CoveNewfoundland, Dubé et al., 1993; Gaboury et al., 1996),through the Archean greenstone belts of the Superior (Domeand Sigma-Lamaque) and Slave provinces (Con and Giant)in central Canada, to the oceanic terranes of the Cordillera(Bralorne-Pioneer).

The average gold grade of world-class Canadian depositsis 10 g/t, which is slightly higher than the average for thistype of deposit worldwide (7.6 g/t, Fig. 5). World-classdeposits in Canada have on average lower tonnage (20.91 Mtof ore) than those worldwide (39.91 Mt). Perhaps this is inpart because mining in Canada has traditionally taken placeunderground, whereas in other countries open pits have alsobeen developed.

Geological Characteristics of Greenstone-HostedQuartz-Carbonate Vein Deposits

Physical PropertiesMineralogy

The main gangue minerals in greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are quartz and carbonate (calcite,dolomite, ankerite, and siderite), with variable amounts of

100 km

Granitoid rock World-class greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposits

Other smaller gold-rich VMS

World-class gold-richvolcanogenic massive-sulfides

Larder Lake - CadillacFault Zone

Volcanic rock

Other gold depositsof various types

Pocupine - Destor Fault Zone

Sedimentary rockMafic intrusion

Proterozoic cover

Major fault

KirklandLake?

Hollinger -McIntyre

PamourDome Kerr

AddisonHorne

MalarticSigma-Lamaque

DoyonBousquet-LaRonde

PDF

PDF

LLCF

LLCF

Casa Berardi

FIGURE 3. Simplified geological map of the Abitibi greenstone belt showing the distribution of major fault zones and gold deposits. Modified from Poulsenet al. (2000). See Appendix 1 for deposit details.

915

0 - 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40

0-5

454035302520151050

Ore grade (g/t)

Num

bero

fdep

osits

15 25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105

115

125

135

145

155

165

0

5

10

15

25

35

20

30

Num

bero

fdep

osits

Ore tonnage (Mt)

FIGURE 4. Tonnage and grade repartition for gold deposits in the world con-taining at least 30 tonnes of Au in combined production and reserves.


53

white micas, chlorite, tourmaline, and sometimes scheelite.The sulphide minerals typically constitute less than 5 to 10%of the volume of the orebodies. The main ore minerals arenative gold with, in decreasing amounts, pyrite, pyrrhotite,and chalcopyrite and occur without any significant verticalmineral zoning. Arsenopyrite commonly represents the mainsulphide in amphibolite-facies rocks (e.g. Con and Giant)and in deposits hosted by clastic sediments. Trace amountsof molybdenite and tellurides are also present in somedeposits, such as those hosted by syenite in Kirkland Lake(Thompson et al., 1950; Fig. 6A, B).

Textures

This type of gold deposit is characterized by moderatelyto steeply dipping, laminated fault-fill quartz-carbonateveins (Fig. 7A, B, C) in brittle-ductile shear zones and faults,with or without fringing shallow-dipping extensional veinsand breccias (Fig. 7D, E). Quartz vein textures vary accord-ing to the nature of the host structure (extensional vs. com-pressional). Extensional veins typically display quartz andcarbonate fibres at a high angle to the vein walls and withmultiple stages of mineral growth (Fig. 7E), whereas thelaminated veins are composed of massive, fine-grainedquartz. When present in laminated veins, fibres are subparal-lel to the vein walls (Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,2001).

Dimensions

Individual vein thickness varies from a few centimetresup to 5 metres, and their length varies from 10 up to 1000 m.The vertical extent of the orebodies is commonly greaterthan 1 km and reaches 2.5 km in a few cases (e.g. theKirkland Lake deposit, Charlewood, 1964).

Morphology

The gold-bearing shear zones and faults associated withthis deposit type are mainly compressional and they com-monly display a complex geometry with anastomosingand/or conjugate arrays (Daigneault and Archambault, 1990;

Hodgson, 1993; Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen,2001). The laminated quartz-carbonate veins typically infillthe central part of, and are subparallel to slightly oblique to,the host structures (Hodgson, 1989; Robert et al., 1994;Robert and Poulsen, 2001) (Fig. 8). The shallow-dippingextensional veins are either confined within shear zones, inwhich case they are relatively small and sigmoidal in shape,or they extend outside the shear zone and are planar and lat-erally much more extensive (Robert et al., 1994).

Stockworks and hydrothermal breccias may represent themain mineralization styles when developed in competentunits such as the granophyric facies of differentiated gab-broic sills (e.g. San Antonio deposit, Robert et al., 1994;Robert and Poulsen, 2001), especially when developed atshallower crustal levels. Ore-grade mineralization alsooccurs as disseminated sulphides in altered (carbonatized)rocks along vein selvages. Due to the complexity of the geo-logical and structural setting and the influence of strengthanisotropy and competency contrasts, the geometry of veinnetworks varies from simple (e.g. Silidor deposit), to fairlycomplex with multiple orientations of anastomosing and/orconjugate sets of veins, breccias, stockworks, and associatedstructures (Dubé et al., 1989; Hodgson, 1989, Belkabir et al.,1993; Robert et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). Layeranisotropy induced by stiff differentiated gabbroic sills

0

1

10

100

0 1 10 100 1000 10000

Tonnage (Mt)

Gra

de(g

/t)

World 30t (70) Canada (128)

0.10.1

1 t Au

10 t Au

100 t Au

1000 t Au

10 000 t Au

Bulyanhulu

Kirkland LakeKolar

KerrAddisonHollinger-McIntyre

GrassValley

Alaska-Juneau

7

GoldenMile

DomeSigma-Lamaque

FIGURE 5. Tonnage versus grade relationship of Canadian and world Audeposits containing at least 30 tonnes of Au in combined production andreserves.

FIGURE 6. (A) Quartz-breccia vein, Main Break, Kirkland Lake. (B) High-grade quartz veinlets, hosted by syenite with visible gold, disseminatedpyrite, and traces of tellurides, Main Break, Kirkland Lake.


54

within a matrix of softer rocks, or, alternatively, by the pres-ence of soft mafic dykes within a highly competent felsicintrusive host, could control the orientation and slip direc-tions in shear zones developed within the sills; consequently,it may have a major impact on the distribution and geometryof the associated quartz-carbonate vein network (Dubé et al.,1989; Belkabir et al., 1993). As a consequence, the geometryof the veins in settings with large competence contrasts willbe strongly controlled by the orientation of the hosting bod-ies and less by external stress. The anisotropy of the stiff

layer and its orientation may induce an internal strain differ-ent from the regional one and may strongly influence thesuccess of predicting the geometry of the gold-bearing veinnetwork being targeted in an exploration program (Dubé etal., 1989; Robert et al., 1994).

Host Rocks

The veins in greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate veindeposits are hosted by a wide variety of host rock types;mafic and ultramafic volcanic rocks and competent iron-rich

FIGURE 7. (A) Laminated fault-fill veins, Pamour mine, Timmins. (B) Close-up of photo A showing a laminated fault-fill vein with iron-carbonatized wall-rock clasts. (C) Boudinaged fault-fill vein, section view, Dome mine. (D) Arrays of extensional quartz veins, Pamour mine. (E) Extensional quartz-tourma-line “flat vein” showing multiple stages of mineral growth perpendicular to the vein walls, Sigma mine (from Poulsen et al., 2000). (F) Tourmaline-quartzvein, Clearwater deposit, James Bay area.


55

differentiated tholeiitic gabbroic sills and granitoid intru-sions are common hosts. However, there are commonly dis-trict-specific lithological associations acting as chemicaland/or structural traps for the mineralizing fluids as illus-trated by tholeiitic basalts and flow contacts within theTisdale Assemblage in Timmins (cf. Hodgson andMacGeehan, 1982; Brisbin, 1997). A large number ofdeposits in the Archean Yilgarn craton are hosted by gab-broic (“dolerite”) sills and dykes (Solomon et al., 2000) asillustrated by the Golden Mile dolerite sill in Kalgoorlie(Bartram and McGall, 1971; Travis et al., 1971; Groves etal., 1984), whereas in the Superior Province, many depositsare associated with porphyry stocks and dykes (Hodgson andMcGeehan, 1982). Some deposits are also hosted by and/oralong the margins of intrusive complexes (e.g. Perron-Beaufort/North Pascalis deposit hosted by the Bourlamaquebatholith in Val d’Or (Belkabir et al., 1993; Robert, 1994)).Other deposits are hosted by clastic sedimentary rocks (e.g.Pamour, Timmins).

Chemical PropertiesOre Chemistry

The metallic geochemical signature of greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein orebodies is Au, Ag, As, W, B, Sb, Te,and Mo, typically with background or only slightly anom-alous concentrations of base metals (Cu, Pb, and Zn). The

Au/Ag ratio typically varies from 5 to 10. Contrary toepithermal deposits, there is no vertical metal zoning.Palladium is locally present as illustrated by the syndefor-

SLIP PLANE

(B-AXIS)Y

X

Z

FOLIATION

FAULT-FILL VEIN

EXTENSIONALVEIN

STAGE II FILLING

STAGE I FILLING

FIGURE 8. Schematic diagram illustrating the geometric relationshipsbetween the structural element of veins and shear zones and the deposit-scale strain axes (from Robert, 1990).

FIGURE 9. (A) Large boudinaged iron-carbonate vein, Red Lake district. (B) Iron carbonate pervasive replacement of an iron-rich gabbroic sill, Tadd prospect,Chibougamau. (C) Green carbonate rock showing fuchsite-rich replacement and iron-carbonate veining in a highly deformed ultramafic rock, Larder Lake.(D) Green carbonate alteration showing abundant green micas replacing chromite-rich ultramafics, Baie Verte, Newfoundland.


56

mation auriferous quartz or hematite-quartz veins hosted byProterozoic iron formation in Brazil (Olivo et al., 1995).

Alteration Mineralogy and Chemistry

At a district scale, greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonatevein deposits are associated with large-scale carbonate alter-ation (Fig. 9A, B) commonly distributed along major faultzones and associated subsidiary structures. At a depositscale, the nature, distribution, and intensity of the wall-rockalteration is controlled mainly by the composition and com-petence of the host rocks and their metamorphic grade.

Typically, the proximal alteration haloes are zoned and char-acterized – in rocks at greenschist facies – by iron-carbona-tization and sericitization, with sulphidation of the immedi-ate vein selvages (mainly pyrite, less commonly arsenopy-rite). Altered rocks show enrichments in CO2, K2O, and S,and leaching of Na2O. Further away from the vein, the alter-ation is characterized by various amounts of chlorite and cal-cite, and locally magnetite (Phillips and Groves, 1984; Dubéet al., 1987; Roberts, 1987). The dimensions of the alterationhaloes vary with the composition of the host rocks and mayenvelope entire deposits hosted by mafic and ultramaficrocks. Pervasive chromium- or vanadium-rich green micas(fuchsite and roscoelite) and ankerite with zones of quartz-carbonate stockworks are common in sheared ultramaficrocks (Fig. 9C, D). Common hydrothermal alteration assem-blages that are associated with gold mineralization in amphi-bolite-facies rocks include biotite, amphibole, pyrite,pyrrhotite, and arsenopyrite, and, at higher grades,biotite/phlogopite, diopside, garnet, pyrrhotite and/orarsenopyrite (cf. Mueller and Groves, 1991; Witt, 1991;Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000; Ridley et al., 2000, and refer-ences therein), with variable proportions of feldspar, calcite,and clinozoisite (Fig. 10). The variations in alteration styleshave been interpreted as a direct reflection of the depth offormation of the deposits (Colvine, 1989; Groves, 1993).The alteration mineralogy of the deposits hosted by amphi-bolite-facies rocks, in particular the presence of diopside,biotite, K-feldspar, garnet, staurolite, andalusite, and actino-lite, suggests that they share analogies with gold skarns,especially when they (1) are hosted by sedimentary or maficvolcanic rocks, (2) contain a calc-silicate alteration assem-blage related to gold mineralization with an Au-As-Bi-Temetallic signature, and (3) are associated with granodiorite-diorite intrusions (cf. Meinert, 1998; Ray, 1998). Canadianexamples of deposits hosted in amphibolite-facies rocksinclude the replacement-style Madsen deposit in Red Lake(Dubé et al., 2000) and the quartz-tourmaline vein (Fig. 7F)and replacement-style Eau Claire deposit in the James Bayarea (Cadieux, 2000; Tremblay, 2006).

Geological PropertiesContinental Scale

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits aretypically distributed along crustal-scale fault zones (cf.Kerrich et al., 2000, and references therein) characterized byseveral increments of strain (e.g. Cadillac-Larder Lake fault)(Figs. 3, 11A, B, 12A, B), and, consequently multiple gener-ations of steeply dipping foliations and folds resulting in acomplex deformational history. These crustal-scale faultzones are the main hydrothermal pathways towards highercrustal levels. However, the deposits are spatially and genet-ically associated with second- and third-order compressionalreverse-oblique to oblique brittle-ductile high-angle shearand high-strain zones (Fig. 12C), which are commonlylocated within 5 km of the first order fault and are best devel-oped in its hanging wall (Robert, 1990). Brittle faults mayalso be the main host to gold mineralization as illustrated bythe Kirkland Lake Main Break, a brittle structure hosting thegiant Kirkland Lake deposit exploited by seven mines thathave collectively produced more than 760 metric tonnes ofgold (Fig. 13) (Thomson, 1950; Kerrich and Watson, 1984;

FIGURE 10. (A) Diopside vein in biotite-actinolite-microcline-rich gold-bearing alteration, Madsen mine, Red Lake. (B) Auriferous metasomatichydrothermal layering with actinolite-rich and biotite-microcline-richbands, Madsen mine, Red Lake. (C) Gold-rich No. 8 vein with visible goldin a quartz carbonate-actinolite-diopside-rich vein, Madsen mine, Red Lake.


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Ayer et al., 2005; Ispolatov et al., 2005 and referencestherein). Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein depositstypically formed late in the tectonic-metamorphic history(Groves et al., 2000; Robert et al., 2005) and the mineraliza-tion is syn- to late-deformation and typically post-peakgreenschist-facies and syn-peak amphibolite-facies meta-morphism (cf. Kerrich and Cassidy, 1994; Hagemann andCassidy, 2000). Most world-class greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are hosted by greenschist-faciesrocks. Important exceptions include Kolar (India), whichformed at amphibolite facies.

Greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are alsocommonly spatially associated with Timiskaming-likeregional unconformities (Fig. 14A, B, C). Several depositsare hosted by, or located next to, such unconformities (e.g.the Pamour and Dome deposits), suggesting an empiricaltemporal and spatial relationship between large gold depositsand regional unconformities (Poulsen et al., 1992; Hodgson,1993; Robert, 2000; Dubé et al., 2003; Robert et al., 2005).

District Scale

In this section, some of the key geological characteristicsof prolific gold districts are presented with a special empha-sis on Archean deposits. Only a brief overview is presentedhere, and the reader is referred to key papers by Hodgson andMacGeehan (1982), Hodgson (1993), Robert and Poulsen(1997), Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Poulsen et al.

(2000), Groves et al. (2003), and Robert et al. (2005), amongothers, for more information.

Large gold camps are commonly associated with curva-tures, flexures, and dilational jogs along major compres-sional fault zones, such as the Porcupine-Destor fault inTimmins or the Larder Lake-Cadillac fault in Kirkland Lake(Fig. 3), which have created dilational zones that allowedmigration of hydrothermal fluids (cf. Colvine et al., 1988;Sibson, 1990; Phillips et al., 1996; McCuaig and Kerrich,

FIGURE 11. (A) Mylonitic foliation, Cadillac-Larder Lake Break, Val d’Or.(B) Close-up showing mylonitic foliation within Cadillac-Larder LakeBreak, Val d’Or.

FIGURE 12. (A) Vertical section of shear bands indicating a reverse-obliquesense of motion recorded by the gold-bearing Cape Ray fault zone,Newfoundland (from Dubé et al., 1996). (B) Section view showing reverse-oblique mylonite, Cape Ray fault zone, Newfoundland. (C) Section viewshowing auriferous quartz vein hosted by a second-order reverse shearzone, Cooke mine, Chapais, Quebec (from Dubé and Guha, 1992).


58

FIGURE 14. (A) Timiskaming conglomerate, Kirkland Lake. (B) Mineralized quartz veins hosted by a carbonatized Timiskaming conglomerate, Pamour mine,Timmins. (C) Mineralized quartz vein hosted in a discrete brittle-ductile high-strained zone hosted by weakly deformed Timiskaming conglomerate, KirklandLake. (D) Variolitic basalt, Vipond Formation, Tisdale Assemblage, Timmins.

1998; Hagemann and Cassidy, 2000; Kerrich et al., 2000;Groves et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., 2005; Ispolatov et al.,2005; Robert et al., 2005). In terms of geological setting,large gold districts, such as Timmins, are mainly underlainby tholeiitic basalts (commonly variolitic) (Fig. 14D) and

ultramafic komatiitic flows that are intruded by intermediateto felsic porphyries, and locally swarms of albitite and/orlamprophyre dykes (cf. Hodgson and MacGeehan, 1982).Irrelevant to their age, Timiskaming-like regional unconfor-mities, distributed along major faults or stratigraphical dis-

FIGURE 13. (A) Section view showing the 25 M oz Kirkland Lake Main Break. (B) Close-up of photo (A) showing the Kirkland Lake Main Break in sectionview; note the brittle nature of the structure with gouges.


59

continuities, are also typical of large gold camps. In terms ofhydrothermal alteration, the main characteristic at the districtscale is the presence of large-scale iron-carbonate alteration,the width of which gives some indication as to the size of thehydrothermal system(s) (e.g. Timmins). Protracted mag-matic activity with synvolcanic and syn- to late tectonicintrusions emplaced along structural discontinuities (e.g.Destor-Porcupine Fault) may also be highly significant. Inmany cases, U-Pb dating of intrusive rocks indicates thatthey are older than gold mineralization, in which case theserocks may have provided a competent structural trap orinduced anisotropy in the layered stratigraphy that influ-enced and partitioned the strain. In other cases, the intrusiverocks are post-mineralization. However, the possibilityremains that the thermal energy provided by some intrusionscontributed to large-scale and long-lived hydrothermal fluidcirculation (cf. Wall, 1989).

The presence of other deposit types in a district, such asvolcanogenic massive sulphide (VMS) or Ni-Cu deposits, isalso commonly thought to be a favourable factor (cf.Hodgson, 1993; Huston, 2000). The provinciality of the highAu content of a district may be related to specific funda-mental geological characteristics in terms of favourablesource-rock environments or gold reservoirs (Hodgson,1993). The local geological “heritage” of the district, in addi-tion to ore-forming processes, may thus be a major factor totake into account.

Knowledge Gaps at District Scale: One of the mainremaining knowledge gaps at district scale is the structuralevolution, and in some cases, the tectonic significance of thelarge-scale faults that control the distribution of the green-stone-hosted quartz-carbonate-vein deposits. The nature andsignificance of the early stage(s) of deformation (e.g. D0-D1) of major fault zones to the circulation of gold-bearingfluids and the formation of large gold deposits remainobscure. For example, despite decades of work in theTimmins’ district, the structural evolution of the Porcupine-Destor Fault, a poorly exposed, regionally extensive, steeplydipping, long-lived fault (active between ca. 2680-2600 Ma),and its definite relationship to gold mineralization, remaincontroversial (cf. Hurst, 1936; Pyke, 1982; Bleeker, 1995;1997; Hodgson and Hamilton, 1989; Hodgson et al., 1990;Brisbin, 1997; Ayer et al., 2005; Bateman et al., 2005, andreferences therein). The processes controlling the distribu-tion of the large gold districts along such crustal-scale struc-tures are poorly understood and therefore remain an avenuefor future research (Robert et al., 2005). Key questionsremain, such as the reason(s) why the Timmins district con-tains a large number of world-class gold deposits, why somelarge-scale Archean fault zones in greenstone belts aredevoid of significant gold deposits, and why the gold gradein some districts is significantly higher.

Deposit Scale

The location of higher grade mineralization (ore shoots)within a deposit has been the subject of investigation sincethe early works of Newhouse (1942) and McKinstry (1948).Ore shoots represent a critical element to take into accountwhen defining and following the richest part of an orebody.Two broad categories of ore shoots are recognized: 1) geo-metric, and 2) kinematic (Poulsen and Robert, 1989; Robert

et al., 1994; Robert and Poulsen, 2001). As outlined byPoulsen and Robert (1989), geometric ore shoots are con-trolled by the intersection of a given structure (i.e., a fault, ashear zone, or a vein) with a favourable lithological unit,such as a competent gabbroic sill, a dyke, an iron formation,or a particularly reactive rock. The geometric ore shoot willbe parallel to the line of intersection. The kinematic oreshoots are syndeformation and syn-formation of the veins,and are defined by the intersection between different sets ofveins or contemporaneous structures. The plunge of kine-matic ore shoots is commonly at a high angle to the slipdirection.

Structural traps, such as fold hinges or dilational jogsalong faults or shear zones, are also key elements in locatingthe richest part of an orebody. However, multiple factors arecommonly involved, as mentioned by Groves et al. (2003),and world-class and giant-size deposits commonly exhibitcomplex geometries. This complexity is mainly due to thelongevity of the hydrothermal system and/or multistage, bar-ren and/or gold-bearing hydrothermal, structural, and mag-matic events (Dubé et al., 2003; Groves et al., 2003; Ayer etal., 2005). This is especially well illustrated at the Domemine, where low-grade colloform-crustiform ankerite veinscut the 2690 ± 2 Ma Paymaster porphyry (Corfu et al., 1989)(Fig. 15A). These ankerite veins have been deformed; theyare typically boudinaged and are cut by extensional, en ech-elon, auriferous quartz veins (Fig. 15B, C). The <2673.9 ±1.8 Ma Timiskaming conglomerate (Ayer et al., 2003, 2005)contains clasts of the ankerite veins in the Dome open pit(Fig. 15D, E), whereas the Timiskaming conglomerate isitself carbonatized, cut by auriferous quartz veins and locallycontains spectacular visible gold (Fig. 15F). Argillite andsandstone above the Timiskaming conglomerate are them-selves folded and cut by auriferous quartz veins (Dubé et al.,2003). These chronological relationships illustrate the super-imposed hydrothermal and structural events involved in theformation of the giant deposit with post-magmatic carbonateveining predating the deposition of the Timiskaming con-glomerate, which in turn precedes formation of the bulk ofthe gold mineralization.

Distribution of Canadian Greenstone-Hosted Quartz-Carbonate Vein Districts

The most productive Canadian metallogenic districts forgreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits occur in(Late) Archean greenstone belts of the Superior, Churchill,and Slave provinces (Table 1). The Abitibi greenstone beltcontains the majority of the productive districts, includingthe very large Timmins, Kirkland Lake, Larder Lake,Rouyn-Noranda, and Val d’Or districts. The Kirkland Lakegold deposit is included here as a greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate deposit, however, the structural timing of golddeposition and its origin is still the subject of debate (Kerrichand Watson, 1984; Cameron and Hattori, 1987; Robert andPoulsen, 1997; Ayer et al., 2005; Ispolatov et al., 2005) as thedeposit shares strong analogies with tellurium-rich syndefor-mation gold deposits associated with alkaline magmatism asdefined by Jensen and Barton (2000). Other younger green-stone belts of the Appalachian and Cordilleran orogens arealso favourable terranes for quartz-carbonate vein-type golddeposits (Fig. 16). Districts listed in Table 1 also include


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deposits hosted by iron formation (BIF-hosted vein orHomestake-type; Poulsen et al., 2000).

The geographical and temporal distribution of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits containing at least 30t Au is included in Figure 2. The greatest concentration ofdeposits is found in the Archean, particularly in the Late

Archean in Canada (Fig. 16). Proterozoic gold depositsoccur in the United States as exemplified by the Homestakedeposit, a giant iron-formation-hosted vein and disseminatedAu-Ag deposit, as well as in greenstone belts of Brazil andwestern Africa. However, Canadian deposits of Proterozoicage are rare; they include the New Britannia deposit in the

Figure 15. (A) Boudinaged ankerite vein with late quartz veins cutting the Paymaster porphyry, Dome mine. (B) Boudinaged ankerite veins with syndefor-mation late extensional quartz veins, Dome mine (from Poulsen et al., 2000). (C) Massive ankerite Kurst vein cut by late gold-bearing extensional quartzvein, Dome mine area. (D) Ankerite vein clast within Timiskaming conglomerate, Dome mine (from Dubé et al., 2003). (E) Close-up of photograph (D) (fromDubé et al., 2003). (F) High-grade Timiskaming conglomerate hosting folded carbonate-pyrite veins with spectacular visible gold. The specimen was pre-sented to the Geological Survey of Canada in 1923 by the then Board of Directors of Dome Mines. Weight is 136 lbs (61.8 kg) of which about 20% by weightis gold. It most likely came from the bonanza East Dome area, which was discovered in 1910. It consists of subrounded to subangular altered and nonalteredclasts and folded crosscutting veins of coarse pyrite, ankerite, and minor quartz shattered and invaded by gold. Geological Survey of Canada National Mineralcollection Sample No. 1003. Photograph by Igor Bilot, Geological Survey of Canada.

A D

B E

C F


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Flin Flon district (Manitoba) and other smaller deposits ofthe Churchill Province, as well as gold-bearing quartz-car-bonate veins in the central metasedimentary belt of theGrenville Province (Carter, 1984; Jourdain et al., 1990;Easton and Fyon, 1992). Mesozoic and Cenozoic depositsare less common, but are important within Circum-Pacificcollisional orogenic belts (e.g. the Mesozoic Mother Lodeand Alleghany districts, and the Cenozoic Alaska-Juneau andTreadwell deposits, USA). The only world-class MesozoicCanadian deposit (Fig. 16) is the Bralorne-Pioneer deposit(British Columbia). Other smaller deposits (not representedin Fig.16) were also formed in the Cordilleran during theMesozoic, and in the Appalachians during Paleozoic times.

Additionally, three important unexploited deposits (as ofDecember 31, 2004) are noted on Figure 16: 1) Hope Bay (Hope Bay district, Northwest Territories,

210 t Au in unmined reserves and resources),2) Moss Lake (Shebandowan district, Ontario, 69 t Au,

resources),3) Box (Athabaska district, Saskatchewan, 29 t Au,

resources, as of December 1998).The following deposits, which are located inside districts

represented on Figure 16, also contain important unminedresources (as of December 31, 2004, unless otherwise indi-cated):1) Tundra (Mackenzie district, Northwest Territories, 262 t

Au),2) Goldex (Val d’Or district, Quebec, 56 t Au),

Timmins Superior/Abitibi 2,072.9 78.5Kirkland Lake Superior/Abitibi 794.8 72.6Val d'Or Superior/Abitibi 638.9 171.6Rouyn-Noranda Superior/Abitibi 519.6 66.5Larder Lake Superior/Abitibi 378.7 14.5Malartic Superior/Abitibi 278.7 23.2Red Lake** Superior/Uchi 128.0 17.2Joutel Superior/Abitibi 61.4 27.5Matheson Superior/Abitibi 60.4 9.7Cadillac Superior/Abitibi 22.1 25.1Pickle Lake Superior/Uchi 90.4 8.1Rice Lake Superior/Uchi 51.6 25.2Beardmore-Geraldton Superior/Wabigoon 123.5 35.1Michipicoten Superior/Wawa 41.1 2.8Mishibishu Superior/Wawa 26.7 16.8Goudreau-Lolshcach Superior/Wawa 8.8 19.6Flin Flon Churchill 62.2 12.7Lynn Lake Churchill 19.5 14.6La Ronge Churchill 3.4 5.6Keewatin Churchill-Hearne 7.2 252.4Yellowknife Slave 432.8 16.6MacKenzie Slave 38.1 286.6Cassiar Cordillera 14.9 55.4Baie Verte Appalachian/Dunnage 10.3 8.9*as of December 31, 2002**does not include the Campbell-Red Lake, Cochenour, and MacKenzie Red Lake deposits as they are not considered typical greenstone- hosted quartz-carbonate deposits

District Geological ProvinceProduction &

Reserves(tonnes Au)*

Resources(tonnes Au)*

TABLE 1. Most productive Canadian districts for greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposits.

Grenville

Appalachians

InteriorPlatform

ArcticPlatform

Superior

Cordillera Churchill

Churchill

SlaveBear

Hudson BayLowlandsCassiar

Bralorne-Pioneer

Moss Lake

Box

Lynn Lake

LaRonge

Hope Bay

Cadillac

MalarticVal d'Or

Abitibi

Rouyn-Noranda

Larder Lake

BaieVerte

Flin Flon

Kirkland Lake

Timmins

MichipicotenGoudreau

Mishibishu

Matheson

Beardmore-Geraldton

Rice Lake

Pickle Lake

Yellowknife

Keewatin-MacKenzie

LegendCenozoicMesozoicPaleozoicProterozoic Archean

Phanerozoic

PrecambrianProterozoic-Phanerozoic

Greenstone-hosted quartz- (>30 t Au)carbonate vein deposit (<30 t Au)

Central meta-sedimentary Belt

FIGURE 16. Location of Canadian greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein districts. See Appendix 1 for deposit details.


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3) Taurus (Cassiar district, British Columbia, 50 t Au, as ofDecember 1999),

4) Lapa-Pandora-Tonawanda (Cadillac district, Quebec, 54 tAu including 36 t Au as reserves).

Associated Mineral Deposit TypesGreenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are

thought to represent the main component of the greenstonedeposit clan (Fig. 1) (Poulsen et al., 2000). However, inmetamorphosed terranes, other types of gold depositsformed in different tectonic settings and/or crustal levels,such as Au-rich VMS or intrusion-related gold deposits, mayhave been juxtaposed against greenstone-hosted quartz-car-bonate vein deposits during the various increments of strainthat characterize Archean greenstone belts (Poulsen et al.,2000). Although these different gold deposits were formed atdifferent times, they now coexist along major faults.Examples include the Bousquet 2 - Dumagami and LaRondePenna Au-rich VMS deposits that are distributed a few kilo-metres north of the Cadillac-Larder Lake fault east ofNoranda (Fig. 3), where the fault zone hosts the formerO’Brien and Thompson Cadillac greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits. Intrusion-related syenite-associateddisseminated gold deposits, such as the Holt-McDermott andHolloway mines in the Abitibi greenstone belt of Ontario,occur mainly along major fault zones, in association withpreserved slivers of Timiskaming-type sediments and conse-quently are spatially associated with greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposits (Robert, 2001).

Genetic and Exploration Models

Poulsen et al. (2000) has indicated that one of the mainproblems in deformed and metamorphosed terranes, such asthose underlain by greenstone belts, is that many primarycharacteristics may have been obscured by overprintingdeformation and metamorphism to the extent that they aredifficult to recognize. This is particularly the case with gold-rich VMS or intrusion-related deposits. But since green-stone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits are syn- to latemain phase of deformation, their primary features are, inmost cases, relatively well preserved (Groves et al., 2000).

Consequently, once a deposit is appropriately classified,exploration models are relatively well defined (cf. Hodgson,1990, 1993; Groves et al., 2000, 2003). Since the early1980s, several different genetic models have been proposedto explain the formation of greenstone-hosted quartz-carbon-ate vein deposits and this has resulted in significant contro-versy. Some of this controversy is caused by the difficulty inmetamorphosed greenstone terranes to classify certain keydeposits, such as Hemlo (Lin, 2001; Muir, 2002; Davis andLin, 2003), due to the poor preservation of primary charac-teristics largely obscured by post-mineralization deforma-tion and metamorphism. Thus, adequate classification ofgold deposits is a key to formulating successful explorationmodels (Poulsen et al., 2000). An excellent review of thevarious proposed genetic models, and the pros and cons ofeach of these, has been presented by Kerrich and Cassidy(1994). Since then, Hagemann and Cassidy (2000), Kerrichet al. (2000), Ridley and Diamond (2000), Groves et al.(2003), and Goldfarb et al. (2005), among others, have alsorevisited the subject. Only a brief summary is presented here.

Several genetic models have been proposed during thelast two decades without attaining a definite consensus. Oneof the main controversies is related to the source of the flu-ids. The ore-forming fluid is typically a 1.5 ± 0.5 kb, 350 ±50°C, low-salinity H2O-CO2 ± CH4 ± N2 fluid that trans-ported gold as a reduced sulphur complex (Groves et al.,2003). Several authors have emphasized a deep source forgold, with fluids related to metamorphic devolatilization,and deposition of gold over a continuum of crustal levels (cf.Colvine, 1989; Powell et al., 1991; Groves et al., 1995).Others have proposed a magmatic source of fluids (cf.Spooner, 1991), a mantle-related model (Rock and Groves,1988), drifting of a crustal plate over a mantle plume(Kontak and Archibald, 2002), anomalous thermal condi-tions associated to upwelling asthenosphere (Kerrich et al.,2000), or deep convection of meteoric fluids (Nesbitt et al.,1986). Hutchinson (1993) has proposed a multi-stage, multi-process genetic model in which gold is recycled from pre-enriched source rocks and early formed, typically subeco-nomic gold concentrations. Hodgson (1993) also proposed amulti-stage model in which the gold was, at least in part,recycled from gold-rich district-scale reservoirs that resultedfrom earlier increments of gold enrichment.

The debate on gold genesis was, at least in part, basedupon interpretations of stable isotope data, and after morethan two decades, it is still impossible to unequivocally dis-tinguish between a fluid of metamorphic, magmatic, or man-tle origin (Goldfarb et al., 2005). The significant input ofmeteoric waters in the formation of quartz-carbonate green-stone-hosted gold deposits is now, however, consideredunlikely (Goldfarb et al., 2005). The magmatic and mantle-related models mainly based on spatial relationshipsbetween the deposits and intrusive rocks, are challenged bycrosscutting field relationships combined with precise U-Pbzircon dating. These show that, in most cases, the proposedmagmatic source for the ore-forming fluid is significantlyolder than the quartz-carbonate veins. For example, in theTimmins area, the quartz-carbonate veins hosting the goldmineralization at the Hollinger-McIntyre deposit cut analbitite dyke intruding the Pearl Lake porphyry (Fig. 17).One such albitite dyke was dated at 2673 +6/-2 Ma

FIGURE 17. Fine-grained chloritized albitite dyke on the 4175 foot level ofthe McIntyre mine, intruding sericitized Pearl Lake porphyry. Both thealbitite dyke and the altered porphyry are cut by quartz-ankerite-albiteveins (from Brisbin, 1997; photograph by Nadia Melnik-Proud, captionafter Melnik-Proud, 1992; photo obtained by B. Dubé from D. Brisbin).


63

(Marmont and Corfu, 1989) and more recently at 2672.8 ±1.1 Ma (Ayer et al., 2005). Thus the albitite dyke is ca.15 Mayounger than the 2689 ± 1 Ma Pearl Lake porphyry and var-ious porphyries in the regions ranging in age from 2691 to2687 Ma (Corfu et al., 1989; Ayer et al., 2003). Thesechronological relationships rule out the possibility that theore fluids could be related to known intrusions. An alterna-tive to the magmatic fluid source model is one in whichintrusions have provided the thermal energy responsible, atleast in part, for fluid circulation (cf. Wall, 1989). The man-tle-related model was mainly based on the close spatial rela-tionship between lamprophyre dykes and gold deposits(Rock and Groves, 1988). Key arguments against such amodel have been presented by Wyman and Kerrich (1988,1989). Recently, Dubé et al. (2004) have demonstrated thatthe lamprophyre dykes spatially associated with gold miner-alization at the Campbell-Red Lake deposit, although differ-ent than the typical greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate veindeposit, are at least 10 Ma younger than the main stage ofgold mineralization.

Each of these models has merit, and various aspects of allor some of them are potentially involved in the formation ofquartz-carbonate greenstone-hosted gold deposits in meta-morphic terranes. However, the overall geological settingsand characteristics suggest that the greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposits are related to prograde meta-morphism and thermal re-equilibration of subducted vol-cano-sedimentary terranes during accretionary or collisionaltectonics (cf. Kerrich et al., 2000, and references therein).The deep-seated, Au-transporting fluid has been channelledto higher crustal levels through major crustal faults or defor-mation zones (Figs. 1, 18). Along its pathway, the fluid hasdissolved various components, notably gold, from the vol-cano-sedimentary packages, which may include a potentialgold-rich precursor. The fluid will then precipitate sulphides,gold, and gangue minerals as vein material or wall-rockreplacement in second- and third-order structures at highercrustal levels through fluid-pressure cycling processes(Sibson et al., 1988) and temperature, pH, and other physico-chemical variations.

Nevertheless, the source of the ore fluid, and hence ofgold in greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits,remains unresolved (Groves et al. 2003). According toRidley and Diamond (2000), a model based on either meta-morphic devolatilization or granitoid magmatism best fitsmost of the geological parameters. These authors indicatedthat the magmatic model could not be ruled out simply onthe basis of a lack of exposed granite in proximity of adeposit with a similar age, because the full subsurface archi-tecture of the crust is unknown. Ridley and Diamond (2000)also indicated that the fluid composition should not beexpected to reflect the source. The fluid travels great dis-tances and its measured composition now reflects the fluid-rock interactions along its pathway, or a mixed signature ofthe source and the wall rocks (Ridley and Diamond, 2000).

In terms of exploration, at the geological province or ter-rane scale, geological parameters that are common in highlyauriferous volcano-sedimentary belts include 1) reactivatedcrustal-scale faults that controlled emplacement of por-phyry-lamprophyre dyke swarms; 2) complex regional-scale

geometry of mixed lithostratigraphic packages; and 3) evi-dence for multiple mineralization or remobilization events(Groves et al., 2003). The empirical spatial and potentiallygenetic (?) relationship between large gold deposits and aTimiskaming-like regional unconformity represents a keyfirst-order exploration target irrelevant to the deposit type orthe mineralization style, as illustrated by large gold districtssuch as Timmins, Kirkland Lake, and Red Lake (Poulsen etal., 1992; Hodgson, 1993; Robert, 2000; Dubé et al., 2000,2003, 2004; Robert et al., 2005).

Knowledge Gaps

Several outstanding problems remain for greenstone-hosted quartz-carbonate vein deposits. As mentioned above,the sources of fluid and gold remain unresolved (Ridley andDiamond, 2000). Other critical elements are listed inHagemann and Cassidy (2000) and Groves et al. (2003). Inpractical terms, the three most outstanding knowledge gapsto be addressed are 1) better definition of the key geologicalparameters controlling the formation of giant gold deposits;2) controls on the high-grade content of deposits or parts ofdeposits; 3) controls on the distribution of large gold districts,such as Timmins or Val d’Or; and 4) the influence of the earlystage structural history of crustal scale faults on their goldendowment. The classification of gold deposit types remainsa problem, which is more than an academic exercise as it hasa major impact on exploration strategies (e.g. what type ofdeposit to look for, where, and how?) (Poulsen et al., 2000).However, the reasons why geological provinces, such as theSuperior province and the Yilgarn craton are so richlyendowed are now much better understood (Robert et al.,2005). It is also believed that integrated research programs,such as the Geological Survey of Canada EXTECH, Natmap,or Targeted Geoscience Initiative, where various aspects ofthe geology of a gold mining district or camp are addressed,remain an excellent approach for developing additionalunderstanding of these deposits. The most fundamental ele-ments to take into account to successfully establish the com-plex evolution and relationships between mineralizingevent(s), geological setting, and deformation/metamorphismphase(s) are 1) basic chronological field relationships, com-bined with 2) accurate U-Pb geochronology.

Acknowledgements

This synthesis has been made possible by the kind co-operation of numerous company, government, and university

GRANITOIDSHEAR ZONE

VOLCANIC

IRON FORMATION

WACKE-SHALE

VEINTURBIDITE-hosted

HOMESTAKE-TYPE

GREENSTONE-hostedVEIN

SULPHIDE BODY

3

1

BRITTLE-DUCTILEZONE

BRITTLE-DUCTILEZONE

FIGURE 18. Schematic diagram illustrating the setting of greenstone-hostedquartz-carbonate vein deposits (from Poulsen et al., 2000).


64

geologists who shared their knowledge and who haveallowed surface and underground visits to many golddeposits. We benefited from numerous discussions with col-leagues from the provincial surveys and from the GeologicalSurvey of Canada. The first author would like to extend hisdeepest appreciation to F. Robert and H.K. Poulsen for con-structive suggestions, collaboration, and discussions on golddeposits during the last twenty years. W. Goodfellow and I.Kjarsgaard are thanked for their editorial contribution.Careful constructive reviews by R. Goldfarb, M. Gauthier,and S. Castonguay have led to substantial improvements.

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