Greek fire 1

Greek fire

Greek fire in use against another ship.

Greek fire was an incendiary weapon usedby the Eastern Roman (Byzantine) Empire.The Byzantines typically used it in navalbattles to great effect as it could continueburning while floating on water. It provideda technological advantage, and wasresponsible for many key Byzantine militaryvictories, most notably the salvation ofConstantinople from two Arab sieges, thussecuring the Empire's survival.

The impression made by Greek fire on thewest European Crusaders was such that the name was applied to any sort of incendiary weapon,[1] including thoseused by Arabs, the Chinese, and the Mongols. These, however, were different mixtures and not the Byzantineformula, which was a closely guarded state secret, a secret that has since been lost. The composition of Greek fireremains a matter of speculation and debate, with proposals including combinations of pine resin, naphtha, quicklime,sulfur, or niter. Byzantine use of incendiary mixtures was distinguished by the use of pressurized nozzles or siphōnto project the liquid onto the enemy.

Although the term "Greek fire" has been general in English and most other languages since the Crusades, in theoriginal Byzantine sources it is called by a variety of names, such as "sea fire" (Ancient Greek: πῦρ θαλάσσιον pyrthalássion), "Roman fire" (πῦρ ῥωμαϊκόν pyr rhomaïkón), "war fire" (πολεμικὸν πῦρ polemikòn pyr), "liquid fire"(ὑγρὸν πῦρ hygron pyr), or "manufactured fire" (πῦρ σκευαστόν pyr skeuastón).[2][3]

HistoryIncendiary and flaming weapons were used in warfare for centuries prior to the invention of Greek fire. Theyincluded a number of sulphur-, petroleum- and bitumen-based mixtures.[4][5] Incendiary arrows and pots containingcombustible substances were used as early as the 9th century BC by the Assyrians, and were extensively used in theGreco-Roman world as well.Furthermore, Thucydides mentions the use of tubed flamethrowers in the siege of Delium in 424 BC.[6][7][8] In navalwarfare, the fleet of the Byzantine Emperor Anastasius I (r. 491–518) is recorded by the chronicler John Malalas ashaving utilized a sulphur-based mixture to defeat the revolt of Vitalian in AD 515, following the advice of aphilosopher from Athens called Proclus.[9]

At that time Kallinikos, an artificer from Heliopolis, fled to the Romans. He had devised a sea fire which ignited the Arab ships andburned them with all hands. Thus it was that the Romans returned with victory and discovered the sea fire.

Chronicle of Theophanes the Confessor, Anno Mundi 6165

Greek fire proper, however, was developed in ca. 672, and is ascribed by the chronicler Theophanes to Kallinikos (Latinized Callinicus), an architect from Heliopolis in the former province of Phoenice, by then overrun by the Muslim conquests.[10] The accuracy and exact chronology of this account is open to question: Theophanes reports the use of fire-carrying and siphōn-equipped ships by the Byzantines a couple of years before the supposed arrival of Kallinikos at Constantinople.[11] If this is not due to chronological confusion of the events of the siege, it may suggest that Kallinikos merely introduced an improved version of an established weapon.[12][13] The historian James Partington further thinks it likely that Greek fire was not in fact the creation of any single person, but "invented by chemists in Constantinople who had inherited the discoveries of the Alexandrian chemical school".[14] Indeed, the

Greek fire 2

11th-century chronicler George Kedrenos records that Kallinikos came from Heliopolis in Egypt, but most scholarsreject this as an error.[15] Kedrenos also records the story, considered rather implausible by modern scholars, thatKallinikos' descendants, a family called "Lampros" ("Brilliant"), kept the secret of the fire's manufacture, andcontinued doing so to Kedrenos' time.[13]

Kallinikos' development of Greek fire came at a critical moment in the Byzantine Empire's history: weakened by itslong wars with Sassanid Persia, the Byzantines had been unable to effectively resist the onslaught of the Muslimconquests. Within a generation, Syria, Palestine and Egypt had fallen to the Arabs, who in ca. 672 set out to conquerthe imperial capital of Constantinople. The Greek fire was utilized to great effect against the Muslim fleets, helpingto repel the Muslims at the first and second Arab sieges of the city.[16] Records of its use in later naval battles againstthe Saracens are more sporadic, but it did secure a number of victories, especially in the phase of Byzantineexpansion in the late 9th and early 10th centuries.[17] Utilisation of the substance was prominent in Byzantine civilwars, chiefly the revolt of the thematic fleets in 727 and the large-scale rebellion led by Thomas the Slav in821–823. In both cases, the rebel fleets were defeated by the Constantinopolitan Imperial Fleet through the use ofGreek fire.[18] The Byzantines also used the weapon to devastating effect against the various Rus' raids to theBosporus, especially those of 941 and 1043, as well as during the Bulgarian war of 970–971, when the fire-carryingByzantine ships blockaded the Danube.[19]

The importance placed on Greek fire during the Empire's struggle against the Arabs would lead to its discoverybeing ascribed to divine intervention. The Emperor Constantine Porphyrogennetos (r. 945–959), in his book DeAdministrando Imperio, admonishes his son and heir, Romanos II (r. 959–963), to never reveal the secrets of itsconstruction, as it was "shown and revealed by an angel to the great and holy first Christian emperor Constantine"and that the angel bound him "not to prepare this fire but for Christians, and only in the imperial city". As a warning,he adds that one official, who was bribed into handing some of it over to the Empire's enemies, was struck down by a"flame from heaven" as he was about to enter a church.[20][21] As the latter incident demonstrates, the Byzantinescould not avoid capture of their precious secret weapon: the Arabs captured at least one fireship intact in 827, and theBulgars captured several siphōns and much of the substance itself in 812/814. This, however, was apparently notenough to allow their enemies to copy it (see below). The Arabs for instance employed a variety of incendiarysubstances similar to the Byzantine weapon, but they were never able to copy the Byzantine method of deploymentby siphōn, and used catapults and grenades instead.[22][23]

Greek fire continued to be mentioned during the 12th century, and Anna Komnene gives a vivid description of itsuse in a naval battle against the Pisans in 1099.[24] However, although the use of hastily improvised fireships ismentioned during the 1203 siege of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade, no report confirms the use of the actualGreek fire. This might be because of the general disarmament of the Empire in the twenty years leading up to thesacking, or because the Byzantines had lost access to the areas where the primary ingredients were to be found, oreven perhaps because the secret had been lost over time.[25][26]

Records of a 13th-century event in which "Greek fire" was used by the Saracens against the Crusaders can be readthrough the Memoirs of the Lord of Joinville during the Seventh Crusade. One description of the memoir says “... thetail of fire that trailed behind it was as big as a great spear; and it made such a noise as it came, that it sounded likethe thunder of heaven. It looked like a dragon flying through the air. Such a bright light did it cast, that one could seeall over the camp as though it were day, by reason of the great mass of fire, and the brilliance of the light that itshed.” [27]In the 19th century, it is reported that an Armenian by the name of Kavafian approached the government of theOttoman Empire with a new type of Greek fire he claimed to have developed. Kavafian refused to reveal itscomposition when asked by the government, insisting that he be placed in command of its use during navalengagements. Not long after this, he was poisoned by imperial authorities, without them having ever found out hissecret.[28]

Greek fire 3

Manufacture

General characteristics

This article is part of the series on the military of the Byzantine Empire, 330–1453 AD

Structural history

Byzantine army (Generals): East Roman army, Middle Byzantine army (themes • tagmata • Hetaireia), Komnenian Byzantine army (pronoia),Palaiologan Byzantine army (allagia) • Varangian Guard

Byzantine navy (Admirals):Greek fire • Dromon

Campaign history

Lists of wars and revolts and civil wars

Strategy and tactics

Tactics • Siege warfare • Military manuals • Fortifications (Walls of Constantinople)

This box:

•• view•• talk• edit [29]

As Constantine Porphyrogennetos' warnings show, the ingredients and the processes of manufacture and deploymentof Greek fire were carefully guarded military secrets. So strict was the secrecy that the composition of Greek fire waslost forever and remains a source of speculation.[30] Consequently, the "mystery" of the formula has long dominatedthe research into Greek fire. Despite this almost exclusive focus, however, Greek fire is best understood as acomplete weapon system of many components, all of which were needed to operate together to render it effective.This comprised not only the formula of its composition, but also the specialized dromon ships that carried it intobattle, the device used to prepare the substance by heating and pressurizing it, the siphōn projecting it, and thespecial training of the siphōnarioi who used it.[31] Knowledge of the whole system was highly compartmentalised,with operators and technicians aware of the secrets of only one component, ensuring that no enemy could gainknowledge of it in its entirety.[32] This accounts for the fact that when the Bulgarians took Mesembria and Debeltosin 814, they captured 36 siphōns and even quantities of the substance itself,[33] but were unable to make any use ofthem.[34][35]

The information available on Greek fire is exclusively indirect, based on references in the Byzantine militarymanuals and a number of secondary historical sources such as Anna Komnene and Western European chroniclers,which are often inaccurate. In her Alexiad, Anna Komnene provides a description of an incendiary weapon, whichwas used by the Byzantine garrison of Dyrrhachium in 1108 against the Normans. It is often regarded as an at leastpartial "recipe" for Greek fire:[36][37][38]

This fire is made by the following arts. From the pine and the certain such evergreen trees inflammableresin is collected. This is rubbed with sulfur and put into tubes of reed, and is blown by men using itwith violent and continuous breath. Then in this manner it meets the fire on the tip and catches light andfalls like a fiery whirlwind on the faces of the enemies.

At the same time, the reports by Western chroniclers of the famed ignis graecus are largely unreliable, since theyapply the name to any and all sorts of incendiary substances.[30]

Greek fire 4

In attempting to reconstruct the Greek fire system, the concrete evidence, as it emerges from the contemporaryliterary references, provides the following characteristics:• It burned on water, and, according to some interpretations, was ignited by water. In addition, as numerous writers

testify, it could be extinguished only by a few substances, such as sand (which deprived it of oxygen), strongvinegar, or old urine, presumably by some sort of chemical reaction.[39][40][41]

• It was a liquid substance, and not some sort of projectile, as verified both by descriptions and the very name"liquid fire".[39][40]

• At sea, it was usually ejected from a siphōn,[39][40] although earthenware pots or grenades filled with it or similarsubstances were also used.[42]

• The discharge of Greek fire was accompanied by "thunder" and "much smoke".[39][40][43]

Theories on compositionThe first and, for a long time, most popular theory regarding the composition of Greek fire held that its chiefingredient was saltpeter, making it an early form of gunpowder.[44][45] This argument was based on the "thunder andsmoke" description, as well as on the distance the flame could be projected from the siphōn, which suggested anexplosive discharge.[46] From the times of Isaac Vossius,[3] several scholars adhered to this position, most notablythe so-called "French school" during the 19th century, which included the famous chemist MarcellinBerthelot.[47][48] This view has been rejected since, as saltpeter does not appear to have been used in warfare inEurope or the Middle East before the 13th century, and is totally absent from the accounts of the Arabs, the foremostchemists of the Mediterranean world, before the same period.[49] In addition, the nature of the proposed mixturewould have been radically different from the siphōn-projected substance described by Byzantine sources.[50]

A second view, based on the fact that Greek fire was inextinguishable by water – rather, some sources suggest thatpouring water on it intensified the flames – suggested that its destructive power was the result of the explosivereaction between water and quicklime. Although quicklime was certainly known and used by the Byzantines and theArabs in warfare,[51] the theory is refuted by literary and empirical evidence. A quicklime-based substance wouldhave to come in contact with water to ignite, while Emperor Leo's Tactica indicate that Greek fire was often poureddirectly on the decks of enemy ships,[52] although admittedly, decks were kept wet due to lack of sealants. Likewise,Leo describes the use of grenades,[53] which further reinforces the view that contact with water was not necessary forthe substance's ignition.[54] Furthermore, C. Zenghelis pointed out that, based on experiments, the actual result of thewater-quicklime reaction would be negligible in the open sea.[55] Another similar proposition suggested thatKallinikos had in fact discovered calcium phosphide. On contact with water, calcium phosphide releases phosphine,which ignites spontaneously. However, extensive experiments with it also failed to reproduce the described intensityof Greek fire.[56][57]

Although the presence of either quicklime or saltpeter in the mixture cannot be entirely excluded, they were consequently not the primary ingredient.[57][46] Most modern scholars agree that the actual Greek fire was based on petroleum, either crude or refined; comparable to modern napalm. The Byzantines had easy access to crude oil from the naturally occurring wells around the Black Sea (e.g., the wells around Tmutorakan noted by Constantine Porphyrogennetos) or in various locations throughout the Middle East.[44][58][59] An alternate name for Greek fire was "Median fire" (μηδικὸν πῦρ),[3] and the 6th-century historian Procopius, records that crude oil, which was called naphtha (in Greek νάφθα, naphtha, from Middle Persian نفت (naft)) by the Persians, was known to the Greeks as "Median oil" (μηδικὸν ἔλαιον).[60] This seems to corroborate the use of naphtha as a basic ingredient of Greek fire.[61] There is also a surviving 9th-century Latin text, preserved at Wolfenbüttel in Germany, which mentions the ingredients of what appears to be Greek fire and the operation of the siphōns used to project it. Although the text contains some inaccuracies, it clearly identifies the main component as naphtha.[3][62] Resins were probably added as a thickener (the Praecepta Militaria refer to the substance as πῦρ κολλητικόν, "sticky fire"), and to increase the duration and intensity of the flame.[63][64] A modern theoretical concoction included the use of pine tar and animal

Greek fire 5

fat along with other ingredients.A 12th-century treatise prepared by Mardi bin Ali al-Tarsusi for Saladin records an Arab version of Greek fire,called naft, which also had a petroleum base, with sulfur and various resins added. Any direct relation however withthe Byzantine formula is very unlikely.[65]

Methods of deployment

Use of a cheirosiphōn ("hand-siphōn"), a portable flamethrower, used from atop aflying bridge against a castle. Illumination from the Poliorcetica of Hero of

Byzantium.

The chief method of deployment of Greekfire, which sets it apart from similarsubstances, was its projection through a tube(siphōn), for use aboard ships or in sieges.Portable projectors (cheirosiphōnes) werealso invented, reputedly by Emperor Leo VI.The Byzantine military manuals alsomention that jars (kytrai or tzykalia) filledwith Greek fire and caltrops wrapped withtow and soaked in the substance werethrown by catapults, while pivoting cranes(gerania) were employed to pour it uponenemy ships.[66][67] The cheirosiphōnesespecially were prescribed for use at landand in sieges, both against siege machinesand against defenders on the walls, byseveral 10th-century military authors, andtheir use is depicted in the Poliorcetica of Hero of Byzantium.[68][69]The Byzantine dromons usually had a siphōninstalled on their prow under the forecastle, but additional devices could also on occasion be placed elsewhere on theship. Thus in 941, when the Byzantines were facing the vastly more numerous Rus' fleet, siphōns were placed alsoamidships and even astern.[70]

ProjectorsThe use of tubular projectors (σίφων, siphōn) is amply attested in the contemporary sources. Anna Komnene givesthis account of beast-shaped Greek fire projectors being mounted to the bow of warships:[71]

"As he [the Emperor Alexios I] knew that the Pisans were skilled in sea warfare and dreaded a battlewith them, on the prow of each ship he had a head fixed of a lion or other land-animal, made in brass oriron with the mouth open and then gilded over, so that their mere aspect was terrifying. And the firewhich was to be directed against the enemy through tubes he made to pass through the mouths of thebeasts, so that it seemed as if the lions and the other similar monsters were vomiting the fire."

Some sources provide more information on the composition and function of the whole mechanism. The Wolfenbüttelmanuscript in particular provides the following description:[62]

"...having built a furnace right at the front of the ship, they set on it a copper vessel full of these things,having put fire underneath. And one of them, having made a bronze tube similar to that which the rusticscall a squitiatoria, "squirt", with which boys play, they spray [it] at the enemy."

Another, possibly first-hand, account of the use of Greek fire comes from the 11th-century Yngvars saga víðförla,where the Viking Ingvar the Far-Travelled faces ships equipped with Greek fire weapons:[72]

"[They] began blowing with smiths’ bellows at a furnace in which there was fire and there came from it a great din. There stood there also a brass [or bronze] tube and from it flew much fire against one ship,

Greek fire 6

and it burned up in a short time so that all of it became white ashes..."The account, albeit embellished, corresponds with many of the characteristics of Greek fire known from othersources, such as a loud roar that accompanied its discharge.[73] These two texts are also the only two sources thatexplicitly mention that the substance was heated over a furnace before being discharged; although the validity of thisinformation is open to question, modern reconstructions have relied upon them.[74][75]

Based on these descriptions and the Byzantine sources, John Haldon and Maurice Byrne designed a hypotheticalapparatus as consisting of three main components: a bronze pump, which was used to pressurize the oil; a brazier,used to heat the oil (πρόπυρον, propyron, "pre-heater"); and the nozzle, which was covered in bronze and mountedon a swivel (στρεπτόν, strepton).[76] The brazier, burning a match of linen or flax that produced intense heat and thecharacteristic thick smoke, was used to heat oil and the other ingredients in an airtight tank above it,[77] a processthat also helped to dissolve the resins into a fluid mixture.[63] The substance was pressurized by the heat and theusage of a force pump. After it had reached the proper pressure, a valve connecting the tank with the swivel wasopened and the mixture was discharged from its end, being ignited at its mouth by some source of flame.[78] Theintense heat of the flame made necessary the presence of heat shields made of iron (βουκόλια, boukolia), which areattested in the fleet inventories.[79]

The process of operating Haldon and Byrne's design was fraught with danger, as the mounting pressure could easilymake the heated oil tank explode, a flaw which was not recorded as a problem with the historical fire weapon.[80][81]

In the experiments conducted by Haldon in 2002 for the episode "Fireship" of the television series Machines TimesForgot, even modern welding techniques failed to secure adequate insulation of the bronze tank under pressure. Thisled to the relocation of the pressure pump between the tank and the nozzle. The full-scale device built on this basisestablished the effectiveness of the mechanism's design, even with the simple materials and techniques available tothe Byzantines. The experiment used crude oil mixed with wood resins, and achieved a flame temperature of over1,000 °C (1,830 °F) and an effective range of up to 15 meters (49 ft).[82]

Hand-held projectors

Detail of a cheirosiphōn

The portable cheirosiphōn ("hand-siphōn"),the earliest analogue to a modernflamethrower, is extensively attested in themilitary documents of the 10th century, andrecommended for use in both sea and land.They first appear in the Tactica of emperorLeo VI the Wise, who claims to haveinvented them.[41] Subsequent authorscontinued to refer to the cheirosiphōnes,especially for use against siege towers,although Nikephoros II Phokas also advisestheir use in field armies, with the aim ofdisrupting the enemy formation.[68]

Although both Leo VI and NikephorosPhokas claim that the substance used in thecheirosiphōnes was the same as in the staticdevices used on ships, Haldon and Byrneconsider that the former were manifestly different from their larger cousins, and theorize that the device wasfundamentally different, "a simple syringe [that] squirted both liquid fire (presumably unignited) and noxious juicesto repel enemy troops." However the illustrations of Hero's Poliorcetica show the cheirosiphōn also throwing theignited substance.[1][83]

Greek fire 7

Grenades

Clay grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by caltrops, 10th–12thcentury, National Historical Museum, Athens, Greece

In its earliest form, Greek fire was hurledonto enemy forces by firing a burningcloth-wrapped ball, perhaps containing aflask, using a form of light catapult, mostprobably a seaborne variant of the Romanlight catapult or onager. These were capableof hurling light loads—around 6 to 9 kg (13to 20 lb)—a distance of 350–450 m(383–492 yd).

Effectiveness andcountermeasures

Although the destructiveness of Greek fire isindisputable, it should not be seen as somesort of "wonder weapon", nor did it makethe Byzantine navy invincible. It was not, inthe words of naval historian John Pryor, a"ship-killer" comparable to the naval ram,which by then had fallen out of use.[84] While Greek fire remained a potent weapon, its limitations were significantwhen compared to more traditional forms of artillery: in its siphōn-deployed version, it had a limited range, and itcould be used safely only in a calm sea and with favourable wind conditions.[85] The Muslim navies eventuallyadapted themselves to it, by staying out of its effective range and devising methods of protection such as felt or hidessoaked in vinegar.[41]

In popular cultureGreek fire made an appearance in the 2011 film Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides as a naval weapon usedby the character Blackbeard, as well as in the video games Assassin's Creed: Revelations and Medieval II: TotalWar: Kingdoms.Both the academic discussion around Greek fire and a medieval demonstration of it appear in the 1999 novelTimeline and its 2003 film adaption.A similar substance, known as "wildfire", is used in a naval battle in the book A Clash of Kings by George R.R.Martin. This green substance is deployed in fragile clay jars, never from tubes, and is apparently partly magical innature, but, like Greek fire, it burns on water.A self-igniting liquid was referred to as Greek Fire in Season 1 Episodes 7-11 of the BBC America television seriesCopper.Greek Fire was used in the episode "The Mask of Doom, Part III" of the Fantastic Four 1994 TV series to thwart thePersians and Dr Doom.Greek fire is a common weapon used in the Percy Jackson & the Olympians series, as well as its spin-off series, TheHeroes of Olympus. Rick Riordan's version of the weapon is green, however.

Greek fire 8

Notes[1] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 97.[2] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 608–609.[3][3] Forbes 1959, p. 83.[4][4] Leicester 1971, p. 75.[5] Crosby 2002, pp. 88–89.[6] Partington 1999, pp. 1–5.[7] Forbes 1959, pp. 70–74.[8][8] Thuc. 4.100.1[9][9] Partington 1999, p. 5.[10] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 607–609.[11] Theophanes & Turtledove 1982, p. 52.[12][12] Roland 1992, p. 657.[13] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 608.[14] Partington 1999, pp. 12–13.[15][15] Forbes 1959, p. 80.[16] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 26–27, 31–32.[17] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 61–62, 72.[18] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 32, 46, 73.[19] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 86, 189.[20] Moravcsik & Jenkins 1967, pp. 68–71.[21][21] Forbes 1959, p. 82.[22] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 609–611.[23] Roland 1992, pp. 660, 663–664.[24] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 110.[25] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 630–631.[26][26] Haldon 2006, p. 316.[27] http:/ / www. middle-ages. org. uk/ greek-fire. htm[28] Adjarian, Hrachia. "Հայոց դերը Օսմանյան կայսրության մեջ," [The role of Armenians in the Ottoman Empire] Banber Erevani

Hamalsarani 1967; trans. in Charles Issawi, The Economic History of Turkey, 1800-1914, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1980, p. 64.[29] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Byzantine_Military& action=edit[30][30] Haldon 2006, p. 290.[31][31] Roland 1992, pp. 660, 663.[32] Roland 1992, pp. 663–664.[33] Theophanes & Turtledove 1982, p. 178.[34][34] Roland 1992, p. 663.[35] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 609.[36][36] Partington 1999, pp. 19, 29.[37][37] Ellis Davidson 1973, p. 64.[38] Scott, James Sibbald David, (Sir) (1868) The British army: its origin, progress, and equipment, p. 190. (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/

britisharmyitsor02scotuoft)[39] Roland 1992, pp. 657–658.[40] Cheronis 1937, pp. 362–363.[41] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 617.[42][42] Partington 1999, p. 14.[43] Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.59, transl. in[44] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 92.[45] Ellis Davidson 1973, pp. 69–70.[46][46] Roland 1992, p. 659.[47] Roland 1992, pp. 658–659.[48][48] Ellis Davidson 1973, p. 69.[49] Partington 1999, pp. 21–22.[50] Forbes 1959, pp. 83–84.[51] Partington 1999, pp. 6–10, 14.[52] Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.67, transl. in[53] Leo VI, Tactica, XIX.63, transl. in[54][54] Roland 1992, p. 660.[55][55] Zenghelis 1932, p. 270.

Greek fire 9

[56][56] Cheronis 1937, p. 363.[57][57] Ellis Davidson 1973, p. 70.[58][58] Partington 1999, p. 4.[59] Forbes 1959, pp. 82–84.[60] Procopius, De bello Gothico, IV.11.36, cited in[61][61] Ellis Davidson 1973, p. 62.[62] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 614–616.[63][63] Haldon 2006, p. 310.[64] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 618.[65] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 610–611.[66] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 378–379, 609.[67] Forbes 1959, pp. 86–87.[68] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 617–619.[69][69] Haldon 2006, p. 295.[70] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 203, 618.[71][71] Dawes 1928, p. 292.[72] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 616–617.[73][73] Ellis Davidson 1973, p. 72.[74] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 628–629.[75][75] Haldon 2006, p. 315.[76] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 93.[77] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 94.[78] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 95.[79] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 624–626.[80] Haldon & Byrne 1977, p. 96.[81] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, pp. 627–628.[82][82] For a detailed description, cf. An interesting characteristic displayed during these tests was that, contrary to expectations due to the flame's

heat, the stream of fire projected through the tube did not curve upwards but downwards, as the fuel was not completely vaporized as it left thenozzle. This fact is important because medieval galleys had a low profile, and a high-arcing flame would miss them entirely.

[83] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 627.[84][84] Pryor 2003, p. 97.[85] Pryor & Jeffreys 2006, p. 384.

Sources• Cheronis, Nicholas D. (1937), "Chemical Warfare in the Middle Ages: Kallinikos' "Prepared Fire"", Journal of

Chemical Education (Chicago): 360–365• Christides, Vassilios (1991), "Fireproofing of War Machines, Ships and Garments", Proc. TROPIS VI: 6th

International Symposium on Ship Construction in Antiquity, Lamia 1996, Athens, pp. 135–141, ISSN  1105-7947(http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ issn/ 1105-7947)

• Christides, Vassilios (1993), "Nafṭ", The Encyclopedia of Islam, New Edition, Volume VII: Mif–Naz, Leiden andNew York: BRILL, pp. 884–886, ISBN 90-04-09419-9.

• Dawes, Elizabeth A., ed. (1928), The Alexiad (http:/ / www. fordham. edu/ halsall/ basis/ AnnaComnena-Alexiad.html), London: Routledge & Kegan Paul

• Crosby, Alfred W. (2002), Throwing Fire: Projectile Technology Through History, Cambridge University Press,ISBN 978-0-521-79158-8

• Ellis Davidson, Hilda R. (1973), "The Secret Weapon of Byzantium", Byzantinische Zeitschrift 66: 61–74• Forbes, R. J. (1959), "Naphtha Goes To War", More Studies in Early Petroleum History 1860–1880, Leiden: E.J.

BRILL, pp. 70–90• Haldon, John; Byrne, Maurice (1977), "A Possible Solution to the Problem of Greek Fire", Byzantinische

Zeitschrift 70: 91–99, doi: 10.1515/byzs.1977.70.1.91 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1515/ byzs. 1977. 70. 1. 91)• Haldon, John (2006), ""Greek fire" revisited: recent and current research", in Jeffreys, Elizabeth, Byzantine Style,

Religion and Civilization: In Honour of Sir Steven Runciman, Cambridge University Press, pp. 290–325,ISBN 978-0-521-83445-2

Greek fire 10

• Leicester, Henry Marshall (1971), The historical background of chemistry, Courier Dover Publications,ISBN 978-0-486-61053-5

• Moravcsik, Gyula; Jenkins, R.J.H., eds. (1967), Constantine Porphyrogenitus: De Administrando Imperio,Dumbarton Oaks

• Nicolle, David (1996), Medieval Warfare Source Book: Christian Europe and its Neighbours, BrockhamptonPress, ISBN 1-86019-861-9

• Partington, James Riddick (1999), A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder (http:/ / books. google. com/?id=30IJLnwpc8EC), Johns Hopkins University Press, ISBN 0-8018-5954-9

• Pászthory, Emmerich (1986), "Über das 'Griechische Feuer'. Die Analyse eines spätantiken Waffensystems",Antike Welt 17 (2): 27–38

• Pryor, John H. (2003), "Byzantium and the Sea: Byzantine Fleets and the History of the Empire in the Age of theMacedonian Emperors, c. 900–1025 CE", in Hattendorf, John B.; Unger, Richard W., War at Sea in the MiddleAges and the Renaissance, Boydell Press, pp. 83–104, ISBN 0-85115-903-6

• Pryor, John H.; Jeffreys, Elizabeth M. (2006), The Age of the ΔΡΟΜΩΝ: The Byzantine Navy ca. 500–1204, BrillAcademic Publishers, ISBN 978-90-04-15197-0

• Roland, Alex (1992), "Secrecy, Technology, and War: Greek Fire and the Defense of Byzantium, Technology andCulture", Technology and Culture 33 (4): 655–679, doi: 10.2307/3106585 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 2307/3106585), JSTOR  3106585 (http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 3106585)

• Spears, W.H., Jr. (1969). Greek Fire: The Fabulous Secret Weapon That Saved Europe. ISBN 0-9600106-3-7• Theophanes; Turtledove, Harry (Transl.) (1982), The chronicle of Theophanes: an English translation of anni

mundi 6095–6305 (A.D. 602–813) (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=lK5wIPb4Vi4C), University of PennsylvaniaPress, ISBN 978-0-8122-1128-3

• Thucydides, History of the Peloponnesian War, translated by Rex Warner; with an introduction and notes my M.I.Finley (London 1972)

• Toutain, J. (1953), "Le feu grégeois", Journal des Savants (in French) (Paris): 77–80• "The Rise of Gawain, Nephew of Arthur (De ortu Waluuanii)," ed. Mildred Leake Day, in Wilhelm, James J.

(1994). The Romance of Arthur. New York: Garland. pp. 369–397. ISBN 0-8153-1511-2• Zenghelis, C. (1932), "Le feu grégeois et les armes à feu des Byzantins", Byzantion (Brussels) VI: 265–286

External links• "Technoporn: Greek Fire" (http:/ / blog. wired. com/ gadgets/ 2006/ 12/ technoporn_gree. html). Wired Blog.

December 29, 2006.• Greek Fire – The Best Kept Secret of the Ancient World (http:/ / sill-www. army. mil/ famag/ 1981/

MAY_JUN_1981/ MAY_JUN_1981_PAGES_54_57. pdf). By Richard Groller.• “Greek Fire.” The Middle Ages website, http:/ / www. middle-ages. org. uk/ greek-fire. htm, Retrieved on 13

March 2013.• “Greek Fire.” The University of Calgary, http:/ / www. ucalgary. ca/ applied_history/ tutor/ oldwrld/ armies/

greekfire. html, 2000. Retrieved on 10 March 2013.• “The Link: Greek Fire.” National Geographic website. http:/ / channel. nationalgeographic. com/ channel/

the-link/ videos/ greek-fire/ , 1 May 2012. Retrieved on 9 Mar 2013.

Article Sources and Contributors 11

Article Sources and ContributorsGreek fire  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=588362185  Contributors: 165.123.179.xxx, 75th Trombone, Aatomic1, Abner Mallity, Academic Challenger, Access Denied,Adam Bishop, Adioonesix, AdventurousSquirrel, Ahoerstemeier, Alai, Aldnonymous, AnnaFrance, Annabtg, Anonymous Dissident, Antandrus, Antidemon, Antonio Lopez, Apcbg, Ashdod,Bazco101, Bchaosf, Bckirkup, Bduke, Beeswaxcandle, Bellhalla, Bender235, Besieged, Bevo74, Bezell19, Biglovinb, Billastro, Bilsonius, Bkell, Bobo192, Bporopat, Bradybrady, Brainhell,Bricology, Buttscratch247, Byzantinefire, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Carmichael, Carre, Cdang, Chowbok, ChrisCork, Cigor, Conversion script, Cplakidas, Crocadillion, Cuchullain, Cwpaul,Cyan, D-Notice, DBaba, Dale Arnett, Davidiad, DavisGL, Dbachmann, Dcooper, Dehma1, Deipnosophista, Depictionimage, Deucalionite, Dimboukas, Discospinster, DivineAlpha, Dmerrill,Dmol, Dr. Sunglasses, Dr.K., Durova, Eastlaw, Ec5618, Ecthelion83, Ed!, El C, Eloquence, Em Mitchell, Erusse estelinya, Esoterica11, Esrever, EunseokLee, Euzen, Ewx, Fabartus, Fhudkins,Flyguy649, Foobaz, Fourthords, Frodet, Furrykef, Gabr-el, Gadget850, Gaius Cornelius, Gawainday, Gc1mak, GeeJo, Gene Nygaard, George Ponderevo, George V Reilly, Geraki, Ghirlandajo,Gilgamesh, Glacierfairy, Glane23, GoaLasse, Gokhanpolat, Graham87, Grimhelm, Guardian of the Rings, Gun Powder Ma, Gwinva, Hairy Dude, Hectorian, Hede2000, Heron, HexaChord,Homerjay, Hongooi, Hoppeduppeanut, Hugo999, Hydrogen Iodide, Igodard, InGenX, Itai, J.delanoy, JBaig1, JFD, Jack Merridew, Jagged 85, James Seneca, JamesMoose, Jamesmcmahon0,Jamie Mercer, Jaraalbe, Jeepo, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Jennahjen, Jhalapio, Jimp, Jmackaerospace, JoDonHo, John of Reading, Johnleemk, Jonathan.s.kt, Jsnx, Jvano, Jweiss11, KGBarnett, Keria,Ketiltrout, Killing Vector, KiloByte, KnowledgeOfSelf, Korovioff, Krazykillaz, Krylonblue83, Ksyrie, Kungfuadam, Kurt Leyman, Kyle1278, Lb2, Lightmouse, Lights, Liu Bei, Llywrch,Lockesdonkey, Lopo, LorenzoB, Loyalist Cannons, LucasVB, M2o6n0k2e7y3, MJCdetroit, Macrakis, Madman2001, Maksim L., Malcolm, Malta1978, Manzzzz, MarkoPolo56,MarshallBagramyan, Martarius, Massimo Macconi, Matthaeus123, Mcorazao, Michael Hardy, Michalis21, Minesweeper.007, Miskin, ModriDirkac, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg,MusikAnimal, Mygerardromance, Mysekurity, Natl1, NawlinWiki, Nbarth, Neddyseagoon, Nightscream, NinjaKid, Nishkid64, Nonagonal Spider, NorwegianBlue, Notreallydavid, OAC,Ode2joy, Okamin656, OneWhoHasBeenEnlightened, Orangutan, Orecalimo, Oreo Priest, Oxymoron83, Panairjdde, Paullievano, Pedro, PericlesofAthens, Petri Krohn, Piano non troppo,Pinethicket, Pink18, PinkAmpersand, Pious7, Portuguese Man o' War, Praxio, Public Menace, Pyrotec, QuantumEleven, Quintin3265, Quoth, RWR8189, Rasimpson, Rational thinker,Ratmansan, Rebliz, Res2216firestar, Retropunk, Rich Farmbrough, Riddley, Rls, Ronhjones, Rror, SHCGRA Max, ST47, Sannse, Sean WI, Searchme, Segv11, Semioli, Serendeva, Sfdan,Shaddack, Shakyrivers, Shanel, SilentResident, Skrunyak, Skysmith, Slartibartfast1992, Sleigh, Sofake, Spliffy, Srleffler, St-Margaret, Starwiz, Stbalbach, Steelersfan1243, Sten, Stixpjr,Stlbadger, Suryoyo, Sweens112, Tabbywrangler, The Recycling Troll, The Rogue Penguin, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheCormac, TheEgyptian, Tide rolls, Tloc, Tmangray, Tom harrison,Tommish, Topory, Torvalu4, UnicornTapestry, Valentinian, Vanished user 39948282, Vegetguy, Velocicaptor, Wachholder0, Waltersjoe86, Warofdreams, Wayland, Wetman, Wiglaf, Xanzzibar,XubayrMA, Ynhockey, Ypacaraí, ZAKY, Александър, 514 ,ماني anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Greekfire-madridskylitzes1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Alexandar.R., Amandajm,Cplakidas, CristianChirita, Dbenzhuser, Dimboukas, Dsmdgold, Gun Powder Ma, Jappalang, Mats Halldin, Neuceu, Picus viridis, Romanm, ShakkoFile:Fighting between Byzantines and Arabs Chronikon of Ioannis Skylitzes, end of 13th century..jpg  Source:http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Fighting_between_Byzantines_and_Arabs_Chronikon_of_Ioannis_Skylitzes,_end_of_13th_century..jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors:unknown, 13th-century authorFile:Hand-siphon for Greek fire, medieval illumination.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire,_medieval_illumination.jpg  License: PublicDomain  Contributors: Gun Powder MaFile:Hand-siphon for Greek fire, medieval illumination (detail).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hand-siphon_for_Greek_fire,_medieval_illumination_(detail).jpg License: Public Domain  Contributors: Gun Powder MaImage:Liquid fire granades Chania.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0Unported  Contributors: Badseed

LicenseCreative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0//creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/