Greek and romans chapter 5
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Chapter 5
The Classical Style
(ca. 700–30 B.C.E.)
The quest for harmonious order was the driving force behind the evolution of the
classical style.
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The Classical Style
clarity, simplicity, balance, and harmonious proportion
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Humanism, realism, and idealism Humanism, realism, and idealism
Humanism - Focuses so consistently on the actions of human beings.
Realism – faithful to nature
Idealism –the effort to achieve a perfection that surpasses nature.
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Greek PaintingGreek Painting
• Geometric period Geometric period - (ca. 1200-700 B.C.E.)
• Archaic period – (cArchaic period – (ca.700-480 B.C.E.)
• Classical period Classical period – (ca. 480-323 B.C.E)
• Hellenistic period Hellenistic period – (ca. 323 - 30 B.C.E.)
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Greek Painting Greek Painting GeometricGeometric periodperiod
•Geometric painting (ca. 1200-700 B.C.E.)
•Flat, angular figures and complex patterns
•Figures painted in black or brown
Funerary Krater ca. 750 B.C.E., terra-cotta
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funerary amphora, almost 6 feet tall
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Greek Painting Archaic periodGreek Painting Archaic period
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Ca.700-480 b.c.e.
Startling clarity of design is produced by the dark and light areas
More realism replace geometric shapes
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fully-developed techniqueearly examples, rough and sketchy
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Panathenaic prize amphora showing footrace, from Vulci, ca. 530 b.c.e.
Terracotta, height 24 ½ “, Euphiletos
Contest of two warriors, ca. 540-530 b.c.e. amphora,
ceramic by the “Botkin Class”
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Achilles and Ajax playing dice ca. 530 b.c.e. height 24 “, Exekias,
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Greek art was influenced by art from other areas of the world.
(Persia?)
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Niobid Krater
Greek Painting Classical period
•480-323 B.C.E
•human body the color of the clay and the ground was painted black
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Euphronios, Death of Sarpedon, ca. 515 B. C. E.
Euphronios krater
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red-figure vase-painting, Kleophrades Painter
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Andokides Painter
Euphronios (Greek painter), Red-Figure Psykter with Feasting Hetaerae, 505-500 BCE, clay, height
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Greek Stamnos (Wine Jar) High
Classical Period, c 450 BC Painting.
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Dionysus and Eros in Procession.mid-4th century B.C.E.Wine jug, red-figured,
Kerch style.
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Interior (tondo) of a red figure kylix, depicting Herakles and Athena, by Phoinix (potter) and Douris (painter), circa 480-470 BC
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Art Philosophy
Socrates - select and combine the most beautiful details of many different models.
Plato's Ideal Forms - the artist's imitations of reality improve upon sensory reality to achieve absolute perfection.
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Greek Painting Hellenistic period
• 323 - 30 B.C.E.• New emphasis on
personal emotion & individuality
Hoplite Warrior
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Tomb fresco from near Thessalonika Greek, Hellenistic period
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Battle of Alexander and the Persians, Mosaic copy from Pompeii of a Hellenistic painting of ca. 315 BCE, ca. 100 BCE, Naples, Mosaic
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Hellenistic painting Pottery25
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Sculpture
Classical: Head of Blond Youth
Archaic: 700 - 480 B.C.E.
Classical: 480 - 323 B.C.E.
Hellenistic: 323 - 30 B.C.E
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Archaic: Kouros c. 650 B.C.E.
The Archaic Period(700 B.C.E. - 480 B.C.E.)
•Egyptian and
Mesopotamian influence
•Freestanding, rigid
and block like
•Perpetual homage
to the gods
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Greek Statue Egyptian Statue
1. technical, proportional and obvious formal similarities
2. Greek: unclothed Egyptian: wear a kilt
3. Greek: freestanding Egyptian: a support
lean against a back support
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Archaic Period Influence: Ancient Egypt c. 2600 B.C.E.
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•Kouros – male youth
•Kore – female youth
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Archaic: Kore from Acropolis and Painted Kore
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Archaic: Kore
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mother-of-pearl gray agates
lapis lazuli
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Early Classical Kritios Boy, c. 480 B.C.E. and Blond Boy, c. 480 B.C.E.
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dig site on Acropolis in 1865
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Classical: Polycleitus, Doryphorus (spear-bearer)
The Classical Period(480 B.C.E. - 323 B.C.E.)
•More natural positioning
•Greater weight on the left leg
•Balanced opposition that is natural and
graceful
•Doryphorus is considered the canon of
ideal proportions.
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 40
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Praxiteles – Aphrodite of Knidos ac. 350 B.C.E. (Roman Copy)
•Established a model for the ideal
female nude.
•Regarded by the Romans as the
finest statue in the world.
•What do you think?
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 42
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Classical: Zeus 440 B.C.E.
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High Classical Period
Prominent feature:
capture the “idea moment”
before action
Depiction of more vigorous
action
Dynamically posed of the
figures(Discus Thrower) (Zeus/ Poseidon)
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Phidias, Man with Helmet
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Belvedere Apollo (Roman copy) Vatican Museum- late fourth century B.C.E.
Hellenistic Art
• 323 - 30 B.C.E
•New emphasis on personal emotion &
individuality
•Notable for its sensuous male/female
nudes.
•Apollo Belvedere, A landmark example
of the new sensuousness.
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Laocoon and his sons c. 175-150 B.C.E. Vatican Museum
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Hellenistic: Venus of Melos (Milo) c. 100 B.C.E.
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Winged Victory, Pythocritos of Rhodes, Nike of Samothrace, ca. 190 b.c.e. Marble, height 8 ft.. 50
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Reconstruction - Nike of Samothrace
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A maenad leaning on a thyrsos, Roman copy of Greek original, ca. 420-410 b.c.e. Marble relief
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Athena battling with Acyoneus, f rom the frieze of the Altar of Zeus, Pergamon, ca. 180 b.c.e. Marble, height 7” 6’ 54
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Suicidal Gaul 230-220 BCE
Dying Gaul 230-220 BCE
celebrate his victory over the Celtic Galatians in Anatolia
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Hellenistic art
Gold pendant disk
Gained international acclaim for their gold working
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Gold in Greece
Gold pendant disk with the head of Athena (one of a pair), from Kul Oba, ca. 400-350 b.c.e. Height
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Ancient Greek Jewelry, 300 BCE
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An ancient Greek art necklacewith rams head gold decoration
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Classical style in Music and Dance
Music played a major role in Greek life
Epictetus, cup detail, ca. 510 b.c.e., terracotta, 13”
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The graceful solo dance by a cult follower of Dionysus is accompanied
by the
music of a double autos (a set of reed pipes) held in place by leather straps.
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Classical style in Music and Dance
Dance was prized for its moral value
Gives pleasure
Induces good health
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The Berlin painter, red-figure amphora, ca. 490 B.C.E. Terra-cotta,
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Iliad and Odyssey
Achilles- greatest hero. Proud and headstrong.
Patroclus - Achilles’ beloved friend, companion, and advisor.
Hector - mightiest Trojan warrior. Resents his brother Paris for bringing war upon their family and city.
.
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The Odyssey, HomerT EN YEARS HAVE PASSED since the fall of Troy, and the Greek hero Odysseus still has not returned to his kingdom in Ithaca.
Odysseus, Penelope, Prince Telemachus
Zeus, Athena
Calypso
Suitors
Poseidon
Penelope organizes an archery contest the following day and promises to marry any man who can string Odysseus’s great bow and fire an arrow through a row of twelve axes
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Classical style in PoetryClassical style in Poetry
Pindar (ca. 522-438 b.c.e.)
Odes (seems to love Wrestling)
Make the claim that prowess, not chance, leads to victory, which in turn renders the victor immortal.
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Sappho Sappho ca. 610-580 B.C.E.ca. 610-580 B.C.E.
(The female Homer)(The female Homer)
Great Greek lyrists
One of a few known female poets of the ancient world.
Settled on The island of Lesbos, where she led a group of young women dedicated to the cult of Aphrodite.
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 65
The End.
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Parthenon
? ?
Greek Architecture
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Acropolis Architecture
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Parthenon replica - NashvilleI
Greek ArchitectureGreek Architecture: The Parthenon: The Parthenon(448 to 432 B.C.E.)
•Temple dedicated to Athena (the goddess of war and of wisdom, and the patron
of the arts and crafts.)
Greek word parthenos (“maiden” or “virgin”)
Built with glitterling pentelic marble
•Commissioned by Pericles
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Pheidas’ Athena Parthenos 2002 – Nashville Replica
Pheidas’ Athena Parthenos
The statue stood approximately around 40 ft. tall.
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Several marble copies and drawings have survived
Statue of Athena
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Greek influence
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The Greek order
1.Doric 2.Ionic 3.CorinthianSimple&Severe Delicate----- the most ornate &Ornamental
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The Orders
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 73
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Temples of the Doric order also have a certain structure at the upper levels.
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The Sculpture of the Parthenon
Location
1.pediment
2.metopes
3.frieze
(outer wall of cella)
High Relief
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 77
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Sculpture of the Parthenon
•Phidias and his members of his workshop
•448 and 432 B.C.E.
•Homage to the patron
deity of Athens: Athena
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East pediment of the Parthenon
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The Metopes of the Parthenon
all represented various instances of the struggle between the forces of order and justice
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"Lapith and Centaur" Metope
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Lapith overcomimg a centaur, south metope
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The Pedimental Sculptures
the contest between Poseidon and Athena for the right to be the patron deity of Athens (Athena's gift of the olive tree was preferred over Poseidon's spring).
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The Frieze
depicts a procession of horsemen, musicians, sacrificial animals, and other figures with various ritual functions.
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West pediment of the Parthenon
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“A Group of Young Horsemen”from the north frieze
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Propylaia
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built as a monument
entrance to the Acropolis
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Temple of Athena Nike
a sanctuary dating back to the Mycenaean era.
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Erechtheion
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built to accommodate the religious rituals that the old temple used to housed
Caryatids
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Old Temple Charioteer Relief
Shallow relief of charioteer mounting the chariot.
Old Temple frieze
Marble, c. 510-500 BCE (Acropolis Museum)
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Three-Bodied Snake
Sculpture from the corner of a large temple (Old Temple).
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Herakles Fights Sea Monster
Limestone, c. 550-540 BCE (Acropolis Museum)
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Two Lions killing a Bull
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Gigantomachy Pediment
Marble, c. 525-520 BCE
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Temple of Apollo at Delphi
4th c. B.C
several Doric columns
porous stone and limestone.
oracle gave answers to questions
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Delphi Tholos
380 and 360 B.CE.
20 Doric columns
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The Great Library: Temple of Muses at Alexandria
half a million documents from Assyria, Greece, Persia, Egypt, India.
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Doric: Temple of Zeus at Olympia
Architecture
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Pheidas Zeus 5th c. BC (40 ft)
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Lincoln Memorial
Greek influence
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Lincoln Statue
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the Alter of Zeus• At Pergamon (180 B.C.E)
• To celebrate the victory of minor kingdom of Pergamon over Gauls
•20-foot high, 300-foot based platform
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 106
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•Massive Ionic Colonnade
•Mythological battle •Olympic gods vs. giants
•Symbolize the Victory of Intellect
•Over Barbarians
•More theatrical in style•誇張的
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Athena Battling with Acyoneus
•Strong light and
dark contrast
•Classical restraint → violent passion
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A New League338BC – Philip of Macedon defeats the Greeks
•Promises Greek city-states autonomy (self rule)•Assassinated by captain of his bodyguard •Alexander (20 yrs. old) left to finish the job
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A Promising Future King
•13 years old: Tutored by Aristotle•16 years old: Regent of kingdom when Philip was away•Crushed revolts, saved father’s life
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The Hellenistic Age The Hellenistic Age (323-30 B.C.E.)(323-30 B.C.E.)
•He was a military genius: Within 12 years, he created an empire that stretched Greece to borders of modern India.
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The Invasion of Persia
•Reliving father’s dreams•Found out that he was very good at warfare
Small, mobile cavalry units (250) formed main striking force
Military features:
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The Invasion of Persia
Deeper Phalanx
13 ft. spears
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The Invasion of PersiaWar Machines
Siege towers, catapults used effectively for first
time
Could hurl huge arrows, boulders 590 ft.(180
meters)
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Four BattlesAlexander conquered the world in four decisive
battles, in less than 10 years
1.Granicus
2.Issus
3.Gaugamela
4.Hydaspes
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The End of AlexanderAlexander’s conquests took a
toll on him
Died of Malaria at age 32
Legacy• Incredible military genius•Never lost a battle•Huge cultural impact•Ensured Greek dominance by spreading Greek culture all over world•Contributed to the Greek science, made Athens center of world
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AftermathAfter his death, the Empire quickly fell apart and was
divided among three powerful generals:
Egypt and fringe lands went to
PtolemyAsia Minor and old
Persian Empire went to Seleucus
Macedon and Greece went to
Antigonus
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Archimedes of Syracuse
Calculated the value of pi (the ratio of the circumference of a circle to its diameter)
Compound pulley
Windlass for moving heavy weights
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Classical style in PoetryClassical style in Poetry
Pindar (ca. 522-438 b.c.e.)
Odes (seems
to love Sports)
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The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World
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1) Khufu's Great Pyramid (ca.2560 B.C.E.)
Height 480 ft.
Limestone
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2) The Hanging Gardens of Babylon
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City State of Babylon (Modern Iraq)
Ca. 600 B.C.E.
80 ft., Mud brick waterproofed with lead.
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3) The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Peloponnesus (Modern Greece)
Ca. 432 B.C.E.
40 ft., Ivory and
gold-plated
on wooden frame.
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4) The Temple of Artemis at Ephesus
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Ephesus (Present day Turkey)
ca. 323 B.C.E.
262 C.E. by Goths
425 ft
Mostly marble
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5) The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus
353 B.C.
King Mausolus Mausoleum
Queen Artemisia builds as a tribute.
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6) The Colossus of Rhodes
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Island of Rhodes (Modern Greece)
Ca. 292 - 280 B.C.E.
Commemorate War Victory
Height without 50 foot pedestal was 110 ft.
Bronze plates attached to iron framework
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7)The Great Lighthouse at Alexandria
Alexandria, Egypt.
Ca. 290 - 270 B.C.E.
Height 450 ft.
Stone faced with white marble blocks with lead mortar.
•
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Oedipus the King by Sophocles430 b.c.e. (Greek Tragedy)
The prophesy: Tiresias answers only in riddles, saying that the murderer of Laius will turn out to be both brother and father to his children, both son and husband to his mother.
This Play returns to the fact that prophecies do come true and that the words of the gods must be obeyed.
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Oedipus the King Essay
Explain the concepts of free will versus fate. Explore how each is depicted in Oedipus the King.
How do you feel about Oedipus’ and Jocasta reaction to the truth?
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Oedipus the King by Sophocles
Fear? What should a man fear? It’s all chance, chance rules our lives. Not a man on earth can see a day ahead, groping through the dark. Better to live at random, best we can. And as for this marriage with your mother—have no fear. Many a man before you, in his dreams, has shared his mother’s bed. Take such things for shadows, nothing at all— Live, Oedipus, as if there’s no tomorrow! (Oedipus the King, 1068–1078)
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Case Study: Oedipus the King by Sophocles
Oedipus is the son of Laius, the king of Thebes, and of Jocasta. When born, he receives a prophesy that he will slay his father and marry his mother.The father has his boy’s feet pierced, and orders a shepherd to leave him on a hillside to die. Polybus, the shepherd, instead rears the child as his own. When, as a man, he receives this prophecy, he leaves the shepherd out of fear it might come true.He travels to Thebes, the most distant place from the siteThe theme underlying this effort is that it is folly to outwit the Fates.
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Oedipus: The Patricide
While traveling, Oedipus meets a party of men who are blocking his wayThey argue over the right of way on a narrow roadThe dispute gets out of handOedipus kills several men in the entourageLaius, Oedipus’s father, is one of the men he murders
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The Sphinx and Her RiddleAt the gates of Thebes, he encounters the Sphinx, who has been terrorizing Thebes for yearsThe Sphinx has waylaid people, ask a riddle, and murdered them all for their failure to give the right answerThe riddle: what walks on four in the morningOn two at noon, andOn three at night?Your turn: got a good answer?A man in the phases of infancy, adulthood, and old age
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Oedipus’s Answer
His answer: “man”
He crawls on all fours in the morning (of life as a toddler)
Walks on two at noon (maturity)
Walks on three in the evening (a cane, at old age)
She screams, falls to the ground with a thud, and rots away with decay and vultures
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Oedipus Become King and Marries his Mother
The grateful Thebans award him with the kinshipAnd with the hand of Jocasta to be his wifeIn so doing, he fulfils the prophecy that he will marry his mother. The Gods, angered by his incest, send a plague to the cityAfter siring and bearing four children, Oedipus is told by the blind prophet Tiresias that he is the cause of the plague. In his pride, he refuses to believe the prophet, thinking his rival Creon, Jocasta’s brother, has set him up to this.
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Curse of Oedipus Rex
The chorus fills the audience in on the details of the eventsA messenger conveys the news of the shepherd Polybus’s death and adds that he was only Oedipus’s adopted father. Jocasta discovers the truth in the conversation, runs off the stage and hangs herselfThe truth come slowly to Oedipus; he takes the brooch from his dead wife and blinds himself
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The End.
©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 137
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Departure of Oedipus Rex; Fate of Antigone
He leaves Thebes with his daughter Antigone
Another play portrays Antigone herself, his daughter/sister
After Oedipus’s death, she returns to Thebes
When Creon, now king, decrees she cannot give her brother Polynices the rites of burial at his death, she does so anyway
For her defiance, she is sealed in a cave to slowly suffocate.
She commits suicide rather than suffer this fate
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Incest: A Universal Taboo
Definition: A rule that forbids copulation between two persons of defined relationships
Primary kin: parent-child, siblings
Father-daughter
Mother-son
Brother sister
Exception: Egyptian, Inca, Hawaiian
Allowed only in royal line: “purity”
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Antigone, Sophocles
Explain the conflict between the individual and the community in Sophocles’ Antigone.
Whom do you consider the “tragic figure” in Sophocles’ Antigone: Antigone or Creon? Why?
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Delphi: Site of the OracleFounding Myth: A sanctuary for the Titan earth goddess GaiaSun God (Apollo) slays the Python, the dragon who guarded the gateFounded the Temple of Apollo, henceforth the oracle of prophesyThis is where King Laius receives the prophecy that his son will kill him and marry his wife
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©2010, The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 142
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Evolution of the Classical Style
Sculpture Archaic
Classical
Architecture: the Parthenon Post-and-lintel
Pediments: sculpture
Frieze: Panathenaic Festival
The Greek orders
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 143
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The Gold of Grecian Art
The Classical style in poetry Sappho
Pindar
The Classical style in music and dance
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 144
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Diffusion of the Classical Style
Alexander and the Hellenistic world
Hellenistic schools of thought
Hellenistic art Altar of Zeus
Apollo Belvedere
Nike of Samothrace
Laocoön and His Sons
The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved. 145
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Four Battles1. Granicus (334 BC)
• Army of 35 000 invades Asia minor
at River Granicus
• Persians make their first stand
• Demolished by cavalry
• Near-death experience for Alexander
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Four Battles2. Issus (333 BC)
•Massive battle – Alexander faces King Darius for 1st time
•Equal forces but cavalry defeats Persians again
•Darius flees – Alexander realizes he can conquer whole empire
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Four Battles4. Hydspes (327BC)
•Wanted to conquer India!
•Greek army travels across Asia and fightsKing Porus at Hydspes
•Alexander’s superior strategy stillvictorious
•Wants to continue East, but men refuse – have already travelled over 17 000 km!
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Four Battles3. Gaugamela (331 BC)
•Instead of chasing Darius, Alexander crushes Persian fleet
•Conquers:• Phoenicia ,Damascus andEgypt
•Darius tries to bribe Alexander to stop, no deal
Final showdown at Gaugamela: •Alexander commands 45 000 against larger Persian army
•Cavalry wins again, Darius flees, is murdered
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Etruscans (950 and 300 B.C.E.)
150
northwestern Italy
These people rose to prosperity and power, then disappeared
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Etruscan aristocracy
rich families of noble descent together with rich merchants and land owners
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Etruscan tombs
the banquet was also a part of the religious ceremony at funerals
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Etruscan religion
the destiny of man was completely determined by the unpredictability of the many deities
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predestination
Although a postponement is sometimes possible by means of prayer and sacrifice, the end is certain.
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Etruscan, Lion's Head, first half of the 5th century BCE, bronze, height 26 cm, State Hermitage
Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.
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Warrior with Villanovan Helmet, 700 B.C.
Statuettes from Brolio, 590 B.C.
Statuettes of Spear-Throwers, 5th B.C.
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Statuette of a Striding Hoplite, 450 B.C.
Mars of Todi, 4th B.C.
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159Statuette of Haruspex, 4th B.C..
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Statuette of a Ploughman from Arezzo, 4th B.C.
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Boy Playing with a Bird, 2nd B.C.
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Statuette of a Woman, 2nd B.C.
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She-Wolf, 5th B.C.
Romulus and Remus, added in the 15th century, probably by Antonio Pollaiuolo.
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Goat, 5th B.C.
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Chimera of Arezzo, 4th B.C.
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Etruscan, early 4th century BCE, Reclining Youth, Cinerary Urn, bronze, length of base 69 cm, height of figure 42 cm, State Hermitage Museum, St.
Petersburg, Russia. See cinerary urn.
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Banqueter and Vanth, Limestone Cinerary Urn, 400 B.C.
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Cinerary Urn of a Woman, Alabaster, 2nd B.C.
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Statue of a Young Girl, 1st A.D.
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Funerary Stele from Bologna, Sandstone, 350 B.C.
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Cinerary Urn of a Woman, Alabaster, 2nd B.C.
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Sarcophagus of Velthur Partunus, So-called Magnate, Painted Marble
and Limestone, 4th B.C.
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Mother and Child from Chianciano, Limestone Cinerary Urn, 400 B.C.
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Relief Urn from Chiusi, 520-500 B.C.
Relief Base of Cippus from Chiusi, with Scene of Women at
Home, 475 B.C
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Cenatur from Vulci, Nenfro, 550 B.C.
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Statue of a Boy on a Hippocamp from Vulci, Nenfro, 520 B.C.
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PERFUME BOTTLES IN THE FORM OF ANIMALS 7th - 4th B.C.
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pottery
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Etruscan - Corinthian Amphora, Decorated With Friezes of Animals
by the so-called Painter of the Bearded Sphynx, 7th B.C.
Amphora, 600 B.C.
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Etruscan Kalpis, 6th B.C.
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Hydria with Europa Riding the Bull, 6th B.C.
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Amphora by the so-called Paris Painter, 6th B.C.
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Hydria from Cerveteri, 550-525 B.C.
Etruscan Bell-Shaped Cup from Spina, 4th B.C.
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Askos, 4th B.C.
Crater by the so-called Painter of Dawn (from Falerii), 375-350 B.C.
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The Charinos Female Head-Shaped Rhython, 490 B.C.
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Canopic Urn
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Canopic Urn, Terracotta Ossuary, 7th B.C.
Canopic Urn, Bronze Ossuary, 7th B.C. Terracotta Head, 6th B.C. and
a Terracotta Throne.
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Canopic Urn, Impasto, 7th B.C. Side view.
Canopic Urn, Impasto, 7th B.C.
Front view.
Head from a Canopic Urn, Terracotta, 6th B.C.
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Sarcophagus of the Married Couple from The Bandataccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, 6th B.C.
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Sarcophagus of the Married Couple from The Bandataccia Necropolis, Cerveteri, 6th B.C. (Detail)
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Sarcophagus of a Couple, 6th B.C.
The Girl from Monte Abatone, 6th B.C. (Detail)
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Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti from Chiuisi, 2nd B.C
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Sarcophagus of Larthia Seianti from Chiuisi, 2nd B.C
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Death Leaning into the Face of an Old Man, 2nd
B.C.
Votive Statuette of Dionysos
Enthroned, 2nd B.C.
Votive Figures of Swaddled Babies with Bullae, 4th-1st B.C.
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Head of a Man from the Votive Deposit of Manganello, Cerveteri, 100 B.C.
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Rome
The Etruscans went on to lay the foundation of the city of Rome
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Alexander the Great (290-323 B.C.E.)
King of Macedonia (Hellenistic period)
carried the ideas of the Greeks and their love of learning throughout his empire.
He founded the great city of Alexandria, which became a center of learning and culture in Egypt.
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