G R E A T B A T T L E S O F H I S T O R Y F O R U M

BY JAMES P. WERBANET

At first glance, SPQR is about five battles fought

the Roman Republic: Beneventum (275 B.C.),

Bagradas Plains (255), Cannae (216), Zama (202),

Cynocephalae (197). The ensuing expansion

War Elephant, Consul for Rome, Pyrrhic

Victory and Africanus, added Magnesia (190 BC), the Trebbia (218),

the Metaurus (207), Heraclea (280), Ausculum (279), Baecula (208)

Ilipa (206). In addition, War Elephant

217 between Ptolmaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria, unique in

not include Romans.

Raphia notwithstanding, the deeper purpose of SPQR is to simulate

the conflict between two successful but markedly different military

systems. On one side is the Macedonia

successors, plus Epirus and Carthage. On the other are the legions

Rome.

Each has its defining characteristics.The first relies on masses of cavalry tocave in the enemy's flanks, while thecenter is held by a single line ofphalanxes and smaller units of heavyand medium infantry. The second isgenerally poor in both cavalry and flanksecurity, while exploiting multiple linesof flexible, lethal foot soldiers to breakthrough the center.

For SPQR players, this means thattactics have to be approached on theterms of their sides' military systems.Effective tactics for one will bedisastrous for the other. Indeed, thestrengths and weaknesses of therespective systems are always moreimportant tactical considerations thanare variations in order of battle andterrain.

Macedonian Model Army

The armies of Rome's opponents weredescended from those of Alexander theGreat and his father, Philip II. They

G R E A T B A T T L E S O F H I S T O R Y F O R U M

TheClashofSwords,theThunderofHooves

BY JAMES P. WERBANETH

Proper tactics for SPQR - simulating the conflict between two successful,but markedly different military systems.

At first glance, SPQR is about five battles fought by

the Roman Republic: Beneventum (275 B.C.),

Bagradas Plains (255), Cannae (216), Zama (202), and

Cynocephalae (197). The ensuing expansion modules

War Elephant, Consul for Rome, Pyrrhic

added Magnesia (190 BC), the Trebbia (218),

the Metaurus (207), Heraclea (280), Ausculum (279), Baecula (208) and

War Elephant included the Battle of Raphia in

217 between Ptolmaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria, unique in that it did

Raphia notwithstanding, the deeper purpose of SPQR is to simulate

successful but markedly different military

systems. On one side is the Macedonia-derived army of Alexander's

successors, plus Epirus and Carthage. On the other are the legions of

integrated theimpressive cavalryof their nativeMacedon with the

phalanx of the Greeks, an infantryformation known more for its cohesionand the momentum of its charge than forits maneuverability, into a potentcombination that extended Macedonianpower from the Balkans to the Indus.

After the death of Alexander, the systemwas not sealed in amber, but continued toevolve on the battlefields of hissuccessors, as well as those others whorecognized its potency. Thus, by the eraportrayed in SPQR, the Macedonianmilitary system remained impressive and,under the command of a Hannibal orPyrrhus, dominant.

Though it has been correctly described asa combined arms system, the arm ofdecision was the cavalry, and it remains soin SPQR. In addition, the area of decisionis the flanks, where the Macedonian-Epirote-Carthaginian horse

have both superiority over the Romancavalry, and room to maneuver.

This is not just because of the strengthsof the Macedonian model army, but dueto its weaknesses as well. Despite theimpressive history of the phalanx, it isgenerally impossible for the otherin the center to stand up to anthe legions of Rome. Theto be just one line deep,of the line by theformations critical if not

Furthermomaneuverability is markedly inferiorRome's. Whereas legionary units canwheel and reverse direction extremelywell, at least as long as they are not incontact with the enemy, their opponent'sfoot soldiers move best in just onedirection

A look at the game'sChart reveals the final factor makingvictory by the infantry exceedingly rare.Legion infantry enjoys attack superiorityover every type of infantry fielded byRome's enemies, except for the phalanx.So a player in command of aMacedoniancross swords with the legion only at hisown distinct risk.

A second glance at the same chartthat infantry of all types enjoys adefensive superiority over most cavalry.However, this is more than a littlemisleading, as a smart player willsend his horses on a frontalagainst an intact line of enemyThe better tactic is to attackflanks or rear, achregardless of the chart.into the tendency of the Carthaginiansespecially to force an earlyRoman flank.

G R E A T B A T T L E S O F H I S T O R Y F O R U M

TheClashofSwords,theThunderofHooves

simulating the conflict between two successful,

have both superiority over the Romancavalry, and room to maneuver.

This is not just because of the strengthsof the Macedonian model army, but dueto its weaknesses as well. Despite theimpressive history of the phalanx, it isgenerally impossible for the other infantryin the center to stand up to an assault bythe legions of Rome. The norm is for thisto be just one line deep, making a ruptureof the line by the deeper Romanformations critical if not outright fatal.

Furthermore, the infantry's flexibility andmaneuverability is markedly inferior toRome's. Whereas legionary units canwheel and reverse direction extremelywell, at least as long as they are not incontact with the enemy, their opponent'sfoot soldiers move best in just onedirection — forward.

A look at the game's Shock Superiorityreveals the final factor making

victory by the infantry exceedingly rare.Legion infantry enjoys attack superiorityover every type of infantry fielded byRome's enemies, except for the phalanx.So a player in command of aMacedonian-style army volunteers tocross swords with the legion only at hisown distinct risk.

A second glance at the same chart revealsthat infantry of all types enjoys adefensive superiority over most cavalry.However, this is more than a littlemisleading, as a smart player will seldomsend his horses on a frontal chargeagainst an intact line of enemy infantry.The better tactic is to attack from theflanks or rear, achieving attack superiorityregardless of the chart. This plays rightinto the tendency of the Carthaginiansespecially to force an early collapse on theRoman flank.

Legionary Army

In sharp contrast to the Macedonian-derived military system is that of theRoman legion. It was the premier infantryformation of antiquity, and was so closelyconnected with the social and politicalsystems of Rome that when the legionevolved from a force of citizen militia intothe reformed professional unit of GaiusMarius and the subsequent Empire, theRepublic fell. In truth the collapse ofrepublican government had to due with alot of factors besides the character of thearmy, but ultimately the legion was thecanary in the constitutional coal mine.

In the era of SPQR, the Roman Republicwas at its apex. Though the legion was notyet at its peak, as that would happen in thefirst centuries of the Empire, it provedresilient enough to insure Rome's survivalagainst the likes of Pyrrhus, Hannibal aswell as lesser enemies.

Whereas the Macedonian model armyutilized its cavalry to decide the issue onthe flanks, SPQR demonstrates thepropensity of the Romans to aim for avictory in the center, relying on theirinfantry.

This exploits the strengths of the game'sRoman and allied infantry. Depth is aprimary one. The typical enemy army has asingle line of infantry units, screened bylight skirmishers, but an SPQR Romanarmy has four ranks of counters.

Velites form the first rank.They are functionally similarto skirmishers, but have aspecial ability to move

adjacent to enemy units, throw theirjavelins, and then back off before theenemy can retaliate for this harassment.

Next come the hastati,accompanied by very similarcohorts of Rome's allies (alaesociorum). They are the shock

troops of the legion, as they make firstcontact with the enemy. Unlike a great dealof their opponents' own line infantry, theyhave an intrinsic missile capability in the formof their pila (javelins). It is only volley'sworth before disengagement andreplenishment, but it is still one volley morethan most of the opposition has.

Behind the hastati are theprimarii, and still more alliedcohorts. They function verysimilarly to the hastati, and can

relieve fatigued or routed units of that rank,or join the fight in a body.

The triarii form the last rank.They are remnants of Rome'spre-legionary phalanxes, and ingame turns count as heavy

infantry, not legionary units per se. Intheory, the triarii form a backstop in casethe hastati and primarii lines collapse. Inpractice, most SPQR players will find themat best semi-mobile, and utterly useless,particularly if they use the Triarii tacticaldoctrine rule introduced in War Elephant. Ifa Roman player finds this last line engagedin any meaningful way, chances are he hasalready lost the game.

So in the end, the heart of the legionaryarmy remains theaccompanying allied infantry. Thisamounts to twice as many lines asenemy can normally muster.

One of the most important consequencesof the standard Roman deployment's useof multiple lines is a significant increasein collective cohesion. The troop quality[TQ] ratings of Roman units are frequently lower than those of the opposition, but the depth of the legion allowsfresh units to be thrown into the fray,thereby wearing down the enemy.for Romereplacement that makes this evenat least in the postwhich it is permitted.

In addition, legionary infantry has afundamental flexibility beyond that of themuch more limited Macedonianfoot unitin good order, can move throughother's hexes, or even stackmovement, at no penalty.hand, stacking is prohibitedmilitary system, and if unitsthrough each other, it is with the penaltyof one cohesion point for each.when routed, Romans of the sameformation can pass through eachlines with impunity, although forthis can cause a catastrophic chainreaction of rou

Roman units can turn as far as comaround at the cost of one movepoint, a crucial advantage overopponents, who must pay a pointeach hex vertex of front change. Thuslegionary counters can move laterally oreven in reverse and sintegrity of their lines, whilederived formations aremoving forward.

Finally, the most fundamental elementsof Roman weapons and training giveslegion massive advantages when theinfantry lines meet in combat. Theyto a large degree, updated hoplites,densely packed, and frequently using thespear as the primary weapon.

By contrast, the Romans used muchlooser formations and, once thethrown, short stabbing swords.combination of the lethal soSpanish sword, and room to use it, wasmore than enough to counter the greater

SPQR TacticsSo in the end, the heart of the legionaryarmy remains the hastati, primarii and theiraccompanying allied infantry. This stillamounts to twice as many lines as theenemy can normally muster.

One of the most important consequencesof the standard Roman deployment's useof multiple lines is a significant increasein collective cohesion. The troop qualityTQ] ratings of Roman units are fre-

quently lower than those of the opposi-tion, but the depth of the legion allowsfresh units to be thrown into the fray,thereby wearing down the enemy. Consulfor Rome contains an optional rule for linereplacement that makes this even easier,at least in the post-Pyrrhus scenarios inwhich it is permitted.

In addition, legionary infantry has afundamental flexibility beyond that of themuch more limited Macedonian modelfoot units. Counters of the same legion,in good order, can move through eachother's hexes, or even stack throughoutmovement, at no penalty. On the otherhand, stacking is prohibited to the othermilitary system, and if units movethrough each other, it is with the penaltyof one cohesion point for each. Evenwhen routed, Romans of the same parentformation can pass through each other'slines with impunity, although for othersthis can cause a catastrophic chainreaction of rout.

Roman units can turn as far as completelyaround at the cost of one movementpoint, a crucial advantage over theiropponents, who must pay a point foreach hex vertex of front change. Thuslegionary counters can move laterally oreven in reverse and still maintain theintegrity of their lines, while Macedonian-derived formations are basically limited tomoving forward.

Finally, the most fundamental elementsof Roman weapons and training gives thelegion massive advantages when theinfantry lines meet in combat. They were,to a large degree, updated hoplites,densely packed, and frequently using thespear as the primary weapon.

By contrast, the Romans used muchlooser formations and, once the pila werethrown, short stabbing swords. Thecombination of the lethal so-calledSpanish sword, and room to use it, wasmore than enough to counter the greater

Great Battles of History ForumGreat Battles of History Forum

density of the enemy.

This is readily apparent in game terms.First of all, the legionnaires enjoy attacksuperiority over all their rivals, exceptthe doublepresent a swordSecond, if the optional rules for casualties are in use, and they really should be,legionary infantry stands a better chanceof actually killing enemy troops, and notjust destroying their cohesion.

the Roman social system demanded theemployment of a citizen militia, in whichthe soldiers provided their own armsarmor. Since the cost of a horse andmakes the cost of outfitting aa lot higher than an infantryRomans had a vastly greaterfoot soldiers, and ended uptheir cavalry tdeveloped theirsecondary,largely by allies. This connection betweennarrowly defined nonmilitary considerations and the battlefield is essential tounderstanding both the dyRepublic and, becauseRoman cavalry provided mainly with thealae sociorum, it isthe game.

Incidentally, the high ratio of infantry tocavalry, and the employment of a strongyeoman farmer and artisanformer, had a strong influence centurieslater on Niccolo Macchiavelli in hisDiscourses.achievements of the Republic could bereplicated only by nurturing of the socialclasses needed to man Romaninfantry formations, inasmuch as relyingon cavalry fostered the growth ofeconomic elites and social inequities, andeventually weakened the state bythe rich richer and poor poorer.

In the context ofdoes not threaten the cohesRepublic so much as it weakens theof the flanks. In just about everyRoman cavalry cannot compete

y of the enemy.

This is readily apparent in game terms.First of all, the legionnaires enjoy attacksuperiority over all their rivals, exceptthe double-hex phalanx, which couldpresent a sword-proof wall of spears.Second, if the optional rules for casual-ties are in use, and they really should be,legionary infantry stands a better chanceof actually killing enemy troops, and notjust destroying their cohesion.

But as good as the Romaninfantry is, in almost everybattle, their cavalry arm isinadequate.Again,historically,

the Roman social system demanded theemployment of a citizen militia, in whichthe soldiers provided their own arms andarmor. Since the cost of a horse and tackmakes the cost of outfitting a cavalrymana lot higher than an infantryman, theRomans had a vastly greater number offoot soldiers, and ended up neglectingtheir cavalry to the same degree that theydeveloped their infantry. It became asecondary, supporting arm to be provided

by allies. This connection betweennarrowly defined nonmilitary consider-ations and the battlefield is essential tounderstanding both the dynamics of theRepublic and, because SPQR has weakRoman cavalry provided mainly with thealae sociorum, it is to some extent relevant tothe game.

Incidentally, the high ratio of infantry tocavalry, and the employment of a strongyeoman farmer and artisan class in theformer, had a strong influence centurieslater on Niccolo Macchiavelli in hisDiscourses. It was his conviction that theachievements of the Republic could bereplicated only by nurturing of the socialclasses needed to man Roman-styleinfantry formations, inasmuch as relyingon cavalry fostered the growth ofeconomic elites and social inequities, andeventually weakened the state by makingthe rich richer and poor poorer.

In the context of SPQR, Roman cavalrydoes not threaten the cohesion of theRepublic so much as it weakens the safetyof the flanks. In just about every scenario,Roman cavalry cannot compete

"...The offensive reigns supreme on the battlefields of SPQR..."

against that fielded by a competentenemy player. Zama is a crucial excep-tion, but that is due to a rather massivecontingent of Numidian allies.

So, for the Romans, the army's strength isinfantry, massed and directed against thecenter, while the cavalry-held flanks areweak. The situation for the enemies is thedirect opposite; strong cavalry on thewings, and relatively weak infantrybetween them.

Offensive TacticsIn SPQR, to even greater extent than inwarfare in general, battles are won by theoffensive, and the tactics of the attack arethe ones that decide the issue. Since thearmies are essentially different however,the nature of the offensive must be just asdifferent.

The prototypical offensive by theMacedonian model army begins with amassive cavalry charge, on at least one ofthe flanks. It is vitally important that theplayer adhere to three principles: keep thehorses as concentrated as possible;concentrate not just in an absolute sense,but against few enough Roman countersthat they can be blown away at little costin cohesion points; and, wheneverpossible, take the enemy in the flanks orrear.

The first target of theMacedonian-EpiCarthaginianhorse should be the Romanplayer's cavalry.

Once it is gone, the player can use hisleaders to remove cohesion points, and ingeneral reform the cavalry for the nextstages of the battle, free from meaningfulinterference.

When using the original SPQR rules forcavalry pursuit, pursuing units willprobably have to be recalled to thebattlefield and command and controlover them restored. However, this issignificantly less likely to occur with theuse of the revisions in the Pyrrhic Victorymodule.

The second stage of the battle is notquite as inevitable as the initial cavalrycharge. It calls for the infantry line toadvance closer, but not make contact

"...The offensive reigns supreme on the battlefields of SPQR..."

with, the Romans.

The goal is to close the gaps between theinfantry and cavalry, at least partially. Mostoften it is useless or even dangerous in theshort term for the Romans to try toexploit such a hole, as this exposes theirfront lines' rear to the cavalry. On theother hand, closing the range betweeninfantry and cavalry makes it safer for theoverall commander to issue linecommands to the latter, while shielded bythe former.

But advancing the infantry should beundertaken only when necessary, and withgreat care, considering the power of theRomans on its front. Doing soprecipitously is akin to A boxer leadingwith his chin.

The third stage of the offensive is thedestruction of the enemy, starting fromthe flanks. Ideally, the cavalry should fallon the enemy foot units' rear, preferablyaided by the friendly infantry, thuscatching the legionnaires in a vice. TheRomans will find escape difficult, as whena new line of troops comes to the rescue,much of the cavalry can use orderlywithdrawal to escape melee, and theadvancing Romans are themselvessubsequently vulnerable to destructionfrom behind.

A special consideration formany anti-Roman player isthe elephant. Elephants havea reputation among many

garners as ostentatious, even tasteless,exhibitions of wealth and power, ofdubious worth in actual combat, exceptmaybe to trample one's own army. Theimage is of a lumbering, unpredictablemanifestation of the same compulsion forprestige over effectiveness that kept thescythed chariot in service far too long.Although the language of SPQR mighttake an occasional swipe at elephants,and especially the humans who keptthem, in practice the game places themin a more favorable light. Unlike the justlymaligned chariot, they do have their uses.

First of all, elephants can function as aslower, less maneuverable form of shock

cavalry. Mixing in an elephant counterwith cavalry in a charge can overwhelmthe defender, while shielding the animalfrom the bulk of the called for cohesionhits, and thus delaying or even eliminating the prospect of it rampaging.

Putting them in the initial cavalry chargecan be particularly useful. The elephantscan insure early success, accelerating theexploitation phases, and leaving cavalryunengaged, free of cohesion hits, andtherefore more free to engage in thegeneral chase.

Secondly, a line of elephants makes anoutstanding reserve. Not every battlebe like Heraclea, in which Pyrrhus'commitment of his elephant reservepanicked the Romans, who had neverseen them before, and dramaticallyturned defeat intotimely counterattack against Romansbearing cohesion hits from previouscombat can do much to restore a badsituation. Used correctly and with a littleluck, an elephant reserve can somewhatcompensate for their side's lack of depth.

Finally, they are useful for exploitationpurposes. Just as the Roman's bestinfantry, hisposition to take advantage of thesuccess, elephants exploiting afteroffer the promise hitting thethe strongest units when hisparticularly difficult.

But special care is needed to employelephants. When a normal unit routs, itcan be rallied, and if the effort fails, theworst that can happen is that it disappears. By contrast, agoes berserk instead, and may not beparticular about whether it attacksor friendly units before dying. In fact, allunits are enemies to rampaging

A Roman attack is much different. Thefirst stage is an advance by thedestroying or driving off the other side'sown skirmishers. If the opposing playerdecides to execute an orderly withdrawal, this can expose his line infantryto a velitescreening ftheir ability to retreat after throwing

SPQR Tactics

"...The offensive reigns supreme on the battlefields of SPQR..."

cavalry. Mixing in an elephant counterwith cavalry in a charge can overwhelmthe defender, while shielding the animalfrom the bulk of the called for cohesionhits, and thus delaying or even eliminat-ing the prospect of it rampaging.

Putting them in the initial cavalry chargecan be particularly useful. The elephantscan insure early success, accelerating theexploitation phases, and leaving cavalryunengaged, free of cohesion hits, andtherefore more free to engage in thegeneral chase.

Secondly, a line of elephants makes anoutstanding reserve. Not every battle canbe like Heraclea, in which Pyrrhus'commitment of his elephant reservepanicked the Romans, who had neverseen them before, and dramaticallyturned defeat into victory. However, atimely counterattack against Romansbearing cohesion hits from previouscombat can do much to restore a badsituation. Used correctly and with a littleluck, an elephant reserve can somewhatcompensate for their side's lack of depth.

nally, they are useful for exploitationpurposes. Just as the Roman's bestinfantry, his primarii, are often in aposition to take advantage of the hastati'ssuccess, elephants exploiting after cavalryoffer the promise hitting the enemy withthe strongest units when his plight isparticularly difficult.

But special care is needed to employelephants. When a normal unit routs, itcan be rallied, and if the effort fails, theworst that can happen is that it disap-pears. By contrast, an elephant that routsgoes berserk instead, and may not beparticular about whether it attacks enemyor friendly units before dying. In fact, allunits are enemies to rampaging elephants.

A Roman attack is much different. Thefirst stage is an advance by the velites,destroying or driving off the other side'sown skirmishers. If the opposing playerdecides to execute an orderly with-drawal, this can expose his line infantry

velite javelin volley, with the Romanscreening forces getting away by usingtheir ability to retreat after throwing

Great Battles of History Forum

their missiles. Executed optimally, thisamounts to a preparatory bombardmentalong the enemy infantry line, at little riskto the velites themselves.

The second stage is a frontal assault bythe hastati and accompanying cohorts.There is no subtlety here; just a straightahead charge.

In the third stage, the primarii join thefray. They should be advanced closebehind the hastati, using line commands,so that they are at hand when the timecomes to commit them.

They are two uses for the primarii's line.If the hastati have not yet brokenthrough, the primarii will often tip thebalance, turning a barely intact enemyinfantry line into a massive rupture.Should a hole already exist, the freshtroops can pour through it, taking theenemy in the rear and beginning theprocess in which a battle becomesslaughter.

One advantage of the Romansystem is that friendly unitsremoved from the front by routor line replacement can

rejoin the battle, or engage in the ensuingbutchery. The Romans, as a rule, havemore minor leaders than their enemies, inthe form of various tribunes and praefectssociorum. Besides being well- suited forissuing line commands under PyrrhicVictory's revised command rules, they areextremely useful for removing cohesionpoints.

Keeping a couple of these immediatelybehind the line is an extremely good idea.They cannot rally routed units very well,and with the changes to this contained inPyrrhic Victory, their efforts to do so can bebadly counterproductive. Nonetheless,once a better leader has done the job ofrallying, a tribune or praefect sociorum canremove the remaining cohesion hits in thenext turn and return the units to action.

Since the offensive is decisive, mostfrequently both sides will launch theirattacks at the same time. And, again dueto the relative paucity of effectivedefensive tactics, the game will become arace to see whose army can smash theother. In most games at least one playercan work toward victory by trying to fendoff defeat, which is fundamentally

Great Battles of History Forum

different than playing to win first. ButSPQR is not one of them.

The factor that determines the pace ofthe respective offensives, and to a largedegree which one succeeds first, isleadership. As in organization anddoctrine, the command structures of theRoman and Macedonian model armiesvary greatly.

The Macedonian, Epirote andCarthaginian forces tend to have fewerleaders, but the ones they have tend tohave higher initiative ratings. TheRomans have a greater number ofleaders, though many are tribunes andpraefects sociorum. These have low initiativeratings, and are further handicapped bylimitations on the types of units they cancommand; the former may give ordersonly to Roman citizen units, and formerjust the aloe sociorum. Neither cancommand cavalry; that is the exclusiveprovince of the praefects equitum.

Their low initiative actually helps theRoman cause. In the normal order ofleader activation, the lower leaders gofirst, often enabling the Romans to starttheir offensive first, and exercise theinitiative thereafter. In many scenariosthe anti-Roman player can negate this todegree by using the ability of an elitecommander, Pyrrhus or Hannibal, to givethe first activation to his side.

Also, having leaders withhigher initiative, he can attemptto trump the Roman, shouldthat player try to use

momentum with a low-initiative leader.However, this is too risky to be done onanything close to a regular basis, and inany case the burden to upset the standardorder rests with the side with the higher-initiative leader, and then only if the otherside gives him the opportunity.

This Roman advantage grows further withthe introduction of Pyrrhic Victory's newrules for line commands. Now, any leaderwithin its overall commander's range canautomatically issue a line command in itsinitial orders phase, without rolling the dieagainst the overall commander's strategyrating. Also, all leaders can issue a linecommand, regardless of range to the su-preme leader, in their initial orders phase

in the first game turn.

This has two effects, both favoringRome. First of all, even the lowestrated leaders can use line commandsto move, and attack with, largenumbersSecond, thestrategy rating, low foroverall commanders, isreduced.

Under the original version ofenemy commander could frequentlymaneuver his army freely, while theRoman player vainly rolled against hisstrategy rating, trying to get his army tomove. No more. Now, the legions areactive from the very beginning.

The challenge to the other side is greatlyincreased. In the past, an army led bylikes of Hannibal could count on themerits of its commander to gain victory.Now, that player must formulate andexecute tactics with something approaching the skill ofachieve similar success.

Defensive TacticsThe offensive has primacy in almostcase in SPQR,basically the offense that cracks thefirst. Yet there is some room fororiented tactics.

As in almost every wargame, keepingsome sort of a reserve is a good idea, fordefensive as well as offensive purposes.The structure of the Roman legion, infact, offers readyreserves in the form of multiple infantrylines, ultimFor those armies using the Macedonianmodel army, retaining a small tomoderate sized body of cavalry, andpossibly elephants, is good insurance,though the first cavalry charge shouldbe overly denuded.

Elephants also hdefensive role, especially in Zama.Cavalry can attack elephants onlythe flank or rear, and then onlyat least two cohesion hits, justnext to an elephant, and thenattack superiority.

So elephants make excellent barriersagainst cavalry, provided there areenough of them to effectively cover,minimum, the flanks. Of the battles

in the first game turn.

This has two effects, both favoringRome. First of all, even the lowestrated leaders can use line commandsto move, and attack with, largenumbers of units early in the game.Second, the importance of thestrategy rating, low for most Romanoverall commanders, is dramaticallyreduced.

the original version of SPQR, anenemy commander could frequentlymaneuver his army freely, while theRoman player vainly rolled against hisstrategy rating, trying to get his army tomove. No more. Now, the legions areactive from the very beginning.

The challenge to the other side is greatlyincreased. In the past, an army led by thelikes of Hannibal could count on themerits of its commander to gain victory.Now, that player must formulate andexecute tactics with something approach-ing the skill of his historical counterpart toachieve similar success.

Defensive TacticsThe offensive has primacy in almost every

SPQR, so the best defense isbasically the offense that cracks the enemyfirst. Yet there is some room for defense-oriented tactics.

As in almost every wargame, keepingsome sort of a reserve is a good idea, fordefensive as well as offensive purposes.The structure of the Roman legion, infact, offers ready-made, institutionalizedreserves in the form of multiple infantrylines, ultimately backed up by the triarii.For those armies using the Macedonianmodel army, retaining a small tomoderate sized body of cavalry, andpossibly elephants, is good insurance,though the first cavalry charge should notbe overly denuded.

Elephants also have an importantdefensive role, especially in Zama.Cavalry can attack elephants only throughthe flank or rear, and then only by takingat least two cohesion hits, just for movingnext to an elephant, and then losingattack superiority.

So elephants make excellent barriersagainst cavalry, provided there areenough of them to effectively cover, atminimum, the flanks. Of the battles

in the original game, only Zama has thepotential for providing enough elephantsto do this, assuming that the players agreeto give the Carthaginian side the fullamount, or the die roll provides them.Secondly, there has to be cavalry for theelephants to actually ward off, and onlyZama portrays Rome as having it.

One major problem with using reserves isthat of retrograde and lateral movement.Most infantry just cannot do it in ameaningful way. On the other hand, thehigh movement rates, and liberal linedefinition rules, for cavalry ameliorate this.Again, since Roman legionary infantry canchange facing easier than other types, itcan move with more freedom and speedto the sides and rear.

Further inhibiting strictly defensive tacticsis a striking lack of truly defensible terrain.To a large extent, the battlefields ofCannae and Zama are representative;basically featureless terrain as flat andtraversable as a pool table. A narrowstream or low hill is the most significantobstacle to the offensive.

The strongest obstacles are the riversdividing the armies at Heraclea andAusculum, in Pyrrhic Victory. Crossingeither entails at least one cohesion hit formost units. This might sound like amodest penalty, until one considers thatcontact with the enemy normally occursbefore a leader can remove all, or evenmost, hits from the units.

In addition, attacking onto dry land is adifficult proposition, even with attacksuperiority. Attacking from a shallowwater hex mandates a two column shift,favorable to the defense, on the ShockCombat Results Table. If the attack comesfrom a deep or rocky river hex, then eachattacker suffers one extra cohesion point.

Therefore, if a player in either PyrrhicVictory scenario wishes to assume adefensive posture, he should use his firstline command to advance his infantry(hastati for the Romans) to the river's edge.

The other noteworthy defensible terrain isthe hills in Cynocephalae and theMetaurus. The latter, from Consul for Rome,presents a situation reminiscent of

twentieth-century battles; two infantryforces face either, and one must climb upa steep hill to root out the other. Attimes, it does beg comparison withHamburger Hill or Monte Cassino.

A Carthaginian army under HasdrubalBarca begins deployed atop a high ridgeline. The Romans start at the bottom,and must work their way up. Unfortu-nately for them, there are up to sixelevation changes between the base andthe summit, and with each one comes acohesion hit.

The only option for the Roman player isto advance slowly and deliberately, usingline commands. Each time any unitscross to a higher elevation, he shouldstop the army and use individual ordersto remove cohesion points. This way,when the Romans reach the top, themost cohesion hits any leading unitshould have is one.

But defensive tactics for the Carthaginianhas to be more than just waiting for theenemy to struggle up the slopes, as thefirst line will have attack superiority whenthey get to the top. This, and a quickfollow-up commitment of the

second echelon, should be enough to putthe Carthaginians to flight.

So the Carthaginian has to seize theinitiative himself by launching his owncharge, downslope, when the Romanswithin striking distance. The ideal isstrike before the Roman player canremove the cohesion hits from hisinfantry. Preferably, it shouldbefore the next line of enemyclose enough lend support, orcounterattack.

The Metaurus is good example of thespecial defensive tactics needed to fightbroken terrain. But more than that, itunderscores that the only decisive tacticsare those of the attack.

ConclusionsMore than almost any other game,and its modules posystems —used by Alexander to conquer antiquity'slargest empire, and the otherRome to gain control ofentire Mediterraneanare nonstandardMetaurus andan Epirotenorm is that of Zama, Cannae or, most ofall, Consul for Rome'shead to head, setfield.

To win, a player must adopt tacticstailored to his type of army, aiming for amismatch of his strength against theside's weakness. From the Romanperspective, this means sending hisinfantry against the enemy's, and for thedoctrinal heirs of Alexatheir cavalry against the afterthoughtformations of Rome. The Trebbia andCannae might have been Romanbut their historical tactics startmore sense in the twentyhindsight of the game.

The offensive reignsbattlefields of SPQR. It is not the sidedefends the best that wins, as mightcase in a World War I or AmericanWar game, but the one that takesmost effectively to the enemy, and crusheshim first. There is but oneup SPQR's tactics:

SPQR Tacticssecond echelon, should be enough to putthe Carthaginians to flight.

So the Carthaginian has to seize theinitiative himself by launching his owncharge, downslope, when the Romans arewithin striking distance. The ideal is tostrike before the Roman player canremove the cohesion hits from his leadinginfantry. Preferably, it should also comebefore the next line of enemy infantry isclose enough lend support, orcounterattack.

The Metaurus is good example of thespecial defensive tactics needed to fight inbroken terrain. But more than that, itunderscores that the only decisive tacticsare those of the attack.

ConclusionsMore than almost any other game, SPQRand its modules portray a clash of military

— one descended from the armyused by Alexander to conquer antiquity'slargest empire, and the other developed byRome to gain control of Italy, and then theentire Mediterranean basin. Though thereare nonstandard battles such as theMetaurus and Beneventum, which featuresan Epirote attack on a Roman camp, the

that of Zama, Cannae or, most ofConsul for Rome's Battle of the Trebbia;

head to head, set-piece fights on an open

To win, a player must adopt tacticstailored to his type of army, aiming for amismatch of his strength against the otherside's weakness. From the Romanperspective, this means sending hisinfantry against the enemy's, and for thedoctrinal heirs of Alexander, matchingtheir cavalry against the afterthought horseformations of Rome. The Trebbia andCannae might have been Roman disasters,but their historical tactics start to makemore sense in the twenty- centuryhindsight of the game.

The offensive reigns supreme on thebattlefields of SPQR. It is not the side thatdefends the best that wins, as might be thecase in a World War I or American CivilWar game, but the one that takes the fightmost effectively to the enemy, and crusheshim first. There is but one word that sumsup SPQR's tactics: Attack!