GrandFacts - The Brookdale Foundation Group D… · GrandFacts: Data, Interpretation, and...

GrandFacts:Data, Interpretation, and Implications

for Caregivers

December 2009

With funding from the Annie E. Casey Foundation and the

Brookdale Foundation Group

Generations United

Board of Directors

Chair

John RotherExecutive Vice President of Policyand StrategyAARP

Vice-Chair

Matthew MelmedExecutive DirectorZero to Three

Secretary

MaryLee AllenDirectorChild Welfare and Mental HealthChildren’s Defense Fund

Treasurer

James FirmanPresident & CEONational Council on the Aging

Board Members

Shay BilchikDirectorCenter for Juvenile Justice Reformand Systems IntegrationGeorgetown Public Policy Institute

Robert DuggerManaging DirectorHanover Investment Group

Marc Freedman PresidentCivic Ventures

Jatrice Martel GaiterExecutive Vice President ofCommunity EngagementVolunteers of America

Christine James-BrownPresident & CEOChild Welfare League of America

Irv KatzPresident & CEONational Human Services Assembly

Michael S. MarcusProgram OfficerThe Harry and Jeanette WeinbergFoundation

Karen MathisPresident & CEOBig Brothers Big Sisters

Lawrence McAndrewsPresident & CEONational Association of Children’sHospitals & Related Institutions

William L. MinnixPresidentAmerican Association of Homes andServices for the Aging

Larry NaakeExecutive DirectorNational Association of Counties

Paul N. D. ThornellVice PresidentFederal Government Affairs,Citigroup Inc.

Mary Ann Van CliefVice PresidentThe Brookdale Foundation Group

Special Advisors

Robert BlancatoPartnerMatz, Blancato, & Associates

Catherine MiltonSeattle, Washington

Staff

Donna M. ButtsExecutive Director

Jenna AddingtonIntern

Ana BeltranSpecial AdvisorNational Center on Grandfamilies

Leah BradleyProject Specialist

Ken BrysonSpecial Advisor, StatisticalInformation

Wendy HeigesSpecial Projects Manager

Cornell JohnsonOffice Assistant

Terence KanePublic Policy Analyst

Jaia Peterson LentDeputy Executive Director

Halina MannoFinance and Operations Manager

Roxana MartinezProgram & Technology Coordinator

Eliseba OsoreProject Assistant

Ann PlanzLibrarian

Sheri SteinigSpecial Projects Director

Thomas TaylorSpecial AdvisorSeniors4Kids

Anne Tria WiseIntergenerational EngagementManager

GrandFacts:Data, Interpretation, and Implications

for Caregivers

December 2009

With funding from the Annie E. Casey Foundation and the BrookdaleFoundation Group

3

Generations United GrandFacts Report

Acknowledgements

Generations United (GU) gratefully acknowledges the organizations whose supportmade this report possible:

This research was funded in part by the Annie E. Casey Foundation. The findingsand conclusions presented in this report are those of the authors, and do notnecessarily reflect the opinions of the Foundation.

This project was made possible in part by a grant from The Brookdale FoundationGroup.

We also thank the following GU staff whose hard work and dedication made thisreport possible:

Ana Beltran, Special Advisor – National Center on Grandfamilies, and JaiaPeterson Lent, Deputy Executive Director, the report’s lead authors.

Ken Bryson, Special Advisor, Statistical Information, for his research andinterpretation of the data contained in this report.

Leah Bradley and Wendy Heiges, for their editing and review.

Grandparents and other relative caregivers who are raising children are

making tremendous contributions and often, serious sacrifices to keep

their families together. We dedicate this report to them.

Design and Layout: Marcia DeLong, DeLong Lithographics

Photo credits: Linde LeGendre, Elizabeth Larkin

© 2009 Generations UnitedReprinting with permission only.1331 H Street NW Suite 900

Washington, DC 20005

4


Grandfamilies are families headed by grandparentsand other relatives who are sharing their homes withtheir grandchildren, nieces, nephews, and/or other re-lated children.

This report focuses on one specific population ofgrandfamilies – that of skipped generation grandfami-lies headed by grandparents in which no parents ofthe grandchildren are present (throughout the report,referred to as “skipped generation grandfamilies”). Tounderstand these families better, we highlight datafrom the U.S. Census Bureau’s latest national sample,the 2005-2007 American Community Survey 2005-2007 (ACS) three year estimates. We do not include“other” relatives such as aunts, uncles, and siblings inour definition of skipped generation grandfamilies be-cause we have very limited data about them; butanecdotally we know that these “other relatives” faceissues similar to those of grandparents.

Executive Summary

The available data demonstrates that skipped genera-tion grandfamilies are the least common type of grand-family. This report focuses on them because so little isknown about them as a sub-group. Also, because ofthe absence of any parents in the household, theirchallenges are thought to be significant. We nowknow that compared to parent-headed households,skipped generation grandfamilies face greater chal-lenges in many areas.

There are about 640,000 skipped generation grand-parent-headed grandfamilies in the United States, allwith one or more children younger than age 18. Be-tween 2005 and 2007 the number of children inskipped generation grandfamilies has remained con-stant at about one million.

Courtesy of U.S. Census Bureau, Public Information Office

5


Important findings about skipped generation grand-families:

• Many of the children are teenagers – 42 percentare ages 12 to 17. In parent-child families one-third of the children are in each age group -- 12 to17, six to 11, and younger than six years.

• Approximately one out of every seven childrenages five to 17 has a disability compared to one ofout of 16 children in parent-headed households.Many others have physical and mental healthneeds.

• One-third of the children are in families with in-comes below the poverty level. This is double thechild poverty rate in parent-child families.

• Nearly half face housing cost burdens, includinghome owners as well as renters. This is significantlymore than is the case with parent-child families.

• Nearly one-third of grandparent householders havenot completed high school. This compares to one-eighth of parents in parent-child families who donot have high school diplomas.

These findings have direct implications for research,policy, and practice. This report is a first step in learn-ing more about the caregivers and children in skippedgeneration grandfamilies. Full data charts and otherinformation are also available at www.gu.org. Policy-makers should be aware of these national-level find-ings, as well as local and state data that affect policy.The available data will also assist agencies that pro-vide services to these grandfamilies, helping to ensurethey are meeting the needs of the families. Using thisdata and conducting further research about this groupwithin grandfamilies will further help in providing themwith the tools they need to thrive.

To understand these

f

Also, because of the absence of any parents in the household, their challenges are t We now know that compared to parent-headed households, skipped g C

U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 to 2007 American Community Survey custom tabulation

Between 2005 and 2007 the number of

c

00

550000 ,,000000

11 ,, 000000 ,, 000000

11 ,, 550000 ,, 000000

22 ,, 000000 ,, 000000

22 ,, 550000 ,, 000000

33 ,, 000000 ,, 000000

33 ,, 550000 ,, 000000

44 ,, 000000 ,, 000000

44 ,, 550000 ,, 000000

55 ,, 000000 ,, 000000

22000055 22000066 22000077

OOtthheerr gg rraannddppaarreenntt --hheeaaddeedd ggrraannddffaammii ll ii eess

SSkk iippppeedd ggeenneerraatt ii oonn ggrraannddppaarreenntt --hheeaaddeedd ggrraannddffaammii ll ii eess

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 to 2007

American Community Survey custom tabulation

Children in Skipped Generation Grandfamilies

Photo by Donald Moye

6


If we truly believe what we say about making a

difference in the lives of vulnerable children and

adults, then we need to acknowledge a

fundamental flaw in how we tend to frame – or

think and speak about – our work.

The client is not the child.

The client is not the adult.

The client is the family.1

While multiple reports have studied either grandparentor other relative caregivers or the children ingrandfamilies, relatively few studies have compileddata on the entire family or household. This reportprovides data on children, caregivers, and the entiregrandfamily. Grandfamilies are families headed bygrandparents and other relatives sharing their homeswith their grandchildren, nieces, nephews, and/orother related children.

The specific focus of this report is one type ofgrandfamily: skipped generation grandparent-headedgrandfamilies. These grandfamilies are familiesheaded by grandparents in which no parents of thegrandchildren are present. (This group will be referredto as “skipped generation grandfamilies.” throughoutthis report.) The available data demonstrates thatskipped generation grandfamilies are the leastcommon type of grandfamily. This report focuses onthem because of the lack of useful information aboutthese families in which parents are absent.

Skipped generation grandfamilies headed by “otherrelatives” -- such as aunts or uncles – are not includedin this report simply because of the limited data aboutthem, although anecdotally we know they face manyof the same challenges.

With few exceptions, reports examining other types ofgrandfamilies have not been based on a large nationalsample of households. This GrandFacts report is

Introduction

unique. Using the American Community Survey 2005-2007 (ACS) three year estimates,2 this report outlinesmany demographics and characteristics of theindividuals and households classified as skippedgeneration grandfamilies. Full data charts from theACS, along with additional information, are alsoavailable at www.gu.org.

This report was written to assist those who want tolearn more about, provide services for, or advocate onbehalf of skipped generation grandfamilies. It isprimarily aimed at four specific audiences: Relativesas Parents Programs (RAPPs) and other supportgroups and caregivers, practitioners, policymakers,and the general public.

Grandfamilies Come Under Pressure

Until she lost her job last September, Wendydenied nothing to her granddaughter, Summer,whom she raised since she was a baby.

These days, Wendy, 57, unable to land a jobinterview much less a job, is worried aboutstocking the refrigerator and paying themortgage. She is also fearful of being able tosupport Summer, who she says was bornaddicted to heroin, and who has been in hercustody since infancy.

Today, more and more children are being raisedby their grandparents. These grandparentsprovide a crucial safety net, allowing childrenwhose parents can’t provide for them to remain infamilies, instead of winding up as wards of thestate. But, as the recession hits “grandfamilies,”that safety net is under stress.

From an article by Lucette Lagnado, Wall StreetJournal, April 4, 2009

7


The Numbers of Skipped GenerationGrandfamilies In Comparison to Other Typesof Grandfamilies

There are about 640,000 skipped generationgrandfamilies in the United States, all with one or oneor more children younger than age 18. Another 2.2million are multigenerational grandparent-headedhouseholds with one or both parents of thegrandchildren living in the household, and 1.4 millionare households with children younger than age 18headed by relatives other than grandparents of thechildren.

Demographic Data About SkippedGeneration Grandfamilies

The graph illustrates the number of grandfamiliescategorized by three main types: skipped generationgrandparent-headed, multigenerational grandparent-headed, and other relative-headed grandfamilies.

Skipped generation grandfamilies are familiesheaded by grandparents in which no parents of thegrandchildren are present. These families are formedbecause of parental death, substance abuse, mentalhealth problems, military deployment, divorce,domestic violence, or other reasons. As with allcategories of grandfamilies, the U.S. Census Bureaudoes not collect data on the reasons multigenerationalfamilies are formed.

Multigenerational grandparent-headedgrandfamilies are families headed by grandparentswith a parent or parents of the children present in thehousehold. There are many reasons for thesehouseholds. Some are formed out of economicnecessity. Parents who are the primary caregivers oftheir children may lose a job and move in with theirparents because they can no longer afford to pay rent.In other situations, parents may work while thegrandparent,who is the household owner, provides daycare for the children. Many multigenerationalgrandparent-headed grandfamilies are formed becausethe parent is still a teenager or the parents may move inwith a grandparent caregiver because of substanceabuse, or a physical or mental health problem causingthe parent to be dependent on the grandparent. Inmany of the latter cases, grandparents may be theprimary caregivers of the children, while the parentsprovide minimal or inconsistent care.

Other relative-headed grandfamilies are familiesheaded by aunts, uncles, or other relatives (notgrandparents or parents of the children). These otherrelative-headed grandfamilies may or may not have aparent of the children living in the household. Thesefamilies are formed for a variety of reasons, includingthose that lead to skipped generation ormultigenerational grandfamilies.

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 to 2007 American CommunitySurvey custom tabulation

Number of Grandfamilies

These grandparents p

But, as the recession hits “grandfamilies,”

t

Another 2.2 million are multigenerational g


0

500,000

1,000,000

1,500,000

2,000,000

2,500,000

3,000,000

3,500,000

4,000,000

4,500,000

U.S., 2005-2007Other relative-headed grandfamilies

Multigenerational grandparent-headed grandfamilies

Skipped generation grandparent-headed grandfamilies

8


While skipped generation grandfamilies have many ofthe same characteristics of other types ofgrandfamilies, they least resemble parent-childhouseholds.

Where Skipped Generation Families LiveThis chart shows the number of skipped generationgrandfamilies in each state, the District of Columbia,and Puerto Rico. These grandfamilies live throughoutthe country in urban, suburban, and rural settings. Asexpected, the largest numbers of skipped generationgrandfamilies are found in three of the larger states:Texas, California, and Florida. As a percentage of allhouseholds with related children younger than age 18,

Related Children Under 18 in Skipped Generation Grandfamilies

Number Number PercentUnited States 71,974,520 1,037,025 1.4%District of Columbia 111,585 3,500 3%Mississippi 746,385 23,360 3%Arkansas 674,430 18,975 3%Alabama 1,095,770 30,805 3%South Carolina 1,026,715 26,605 3%Louisiana 1,079,820 27,570 3%Oklahoma 863,430 20,970 2%Kentucky 975,985 23,365 2%West Virginia 376,455 8,715 2%Tennessee 1,423,640 32,440 2%New Mexico 484,110 9,965 2%Georgia 2,414,470 48,295 2%North Carolina 2,118,335 41,365 2%Texas 6,351,200 107,660 2%Delaware 197,985 3,275 2%Hawaii 278,790 4,605 2%Florida 3,917,920 64,500 2%Virginia 1,783,970 29,005 2%Ohio 2,710,135 42,970 2%Wyoming 120,155 1,900 2%Missouri 1,386,550 20,960 2%Nevada 624,095 8,980 1%Oregon 831,130 11,745 1%Arizona 1,582,735 22,310 1%Maryland 1,334,390 18,800 1%Indiana 1,537,310 21,470 1%

Number Number PercentMontana 213,955 2,895 1%Idaho 388,470 5,105 1%Illinois 3,148,265 40,775 1%North Dakota 139,840 1,725 1%South Dakota 189,880 2,305 1%Colorado 1,150,960 13,875 1%Pennsylvania 2,735,815 32,855 1%Alaska 177,265 2,005 1%Michigan 2,425,640 27,125 1%Kansas 676,735 7,450 1%Washington 1,483,720 16,140 1%New York 4,364,170 45,175 1%Maine 273,240 2,800 1%California 9,188,180 87,700 1%New Jersey 2,047,130 19,395 1%Connecticut 810,630 7,465 1%Nebraska 433,790 3,845 1%Wisconsin 1,293,300 10,825 1%Iowa 692,625 5,545 1%Vermont 130,145 1,020 1%New Hampshire 294,800 2,155 1%Massachusetts 1,416,840 9,955 1%Minnesota 1,233,955 8,210 1%Utah 784,920 5,175 1%Rhode Island 232,745 1,405 1%Puerto Rico 971,825 21,795 2%

the District of Columbia and the southern states ofMississippi, Arkansas, Alabama, South Carolina, andLouisiana each have three percent or higher.

For each state, there may be large concentrations ofgrandfamilies in certain localities within that state.Unfortunately, the American Community Survey (ACS)data does not include any sub-state data. Using thisnational level data, researchers can create tables forparticular localities to make a stronger case forsupportive programs and policies. We know fromprevious research and anecdotal information thatthere are cities and counties with large concentrationsof skipped generation grandfamilies.

Geographical area

All related childrenunder 18

Related children under 18 Inskipped generation grandfamilies

Geographical area

All related childrenunder 18

Related children under 18 Inskipped generation grandfamilies

Source: U.S. Census Bureau, 2005 to 2007 American Community Survey custom tabulation

9


Race and Hispanic Origin Diversity ofSkipped Generation GrandfamiliesDemographic studies of skipped generationgrandfamilies show that the majority are headed by agrandparent who is White and non-Hispanic. Whencompared to parent-child households, skippedgeneration grandfamilies headed by non-HispanicBlacks and Hispanic grandparents aredisproportionately represented. However, the race andHispanic origin of the skipped generationgrandfamilies in a particular area are often reflective ofthe race and Hispanic origin of the residents in thatarea. For example, 94 percent of skipped generationgrandfamilies in the District of Columbia are headedby a non-Hispanic, Black grandparent, consistent withthe race and Hispanic origin of the larger population.Likewise, 91 percent of Maine’s grandfamilies are non-Hispanic White.

Likewise, 91 percent of Maine’s grandfamilies are

n

O

This signifies that 46 percent of the caregivers in skipped generation

g

The ACS does not ask: D

Caregivers in Skipped GenerationGrandfamiliesSince 2000, the Census Bureau has obtainedinformation about grandparent caregivers by asking inthe ACS:

Does this person have any of his/her own

grandchildren under the age of 18 living in this

house or apartment?

Is this grandparent currently responsible for most

of the basic needs of any grandchild(ren) under

the age of 18 who live(s) in this house or

apartment?

Data from the ACS estimates there are 2,456,907grandparent caregivers in the United States. Of these,38.1 percent are grandparent caregivers with noparents of grandchildren present; so there are about936,000 grandparent caregivers in skipped generationgrandfamilies. Sixty-nine percent of these primarycaregivers in skipped generation households arehouseholders (the person who owns or rents thehouse or apartment), and 31 percent are the spousesof the householders. This signifies that 46 percent ofthe caregivers in skipped generation grandfamilies aremarried and have a spouse present.3


Additional characteristics of caregivers in skippedgeneration grandfamilies are not easily available frompublished ACS tables. The ACS does not ask: Does

this person have any parents of these

grandchildren under the age of 18 living in this

house or apartment?

Children in Skipped Generation GrandfamiliesCustom tabulations of ACS data estimate there are1,037,025 children younger than age 18 living in641,480 skipped generation grandfamilies.4 The ma-jority of skipped generation grandfamilies providehomes for one or two children younger than age 18,although some are caring for more children. While al-most all – 93 percent – of the children in skipped gen-eration grandfamilies are the grandchildren of thehouseholder, some of these grandfamilies providehomes for other children younger than age 18 whomay include:

• “Own children” – biological, adopted, or stepchil-dren of the householder

• Other related children – nephews, nieces, andother relatives

• Children who are unrelated to the householder,also called “fictive kin”

Parent-Child HouseholdsSkipped Generation

Grandfamilies

10


According to a summary definition, fictive kinship5 isbased on bonds different from blood and marriage. Inmany communities, fictive bonds are as or moreimportant than family bonds. For example,godchildren can be very important fictive kin,especially in African American and Hispanic Americanfamilies.6

Ages of Children in Skipped GenerationGrandfamiliesIn households consisting of parents with their ownchildren and no other related children, the ages of thechildren are distributed equally among the categoriesyounger than age six, six to 11, and 12 to 17. Childrenin skipped generation grandfamilies are more likely tobe teenagers; 42 percent are ages 12 to 17. Thelarge proportion of teenagers is a significant factor toconsider in providing supports and services to skippedgeneration grandfamilies.

The majority of skipped generation g

In many communities, fictive bonds are as or more important than family bonds. For

e

Children in skipped generation grandfamilies are more likely to be teenagers;

4


33%24%

33%

34%

34%42%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

Parent-child

households

Skipped

generation

grandfamilies

Under 6 6 to 11 12 to 17

Ages of Children in Skipped Generation Grandfamilies


Family Income and Poverty of Children inSkipped Generation Grandfamilies

The ACS data provides estimates of the median familyincomes of children in four different types ofhouseholds.7

Grandchild living with a grandparent householder,

with no parent present ……$32,662

Child living in a married-couple family household ……$75,344

Child living in a male householder, no wifepresent, family household …...$37,070

Child living in a femalehouseholder, no husbandpresent, family household …..$23,673

The last three household types – married couple,male-child, and female-child – constitute what isreferred to as parent-child households in thisGrandFacts report.

As the numbers clearly demonstrate, the medianfamily income of grandparent-grandchild householdsis significantly lower than that of married couple-childhouseholds.

Equally significant is the median household income ofgrandparent-grandchild households, which issubstantially greater than that of mother-childhouseholds and only slightly lower than that of father-child households.

Poverty levels vary by the size of the family and thenumber of children in the household. Theaccompanying graph contrasts the percentage ofskipped generation grandfamilies with all types of

parent-child households below the poverty level.

g w

h

The

a


11 77 %%

33 22 %%

Parent-child households Skipped generation

grandfamilies

Percent of Children in Families With Incomes Below the

Poverty Level8


11


Implications from the Demographic DataThe demographic data presented here affects allaspects of effective programming and policymaking.It also points to the need for additional data collectionand research on all grandfamilies, including skippedgeneration grandfamilies.

Additional Research Needed Aside from this report, there are relatively few studiesof grandfamilies that provide data based on a large,national sample. Furthermore, many of those that usea relatively large sample rely on data collectedvoluntarily, rather than the mandatory data collectionthat occurs with the ACS. Such volunteer data isprobably limited because respondents may be morereluctant to share information they consider personal.From a cultural standpoint, this may skew the resultsbecause some ethnic and racial groups may be lesslikely to respond.

Despite the large, mandatory nature of the ACS, thedata is also limited in a number of critical ways. It isonly reported for each state and the District ofColumbia, rather than by sub-state. Collecting andencouraging additional research is of vital importancein advocating for policies and programs that helpthese families and are tailored to their uniquestrengths and needs. More research proving childrenfare well when raised by relatives, particularly outsideof the child welfare system, is needed. Other data thatwould be very useful include the following:

• Information about other relatives such as aunts oruncles, who are caregivers for children youngerthan age 18. The ACS does not collect this data.

• More research to better understand the distinctionsand similarities between the needs and concerns ofchildren and caregivers in the formal foster caresystem and outside of that system. Longitudinalstudies would help to identify how the formal andinformal systems intersect and how best to supportand sustain caregivers and children.

• Longitudinal studies are also needed to follow fami-lies over time as they transition into and out ofgrandparent- and other relative-headed households.

• The percentages of grandfamilies formed due toeach major casual factor, e.g., parental substanceabuse, mental illness, military deployment, death,incarceration, poverty, and teenage pregnancy.

• The number of caregivers who fall into poverty as aresult of raising children.

• The religious affiliation of these families. • More characteristics about the grandchildren of the

householder and other children living in skippedgeneration grandfamilies, including children whoare unrelated to the householder, also called “fic-tive kin”. The article, “African American extendedfamilies and kinship care: how relevant is the fostercare model for kinship care?”9 has recommenda-tions for research and practice considering the im-portance of fictive kinship among AfricanAmericans. This is one important available piece,but there is much to learn about the children inskipped generation families.

• Additional research on the health of the childrenand caregivers in grandfamilies.

• More research focusing on specific subsets of thepopulation in order to most effectively identify theirunique characteristics, needs, and challenges.However, researchers should acknowledge the de-gree to which the data is limited to a particular age,gender, race, ethnicity, or geographic area andshould be cautious about the degree to which thisinformation is applied to the larger population.

When developing programs, practitioners caneffectively make a case for the need for their servicesby using data in this report to demonstrate the numberand characteristics of grandfamilies in their states.Practitioners can also further refine this data for their

Photo by Rosie Meyer

12


localities. When sharing data, they can highlight areasthey plan to serve that boast significant numbers ofskipped generation families while also pointing to theincreased challenges families with no parents presentare likely to face. However, practitioners should alsoacknowledge and plan for many multigenerational andother relative-headed families facing challengessimilar to those of skipped generation grandfamilies.The state- and locality-specific demographic data willhelp practitioners more adequately prepare for familieswho could potentially be served by programs and helpdetermine the components of such programs. Forexample, if there is a high percentage of Hispanics, inan area, Spanish language materials and translatorsmay be necessary. If the poverty rate is high forgrandfamilies in a specific locality, financial assistance,food banks, and similar supports will be necessary.For rural grandfamilies, mobile services orInternet/telephone support groups may be usefulsolutions. In urban areas, programmers will want toensure that families have access to affordable publictransportation to obtain the services they may need.Urban and suburban areas may be challenged servinglarge concentrations of families, so programmers maywant to explore shared sites such as co-located childcare centers and senior centers. Navigation servicesthat help caregivers access other services, andcoordination and partnerships among providers canhelp in urban, suburban, and rural areas, but thecharacteristics of these areas should dictate howservices are designed.

Demographic Data Shows Need forTeenager Specific ProgramsKnowing that skipped generation grandfamilieshave a higher percentage of teenagers can leadto innovative, responsive programs. In summer2009, the University of Maine Rural Relatives asParents Program (RAPP) launched a FacebookInternet site program for teens living ingrandfamilies that will give them opportunities todiscuss their concerns and challenges with peersliving in similar situations. Just as caregiversbenefit from the support of others, so do teens.Providing the opportunities for teens to makeconnections, ask questions, and hear from peersand professionals will help both teens and entirefamilies. There is no cost to join the group, andall teens (ages 12-19) who are living with agrandparent, aunt, uncle, sibling, other relative ora family friend are welcome to participate.

Implications for PolicyIt is critically important that legislators are familiar withthe nature and needs of their constituent families. Thisdata suggests that between one and three percent ofchildren in each state are living in skipped generationfamilies. The families’ needs within each geographicarea will vary based on poverty status, age, race, andother demographic characteristics. While threepercent may seem small, it could translate to as manyas 100,000 children in constituent families for somelegislators. Furthermore, the data suggests that manymultigenerational or other relative-headed familiesmay face similar challenges, substantially increasingthe percentage and thus, the number of constituentswho may benefit from supportive policies.

Courtesy of U.S. Census Bureau, Public Information Office

13


Children in skipped generation grandfamilies areabout twice as likely as those in parent-childhouseholds to have a disability10, as shown on thegraph below. Caregivers also have their own healthchallenges, with about 30 percent having at least onedisability.

readily apparent, while others may not surface untillater in the child’s development.”12 The Hunter CollegeSchool of Social Work prepared an information packetthat includes a brief summary of what is known aboutthe health of children in kinship care, along with abibliography.13 In addition, a book published in 2009 byphysician Charlotte E. Thompson provides acomprehensive guide for grandparents of children withdisabilities. Multiple resources for coping with variousdisabilities are listed at the end of this book.14

Compounding these challenges, caregivers without alegal relationship to the children – such as legalcustody, guardianship or adoption -- often have troubleconsenting to medical, dental, and mental health caretreatment for the children. They also often haveproblems obtaining health insurance for them.Despite the flexibility of most state Medicaid and theChildren’s Health Insurance Program (CHIP)enrollment policies, a small number of states continueto maintain policies that require court-ordered legalcustody or guardianship or count the caregiver’sincome in determining whether a child meets theeligibility guidelines for Medicaid and CHIP. Somestates require proof of relationship and full-timecaregiver status. Such requirements discourage,delay, and in some cases, prevent eligible children ingrandparent- and other relative-headed families fromobtaining health insurance coverage under Medicaidand CHIP.

As for caregivers themselves, though more than onein four have a disability, they may be unable to attendto their own medical needs due to a lack of child care,respite care, or adequate health insurance. They arefrequently stressed at a time in their lives when theydid not expect to care for children. They are oftensocially isolated from their peers and may beburdened by feelings of shame and guilt about theiradult children who are unable to parent.

Disability and Health Status of Children and Caregivers in Skipped Generation Grandfamilies


In many

c

She continues, “Those

c Some emotional problems may be readily apparent, while others may

n

They also often have problems obtaining health i Despite the flexibility of most state Medicaid and the Children’s H

Such r

They are frequently stressed at a time in their lives when they did not expect

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While published research specific to the health ofskipped generation grandfamilies is not available,there is general research on the health of childrenbeing raised by grandparents. This research indicatesthat the children have high rates of physical, mental,and emotional problems, often due to the same issuesthat prompted their living with grandparents.11 In manycases, children live with grandparents due to parentalsubstance abuse, and this can have a directcorrelation to health. Author Sally Houtman observes:“Children of alcohol- and drug-addicted parents, aswell as children whose parents are unstable for otherreasons, will bring with them more than their share ofphysical and emotional problems.” She continues,“Those children who escape physical damage oftensuffer emotional scars that are much deeper and moredifficult to detect. Some emotional problems may be

Children with Disabilities in Parent-ChildHouseholds and Skipped Generation

Grandfamilies


14


Implications for ProgrammingProgrammers can learn from other states about howto conduct effective outreach to grandfamilies aboutMedicaid and CHIP. A number of states have madespecial efforts to spread the word about Medicaid andCHIP to relative-headed families. State and countyKinship Navigator Programs help relatives raisingchildren access a full range of federal and statebenefits and services for which they are eligible,including health care. In some states, Medicaid andCHIP programs have partnered with state agenciesserving seniors, networks of support programs forrelative caregivers, AARP offices, or faith-basedorganizations working with relative caregivers.Medicaid and CHIP staffs have been out-stationed inSocial Security offices and other locations servingseniors. Some states have made special efforts tosend nurses, nursing students, agency staff, or otheremissaries into the community to inform relativecaregivers about their children’s eligibility for CHIP orMedicaid. Child health advocates and other children’sadvocates in some states have included programsserving relative caregivers in their outreach efforts.Other states have prepared brochures specifically forrelative caregivers informing them about theirchildren’s eligibility for CHIP and Medicaid, as well ashow to apply and encouraging them to take advantageof the programs. There also has been outreach totribal elders and caregivers living on Indianreservations.

Support groups for grandparents and other relativesoften include an information segment on healthinsurance and other resource information. Thesesupport groups in which participants share their joysand concerns and build social networks can be criticalfor the caregivers’ mental health. Respite care is alsoof utmost importance so caregivers can attend to theirown health needs.

Implications for PolicyAbout half the states15 have addressed the problem ofrelatives being unable to give consent to medical carefor the children they are raising by passing medicalconsent laws. In these states, parents can sign aconsent form authorizing grandparents and otherrelative caregivers to obtain medical treatment for theirchildren even if the caregivers do not have legalcustody or guardianship. Some states have power ofattorney laws or similar laws that may be used toauthorize a designated third party to consent tomedical care on a child’s behalf. These statestypically allow the designation of power of attorney forsix months to a year, so this may not be the bestoption for long-term caregivers. States withoutmedical consent laws and/or power of attorney lawsmay want to explore their options.

Photo by Christina Weinke

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Housing Challenges and Resources for SkippedGeneration Grandfamilies

The U.S. Department of Housing and UrbanDevelopment (HUD) defines a housing cost burden asa household paying 30 percent or more of its incomefor housing. As shown here, nearly half of skippedgeneration grandfamilies have housing burdens,significantly more than parent-child households. Whilethis is true for both home owners and renters, agreater percentage of owners have housing costburdens. Many of these “owners” are still makingmortgage payments.

Previous data also demonstrate that grandfamilieshave greater housing burdens than parent-headedfamilies. In April 2008, HUD issued a report toCongress, Intergenerational Housing Needs and HUDProgram Options.16 That report was based on 2000and 2001 U.S. Census Bureau data and found that“almost half of very low-income renter grandparent-headed households, numbering approximately150,000 households, had rent burdens of 50 percentor more of income.”17

Implications for ProgrammingSeveral affordable housing developments that meetthe needs of all ages in skipped generationgrandfamilies have been successfully operating duringthe last decade. The most notable is GrandParentFamily Apartments, located in the South Bronx, NewYork, which opened in 2005 and is the first and onlyground-up high-rise construction for the families. Ithas a variety of supportive on-site services specificallytailored to the multiple generations living in thesehouseholds. Services are provided in comfortable,designated community spaces for caregiver supportgroups, afterschool teen programs, early childhoodeducation, and many other services. The building alsohas specially designed features to accommodatethese families such as extra-wide hallways andhandrails along the walls, grab bars in the bathrooms,a 24-hour security desk with staff who cross checkvisitors with court orders, and laundry facilities oneach floor so that older caregivers can wash thecopious amounts of laundry children generate.

There is growing interest around the country in manymore specially designed housing programs forgrandfamilies, and several are in various stages ofdevelopment. Two of these programs – one in urbanChicago and the other in rural Tennessee -- wereawarded federal funds through the Living Equitably:Grandparents Aiding Children and Youth (LEGACY)

In April 2008, HUD issued a report to Congress, I

that “almost half of very low-income renter grandparent-headed

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Act of 2003. These two demonstration programs willbe used to determine how this type of housing can bereplicated in even more jurisdictions. Hopefully, theLEGACY programs will provide interested developerswith critical information on how to develop effectiveprograms. Lessons learned from GrandParent FamilyApartments and other programs that predate LEGACYalso should be compiled and shared with partiesinterested in doing further development.

Implications for PolicyPolicymakers need to pursue solutions for skippedgeneration grandfamilies given their greater housingburdens and for owners within these families inparticular. Much of the research and housingassistance currently available to grandfamilies are forfamilies who rent their homes. Little assistance isavailable for grandparents who own their single familyhomes. Once these grandfamilies take on the extraexpenses of raising children, the affordability of theirhomes becomes a bigger concern. Their homes mayalso be too small to accommodate their grandchildren.To address the housing needs of family caregivers ofolder individuals, Congress created the Elder CottageHousing Opportunity Program (ECHO). As the ECHOprogram is currently configured, funds can be used forthe initial purchase and placement costs of small, free-standing, and barrier-free housing units for olderrelatives to live near their families. This program couldbe adapted to allow for the addition of bedrooms insmall caregiver homes to accommodate children whocome into the homes unexpectedly.

In addition to expanded solutions for owners, rentersalso need more affordable housing opportunities.LEGACY’s funding for the two housing demonstrationprograms mentioned above comes from the Section202 elderly housing program. This means that at leastone member of the family in these units must be 62years or older to qualify. However, the majority ofrelative caregivers are younger than age 60, so manyneedy families will be excluded from these projects.Solutions for skipped generation families whose headof household is younger than 62 should also beexplored.

Housing – Dorothy’s Story

Dorothy was initially unprepared to raise hergrandchildren. Her daughter died suddenly tenyears ago of a brain aneurysm after a battle withdrug abuse. Dorothy took custody of her 3-year-old granddaughter and 10- and 18-year-oldgrandsons. She had helped raise four othergrandchildren, but her daughter’s death left her ina difficult financial situation and with full-timeresponsibility for the children. Despite working forthe same company for 30 years and her bigretirement dreams, Dorothy agreed to serve as“mother” for the second time.

Caring for children full-time meant significantchanges for Dorothy. She had to stop working toprovide around-the-clock care for the children. Yetshe still needed to meet their needs and provideadequate housing for her family of four. To makeall of this possible, she knew she needed tochange her housing situation. Fortunately, shelearned of a new building project by PresbyterianSenior Services. The new facility was the firstgroup of apartments in the country built from theground up specifically for grandparents raisinggrandchildren. To her delight, everything fromtutoring to day care is available to the family underone roof. Dorothy says, “I just cannot tell you howthe apartments are. I love them to death.”

From www.grandfamilies.org, housing stories

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Education Challenges and Resources for Skipped Generation Grandfamilies

Statistics show that nearly one-third of thegrandparents who head skipped generation grandfamilies do not have high school diplomas;whereas the same is true for only one-eighth ofparents in parent-headed households.Fewer years of formal education can challengegrandparents who are striving to help the children theyare raising with school work. There could be a lack ofunderstanding and reinforcement of the importance ofadvanced education. In many cases, schools do notrecognize and respond to the needs of parentinggrandparents.

Implications for ProgrammingSimple changes in schools can make a big differencefor grandfamilies. Things like referring to children’s“grown-ups” or “caregivers” -- instead of “parents” -- inclass and in written materials can help the families.Schools should avoid the phrase “parent-teacherconferences” and talk about “family-teacherconferences” instead. Some schools have providedon-site gatherings or support groups for grandparents

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Many relative caregivers who lack a legal relationship-- such as guardianship, legal custody or adoption -- tothe children they are raising face additional challengesrelated to education access. Those caregivers mayface obstacles in enrolling the children in school andaccessing special education services.

Tina is raising her two granddaughters, ages 11and six. Tina’s older granddaughter came intoher care unexpectedly at 10 months of agebecause her mother was abusing drugs andunable to care for her. Her youngergranddaughter moved in and out of foster carefor several years after she was born, but Tinawas eventually able to gain custody of her aswell. Tina found it hard to access supportiveservices for the children and knew others musthave faced similar challenges. Wanting to find away for relative caregivers to help one another,Tina co-founded Grandparents United ofDelaware, a legal advocacy and support group tohelp grandparents and other relatives raisingchildren in the state.

When her older granddaughter reached schoolage, Tina took her to enroll in school. The schooltold her that grandparents are not allowed toenroll their grandchildren. Familiar withchallenges other caregivers had faced, Tina wasequipped with information about Delaware’seducational consent law. The law allows arelative to use an affidavit to enroll the children inpublic school tuition-free. Tina shared the lawwith school personnel and was able to enroll hergranddaughter, thereby paving the way for othergrandfamilies in Delaware.

From www.grandfamilies.org, education stories

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and other relatives, so they become comfortable withbeing part of the school community. After-schooltutoring programs that provide extra assistance andresources are useful for all children. Such programscan be particularly important to caregivers in relative-headed households who may be less educated, lessable to help children with school work, and who do notpossess computers and other necessary supplies.

Implications for PolicyEncouraging additional states to implementeducational consent laws or comparable provisionswould provide grandfamilies with easier access toschools. Educational consent laws allow relativecaregivers -- without legal relationships to the childrenthey raise -- to access school enrollment. At leastfourteen states currently have educational consentlaws.18

Other states have found innovative ways to ensurethat children being raised by grandparents and otherrelatives can attend public school tuition-free. In fivestates – Michigan, Missouri, Rhode Island, SouthDakota, and Virginia -- children’s residency basicallyfollows them, rather than following their parents. Inother words, where a child lives is his or her legalresidency for purposes of attending public school.Indiana has a different approach that also allowschildren raised in grandfamilies to enroll in school.Indiana’s law provides that the “legal settlement” of astudent being supported, cared for, and living withanother person is the school attendance area of thatperson.19 Texas has an innovative provision in its law,which does not appear to exist in any other state. Achild may attend a school district in which he or shedoes not reside, but in which the grandparent resides“and provides a substantial amount of after-schoolcare for the person as determined by the board.”20

Some states allow children being raised by relatives toenroll in public school tuition-free through openenrollment laws. These laws generally allow a parentor guardian to enroll his or her child in a public schoolnot located in the district where the parent lives. If theparent is still involved in the child’s life, this may be away to enroll a child near the home of the relative whois raising him or her. At least 22 states have explicitlycodified power of attorney laws so parents can bestow

relatives with the power of attorney for the care of theirchildren, including the ability to enroll a child tuition-free in public school.21 These states typically allow thepower of attorney to be designated for six months to ayear, so it may not be the best option for long termcaregivers.

In addition to school enrollment issues, some schooldistricts misinterpret the federal special education lawsand require grandparents or other relatives toovercome extra hurdles to access services for thechildren they raise. State policymakers can examinetheir state’s practices and work to implement laws thatwill improve access. According to the federalIndividuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) --which funds special education services -- schoolsshould be including relative caregivers in the processof developing special education Individual EducationPlans (IEPs) for eligible children. The U.S.Department of Education regulations implementingIDEA define “parent” to include relative caregivers.22

However, some jurisdictions reportedly require relativecaregivers to go through a process to become a“surrogate parent” in order to be considered a“parent.” The plain language of the federal regulationdoes not require this step for these caregivers.Advocates should point to this regulation in caseswhere relatives are required to complete the process.Arizona and Oklahoma specifically cite the federalregulation in their statutes concerning surrogateparents, thereby making it clear that grandparents andother relatives who are acting as parents are notrequired to become surrogate parents.23

These types of laws make caring for children easierfor all grandfamilies, and specifically for skippedgeneration grandfamilies in which parents are notavailable to enroll the children and access specialeducation services.

Photo by Theresa Williams-Bethea

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Conclusion

We hope this 2009 GrandFacts report, along with the full data charts available atwww.gu.org, have added to the knowledge base and available resources aboutgrandfamilies. Skipped generation grandfamilies have many of the same strengthsand needs as all types of grandfamilies. Compared to parent-headed families, thedata show that skipped generation grandfamilies face great challenges,presumably because the parents are absent.

As stated at the beginning of this report, a convening of experts by the NationalHuman Services Assembly emphasized that the focus of practice should be on theentire family. In the case of skipped generation grandfamilies, the parents areabsent. Nonetheless, they exert a powerful influence over their children. Whenresearching, working with, and advocating for skipped generation grandfamilies,the focus needs to be all on three generations.

We would like to hear from you. How has this report helped you to understand thesituation of grandfamilies better? How have you been able to use the data inadvocating for or addressing the needs of grandfamilies in your community? Arethere additional areas about which you would like to learn more? Send yourcomments and questions to [email protected]

Photo by Jeanette DeVore

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This GrandFacts report provides information aboutsome important issues in the lives of skippedgeneration grandfamilies that can be enhanced bydeveloping policies and programs to address theneeds of these unique families.

Below is an explanation of four federal laws aimed atsupporting grandfamilies. Each of these policies isimplemented as state and local programs.

National Family Caregiver Support Program(NFCSP): Enacted in 2000, the NFCSP funds localArea Agencies on Aging and partner agencies to offersupportive services to informal family caregivers age55 and older raising children younger than age of 18.This help provided under the NFCSP includes:provision of information to caregivers about availableservices; assistance to caregivers in gaining accessto such services; individual counseling, supportgroups, and caregiver training; respite care; andsupplemental long-term care services to complementthe care provided by caregivers and other informalcaregivers. In 2006, the age eligibility requirementwas lowered from age 60 to 55, but funding has notexpanded proportionally to assist this larger group ofeligible recipients.

Living Equitably: Grandparents Aiding Childrenand Youth (LEGACY): Three provisions from theLEGACY bill that address affordable housing forgrandparents and other relatives raising children weresigned into law as part of the American DreamDownpayment Act of 2003. The U.S. Department ofHousing and Urban Development has provided partialfunding for two demonstration housing projectsspecifically for grandparents and other relatives raisingchildren; organized training and education for front-lineworkers who through no fault of their own may bemisinterpreting policies that affect grandfamilies; andpublished a national study in April 2008 of the housingneeds of grandfamilies.

Lifespan Respite Care Act: Passed in 2006, this Actauthorizes competitive grants to states to make qualityrespite available and accessible to family caregivers,regardless of age or disability. The act requiresgrantees to identify, coordinate, and build on federal,state, and local respite resources and would helpsupport, expand, and streamline planned andemergency respite, as well as provide training. Theprogram received an appropriation of $2.5 million infiscal year 2009, a small fraction of the $289 millionoriginally requested. More funding is required in orderto adequately meet the needs of family caregivers.

Fostering Connections to Success and IncreasingAdoptions Act of 2008: This law promotespermanent families for children by providing stateswith an option to use federal Title IV-E funds forkinship guardianship assistance to enable children inthe care of grandparents and other relatives to exitfoster care into permanency; authorizes FamilyConnection Discretionary Grants to explore solutionsfor grandfamilies such as kinship navigator programsto help link relative caregivers to a broad range ofservices and supports to help meet their needs andthe needs of the children in their care; requires noticebe provided to adult relatives when children areremoved from their parents’ home; and gives statesthe option to waive non-safety-related licensingstandards for relative foster parents. In September2009, the Administration for Children and Familiesawarded its first round of Family ConnectionDiscretionary Grants.

Federal Supportive Policies and Programs

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Grandfamilies – families headed by grandparents andother relatives who are sharing their homes with theirgrandchildren, nieces, nephews, and/or other relatedchildren.

Householder - the primary person who owns or rentsthe house or apartment.

Housing Cost Burden - households paying 30 percentor more of their income for housing.

Multigenerational Grandparent-Headed Grandfamilies– families headed by grandparents with a parent orparents of the children present in the household.

Other Relative-Headed Grandfamilies – familiesheaded by aunts, uncles or other relatives (notgrandparents or parents of the children). These otherrelative-headed grandfamilies may or may not have aparent of the children living in the household.

Parent-Child Families – families headed by parents,with their biological, adopted or step children.

Skipped Generation Grandparent-HeadedGrandfamilies (skipped generation grandfamilies) --families headed by grandparents in which no parentsof the grandchildren are present.

The Brookdale Foundation Group consists of TheBrookdale Foundation, The Glendale Foundation, andRamapo Trust. Each entity, which is totally distinct withseparate Officers and Boards of Directors or Trustees,was originally endowed by the Schwartz Family andshares a common outlook and purpose. AlthoughHenry, Irving, Robert, Benjamin, and Arnold Schwartzare all deceased, their vision and compassion remainthe driving force as we focus on the needs andchallenges of America's elderly population.

The Relatives As Parents Program (RAPP), initiated in1996 by the Foundation, was created to promote thecreation and expansion of services to grandparentcaregivers and other relatives raising children. RAPPhas evolved into a comprehensive, nationwidecommunity approach of providing high quality servicesto relative caregivers and their families. RAPPsprovide services to relative caregivers and theirfamilies in 44 states.

The Brookdale Foundation Group950 Third Avenue, 19th FloorNew York, NY 10022Phone: (212) 308-7355www.brookdalefoundation.org

Casey Family Programs’s mission is to provide andimprove—and ultimately to prevent the need for—foster care. Established by United Parcel Servicefounder Jim Casey, the Seattle-based nationaloperating foundation has served children, youth, andfamilies in the child welfare system since 1966. Thefoundation operates in two ways. It provides directservices and it promotes advances in child welfarepractice and policy.

Casey collaborates with foster, kinship, and adoptivefamilies to provide safe, loving homes for youth in itsdirect care. The foundation also collaborates with

Glossary of Terms Resources for More Information

Photo by Carmen Dosal

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counties, states, and American Indian and AlaskaNative tribes to improve services and outcomes for themore than 500,000 young people in out-of-home careacross the U.S.

Drawing on four decades of front-line work withfamilies and alumni of foster care, Casey FamilyPrograms develops tools, practices, and policies tonurture all youth in care and to help parentsstrengthen families at risk of needing foster care.

Casey Family Programs1300 Dexter Avenue NorthSeattle, WA 98109Phone: (206) 282-3330www.casey.org

Children’s Defense Fund’s mission is to Leave NoChild Behind® and to ensure every child a HealthyStart, a Head Start, a Fair Start, a Safe Start, and aMoral Start in life and successful passage toadulthood with the help of caring families andcommunities.

CDF provides a strong, effective voice for all thechildren of America who cannot vote, lobby or speakfor themselves. CDF pays particular attention to theneeds of poor and minority children and those withdisabilities. CDF educates the nation about the needsof children and encourages preventive investmentbefore they get sick or into trouble, drop out of schoolor suffer family breakdown.

CDF began in 1973 and is a private, nonprofitorganization supported by foundation and corporategrants and individual donations.

Children’s Defense FundChild Welfare and Mental Health Division25 E Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20001Phone: (202) 662-3568www.childrensdefense.org

Generations United (GU) is the national membershiporganization focused solely on improving the lives ofchildren, youth, and older people throughintergenerational strategies, programs, and publicpolicies. GU represents more than 100 national, state,and local organizations and individuals representingmore than 70 million Americans. Since 1986, GU hasserved as a resource for educating policymakers andthe public about the economic, social, and personalimperatives of intergenerational cooperation. GU actsas a catalyst for stimulating collaboration betweenaging, children, and youth organizations providing aforum to explore areas of common ground whilecelebrating the richness of each generation.

GU’s National Center on Grandfamilies seeks toimprove the quality of life of grandparents and otherrelative caregivers and the children they are raising byaddressing the unique needs of each generation. Itprovides a wide variety of resources, technicalassistance, and training to service providers andprofessionals across the country, and educatespolicymakers on the importance of adoptingintergenerational public policies and programs.

The interactive GU website includes SelectedCharacteristics for Grandparents Living withGrandchildren Data for every state, the District ofColumbia, and Puerto Rico atwww.gu.org/Grand12311807.asp. The website alsoincludes numerous free publications aboutgrandfamilies, including the comprehensive 2005Grandparents and Other Relatives Raising Children:The Second Intergenerational Action Agenda atipath.gu.org/documents/A0/2004_Action_Agenda_Final.pdf

Generations United1331 H Street, N.W., Suite 900Washington, D.C. 20005Phone: (202) 289-3979Fax: (202) 289-3952Email: [email protected]

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The Grandfamilies State Law and Policy ResourceCenter at www.grandfamilies.org is a collaborationbetween Casey Family Programs, the American BarAssociation’s Center on Children and the Law, andGenerations United. The Grandfamilies State Law and Policy ResourceCenter serves as a national legal resource created toeducate individuals about state laws and legislation insupport of grandfamilies and to assist interested statelegislators, advocates, caregivers, attorneys, andother policymakers in exploring policy options tosupport relatives and the children in their care bothwithin and outside the child welfare system. Thisresource center consists of: • a searchable database of current laws and pending

legislation; • topical analyses, which include summaries and

comparisons of state laws, legislative trends, andpractical advocacy and implementation information;

• powerful personal stories from grandfamilies; and • other relevant Internet resources.

Additionally, the ABA and Generations United staff areavailable to provide tailored technical assistance andtraining to state policymakers and advocates or otherinterested parties.

About Generations UnitedGenerations United (GU) is the national membership organization focused solelyon improving the lives of children, youth, and older people throughintergenerational strategies, programs, and public policies. GU represents morethan 100 national, state, and local organizations and individuals representingmore than 70 million Americans. Since 1986, GU has served as a resource foreducating policymakers and the public about the economic, social, and personalimperatives of intergenerational cooperation. GU acts as a catalyst for stimulatingcollaboration between aging, children, and youth organizations providing a forumto explore areas of common ground while celebrating the richness of eachgeneration.

Photo by Vincent O’Hare

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1 “ Through a New Lens: Toward a Fundamental Reframing of ‘the Client’.” Retrieved on August 7, 2009, from www.nydic.org/fspc/doc-uments/ThroughaNewLensFinal_000.pdf . National Human Services Assembly

2 The 2005-2007 ACS three-year estimates are based on data collected from 9 million households between January 2005 and Decem-ber 2007. Estimates from this sample represent the average characteristics over this 3-year period of time. Because the ACS is partof the decennial census program, response is mandatory and data are obtained from about 98 percent of all households.

3 This and additional detailed information about these caregivers are published in American Community Survey (ACS) Subject TableS1002, Grandparents, available at www.factfinder.census.gov

4 There is new data from the single-year 2008 ACS which is not used in this document, as it is not specifically available for skippedgeneration grandfamilies

5 Retrieved on July 20, 2009, from http://family.jrank.org/pages/630/Fictive-Kinship.html6 See, for example, Carlos Vidal, "Godparenting among Hispanic Americans." Child Welfare (1988) 67:453–459. 7 American Community Survey 2005-2007, Subject Tables S1001 and S0901.8 Information about the family income poverty thresholds is available at the following address:

http://www.census.gov/hhes/www/poverty/threshld.htm l 9 Requests for reprints should be sent to Don Cohon, Edgewood Center for Children and Families, Institute for the Study of Commu-

nity-Based Services, 1 Rhode Island Street, San Francisco, CA 94103; email: [email protected] The Census Bureau defines disability as any long-lasting sensory, physical, mental, or emotional condition or conditions that make it

difficult for a person to do functional or participatory activities such as seeing, hearing, walking, climbing stairs, learning, remember-ing, concentrating, dressing, bathing, going outside the home, or working at a job. The questions about going outside the home andworking at a job are asked only about people 15 and older. No disability questions are asked about children younger than 5. All dis-ability estimates are based on the responses of the person completing the survey questionnaire.

11 Generations United, Public Policy Agenda for the 111th Congress. Retrieved on October 7, 2009 from http://www.gu.org/docu-ments/A0/PublicPolicy2009final.pdf

12 Sally Houtman, To Grandmother’s House We Stay. Northridge, CA: Studio 4 Productions, 1999, pages 98-99.13 Retrieved on July 22, 2009, from

http://www.hunter.cuny.edu/socwork/nrcfcpp/downloads/information_packets/Health_Care_Issues_for_Children_in_Kinship_Care.pdf14 Charlotte E. Thompson, Grandparenting a Child With Special Needs. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers, 2009.15 Arizona, Arkansas, California (includes consent for mental health treatment), Colorado (immunization consent only), Delaware, Dis-

trict of Columbia, Florida, Georgia, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas (immunization consent only), Louisiana, Maryland, Mississippi,Missouri, Montana, Nevada (emergency care consent only), New Mexico, New York (immunization consent only), North Carolina,North Dakota, Ohio (includes consent for psychological treatment), Oklahoma, Pennsylvania (includes consent for developmentaland mental health treatment), South Carolina, South Dakota, Texas (includes consent for psychological treatment), Utah, Virginia,and Washington.

16 U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development, Intergenerational Housing Needs and HUD Program Options, retrieved onJuly 18, 2009,from http://www.huduser.org/Publications/pdf/intergenerational.pdf .

17 From the Foreword of the HUD report.18 California, Connecticut, Delaware, Hawaii, Louisiana, Maryland, Montana, New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Carolina, Ohio,

Oklahoma, and South Carolina. 19 Ind. Code Ann. section 20-26-11-2.20 Tex. [Ed.] Code Ann. Section 25.00121 Alabama, Alaska, Arizona, Colorado, Hawaii, Idaho, Indiana, Kentucky, Maine, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska,

New Jersey, New Mexico, New York, North Dakota, Ohio, Oregon, Tennessee, and Utah. 22 34 CFR section 300.30.23 Ariz. Rev. Stat. section 15-763.01; Okla. Stat. Ann. tit. 70 section 1-113.

Endnotes

Generations United1331 H Street, NW, Suite 900

Washington, DC 20005

www.gu.org

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