Grammar Warm-Upswith “This I Believe” statements

adapted from Laying the Foundation, Grade Ten and

the Capital Community College Foundation’s “Guide to Grammar and Writing”

Parts of Speech

• words that function in a certain way– Noun: person, place, thing, state, quality

• functions as subject of a verb• object of verb or preposition

– Verb: action, state, or relation between two things• functions as the main part of the predicate

– Adjective• modifies (develops) the meaning of a noun, usually by describing a

quality of that noun– what kind, which one, how many?– compare things (more, most)– might be upgraded (very), downgraded (somewhat), or intensified

(really)– Adverb

• modifies (develops) the meaning of a verb, adjective, or adverb• tells place, time, manner, circumstance, degree, cause

Phrases• groups of words that lack subjects or verbs• function as one of the parts of speech• types include

– absolute phrases: noun/pronoun + participle• if the participle is a form of to be, it may be omitted• do not act as any part of speech, may be deleted without changing the meaning• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

– appositive: rename the word it follows (may be another type of phrase)• function as a noun• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

– gerund: gerund (verb ending in –ing) + modifiers, objects, or complements• function as nouns

– infinitive: infinitive verb + modifiers• function as noun, adjective, or adverb

– participial (form of a verb that ends in –ing or –ed)• function as adjectives• commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

– prepositional: preposition + noun (w/ optional modifiers)• function as noun, adjective, or adverb

Phrases: Absolute

• noun/pronoun + participle– if the participle is a form of to be, it may be omitted– do not act as any part of speech, may be deleted without

changing the meaning– commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

• Write a poem using four absolute phrases1. Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail2. Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail3. Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail4. Absolute phrase as subject, finish with a concrete detail

Phrases: Appositive

• renames the word it follows (may be another type of phrase)– functions as a noun– use commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

• Write a poem using four appositive phrases describing something important1.Noun + appositive 2.Noun + appositive3.Noun + appositive4.Noun + appositive5.Finish by revealing what you are describing

Gerund Phrases

– gerund (verb ending in –ing) + modifiers, objects, or complements• function as nouns

– Write a poem using four gerund phrases1. Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme

2. Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme

3. Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme

4. Gerund phrase as subject, finish with a rhyme

Infinitive Phrases

• the infinitive is the most basic form of a verb– to + (root of verb)

• to be, to do, to run, to sing, to feel, etc ad infinitum

• infinitive verb + modifiers– function as noun, adjective, or adverb

• Write a poem using infinitive phrases1. infinitive phrase as an adjective2. infinitive phrase as a noun3. infinitive phrase as an adverb4. infinitive phrase as a noun5. infinitive phrase as an adjective

– Challenge: use the same infinitive in each line

Participial Phrases

• A participle is form of a verb that ends in –ing (present participle) or –ed (past participle

• function as adjectives• take commas (or higher punctuation) on both sides

• Write a poem using participial phrases 1. independent clause (sentence)2. participial phrase3. participial phrase4. participial phrase5. participial phrase

Prepositional Phrases

• preposition + noun (w/ optional modifiers)– prepositional phrases function as adjectives or adverbs and

sometimes as noun complements. • a noun complement is like a modifier, but it cannot be deleted from

the sentence. Teachers are fond of books.

• Some of the most common prepositions: – at, on, in, to, for, since, of, about, with, against, from, around,

under, over, like, as, behind, outside

• Write a poem using prepositional phrases1. one prepositional phrase as a noun complement2. two prepositional phrases as adjectives3. three prepositional phrases as adverbs (can modify verbs,

adjectives, or other adverbs)4. four prepositional phrases

The Be-VerbThe most inflected verb in English

Inflected words change form but retain their core meaning

• Present tense– I am– You are– He/she/it is– We are– [Y’all are]– They are

• Past tense– I as– You were– He/she/it was– We were– [Y’all were]– They were

• Future tense– I will be– You will be– He/she/it will be– We will be– [Y’all will be]– They will be

Other inflected words: good, better, best

more, many, most

Comparatives & Superlatives

• these adjectives describe a hierarchy– comparatives compare two things– superlatives compare three or more things

base word → comparative → superlativebase → + -er → + -estold → older → oldest

few → fewer → fewest (used for things you can count)

• they are often inflected (the form changes, but the meaning doesn’t)

good → better → bestmore → many → most

less → lesser → least (used for things you can’t count)

Fun with Phrases

• Write a sentence that begins with– a present participial phrase

• a present participle is a verbal with an –ing ending– a verbal has the form but not the function of a verb– that acts as an adjective

– a past participial phrase• a past participle begins with and –ed verbal

– an absolute phrase– a gerund phrase as the subject

• a gerund is a verbal with an –ing ending• that acts as a noun

– an infinitive as the subject• an infinitive is the most basic form of a verb• to + the stem (to cook, to eat, to be)

Advanced Phrase Poem: Absolute and Prepositional Phrases

Write a poem that contains these phrases on each line

1. absolute phrase2. absolute phrase3. absolute phrase

independent clause1. prepositional phrase2. prepositional phrase3. prepositional phrase prepositional phrase4. prepositional phrase5. prepositional phrase

Advanced Phrase Poem: Appositive and Participial Phrases

independent clause with absolute phrase1. participial phrase

2. participial phrase

3. participial phrase

4. participial phrase

5. participial phrase

Advanced Clause/Phrase Poem: Subordinate Clause with Infinitive

and Prepositional Phrasessubordinate clauseindependent clause

1. infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase2. infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase3. infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase4. infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase5. infinitive phrase + prepositional phrase

independent clause

Simple Sentences

• Independent clauses– have a subject and a verb– express a complete thought– may include modifiers and complements– may include phrases

• Create an independent clause that includes one noun and one verb. – add one or more adjectives– add one or more adverbs– add one or more prepositional phrases– add one or more infinitive phrases– add one or more absolute phrases– add one or more appositive phrases– add one or more gerund phrases– add one or more prepositional phrases

Simple Sentences with Compound Subjects and Verbs

• A simple sentence consists of an independent clause– have a subject and a verb– express a complete thought

• A compound subject consists of– two subjects joined by a coordinating conjunction (and, or, for, nor, so, but, yet)

• Mary and Bill ate cake.

• Write a simple sentence about something you believe with – two or more subjects– a verb– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)

• A compound verb consists of– two verbs joined by a coordinating conjunction

• Mary writes and teaches others to write.

• Write a simple sentence about something related to your first sentence with – a subject– two or more verbs– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)

Conjunctions

• These words join (or conjoin) other words, phrases, or sentences. – from the Latin conjugere– con = together– join junc– tion = noun

Coordinating ConjunctionsFANBOYS

for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so

• nor– used with negative

expressions– neither… nor…

• so– therefore

• but– unexpected contrast– with the exception of– what came before is wrong

• yet (stronger than but)– in addition– even– still– now– can combine with but or and

• and – one idea comes after the

other or next– surprise!– one idea depends on the

other (conditionally)– one idea is a comment on the

other• or

– only one, excluding the other– alternative– refine, restate, correct– negative condition or

alternative• for

– stronger version of because or since

Correlative Conjunctions• These words function as pairs. • Be sure the structures after each correlative conjunctions are parallel

– both . . . and…• Both Mary and Bill worked on the project.

– both proper noun and proper noun

– not only . . . but also• Mary and Bill not only worked on this project together, but also [worked] on another

one.– not only verb + prepositional phrases beginning with on, but also verb + prepositional phrases

beginning with on

– not . . . but…• Sad to say, it was not Mary but Bill who did the work.

– not proper noun, but proper noun

– either . . . or …• Either Mary or Bill may earn credit.

– either + proper noun, or + proper noun

– neither . . . nor…• Neither Mary nor Bill completed the project by deadline.

– neither + proper noun, nor + proper noun

– whether . . . or…• Whether Mary did the work or Bill [did the work] doesn’t matter.

– whether proper noun + did + direct object, or proper noun + implied did + implied direct object

– as . . . as…• Mary is as unhappy with her grade as Bill [is].

– as + be-verb + predicate adjective, as + be-verb + predicate adjective

Conjunctive Adverbs• addition

– again, also, and, and then, besides, equally important, finally, first, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, last, moreover, next, second, still, too

• comparison– also, in the same way, likewise, similarly

• concession– granted, naturally, of course

• contrast– although, and yet, at the same time, but at the same time, despite that, even so, even though, for all that,

however, in contrast, in spite of, instead, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, otherwise, regardless, still, though, yet

• emphasis– certainly, indeed, in fact, of course

• example– or

• illustration– after all, as an illustration, even, for example, for instance, in conclusion, indeed, in fact, in other words, in

short, it is true, of course, namely, specifically, that is, to illustrate, thus, truly• summary

– all in all, altogether, as has been said, finally, in brief, in conclusion, in other words, in particular, in short, in simpler terms, in summary, on the whole, that is, therefore, to put it differently, to summarize

• time sequence– after a while, afterward, again, also, and then, as long as, at last, at length, at that time, before, besides,

earlier, eventually, finally, formerly, further, furthermore, in addition, in the first place, in the past, last, lately, meanwhile, moreover, next, now, presently, second, shortly, simultaneously, since, so far, soon, still, subsequently, then, thereafter, too, until, until now, when

Fun with Very Simple Sentences

• Write a sentence that– begins with the subject– begins with an article (a, an, the) and the

subject– begins with an adjective and the subject– begins with an adverb before the subject

Compound Sentences• Independent clauses

– have a subject and a verb– express a complete thought

• Write two independent clauses, about something you believe, that are related to each other. Each should have

– a subject– a verb– two phrases (absolute, appositive, gerund, infinitive, participial, prepositional)

• Compound sentences consist of two independent clauses joined into one. – joined by a semicolon

• may begin with a conjunctive adverb

– joined by a comma and coordinating conjunction

after all

also

consequently

for example

for instance

furthermore

however

in fact

in general

indeed

moreover

nevertheless

still

then

therefore

, and (plus)

, or (only one)

, for (because, since)

, nor (negative)

, so (therefore)

, but (contrast, exception)

, yet (in addition, still, at this time, nevertheless)

Beginning with a Coordinating Conjunction

• Some teachers tell you not to do it because these same conjunctions can join phrases.

It’s not correct. And creates sentence fragments.

• However, it is perfectly acceptable to begin an independent clause (complete sentence) with a conjunction.– This intensifies the sentence.

Some teachers say you shouldn’t begin with but. But they’re wrong.

Complex Sentences

• Dependent or Subordinate Clauses– must have information added to complete a thought– begin with a subordinating conjunction

• Some Common Subordinating Conjunctions

• Write two independent clauses, about something you believe, that are related to each other.– Subordinate one to the other by using a subordinating conjunction– Add another dependent clause to your sentence

and

after

as

as though

as long as

as if

because

before

even if

even though

if

if only

in order that

now that

once

rather than

since

so that

than

that

though

till

unless

until

when

whenever

where

whereas

wherever

while

Then v. Than

• Than is a subordinating conjunction that compares things– often, only the subject is stated and the predicate is

impliedMy teacher is a better writer than I [am].

• Then is an adjective that tells when.– it means next– it can move to different places in a sentence– it does NOT take a comma!

Learn the difference between then and than; then you will be a better writer.

Like v. As

• As is a subordinating conjunction– as if, as though

It is as if you were the teacher. • Like is a preposition that describes

similaritiesThis story is like Oedipus Rex.

– if you are listing similarities, use such as.

This school has many prestigious alumni, such as Bill, Mary, and Mark.

The Implied That

…is a subordinating conjunction

…that can sometimes, but not always, be omitted.

Silly Sally knew that her paper would earn an F.

Silly Sally knew her paper would earn an F.

• (That can also function as a pronoun, adjective, adverb, or as the plural of those.)

Beginning with Because

• The word because always introduces a dependent clause.

Because I can• Therefore, it cannot take a period.

• But if connected to an independent clause, it can strengthen a sentence.

Because I can, I will.I will because I can.

• Note that the because-clause takes a comma when it introduces an independent clause.

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

• Dependent clauses (a.k.a. subordinate clauses) are either restrictive or nonrestrictive. – Restrictive clauses modify the noun they

come after• often use the word that but never which

– Nonrestrictive clauses do not change the meaning of the word they modify

• often use the word which but never that• set them apart using commas or higher

punctuation

Compound-Complex Sentences

• Write three (3) independent clauses, that are related to each other, about something you believe

• Write three (3) dependent clauses that are related to the independent clauses.

• Form a compound-complex sentence using two independent clauses and one or more of the dependent clauses. – Join independent clauses with comma + coordinating

conjunction or semicolon

Fun with Inverted Sentences

• Write a sentence that begins with– an adverbial clause

• Finally I understand why my teachers get so mad at me.

– a noun clause• To walk away when another’s speaking is a most egregious

form of discourtesy.

– a predicate adjective• This I believe: courtesy is respect.

– a verb• Speak he did, but not until I asked his opinion.

More Fun with Inverted Sentences

– a predicate adjective• Disrespectful was the girl who put her head on her desk.

– a subordinate clause• Although they were talking about what the teacher was

discussing, they were still disrespectful because they were not listening to her.

– several prepositional phrases• Despite the rudeness of chattering brats in the back of the

room, the good student listened carefully and took efficient, effective notes.

– postpones the subject• There exists among civilized people one ultimate rule:

courtesy.

Fun with Sentences

• Write a sentence– that begins with an interjection

• Aha! I finally understand what you’re trying to say. Thank you for your patience.

– in which repetition plays a role.• We should be courteous to those outside the

home, we should be courteous to family, but above all, we should be courteous to ourselves.

– that asks a rhetorical question.

Advanced Sentence Structures

• Loose/Cumulative– begins with an independent clause– adds phrases and clauses after

• a cumulative sentence adds lots of phrases and clauses

• Periodic– begins with phrases and clauses– ends with independent clause and a period

• Balanced/Cumulative– phrases and clauses balance each other because of

• structure• meaning• length

• Antithetical– two statements that are balanced but opposite

Fun with Advanced Sentence Structures

• Write a loose sentence

• Write a cumulative sentence (with lots of phrases afterward)

• Write a periodic sentence

• Write a balanced sentence

• Write an antithetical sentence

Syntax Techniques: Natural and Reversed Sentences

• Syntax: arrangement of words and grammatical elements in a sentence.

• Natural order of a sentence: subject + predicate• Reversal

– Antimetabole: the arrangement of ideas in the second clause is a reversal of the arrangement in the first. It adds power.

• Although courtesy is a form of respect, respect is not a prerequisite for courteous behavior.

– Inversion: elements of a sentence are reversed. Most often, the predicate comes before the subject.

• Before a calm demeanor comes a calm voice. Control your voice and you control your emotions.

– Juxtaposition normally unassociated words or phrases are placed next to one another. Creates surprise or demonstrates wit.

Syntax Techniques: Repetition

• Repetition: words, sounds, and ideas are repeated to create emphasis.– Anadiplosis: repeat the last word of one clause at the beginning

of the next. It ties the sentences together. • This provides strong transitions

– Anaphora: repeat the same word or group of words at the beginning of clauses. It establishes a strong rhythm and produces a powerful emotional effect.

– Epanalepsis: repetition at the end of a clause of a word (or form of a word) that occurred at the beginning of the clause. It makes the sentence or clause stand out.

– Epistrophe: repetition of the same word or group of words at the ends of successive clauses. It sets up a strong rhythm and emphasizes the repeated word(s).

Syntax Techniques: ParallelismParallelism: grammatical or structural similarity

between sentences or parts of sentences. Elements that are equally important are equally developed and similarly phrased.– likeness of form helps readers perceive the likeness

of content or function– gives equal emphasis to each parallel element

• Antithesis: place one idea next to an opposing idea. Provides a balanced contrast of ideas. “Give me liberty or give me death.

Practice: Parallelism

– Write a sentence about something you believe that has at least three parallel gerunds or participles.

– Write a sentence about something you believe that has at least thee parallel phrases (absolute or adverbial).

– Write a sentence about something you believe that has at least three parallel, dependent clauses.

– Write a sentence about something you believe that has correlative conjunctions and parallel structures.

• Write a sentence using antithesis

Paralleism: Lincoln’s Gettysburg Address

Parallelism: Gettysburg Address, Cont’d

Syntax Techniques: Polysyndeton and Omission

• Omission– Asyndeton: omission of conjunctions. It speeds the

pace of the sentence.– Ellipsis: omission of a word or words that are readily

supplied by the context. It creates an elegant or daring economy of words.

• Polysyndeton: delebarate use of many conjunctions. Emphasizes quantity or mass of detail. Creates flowing, continuous sentence pattern. Slows the pace of the sentence.

Syntax Techniques: Rhetorical Fragments and Questions

• Rhetorical Fragment: a sentence fragment used purposely. It makes the statement extremely strong.

• Rhetorical Question: a question that does not require an answer. It draws attention to its point and is stronger than a direct statement

Transitions

• Conjunctive Adverbs– indicate subtle and intricate relationships

• Conjunctive connectors– first, second, etc

• Repetition of key words– anadiplosis: repeat the last word of one clause at the

beginning of the next. It ties the sentences together. • Pronouns

– Correctly used, they promt the reader to sum up what has come before

• Parallel structures

Punctuation Hierarchy

• Period + space + Capital Letter

– Semicolon

• comma

– dash (use for emphasis only)

» parentheses

Complement v. Modifier

• Both develop the meaning of the words they are attached to

• Modifiers are not necessary to a sentence. They can be omitted.

• Complements are necessary for the sentence to make sense. – Linking verbs always need complements

• My sister is an absolute bear! (noun complement)• My sister is mean. (adjective complement)