Grammar Guides

7/27/2019 Grammar Guides

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SENTENCE

A grammatical unit of one or more words that expresses anindependent statement, question, request, command, exclamation,

and others, and that typically has a subject as well as a predicate. In

print or writing, a sentence typically begins with a capital letter and

ends with appropriate punctuation; in speech it displays recognizable,

communicative intonation patterns and is often marked by preceding

and following pauses.
http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/independenthttp://dictionary.reference.com/browse/independent


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SENTENCE

In simple terms, a sentenceis a set of words that contain:

o asubject(what the sentence is about, the topic of the sentence)

o

apredicate(what is said about the subject)-The subject is the person or thing that acts or is described in the sentence. The

predicate, on the other hand, is that action or description.

-Complete sentences need boththe subject and the predicate.

Look at this simple example:

subject predicate

verb

You speak English.

The above example sentence is very short. Of course, a sentence can be

longer and more complicated, but basically there is always a subject and a

predicate.

Look at this longer example:

subject predicate

verb

Ram and Tara speak English when they are working.

Note that the predicate always contains a verb.

Sometimes, in fact, the predicate is only a verb:

subject predicate


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verb

Smoke rises.

So we can say that a sentence must contain at leasta subjectand

verb.There is one apparent exception to thisthe imperative. When someone

gives a command (the imperative), they usually do not use a subject. They don't

say the subject because it is obvious - the subject is YOU!

Look at these examples of the imperative, with and without a subject:

subject predicate

verb

Stop!

Wait a minute!

You look!

Everybody look!

Note that a sentence expresses a complete thought.

Here are some examples of complete and incomplete thoughts:

Complete thought?

He opened the door. YES

Come in, please.

Do you like coffee?

people who work hard NO

a fast-moving animal with big ears

Note also that a sentence beginswith a capital letter and endswith a full stop*

or a question mark or an exclamation mark.


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Look at these examples:

People need food.

How are you?

Look out!

o anobject of the sentence is the thing that is directly or indirectly

receiving the action that was performed by the subject.

For example:

1. The dog barked at thepostman. - Here we see that the object is

postman who is the person who is being barked at by the dog which is

the subject.

2. The ballwas kicked by the boy. - Here the object is the ball which is

being kicked by the subject the boy

Kinds of Sentences According to Structure

A sentence may consist of one clause (independent clause) or more

clauses (independent and dependent clauses). An independent clause is also

called main clause. A dependent clause is also called subordinate clause. On

the basis of numbers of clause and types of clauses present in a sentence,

sentences are divided in to four kinds.

1. Simple Sentence

A simple sentence consists of only one independent clausecontaining a

subject and a verb and it expresses complete thought. There is no dependent

clause. An independent clause (also called main clause) is called a simple

sentence.Examples:

He laughed.

She ate an apple.


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2. Compound Sentence

A compound sentence consists of atleast two independent clauses

joined by coordinating conjunctions. There is no dependent clause in compound

sentence. The coordinating conjunctions use to join independent clauses are for,

and, nor, but, or, yet, so.Independent clauses can also be joined by a semicolon

(;). A comma may or may not be used before the conjunction in compound

sentence.

Examples:

I like an applebutmy brother likes a mango.

He failed two timesyethe is not disappointed.

I asked him a question;he replied correctly.

3. Complex Sentence

A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and at least

one dependent clausejoined by subordinating conjunction (because, although,

since, when, unless etc.) or relative pronoun (that, who, which etc.)

Examples:

I met the boywho had helped me.

She is wearing a shirt, which looks nice.

You cant pass the testunless you study for it .

If a complex sentence begins with an independent clause, a comma is not

used between clauses in a complex sentence. If a complex sentence begins with

dependent clause then a comma is use after dependent clause in a complex

sentence.

Examples:

He is playing well although he is ill.

Although he is ill,he is playing well.

4. Complex - Compound Sentence

A complex-compound sentence consists of at least two independents

and one or more dependent clauses. It is also sometimes called compound-


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complex Sentence.

Examples:

He went to college and I went to a marketwhere I bought a book.

I like Mathematicsbut my bother likes Biology because he wants to be a

doctor.

In the first sentence, there are two independent clauses he went to

college and I went to a market, and one dependent clause where I bought a

book.

Kinds of sentences According to Function

1. Assertive or Declarative Sentence

A sentence that makes a statement or assertion is called an assertive or

declarative sentence. Assertive sentence ends with a period.

Examples:

He goes to school.

He likes to play chess.

2. Interrogative SentenceA sentence that asks a question is called an interrogative sentence.

Interrogative sentence ends with question mark.

Examples:

Where are you going?

Do you use your laptop?

3. Imperative Sentence

A sentence that expresses a request, command or advice is called an

imperative sentence.

Examples:

Open the door. (An order)Please help me. (A request)


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4. Exclamatory Sentence

A sentence that expresses strong feelings or emotions is called an

exclamatory sentence. These sentences express surprise, joy, sorrow,

appreciation, love excitement, frustration, anger etc. An exclamatory sentence

ends with exclamation mark.

Examples:

What a beautiful flower it is!

How nicely she is singing!


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CLAUSE

A clause is a group of related words containing a subject and a

predicate

A clause refers to a group of related words (within a sentence or itself as

an independent sentence), which has both subject and predicate. Example: I

will meet him in office.

The part of above sentence I will meet him is a clause because it has a

subject (I) anda predicate (will meet him). On the other hand, the rest part of

above sentence in office lacks both subject and predicate (verb) such group of

word is called phrase.

A clause may stand as a simple sentence or may join another clause to

make a sentence. Therefore, a sentence consists of one, two or more clauses.

Examples:

He is sleeping. (One clause) The kids were laughing at the joker. (One clause) The teacher asked a question, but no one answered. (Two

clauses) I am happy, because I won a prize. (Two clauses)

I like Mathematics, but my brother likes Biology, because he wants

to become a doctor. (Three clauses)

Clauses are divided into two types: the main clause (also called

independent clause)and subordinate clause (also called dependent

clauses).

The Comparison of the Main Clause and the Subordinate Clause

He is buying a shirt which looks very nice.

The above sentence has two clauses He is buying a shirt and which

looks very nice. The clause He is buying a shirt expresses a complete thought

and can alone stand as a sentence. Such a clause is called main or


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independent clause. While the clause which looks very nice does not

express a complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It depends on

another clause (main clause) to express complete idea. Such a clause is called

subordinate or dependent clause.

Main or Independent Clause

Main (or independent) clause is a clause that expresses a complete

thought and can stand as a sentence.

Examples:

I met the boy who had helped me.

She is wearing a shirt which looks nice.

The teacher asked a question but no one answered.

In the above sentences each underlined part shows main clause. It

expresses complete thought and can stand as a sentence that is why a main or

an independent clause is normally referred as a simple sentence.

Subordinate or Dependent Clause

Subordinate (or dependent) clause is a clause which does not express

complete thought and depends on another clause (main clause) to express a

complete thought. Subordinate clause does not express complete idea and cant

stand as a sentence. A sentence having a subordinate clause must have a main

clause.

Example:

He likes Chinese rice which tastes good.

The clause which tastes good in above sentence is a subordinate clause

because it does not express complete thought and cant stand as a sentence. It

depends on main clause (he likes Chinese rise) to express complete thought.

Examples:


I bought a table that costs $ 100.


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Types of Subordinate Clause

A subordinate (dependent) clause may function as a noun, an adjective or

an adverb in sentence. On the basis of their function in a sentence, subordinate

clauses can be divided in to following types.

1. Noun Clause

A dependent clause that functions as a noun in a sentence is called noun

clause.A noun clause performs same function like a noun in a sentence.

Example:

What he didmade a problem for his family.

In above sentence the clause what he did functions as a noun, hence it

is a noun clause. A noun clause works as a noun that acts as a subject, object,

or predicate in a sentence. A noun clause starts with words that, what, whatever,

who, whom, whoever, whomever.

Examples:

Whatever you learnwill help you in future. (noun clause as subject)What you saidmade me laugh. (noun clause as a subject)He knows that he will pass the test.(noun clause as an object)Now I realize what he would have thought.(noun clause as an object)

2. Adjective Clause

A dependent clause that functions as an adjective in a sentence is called

adjective clause.An adjective clause works like adjective in a sentence. The

function of an adjective is to modify (describe) a noun or a pronoun. Similarly a

noun clause modifies a noun or a pronoun.

Example:

He wears a shirt which looks nice.

The clause which looks nice in above sentence is an adjective clause

because it modifies noun shirt in the sentence. An adjective clause always

precedes the noun it modifies.


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Examples:


An apple that smells badis rotten.

The book which I likeis helpful in preparation for test.

The house where I liveconsists of four rooms.

Adjective clause begins with relative pronoun(that, who, whom, whose,

which, or whose) and is also relative clause.

Adjective (relative) clauses can be restrictive clauseor nonrestrictive clause

Restrictive and Nonrestrictive Clauses

A restrictive clause limits the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun. A

nonrestrictive clause tells us something about preceding noun or pronoun but

does not limit the meaning of preceding noun or pronoun.

Examples:The student in the class who studied a lotpassed the test. (restrictive

clause)The student in the class, who had attended all the lectures, passed the test.

(nonrestrictive clause)

In the first sentence, the clause who studied a lot restrict information to

preceding noun (student), it means that there is only one student in the class who

studied a lot, hence it is a restrictive clause. In the second sentence the

clause who had attended all the lectures gives us information about preceding

noun but does not limit this information to the preceding noun. It means there can

be several other students in the class who had attended all the lectures. A

comma is always used before a restrictive clause in a sentence and also after

nonrestrictive clause if it is within a main clause. That is usually used to

introduce a restrictive clause while which is used to introduce a nonrestrictive

clause.

Examples:


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The table that costs $ 100is made of steel. (restrictive clause)The table, which costs $ 100, is made of steel. (nonrestrictive clause)

3. Adverb Clause

A dependent clause that functions as an adverb in a sentence is called

adverb clause. An adverb clause like an adverb modifies a verb, adjective

clause or other adverb clause in a sentence. It modifies (describes) the

situation in main clause in terms of time, frequency (how often) , cause

and effect, contrast, condition, intensity (to what extent).

The subordinating conjunctions used for adverb clauses are as follows.

Time:when, whenever, since, until, before, after, while, as, by the time, as soon

asCause and effect:because, since, now that, as long as, so, so that, Contrast:

although, even, whereas, while, thoughCondition:if, unless, only if, whether or not, even if, providing or provided that,

in case

Examples:

Dont gobefore he comes.

He takes medicine because he is ill.

Although he tried a lot,he couldnt climb up the tree.

Unless you study for the test,you cant pass it.

I will go to the school unless it rains.

You are safe as long as you drive carefully.

You can achieve anything provided that you struggle for it.


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PHRASE

A phrase is defined as a group of related words that lacks both subject

and verb.A phrase isa part of a sentence. It is a group of words (within a

sentence) that does not contain both subject and verb, and does not express acomplete idea.

Example:

He is standing near a wall.

The part of above sentence near a wall is a phrase because it does not

contain subject and verb, and does not express a complete idea.

A phrase does not include both subject and verb at a same time and does not

make a complete sense; hence a phrase cannot stand as a sentence on its own.

If a group of words include both subject and verb then it becomes a

clause, so the difference in a clause and a phrase is that a clause contains

subject and verb but a phrase does not contain subject and verb.

Here are some examples of phrases.

He is laughing at a joker.

She is making tea for the guests.

A sentence may consist of one or more phrases.

For example:

The boy in the red shirtbehaves in a strange way.

A phrase functions as a noun, adverb, or adjective in a sentence,

therefore a phrase is also defined as a group of words (lacking subject and

verb), that functions as a single part of speech, in a sentence.

Examples:

He is wearing a nice read shirt. (as a noun/object)The people at the partywere dancing. (as a noun/subject)The man in the roomis our teacher. (as adjective, modifies noun man)She gave me a glassfull of water. (as adjective, modifies noun glass)He always behaves in a strange way. (as adverb, modifies verbbehave)He returned in a short while. (as adverb, modifies verb return)


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On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided into

various types.

Types of Phrases

A phrase functions as a noun, verb, adverb, adjective or preposition in a

sentence. The function of a phrase depends on its construction (words it

contains). On the basis of their functions and constructions, phrases are divided

into various types such asno un phrase, verb p hrase, adverb ph rase,

adjective phrase, appo sit ive phras e, infinite ph rase, particip le phr ase and

gerund ph rase.

1. Noun Phrase

A noun phrase consists of a noun and other related words (usually

modifiers and determiners), which modify the noun. It functions like a noun in a

sentence. A noun phrase consists of a noun as the head word and other

words (usually modifiers and determiners) which come after or before the noun.

The whole phrase works as a noun in a sentence.

Noun Phrase = noun + modifiers (the modifiers can be after or before noun)Examples:

He is wearing a nice red shirt. (as noun/object) She brought a glass full of water. (as noun/object) The boy with brown hairis laughing. (as noun/subject) A man on the roofwas shouting. (as noun/subject)

A sentence can also contain more noun phrases.

For example:

The girl with blue eyesbought a beautiful chair.

2. Prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition, object of

preposition(noun or pronoun) and may also consist of other modifiers. e.g. on a


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table, near a wall, in the room, at the door, under a tree. A prepositionalphrase starts with a preposition and mostly ends with a noun or pronoun.

Whatever prepositional phrase ends with is called object of preposition. A

prepositional phrase functions as an adjective or adverb in a sentence.

Examples:

A boy on the roofis singing a song. (As adjective) The man in the roomis our teacher.(As adjective) She is shouting in a loud voice.(As adverb) He always behaves in a good manner.(As adverb)

3. Adjective Phrase

An adjective phrase is a group of words that functions like an adjective in

a sentence. It consists of adjectives, modifier and any word that modifies a noun

or pronoun. An adjective phrase functions like an adjective to modify (or tell

about) a noun or a pronoun in a sentence.

Examples:

He is wearing a nice redshirt. (modifiesshirt) The girl with brown hairis singing a song. (modifiesgirl) He gave me a glassfull of water. (modifiesglass) A boy from Americawon the race. (modifiesboy)

Prepositional phrases and participle phrasesalso function as adjectives so

we can also call them adjective phrases when they function as adjective. In the

above sentence The girl with brown hair is singing a song, the phrase with

brown hair is a prepositional phrase but it functions as an adjective.

4. Adverb Phrase

An adverb phrase is a group of words that functions as an adverb in a

sentence. It consists of adverbs or other words (preposition, noun, verb,

modifiers) that make a group works like an adverb in a sentence.An adverbphrase functions like an adverb to modify a verb, an adjective or another

adverb.


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Examples:

He always behaves in a good manner.(modifies verb behave) They were shouting in a loud voice.(modifies verb shout)

A prepositional phrase can also act as an adverb phrase. For example in

above sentence He always behaves in a good manner, the phrase in a good

manner is a prepositional phrase but it acts as adverb phrase here.

5. Verb Phrase

A verb phrase is a combination of main verb and its auxiliaries (helping

verbs) in a sentence.

Examples:

He is eatingan apple.

She has finishedher work.

You should studyfor the exam.

She has been sleepingfor two hours.

According to generative grammar, a verb phrase can consist of main verb,

its auxiliaries, its complements and other modifiers. Hence it can refer to the

whole predicate of a sentence.

Example:

You should study for the exam.

6. Infinitive Phrase

An infinitive phrase consists of an infinitive (to + simple form of verb) and

modifiers or other words associated to the infinitive. An infinitive phrase always

functions as an adjective, adverb or a noun in a sentence.

Examples:

He likes to read books. (As noun/object) To earn moneyis a desire of everyone.(As noun/subject) He shouted to inform people about fire.(As adverb, modifies verb

shout) He made a planto buy a car.(As adjective, modifies noun plan)


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7. Gerund Phrase

A gerund phrase consists of a gerund (verb + ing) and modifiers or other

words associated with the gerund. A gerund phrase acts as a noun in a

sentence.

Examples:

I like writing good essays. (As noun/object) She started thinking about the problem. (As noun/object)

8. Participle Phrase

A participle phrase consists of a present participle (verb + ing), a past

participle (verb ending in -edor other form in case of irregular verbs) and

modifiers or other associate words. A participle phrase is separated by commas.

It always acts as an adjective in a sentence.

Examples:

The kids,making a noise,need food. (modifieskids) I received a letter, mentioning about my exam. (modifiesletter) The table, made of steel, is too expensive. (modifiestable) We saw a car, damaged in an accident. (modifiescar)

9. Absolute Phrase

Absolute phrase (also called nominative phrase) is a group of words

including a noun or pronoun and a participle as well as any associated modifiers.

Absolute phrase modifies (give information about) the entire sentence. It

resembles a clause but it lacks a true finite verb. It is separated by a comma or

pairs of commas from the rest sentence.

Examples:

He looks sad, his face expressing worry.

She was waiting for her friend, her eyes on the clock.

John is painting a wall, his shirt dirty with paint.


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PARTS OF SPEECH

A category to which a word is assigned in accordance with its

syntactic functions.


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PARTSOFSPEECH

Parts of

Speech

Function or

"job"

Example Words Example Sentence

Verb action or state (to) be, have, do, like,

work, sing, can, must

I likedogs.

Noun thing or person pen, dog, work, music,

town, London, teacher,

John

This is my dog.

Adjective describes a

noun

a/an, the, 2, some, good,

big, red, well, interesting

I have twodogs.

Adverb describes a

verb, adjective

or adverb

quickly, silently, well,

badly, very, really

My dog eats quickly.

Pronoun replaces a noun I, you, he, she, some Tara is Indian. Sheis

beautiful.

Preposition links a noun to

another word

to, at, after, on, but We went toschool on

Monday.

Conjunction oins clauses orsentences or

words

and, but, when I like dogs andI likecats.

Interjection short

exclamation,

sometimes

inserted into a

sentence

oh!, ouch!, hi!, well Ouch! That hurts!
http://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/interjections.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/conjunctions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/prepositions.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/pronouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adverbs.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/adjectives.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/nouns.htmhttp://www.englishclub.com/grammar/verbs.htm


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NOUN

Noun is a word, which names a person, a place or a thing, event, idea,

and so on.

Nouns usually function as subjectsor objectswithin sentences, although

they can also act as adjectives and adverbs.

Different types of nouns

1. Proper nouns

Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with

a capital letter.

Examples include Mary, India, and Manchester United.

2. Common nouns

Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general.

Examples include girl, country, and team

3. Concrete nouns

Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete

nouns.

Examples include ball, rainbowand melody.

4. Abstract nouns

Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called

abstract nouns.

Examples include love, courage, and childhood.

5. Countable nounsNouns that can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural

form.

Examples include toys, childrenand books.


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6. Non-countable nouns

These nouns (usually) cannot be counted, and they dont have a plural

form.

Examples include sympathy, laughterand oxygen.

7. Collective nouns

Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things.

Examples include flock,committeeand murder.

Plural Form of Nouns

The English language has both regularand irregularplural forms of

nouns. The most common case is when you need to add -s to the noun. For

example one

carand two cars.

The other two cases of the regular plural form are:

1. Nouns that end with s, x, chor sh, where you add -es(e.g., one box, twoboxes)

2. Nouns that end with consonant + y, where you change the y with i and

add -es(e.g., one enemy, two enemies)

On the irregular plural formof nouns there are basically eight cases:

1. Nouns that end with -o, where you add -es(e.g., one potato, two

potatoes)

2. Nouns ending with -is, where you change -is to -es(e.g., one crisis, two

crises)

3. Nouns ending with -f, where you change -f to -v and add -es(e.g., one

wolf, two wolves)

4. Nouns ending with -fe, where you change -f to -v and add -s(e.g., one

life, two lives)


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5. Nouns ending with -us, where you change -us to -i(e.g., one fungus, two

fungi)

6. Nouns that contain -oo, change -oo to -ee(e.g., one foot, two feet)

7. Nouns that end with -on, where you change -on with -a(e.g.,

phenomenon, phenomena)

8. Nouns that dont change (e.g., sheep, offspring, series)

It might appear overwhelming, but after using these nouns a couple of times

you will be able to memorize their plural form easily.


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PRONOUN

Pronounsare used to replace nounswithin sentences, making them

less repetitive and mechanic.

Example:

John is an intelligent student. He goes to school daily. He studies a

lot. He is making preparation for examination. He will get high marks

examination.

In the above paragraph pronoun he is used instead of noun John. If we

do not use pronoun in above paragraph we will have to use the noun John

again and again in each sentence. So, the purpose of pronoun is to avoid the

repetition of a noun.

Pronoun can be divided into following groups.

1. Personal Pronouns

Personal pronoun describes a particular person or thing or group.

Personal pronoun describes the person speaking (I, me, we, us), the person

spoken to (you), or the person or thing spoken about (he, she, it, they, him, her,

them).

Example:

1. He helps poor.

The pronoun he in above sentence describes a person who helps poor.

Use of Personal Pronouns

PersonPersonal Pronoun

Subject Object

Singular

1st Person I Me

2nd Person You You

3rd Person He, She, It Him, Her, It

Plural 1st Person We Us


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2nd Person You You

3rd Person They Them

Examples:

1. She is intelligent.

2. They are playing chess.

3.He sent me a letter.

4. It is raining.

5. We love our country.

6. The teacher appreciated them.

7. I met him yesterday.

8. He gave her a gift.

9. Did you go to home?

2. Possessive Pronouns

Possessive Pronoun indicates close possession or ownership or

relationship of a thing/person to another thing/person.

E.g. yours, mine, his, hers, ours, theirs, hers,

Example:

1. This book is mine.

The pronoun mine describes the relationship between book and a person (me)

who possesses this book or who is the owner of this book.

Person Possessive Pronoun

Singular

1st Person Mine

2nd Person Yours

3rd Person Hers, his, its

Plural

1st Person Ours

2nd Person Yours

3rd Person Theirs


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Examples:

1. That car is hers.

2. Your book is old. Mine is new.

3. The pen on the table is mine.

4. The smallest cup is yours.

5. The car is ours not theirs.

6. I have lost my camera. May I use yours?

7. They received your letter. Did you receive theirs?

Note:Possessive adjectives (my, her, your) may be confused with possessive

pronouns. Possessive adjective modifies noun in terms of possession. Both

possessive adjective and possessive show possession or ownership, but

possessive adjective is used (with noun) to modify the noun while Possessive

pronoun is used instead (in place of) a noun.

Examples:

1. This is my book. (Possessive adjective: my modifies the noun book)

2.This book is mine. (Possessive pronoun: mine is used instead of noun to

whom the book belongs)

3. Reflexive Pronoun

Reflexive pronoun describes noun when subjects action affects the

subject itself e.g. himself, yourself, herself, ourselves, themselves, itselfare

reflexive pronouns.

Reflexive pronouns always act as objects not subjects, and they require

an interaction between the subject and an object.

Person Subject Reflexive Pronoun

Singular

1st Person I Myself

2nd Person You Yourself

3rd Person He, she, it Himself, Herself, Itself


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Plural

1st Person We Ourselves

2nd Person You Yourselves

3rd Person They Themselves

Examples:

1. I looked at myself in the mirror.

2. You should think about yourself.

3. They prepared themselves for completion.

4. She pleases herself by think that she will win the prize.

5. He bought a car for himself.

6. He locked himself in the room.

7. He who loves only himself is a selfish.

Note:Reflexive noun can also be used to give more emphasis on subject or

object. If a reflexive pronoun is used to give more emphasis on a subject or an

object, it is calledIntensivePronoun. Usage and function of intensive

pronoun are different from that of reflexive pronoun.

For example,she herself started to think about herself.

In the above sentence the first herself is used as intensive pronoun while

the second herself is used as reflexive pronoun.

Examples of Intensive Pronouns:

1. I did it myself.

2. I myself did it.

3. She herself washed the clothes.

4. He himself decided to go to New York.

5. She herself told me.

4. Reciprocal Pronouns


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Reciprocal Pronouns are used when each of two or more subjects

reciprocate to the other. These pronouns are used when two subjects act in

same way towards each other,or, more subjects act in same way to one another.

For example:

1. A loves B and B love A. We can say that A and B loves each other.

There are two reciprocal pronouns

Each other

One another.

Examples:

1. John and Marry are talking to each other.

2. The students gave cards to one another.

3. The people helped one another in hospital.

4. Two boys were pushing each other.

5. The car and the bus collided with each other.

6. The students in the class greeted one another.

5. Relative Pronouns

Relative Pronoun describes a noun, which is mentioned before, and more

information is to be given about it. Or Relative pronoun is a pronoun, which joins

relative clauses, and relative sentences.

For example:

1. It is the person,whohelped her.

In this sentence the word who is a relative pronoun which refers to the noun

(the person) which is already mentioned in beginning of sentence (It is the

person) and more information (he helped her) is given after using a relative

pronoun (who) for the noun (the person). Similarly, in above sentence the

pronoun who joins two clauses which areit is the personand who helped

her.


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The most commonly used five relative pronouns are, who, whom, whose,

which, that.

Who is for subject and whom is used for object. who and whom are

used for people. Whose is used to show possession and can be used for both

people and things. Which is used for things. That is used for people and

things.

Examples:

1. It is the girl who got first position in class.

2. Adjective is a word that modifies noun.

3. The man whom I met yesterday is a nice person.

4. It is the planning that makes succeed.

5. The boy who is laughing is my friend.

6. It is the boy whose father is doctor.

7. The car which I like is red.

6. Demonstrative Pronouns

Demonstrative pronoun is a pronoun that points to a thing or things.

E.g. this, that, these, those, none, neither

These pronouns point to thing or things in short distance/time or long

distance/time.

Short distance or time:This, these.

Long distance or time:That, those.

this and that are used for singular thing while these or those are used for

plural things.

Examples:

1.This is black.

2. That is heavy.

3. Can you see these?

4. Do you like this?

5. John brought these.

6. Those look attractive


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D. Indefinite Pronouns:

An indefinite pronoun does not refer to any specific person, thing or amount. It is

vague and "not definite".

Note that many indefinite pronouns also function as other parts of speech. Look

at "another" in the following sentences:

1. He has one job in the day and another at night. (pronoun)

2. I'd like another drink, please. (adjective)

Most indefinite pronouns are either singular or plural. However, some of

them can be singular in one context and plural in another. Notice that a singular

pronountakes a singular verbAND that any personal pronoun should alsoagree(in number and gender).

Look at these examples:

Eachof the players hasa doctor.

I met two girls. Onehasgiven me herphone number.

Similarly, plural pronounsneed plural agreement:

Manyhaveexpressed theirviews.

Pronoun Meaning Example

Singular

another an additional or different

person or thing

That ice cream was good. Can I

have another?

anybody/anyone no matter what person Can anyoneanswer this question?

anything no matter what thing The doctor needs to know if you

have eaten anythingin the last two

hours.

each every one of two or more

people or things, seen

separately

Eachhas his own thoughts.


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either one or the other of two

people or things

Do you want tea or coffee? / I don't

mind. Eitheris good for me.

enough as much or as many as

needed

Enoughis enough.

everybody/everyo

ne

all people We can start the meeting because

everybodyhas arrived.

everything all things They have no house or possessions.

They lost everythingin the

earthquake.

less a smaller amount "Lessis more" (Mies van der Rohe)

little a small amount Littleis known about his early life.

much a large amount Muchhas happened since we met.

neither not one and not the

other of two people or

things

I keep telling Jack and Jill but

neitherbelieves me.

nobody/no-one no person I phoned many times but nobody

answered.

nothing no single thing, not

anything

If you don't know the answer it's best

to say nothing.

one an unidentified person Can onesmoke here? | All the

students arrived but now oneis

missing.

other a different person or

thing from one already

mentioned

One was tall and the otherwas

short.

somebody/someone

an unspecified orunknown person

Clearly somebodymurdered him. Itwas not suicide.

something an unspecified or

unknown thing

Listen! I just heard something! What

could it be?

you an unidentified person And youcan see why.


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(informal)

Plural

both two people or things,

seen together

John likes coffee but not tea. I think

bothare good.

few a small number of

people or things

Fewhave ever disobeyed him and

lived.

fewer a reduced number of

people or things

Fewerare smoking these days.

many a large number of people

or things

Manyhave come already.

others other people; not us I'm sure that othershave tried

before us.

several more than two but not

many

They all complained and severalleft

the meeting.

they people in general

(informal)

Theysay that vegetables are good

for you.

Singular or Plural

all the whole quantity of

something or of some

things or people

Allis forgiven.

Allhave arrived.

any no matter how much or

how many

Is anyleft?

Are anycoming?

more a greater quantity of

something; a greater

number of people or

things

There is moreover there.

Moreare coming.

most the majority; nearly all Mostis lost.

Mosthave refused.

none not any; no person or

persons

They fixed the water so why is none

coming out of the tap?


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I invited five friends but nonehave

come. *

some an unspecified quantity

of something; an

unspecified number of

people or things

Here is some.

Somehave arrived.

such of the type already

mentioned

He was a foreigner and he felt that

he was treated as such.


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ADJECTIVES

Adjectives are words used to describe or modify nouns (people, places,

things) and pronouns (e.g., I, she, he, it, they, etc.) by depicting, quantifying, or

identifying them.

o Adjectives can be used before a noun (I like Chinesefood) or after certain

verbs (Itis hard).

o We can often use two or more adjectives together (a

beautifulyoungFrenchlady).

There are two kinds: attributiveand predicative.

- An adjective is used attributivelywhen it stands next to a noun and describesit.

For example: The blackcat climbed a tree.

An adjective is used predicativelywhen a verb separates it from the noun

or pronoun it describes:

Examples:

1. The umpire was wrong.

2. The crowd was fur ious.

3. This soup tastes bad.

4. The dogs coat feels smooth.

The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are called

being verbsor copulative verbs. They include all the forms of to beand

sensing verbs like seem, feel, and taste.

Proper Sequence of Objectives

Being able to identify adjectives is one thing, but for those who often make

mistakes in English,the order adjectives must follow when listed in a series may

be confusing. It can seem arbitrary at first, but there is a basic order you should

use:
http://www.scribendi.com/advice/the_10_most_common_esl_mistakes.en.htmlhttp://www.scribendi.com/advice/the_10_most_common_esl_mistakes.en.html


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1. Determiners:Are articles and other limiters (e.g., a, your, the, five, her).

2. Observations/Opinions:Describes what is thought about the noun (e.g.,

pretty, expensive, delicious).

3. Size:Describes how big or small the noun is (e.g., small, big, tiny,

enormous).

4. Age:Describes how young or old the noun is (e.g., young, old, ancient,

new).

5. Shape:Describes what shape the noun is (e.g., round, square, flat).

6. Color:Describes what color the noun is (e.g., blue, pinkish, green).

7. Material:Describes what the noun is made of (e.g., wood, cotton, silver,

metal).

8. Origin:Describes where the noun is from (e.g., American, eastern,

lunar).

9. Purpose/Qualifier:Describes what the noun is used for or what it does

(e.g., racing [as in racing car], sleeping [as in sleeping bag]).

10.The noun:The word that is being described.

It is also important not to overuse adjectives. Two or three well-chosen

adjectives are more than sufficient.

Consider this sentence: She had an expensiv e, big, long , blu e, cotto n,

Coleman sleeping bag.

While technically correct, the abundance of adjectives should be avoided

in favor of something simpler, such as:

She had an expensive, blue sleeping bag.

Of course, as with most rules in English, there are exceptions to this order.

For example, you may switch opinion and fact (such as size) adjectives for

emphasis: He had a big, uglytruck.

Adjective Classifications

o qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French

o possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their


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o relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc.

o numeral: one, two, second, single, etc.

o indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc.

o demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such

The demonstrative adjectives theanda(an) are so important in English

that they have a special name: articles.

Articles

The words a, an, and theare generally called articlesand sometimes

classed as a separate part of speech. In function, however, they can be grouped

with the demonstrative adjectives that are used to point things out rather than

describe them.

A. Definite Article Theis called the definite articlebecause it points out aparticular object or class.

Examples:

o This is the book I was talking about.

o The dodo bird is extinct.

B. Indefinite Article Ais called the indefinite articlebecause it points out anobject, but not any particular specimen.

Examples:

o a book

o a dog

o a lawn mower

o a horse

The indefinite article has two forms: Ais used before words beginning

with a consonant sound or an aspirated h: a car, a lamb, a hope, a habit,

a hotel

-Anis used before words beginning with a vowel sound: an ape, an image, an

untruth, an honorable man


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Three Degree of Comparison of Adjectives

1. The positive degree is used when simply describing persons or things.

Examples:

The atis tree is tall.

Anita is young.

Chicos are expensive.

Carlo is intelligent.

2. The comparative degree is used when comparing two person or things.

Examples:

The ipil-ipil tree is tallerthan the atis tree.

Josephine is youngerthan Anita.

Mangoes are more expensive than chicos.

Alex is more intelligentthan Carlo.

Rule!

* The Comparative degree of adjectives with one or two syllables is formed by

addinger. If the word ends withy, change y to I and adder.

Examples:

bright - brighter

loud - louder

funnyfunnier

easy - easier

* The comparative degree of adjective with two or more syllables is formed by

adding more before the adjective.

Examples:

more obedient, more comfortable, more responsible, more studious, more

industrious.

Note that the word thanfollows the comparative form.

Examples:

Celia isprettier than Doris.

Water is more refreshing thanjuice.

3. The superlative degree is used when comparing three or more persons or

things.


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Examples:

The acacia tree is the tallestof all them.

Irene is the youngestof them all.

Grapes are the most expensive of the three.

Eric is the most intelligentof the three.

Rule:

* The superlative degree of adjectives is formed by adding estto the

adjective or If the word ends withy, change y to I and addes.

Examples:

long - longest

thinthinnest

lovelyloveliest

pretty - prettiest

* The superlative degree of adjective with two or more syllables is formed

by adding mostbefore the adjective.

Examples:

most courteous

most beautiful

most intelligent

The article thepreceded the superlative form.

Example:

Dado runs the fastest.

Christy is the most responsible person in the class.


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VERB

Verbs arewords, which shows action or state of being.

In the sentence:

The dog bit the man;bit is the verb and the word which shows the action of the

sentence.

In the sentence:

The man is sitting on a chair, even though the action doesn't show much activity,

sitting is the verb of the sentence.

In the sentence:

She is a smart girl, there is no action but a state of being expressed by the verb

is. The word be is different from other verbs in many ways but can still be thought

of as a verb.

Kinds of Verbs

English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete.

1. Transitive VerbsA verb is transitivewhen the action is carried acrossto a receiver:

Examples:

The farmer grows potatoes.

Elvis sang ballads.

The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question What? or

Whom? after the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads.

2. Intransitive VerbsA verb is intransitivewhen the action stays with the verb. It is not carried

across to a receiver:

Examples:

Corn grows.

Elvis sang.


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Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact

that the action remains with the subject: Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all

over the world.Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs.

3. Incomplete VerbsThere are three types of incomplete verbs:

a. being verbsalso called linking or copulative verbs (to be, seem,become, taste, smell, sound, feel)

Tip: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt,

substitute a form of to be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense,

the verb is being used as a copulative verb:

He feels depressed. He is depressed.

He feels the wall. He is the wall.

b. auxiliary verbsalso called helping verbs (be, have, shall, will, do, andmay.)

He could have gone earlier.

c. semi-auxiliary verbs (must, can, ought, dare, need). You must not go.

You dare not go.

Unlike most of the other parts of speech, verbs change their

form. Sometimes endings are added (learn - learned) and sometimes the word

itself becomes different (teach-taught). The different forms of verbs show

different meanings related to such things as tense (past, present, future), person

(first person, second person, third person), number (singular, plural) and voice

(active, passive). Verbs are also often accompanied by verb-like words called

modals (may, could, should, etc.) and auxiliaries(do, have, will, etc.) to give them

different meanings.

One of the most important things about verbs is their relationship to

time. Verbstell if something has already happened, if it will happen later, or if it is


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happening now. For things happening now, we use the present tense of a verb;

for something that has already happened, we use the past tense; and for

something that will happen later, we use the future tense. Some examples of

verbsin each tense are in the chart below:

Present Past Future

look looked will look

move moved will move

talk talked will talk

Verbslike those in the chart above that form the past tense by adding -dor -ed are called regular verbs. Some of the most common verbsare not regular

and the different forms of the verbmust be learned. Some examples of such

irregular verbsare in the chart below:

Present Past Future

see saw will see

hear heard will hear

speak spoke will speak

The charts above show the simple tensesof the verbs. There are also

progressiveor continuousforms, which show that the action takes place over a

period of time, andperfectforms which show completion of the action and a few

examples are given in the chart below:

Present Continuous Present Perfect

is looking has looked

is speaking has spoken

is talking has talked

Simple present tense verbshave a special form for the third person


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singular. Singularmeans "one" andpluralmeans "more than one." Personis

used here to show who or what does the action and can have the following

forms: 1st person or the self (I, we) 2nd person or the person spoken to(you)3rd person or a person not present (he, she, it, they). The third person

singularforms are represented by the pronouns he, she, it. The chart below

shows how the third person singular verbform changes:

Singular Plural

1st Person (I)

see

hear

come

1st Person (we)

see

hear

come

2nd Person (you)

see

hear

come

2nd Person (you)

see

hear

come

3rd Person (he, she, it)

sees

hears

comes

3rd Person (they)

see

hear

come

A verbmust "agree" with its subject. Subject-verb agreementgenerally

means that thethird person singular verb form must be used with a third person

subjectin the simple present tense. The wordbe - the most irregular and also

most common verbin English - has different forms for each person and even for

the simple past tense. The forms of the word be are given in the chart below:

Number Person Present Past Future

Singular

1st (I) am was will be

2nd (you) are were will be

3rd (he, she, it) is was will be

Plural1st (we) are were will be

2nd (you) are were will be


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3rd (they) are were will be

Usually a subjectcomes before a verband an objectmay come after

it. The subjectis what does the action of the verband the objectis what receives

the action. In the sentence Bob ate a hamburger, Bob is the subject or the one

who did the eating and the hamburger is the objector what got eaten. A verb,

which has an object, is called a transitive verband some examples are throw,

buy, hit, love. A verbwhich has no objectis called an intransitive verband some

examples are go, come, walk, listen.

As you can see in the charts above, verbsare often made up of more thanone word. The future forms, for example, use the word will and the perfect forms

use the word have. These words are called helping orauxiliary verbs. The word

be can serve as an auxiliaryand will and shall are also auxiliaryforms. The chart

below shows two other verbs which can also be used as auxiliaries:

Number Person Present Past

Singular

1st (I)

have

do

had

did

2nd (you)have

do

had

did

3rd (he, she, it)has

does

had

did

Plural

1st (we)have

do

had

did

2nd (you) have

do

had

did

3rd (they)have

do

had

did


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Verbs Tenses

The Twelve Tenses of English

PRESENT (main verb)I study English.

He studies English.

PAST (past tense of main verb)I studied English.

He studied English.

FUTURE (will or shall + main verb)

I will study English.

He will study English.

PRESENT PERFECT (have or has + past participle of verb)I have studied English.

He has studied English.

PAST PERFECT (had + past participle of verb)I had studied English.

He had studied English.

FUTURE PERFECT (will or shall + have + past participle of verb)

I will have studied English.

He will have studied English.

PRESENT PROGRESSIVE (form of "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb)I am studying English.

He is studying English.

PAST PROGRESSIVE (past tense of form "be" verb + "ing" form of main verb)


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I was studying English.He was studying English.

FUTURE PROGRESSIVE (will or shall +be + "ing" form of main verb)I will be studying English.

He will be studying English.

PRESENT PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (have or has + been + "ing" form of

main verb)

I have been studying English.

He has been studying English.

PAST PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (had + been + "ing" form of main verb)I had been studying English.

He had been studying English.

FUTURE PERFECT PROGRESSIVE (will or shall + have + been + "ing" form of

main verb)I will have been studying English.

He will have been studying English.

The Voices of the Verb

Active Form

In active sentences, the thing doing the action is the subject of the

sentence and the thing receiving the action is the object. Most sentences are

active.

[Thing doing action] + [verb] + [thing receiving action]

Examples:


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Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the

sentence and the thing doing the action is optionally included near the end of the

sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the thing receiving the

action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive

form if you do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention

who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing

action]

Examples:


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Active and Passive Voice Overview

Tense Active Passive

Simple

Present

Once a week, Tom cleans

the house.

Once a week, the house is

cleanedby Tom.

Present

Continuous

Right now, Sarah is writing

the letter.

Right now, the letter is being

writtenby Sarah.

Simple Past Sam repairedthe car. The car was repairedby Sam.

Past

Continuous

The salesman was helping

the customer when the thief

came into the store.

The customer was being

helpedby the salesman when

the thief came into the store.

Present

Perfect

Many tourists have visited

that castle.

That castle has been visitedby

many tourists.

Present

Perfect

Continuous

Recently, John has been

doingthe work.

Recently, the work has been

being doneby John.

Past Perfect George had repairedmany

cars before he received his

mechanic's license.

Many cars had been repaired

by George before he received

his mechanic's license.Past Perfect

Continuous

Chef Jones had been

preparingthe restaurant's

fantastic dinners for two

years before he moved to

Paris.

The restaurant's fantastic

dinners had been being

preparedby Chef Jones for two

years before he moved to Paris.

Simple Future

will

Someone will finishthe

work by 5:00 PM.

The work will be finishedby

5:00 PM.

Simple Future

be going to

Sally is going to makea

beautiful dinner tonight.

A beautiful dinner is going to

be madeby Sally tonight.

Future

Continuous

will

At 8:00 PM tonight, John

will be washingthe dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes

will be being washedby John.


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Future

Continuous

be going to

At 8:00 PM tonight, John is

going to be washingthe

dishes.

At 8:00 PM tonight, the dishes

are going to be being washed

by John.

Future Perfect

will

They will have completed

the project before the

deadline.

The project will have been

completedbefore the deadline.

Future Perfect

be going to

They are going to have

completedthe project

before the deadline.

The project is going to have

been completedbefore the

deadline.

Future Perfect

Continuous

will

The famous artist will have

been paintingthe mural for

over six months by the time

it is finished.

The mural will have been

being paintedby the famous

artist for over six months by the

time it is finished.

Future Perfect

Continuous

be going to

The famous artist is going

to have been paintingthe

mural for over six months by

the time it is finished.

The mural is going to have

been being paintedby the

famous artist for over six months

by the time it is finished.

Used to Jerry used to paythe bills. The bills used to be paidby

Jerry.

Would Always My mother would always

make the pies.

The pies would always be

made by my mother.

Future in the

Past

Would

I knew John would finish

the work by 5:00 PM.

I knew the work would be

finishedby 5:00 PM.

Future in the

PastWas Going to

I thought Sally was going

to makea beautiful dinnertonight.

I thought a beautiful dinner was

going to be madeby Sallytonight.


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Verbs Mood

Mood is the form of the verb that shows the mode or manner in which a

thought is expressed. English verbs have four moods: indicative, imperative,

subjunctive, and infinitive.

1. Indicative Mood: expresses an assertion, denial, or question:

Examples:

Little Rock is the capital of Arkansas.

Ostriches cannot fly.

Have you finished your homework?

2. Imperative Mood: expresses command, prohibition, entreaty, or advice:

Examples:

Dont smoke in this building.

Be careful!

Dont drown that puppy!

3. Subjunctive Mood: expresses doubt or something contrary to fact.

Modern English speakers use indicative mood most of the time, resorting to akind of mixed subjunctive that makes use of helping verbs:

Examples:

If I should see him, I will tell him.

Americans are more likely to say:

If I see him, I will tell him.

The verb maycan be used to express a wish:

May you have many more birthdays.

May you live long and prosper.

The verb werecan also indicate the use of the subjunctive:

If I were you, I wouldnt keep driving on those tires.

If he were governor, wed be in better fiscal shape.


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4. Infinitive Mood: expresses an action or state without reference to any subject.

It can be the source of sentence fragments when the writer mistakenly thinks the

infinitive form is a fully functioning verb.

When we speak of the English infinitive, we usually mean the basic form

of the verb with to in front of it: to go, to sing, to walk, to speak.

Verbs said to be in the infinitive mood can include participle forms ending

in -ed and -ing. Verbs in the infinitive mood are not being used as verbs, but as

other parts of speech:

Example:

To err is human; to forgive, divine.

Here, to errand to forgiveare used as nouns.

Example:

He is a man to be admired.

Here, to be admiredis an adjective, the equivalent of admirable. It describes the

noun man.

Example:

He came to see you.

Here, to see youis used as an adverb to tell why he came.


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ADVERBS

Adverbs are used to describeor modifya verb, adjective, clause, or

another adverb. Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns

(which are modified by adjectives).

Example of an adverb modifying a verb:

He was running fast. (fastmodifies running)

Example of an adverb modifying an adjective:

She took a very small piece of the cake. (verymodifies small)

Example of an adverb modifying a sentence: Strangely, the man left the room.

(strangelymodifies the whole sentence)

Kinds of Adverbs

1. Adverbs of Manner

These adverbs tell us that in which manner the action occurs or how the

action occurs or occurred or will occur.

Examples:

a. She speaks loudly.

b. He was driving slowly.

c. You replied correctly.

d. He runs fast.

e. They solved the problem easily.

f. Listen to me carefully.

2. Adverb of Place

Adverb of place tells us about the place of action or where actionoccurs/occurred/will occur. e.g. here, there, near, somewhere, outside, ahead,

on the top, at some place.

Examples:

a. He will come here.


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b. The children are playing outside.

c. He was standing near the wall.

d. They were flying kites on the top of hill.

e. He lives somewhere in New York.

f. She went upstairs.

3. Adverb of time

These adverbs tell us about the time of action. e.g. now, then, soon,

tomorrow, yesterday, today, tonight, again, early, yesterday.

Examples:

a. I will buy a computer tomorrow.

b. The guest came yesterday.

c. Do it now.

d. She is still waiting for her brother.

e. He got up early in the morning.

4. Adverb of frequency

Adverbs of frequency tell us how many times the action occurs or

occurred or will occur. e.g. daily, sometimes, often, seldom, usually, frequently,always, ever, generally, rarely, monthly, yearly.

Examples:

a. He goes to school daily.

b. She never smokes.

c. He is always late for class.

d. They always come in time.

e. Barking dogs seldom bite.

f. The employees are paid monthly.

g. The employees are paid every month.

5. Adverbs of purpose


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Adverbs of purpose describe why something happens. Here are some common

examples e.g. so that , in order to , because since, accidentally,intentionally and purposely.

Examples:

a. Jenny walks carefully to avoid falling.

b. Bob accidentally broke the vase.

Order of Adverbs

There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more

than one. It is similar toThe Royal Order of Adjectives,but it is even more

flexible.

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS

Manner Place Frequency Time Purpose

Dad walks into townevery

afternoon

before

supper

to get a

newspaper.

Tashonda

napsquietly in her room

every

morning

before

lunch.
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PREPOSITION

Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronounsto other words within

a sentence. The words linked to are called objects.

Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the nounand the object, like in the example below:

The cat is und er the table.

Catis the noun. Underis the preposition. Tableis the object.

Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above, after,

among, around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down,

from, in, into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, through, to, up, upon, under, and

with.

Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by

the preposition and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb,

adjective or noun.

For example:

The dog was running under the rain.

The prepositional phrase under the rain acts as an adverb, specifying

where the dog was running.


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CONJUNCTIONS

A conjunction is a word, which connects two words or clauses or

sentences and shows the relation between them. They are used to avoid

making the text seem like bullet points and to make the text flow.

Example:

Jai saw a dog on the road. He decided to adopt the dog. Jai brought the dog

home.

Jai saw a dog on the road anddecided to adopt the dog, sohe brought the

dog home.

Here and and so are conjunctions which are used to join the

sentences and show the relation between them.

There are three main categories of conjunctions that are explained

below.

Coordinating Conjunctions

These conjunctions are used to link or join two words or phrases that

are equally important and complete in terms of grammar when compared with

each other. That is to say, the sentences or words do not depend on anything

to give themselves meaning.

There are seven main coordinating conjunctions -

For

And

Nor

ButOr

Yet

Soon

These conjunctions are always placed between the two clauses or

words that they are joining. The following are some examples of the


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coordinating conjunctions -

1. Chris does not want tea. Chris does not want coffee.

Chris does not want tea orcoffee.

Here, we see how or was used to combine the two words and make a

cohesive sentence using them. Also, notice how the oris between the two

words.

2. I scored 60% in the exams this year. Anita scored 7% more than me this

year.

I scored 60% in the exams butAnita scored 7% more than me this year.

Here we see that butwas used in the middle to combine and show the

relation between the two sentences that were both equally important and

cohesive by themselves.

Subordinating Conjunctions

These conjunctions are used to join an independent and complete

clause with a dependent clause that relies on the main clause for meaning and

relevance. The dependent clause cannot exist on its own as a sentence and

often does not make sense without the main clause.The subordinating conjunction always comes before the dependent

clause but the dependent clause itself can be placed either ahead of or

following the independent clause.

Example:

Since they had misbehaved, the boys were given one-week suspensions from

school.

Here, we see the dependent clause is they had misbehaved which is not a

valid sentence by itself.The independent main clause is the boys were given

one week suspensions from school.They are joined by the subordinating

conjunction since.


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Other subordinating conjunctions are - Although, As, Before, Once, Though,

Until, Whether,etc.

Correlative ConjunctionsCorrelative Conjunctions are simply pairs of conjunctions used in a sentence to

join different words or groups of words in a sentence together. Correlative

Conjunctions are generally not used to link sentences themselves, instead they

link two or more words of equal importance within the sentence itself. Some of

the more commonly used correlative conjunctions are -

Both the shoes andthe dress were completely overpriced.

This is an example of using the correlative conjunctions both/and in a

sentence. As you can see in this sentence, the shoes and the dress

were equally important elements that needed to be given the same

importance.

They should eitherchange their strategy orjust forfeit the game.

The either/or conjunctions are used to suggest a choice between two

options. Here the choice being suggested is between - change their

strategy or forfeit the game.

Just as she loves hiking so she enjoys travelling as well.

1. The correlative conjunctions just as/so are used to link two phrases that

have a similar theme or are referring to a similar thing together. This

conjunction is used to show the correspondence between two phrases or

words.

He neitherhelps around the house nor does he look for a job.

Neither/nor are conjunctions that are used to deny or negate

words and phrases. In the case of neither, it gives two options that are

both negated. Nor is the negative form of or.

Not only does he play the lead guitarbut he is also the bands songwriter.

The correlative conjunctions not only/but are used to show an

additional and important element in the sentence that is used to indicate

excess when combined with the first element. For instance, in this


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sentence the fact that he is a guitarist and a songwriter are equally

important but when shown together, they indicate an excess of talent in

the person.

It doesnt matter whetherthe roses are fresh orif they are drooping, just buy

them.

Whether/or is used as a conjunction to show two different options

in the sentence. The conjunction can be used both in a manner of negation and

confirmation.


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INTERJECTIONS

Interjection comes from a Latin word that means, throw between. Its a

word or phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion:Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical

function but is rather a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal (F.J. Rahtz).

Interjections express feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called the

miserable refuge of the speechless.

Interjection Meaning Example

Ah expressing pleasure "Ah, that feels good."

expressing realization "Ah, now I understand."

expressing resignation "Ah well, it can't be helped."

expressing surprise "Ah! I've won!"

Alas expressing grief or pity "Alas, she's dead now."

dear expressing pity "Oh dear! Does it hurt?"

expressing surprise "Dear me! That's a surprise!"

Eh asking for repetition "It's hot today." "Eh?" "I said it's hot

today."

expressing enquiry "What do you think of that, eh?"

expressing surprise "Eh! Really?"

inviting agreement "Let's go, eh?"

Er expressing hesitation "Lima is the capital of...er...Peru."

hello, hullo expressing greeting "Hello John. How are you today?"

expressing surprise "Hello! My car's gone!"

Hey calling attention "Hey! Look at that!"

expressing surprise, joy

etc

"Hey! What a good idea!"

Hi expressing greeting "Hi! What's new?"

Hmm expressing hesitation, "Hmm. I'm not so sure."


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doubt or disagreement

oh, o expressing surprise "Oh! You're here!"

expressing pain "Oh! I've got a toothache."

expressing pleading "Oh, please say 'yes'!"

Ouch expressing pain "Ouch! That hurts!"

Uh expressing hesitation "Uh...I don't know the answer to that."

uh-huh expressing agreement "Shall we go?" "Uh-huh."

um, umm expressing hesitation "85 divided by 5 is...um...17."

well expressing surprise "Well I never!"

introducing a remark "Well, what did he say?"


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SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT

Subject-verb agreement is a grammar rule that requires the

subject (noun) to agree in number and person with the verb. So if the

subject of a sentence is singular, the verb must be singular. If the

subject of a sentence is plural, the verb must be plural.


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SUBJECTVERBAGREEMENT

A. Basic Pr inciple: Singular sub jects need singu lar verbs; plural subjects

need plural verbs.

1. My brother isa nutritionist.

2. My sisters aremathematicians.

The indefinite pronouns anyone, everyone, someone, no one, nobodyare

always singular and, therefore, require singular verbs.

1. Everyone hasdone his or her homework.

2. Somebody has lefther purse.

Some indefinite pronouns such as all, someare singular or plural

depending on what they're referring to. (Is the thing referred to countable or not?)

Be careful choosing a verb to accompany such pronouns.

1. Some of the beads aremissing.

2. Some of the water isgone.

On the other hand, there is one indefinite pronoun, none, that can be

either singular or plural; it often doesn't matter whether you use a singular or a

plural verb unless something else in the sentence determines its number.

(Writers generally think of noneas meaning not anyand will choose a pluralverb, as in "None of the engines are working," but when something else makes

us regard noneas meaning not one, we want a singular verb, as in "None of the

food is fresh.")

1. None of you claimsresponsibility for this incident?

2. None of you claimresponsibility for this incident?

3. None of the students have donetheir homework. (In this last example,

the word theirprohibits the use of the singular verb.

B. Some indefinite pronouns are particularly troublesome Everyone and

everybody certainly feellike more than one person and, therefore,

students are sometimes tempted to use a plural verb with them. They are


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always singular, though. Each is often followed by a prepositional phrase

ending in a plural word (Each of the cars), thus confusing the verb

choice. Each,too, is always singular and requires a singular verb.

1. Everyone hasfinished his or her homework.

You would always say, "Everybody ishere." This means that the word is singular

and nothing will change that.

1. Each of the students isresponsible for doing his or her work in the

library.Don't let the word "students" confuse you; the subject is eachand

eachis always singular Each is responsible.

C. Phrases such as together w ith, as w el l as, and along withare not the

same as an d.The phrase introduced by as well asor along withwill modify

the earlier word (mayorin this case), but it does not compound the subjects

(as the word andwould do).

1. The mayor as well as his brothers isgoing to prison.

2. The mayor and his brothersaregoing to jail.

D. The pronouns neitherand eitherare singular and require singular verbs

even though they seem to be referring, in a sense, to two things.

1. Neither of the two traffic lights isworking.

2. Which shirt do you want for Christmas? Either isfine with me.

E. The conjunction ordoes not conjoin (as an ddoes): when noror oris

used the subject closer to the verb determines the number of the verb.

Whether the subject comes before or after the verb doesn't matter; the

proximity determines the number.

1. Either my father or my brothers aregoing to sell the house.

2. Neither my brothers nor my father isgoing to sell the house.

3. Areeither my brothers or my father responsible?

4. Iseither my father or my brothers responsible?


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Because a sentence like "Neither my brothers nor my father is going to sell the

house" sounds peculiar, it is probably a good idea to put the plural subject closer

to the verb whenever that is possible.

F. The words thereand hereare never subjects.

1. There aretwo reasons [plural subject] for this.

2. There isno reason for this.

3. Here aretwo apples.

With these constructions (called expletive constructions), the subject follows the

verb but still determines the number of the verb.

G. Verbs in the present tense for third-person, singular subjects (he, she, it

and anything those words can stand for) have s-endings. Other verbs

do not add s-endings.

1. He loves and she loves and they love_ and . . ..

H. Sometimes modifiers will get between a subject and its verb, but these

modifiers must not confuse the agreement between the subject and its

verb.

1. The mayor, who has been convicted along with his four brothers on four

counts of various crimes but who also seems, like a cat, to have several

political lives, isfinally going to jail.

I. Sometimes nouns take weird forms and can fool us into thinking they're plural

when they're really singular and vice-versa. Words such as glasses, pants,

pliers, and scissors are regarded as plural (and require plural verbs)

unless they're preceded the phrase pair of (in which case the word pairbecomes the subject).

1. My glasses wereon the bed.

2. My pants weretorn.

3. A pair of plaid trousers isin the closet.


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J. Some words end in -s and appear to be plural but are really singular and

require singular verbs.

1. The news from the front isbad.

2. Measles isa dangerous disease for pregnant women.

On the other hand, some words ending in -s refer to a single thing but are

nonetheless plural and require a plural verb.

1. My assets werewiped out in the depression.

2. The average worker's earnings havegone up dramatically.

3. Our thanks goto the workers who supported the union.

The names of sports teams that do not end in "s" will take a plural verb:

1. The Miami Heat have been looking ,

2. The Connecticut Sun are hoping that new talent .

K. If your sentence compounds a positive and a negative subject and one

is plural, the other singular, the verb should agree with the positive

subject.

1. The department members but not the chair have decidednot to teach on

Valentine's Day.

2. It is not the faculty members but the president who decidesthis issue.

3. It was the speaker, not his ideas, that has provokedthe students to riot.

L. Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.

1. Ten dollars is a high price to pay.

2. Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.

M. Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in

the middle of the sentence.The pronouns who, that, and which become

singular or plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that

noun is singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.

1. Salma is the scientist who writes the reports. The word in front of who is

scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular verb writes.


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2. He is one of the men who do the work. The word in front of whois men,

which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.

N. Collective nouns such as team and staff may be either singular or plural

depending on their use in the sentence.

1. The staff is in a meeting. Staff is acting as a unit here.

2. The staff are in disagreement about the findings. The staff are acting as

separate individuals in this example. The sentence would read even

better as: The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.

O. The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody,

someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs.Do not

be misled by what follows of.

1. Each of the girls sings well.

2. Every one of the cakes is gone.

NOTE:Everyone is one word when it means everybody. Every one is two words

when the meaning is each one.

P. With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part, majority,

some, all, none, remainder, and so forth look at the noun in your of

phrase (object of the preposition) to determine whether to use a

singular or plural verb.If the object of the preposition is singular, use a

singular verb. If the object of the preposition is plural, use a plural verb.

1. Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared. Pie is the object of the

preposition of.

2. Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared. Pies is the object of the

preposition.

3. One-third of the city is unemployed.

4. One-third of the people are unemployed.

5. All of the pie is gone.

6. All of the pies are gone.


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7. Some of the pie is missing.

8. Some of the pies are missing.

9. None of the garbage was picked up.

10. None of the sentences were punctuated correctly.

11. Of all her books, none have sold as well as the first one.

NOTE:Apparently, the SAT testing service considers none as a singular word

only. However, according to Merriam Webster's Dictionary of English Usage,

"Clearly nonehas been both singular and plural since Old English and still is.

The notion that it is singular only is a myth of unknown origin that appears to

have arisen in the 19th century. If in context it seems like a singular to you, use a

singular verb; if it seems like a plural, use a plural verb. Both are acceptable

beyond serious criticism" (p. 664).

Other Examples:

1. Some of the voters arestill angry.

2. A large percentage of the older population isvoting against her.

3. Two-fifths of the troops werelost in the battle.

4. Two-fifths of the vineyard wasdestroyed by fire.

5. Forty percent of the students arein favor of changing the policy.

6. Forty percent of the student body isin favor of changing the policy.

7. Two and two isfour.

8. Four times four divided by two iseight.

Q. The expression the number is followed by a singular verb while the

expression a numberis followed by a plural verb.

1. The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.

2. A number of people have written in about this subject.


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PUNCTUATION MARKS

Punctuationmarks aresymbols that indicate the structure andorganization ofwritten language,as well asintonation and pauses to

be observed when reading aloud.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbols


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Punctuation Marks

Punctuation marks are important in both written and spoken English. In

written English, the correct usage of these symbols helps to express the

intended meaning of the sentence. In spoken English, punctuation marks

denote the pauses and intonations to be used when reading aloud.

Incorrect punctuation can change the meaning of a sentence.

For instance, compare the following two sentences:

1. Lets eat Mom.

2. Lets eat, Mom.

Do you see how the usage of a comma changes the entire meaning in

both the sentences? The disappearance of comma in the first sentence

indicates that the speaker is asking to eat their Mom, which does not make

sense. Whereas, the comma after lets eat in the second sentence helps to

convey the meaning that the speaker is suggesting to their Mom to go and start

eating, which sounds more sensible and also saves a life.

Symbols of Punctuation

Some of the commonly used punctuation marks are:

1. Full Stop -(.) Usually used at the end of a sentence.

2. Question Mark -(?) Usually used at the end of an interrogative sentence

to form a question.

3. Comma - (,) Usually used to denote a pause in a sentence.

4. Exclamation Mark - (!) Used to denote shock, surprise, anger or a raised

voice.

5. Colon(:) Used to indicate what is to follow next

6. Semi Colon (;) Used to link two independent clauses not joined by a

conjunction or used to separate two independent clauses in place of
http://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/full-stophttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/question-markhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/commahttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/exclamation-markhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/colon-semi-colonhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/colon-semi-colonhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/colon-semi-colonhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/colon-semi-colonhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/exclamation-markhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/commahttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/question-markhttp://www.englishleap.com/punctuation/full-stop


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comma

7. Apostrophe - (') Used to show possession or for contraction of word.

FIGURES OF SPEECH

A figure of speechis the use of aword or aphrase,which

exceeds its literal interpretation. It can be a special repetition,

arrangement or omission of words with literal meaning, or aphrase

with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the

words in it. Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of

expression, or clarity. However, clarity may also suffer from their use,

as any figure of speech introduces an a

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