Grade 10 Science Exam Notes

8/4/2019 Grade 10 Science Exam Notes

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Grade 9 Chemistry Review

Matter

Has mass and Volume

Divided into 3 groups

Solids have definite shape, constant volume, have

equidistance dense molecules, and slow molecule vibration

Liquids take shape of their container, have a constant

volume, their distance between molecules is close, the

speed is moderate and they flow.

Gases take shape and expand to fill container, change

volume depending on container, molecules are far apart

and they move fast and randomly

Change of state is possible with addition or removal of

energy

Solid to Gas or Vice Versa is called Sublimation

Physical vs Chemical Change

Physical Change has no new substance formed and their is

no change to the molecular structure. Ex Ripping Paper

Chemical changes produce new substances and their is a

change in the molecular structure.

Proofs of Chemical change are:

Formation of Gas

Colour

Temperature (transfer of energy)

Precipitate

Not Reversible

Classifying matter

Laboratory Techniques to Separate Mixtures

Gravity Filtration

Best for mechanical/heterogeneous mixtures.

Filter over flask and the liquid is poured over the

filter to remove the solid

Filter filters out the large particles (solids)

Vacuum Filtration

Clamp a side arm flask securely to a ring stand1.

Place the rubber adapter in the side arm flask2.

Place the Buchner funnel on the adapter3.

Place Filter Paper on funnel4.

Connect the side arm flask to a vacuum sources

(sink)

5.

6.

Separation Funnel

Used for immiscible liquids (see components)

Place flask under funnel

Add extractor SolventOpen Stopper

Close stopper once one liquid has run into the

flask

Laboratory Techniques to Separate Mixtures Cont.

Centrifugation

Best for small amounts of heterogeneous mixtures

Spins Mixture in a centrifuge

Pushes particles to the side using Gravity

It is important to balance the mixture on the opposite side or

the liquid will fly out

Decant- to pour off the liquid

Supernatant-the liquid of the mixture

Flocculation/Coagulation

Add coagulate in order to remove the negative charge of solid

particles. (clumps particles together)

Floc -is the product formed after inserting the chemicals (white

flakes)

Coagulation- is clumping together

Used in Water Treatment plants

Distillation

Used for separating solvents and solutes or 2 liquids.

Heat 2 liquids to the boiling point of one of the liquids. The

liquid will than evaporate and r un down the condenser tube,

cooled by water and collect at the bottom. The condensor tube

has 2 rings. The outer one is for water inorder to cool the

vapour, and the interior one is meant for the vapour to travel

through.

Boiling Chips are often used to stop bubbles from colliding.

The condensate is the vapour in liquid form.

The Atom

Almost the entire mass of protons ( 1u) and neutrons(1u).

The mass of the electron is so small that it is considered

0.

Atom's charge is neutral, therefore there are an equal

amount of protons and electrons

The number of protons determines the atomic number

(in the nucleus)

The total number of protons and neutrons is known as

the mass number

Mass Number is always on the top left of the symbol and

atomic number is bottom left.

Isotopes

Isotopes are atoms with the same atomic

number, but have variable amount of neutrons.

Same chemical properties but different

physical properties.

Paper Chromatography

Separate substances in a mixture on different motilities' of the components

The stationary phase is the porous paper, such as filter paper

The mobile phase is the developing solution e.x water, acetone

Samples are dotted on the stationary phase

Chromatogram is placed in developing solution and the solution will move up

As it moves it will pull the components based on the affinity.

Rf(representative fraction) is how much a certain part of the solution advanced

compared to the overall advance.

Periodic Table

Noble Gases are stable

Groups share chemical properties

Moving down the periodic table increase number of electron shells

Moving Right increases the number of electrons in valence shell

Elements closest to 1 or 7 electrons in valence shell will bond

easiest.

Gases are more reactive further up and metals are more reactive

further down.

Most Reactive Elements are Francium and Fluorine. The closer

elements are to these two the more reactive.

Lewis Dot Diagrams

Represent the number of valence electrons

Number of Valence Electrons determines Chemical Properties

Members with the same number of Valence electrons bond similarly

When bonded place square brackets around the element and mark the

electrons gained with a different mark, other than a dot such as an x.

Valence Electrons and Oxidation Numbers

Nobles gases are not reactive because of full Valence Shell

During Chemical reactions elements lose or gain electrons

Some elements have multiple valence shells hence numbers

Oxidation number is the charge after it has formed a stable

octet

Positive Oxidation numbers lose electrons and negative gain

electrons

Ionic bonds are between a metal and non metal

Metal gives electrons while Non metal takes electrons

The bond is electrostatic

High melting point, non conductive as solids highly conductive

as liquids, brittle

Writing Chemical Equations

Represent what is happening in a chemical equation

Word Equation: Represent what is occurring in words

Naming Ionic Compounds

If there is a sole valence, place the metal first and than add the gas after, remove

the ending and add -ide e.x Sodium Choloride NaCl

You can determine how much of each atom you need by the oxidation number.

Take the oxidation number of one element is how many of the other element is

required. Then reduce.

Variable valences can be named using the Stock system and the ic-ous system

Choose one of the 2 valences to fill. Choose that oxidation number. Than write it

in Roman numerals e.x. Iron (III) Chloride

Written in symbols the same as above.

The other way is the ic-ous system

Using the Latin name of the element. If you use the Valence with the higher

Covalent Bonding and Naming

Covalent Bonding is between two non-metals

The two elements share electrons e.x. H20/ Water

Always write H20 as water and NH4 as Ammonia

Hydrogen bonds with itself to be stable so do Oxygen,

Fluoride, Bromide, Iodine, Nitrogen, Chlorine

HOFBrINCl

Covalent Bonds are named by the elements adopting a prefix

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oxidation number you add the suffix -ic if you use the Valence with the lower

oxidation number you add the suffix - ous

Latin names needed to be known Copper:Cuprum, Iron: Ferrum, Lead: Plumbum

Tim Stannum, Gold: aurum EX Cupric Oxide or Ferrous Oxide

Treat Polyatomic Ions like elements, use oxidation number.

However when writing with Symbols, if multiple Polyatomic Ions are needed,

place the base in brackets and the number of ions needed outside the brackets.

Binary Acids are bonded elements with hydrogen. They are dissolved in water.

Therefore the are written as one word with the suffix -ic with the word acid right

after. Hydrogen Bromide becomes Hydrobromic acid and in symbols it is written

the same except their is (aq) at the bottom, meaning aqueous.

Peroxides are elements that are bonded with oxygen, that have an extra oxygen

atom. The easiest way to detect them is if the equation isn't reduced. Such as

H2O2 is a peroxide cause it has an extra oxygen. The prefix per- is added in front

of the oxygen. You do not reduce after the oxygen has been added.

depending on how many atoms of that element are in the

compound

Water would be called Dihyrdogen monoxide

NH3 or Nitrogen Trihydride is always ammonia

The prefixes are

Mono-1 Di-2 Tri-3 Tetra-4 Penta-5 Hexa-6 Hepta-7Octa-8

Nona-9 Deca-10

If the first element in the name only has one atom, no prefix

is needed

If the element begins in a vowel and the prefix ends in an a

remove the "a"

EX NO2 is Nitrogen Dioxide

Balancing Equations

Balancing equations is to obey the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states matter cannot be destroyed or created.

Assure that there are equal amounts of each element on both sides by adding coefficients.Look at the equation and see which elements are not balanced. In this case, there are two oxygen atoms on the lef thand side o f the equation and only one on the righthandside. Correct this by putting a coefficient of 2 in front of water:SnO2+ H2 Sn + 2 H2OThis puts the hydrogen atoms out of balance. Now there are tw o hydrogen atoms on the left and four hydrogen atoms on the righ t. To get four hydrogen atoms on the right,add a coefficient of 2 for the hydrogen gas. Remember, coefficients are multipliers, so if we write 2 H2O it denotes 2x2=4 hy drogen atoms and 2x1=2 oxygen atoms.SnO2+ 2 H2 Sn + 2 H2OThe equation is now balanced. Be sure to double -check your math! Each side of the equation has 1 atom of Sn, 2 atoms of O, and 4 atoms of H.

1.

Redox reactions are when elements gain or lose electrons during the chemical change

Determine the oxidation numbers with the help of a few rules1)

Elements alone always have a charge of 0

In a compound Fluorine is always -1

In a compound, Oxygen is always -2 except if combined with Fluroine that is it is +2 or in peroxide for it is -1

In a compound H is always +1 when combined with a non metal and -1 combined with a metal

In compounds consisting of 1 METAL and 1 NON-METAL The non metal have their normal oxidation numbers

In compounds Alkali Metals are always +1 and earth metals are always +2

After find that, find which element has changed from the left side to the right in terms of oxidation numbers2)

There should be one that has gained and one that has lost, equate the number of electrons gained and lost3)Balance the rest of the equation4) HNO3(aq)+ H3AsO3(aq) --> NO(g)+ H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)

The H and O atoms are difficult to balance in this equation. You might arrive at the correct balanced equation using a trial and error

technique, but if you do not discover the correct coefficients fairly quickly, proceed to Step #3.

Step #1: Try to balance the atoms by inspection.

The N atoms change from +5 to +2, so they are reduced. This information is enough to tell us that the reaction is redox. (The As atoms,

which change from +3 to +5, are oxidized.)

Step #3: Is the reaction redox?

As +3 to +5 Net Change = +2

N +5 to +2 Net Change = -3

Step #4: Determine the net increase in oxidation number for the element that is oxidized and the net decrease in oxidation number for the

element that is reduced.

As atoms would yield a net increase in oxidation number of +6. (Six electrons would be lost by three arsenic atoms.) 2 N atoms would yield a

net decrease of -6. (Two nitrogen atoms would gain six electrons.) Thus the ratio of As atoms to N atoms is 3:2.

Step #5: Determine a ratio of oxidized to reduced atoms that would yield a net increase in oxidation number equal to the net decrease in

oxidation number.

2HNO3(aq)+ 3H3AsO3(aq)

--> NO(g)+ H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)

Step #6: To get the ratio identified in Step 5, add coefficients to the formulas which contain the elements whose oxidation number is changing.

Solution:

2HNO3(aq)+ 3H3AsO3(aq)

--> 2NO(g) + 3H3AsO4(aq)+ H2O(l)

Step #7: Balance the rest of the equation by inspection.

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Types of Reaction

All chemical reactions can be placed into one of six categories. Here they are, in no particular order:

1) Combustion: A combustion reaction is when oxygen combines with another compound to form water and carbon dioxide. These reactions are

exothermic, meaning they produce heat. An example of this kind of reaction is the burning of napthalene:

There is always heat in added in a combustion reaction, also there must be an ample supply of oxygen as well as a Hydrocarbon(Hydrogen+Carbon)

If there is not enough oxygen Carbon Monoxide is created instead. CO

C10H8 + 12 O2 ---> 10 CO2 + 4 H2O

2) Synthesis: A synthesis reaction is when two or elements combine to form a more complicated one. These reactions come in the g eneral form of:

A + B ---> AB

One example of a synthesis reaction is the combination of iron and sulfur to form iron (II) sulfide:

8 Fe + S8 ---> 8FeS

Note: These reactions can occur with Polyatomic Ions AND Water and Carbon Dioxide acting as 1 element.HINTS: 2 Reactants= 1 Product

Reactants are not mixtures

Reactants are NOT 2 metals.

3) Decomposition: A decomposition reaction is the opposite of a synthesis reaction - a complex molecule breaks down to make simpler ones. These

reactions come in the general form:

AB ---> A + B

Special Forms:

Metal Carbonate ---> Metal Oxide and C arbon Dioxide

Metal Hydrogen Carbonate/Bicarbonate--->Water +Carbon Dioxide + Metal Carbonate

Metal Chlorates---> Metal Chloride + Oxygen Gas

One example of a decomposition reaction is the electrolysis of water to make oxygen and hydrogen gas:

2 H2O ---> 2 H2 + O2

4) Single displacement: This is when one element trades places with another element in a compound. These reactions come in the general form of:

A + BC ---> AC + B

HINTS:

2 Reactants 2 Products

1 Reactant and 1 Product are Elements

In order to switch places or kick out an element from the compound, The element doing the kicking out must be higher on the a ctivity series or

closer to Fluorine.

Compound is always (aq)

One example of a single displacement reaction is when magnesium replaces hydrogen in water to make magnesium hydroxide and hy drogen gas:

Mg + 2 H2O ---> Mg(OH)2 + H2

5) Double displacement: This is when the anions and cations of two different molecules switch places, forming two entirely diffe rent compounds.

These reactions are in the general form:

AB + CD ---> AD + CB

HINTS:

2 Reactants 2 Products

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Both Reactants must be (aq)

1 Product is (aq) the other is a precipitate.

Check table of solubilities to see if it is precipitate or not.

One example of a double displacement reaction is the reaction of lead (II) nitrate with potassium iodide to form lead (II) io dide and potassium

nitrate:

Pb(NO3)2 + 2 KI ---> PbI2 + 2 KNO3

6) Acid-base: This is a special kind of double displacement reaction that takes place when an acid and base react with each other. Th eH+ ion in the acid reacts with the OH-ion in the base, causing the formation of water. Generally, the product of this reaction is some ionicsalt and water:HA + BOH ---> H2O + BANOTES:Always Dissolved in Water:Acid+Base---> Water +Ionic CompoundHydroxide Ions form Base combine with Hydrogen atom from Acid and for water leaving metal +Non Metal.If Carbonate is present in the base CO2 will be formedEX HCl +NaHCO3 ---> H20 + NaCl + CO2One example of an acid-base reaction is the reaction of hydrobromic acid (HBr) with sodium hydroxide:HBr + NaOH ---> NaBr + H2O

Practical uses of Acid-Base Reaction areCleaning up acids or base spillsNeutralize Fish OilHelping Baked goods rise ---> due to CO2Antacids Neutralize stomach acids.

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Acids vs Bases

Acids

Taste Sour

Soluble in Water

Reacts with anything higher than hydrogen on

Activity Series

Reacts with Carbonates

Good Conductor of electricity

Releases Hydrogen Ions when in water

Corrosive

Bases

Taste bitter

Soluble in Water

Reacts with anything higher than hydrogen on

Activity Series

Reacts with Protein

Good conductor of electricity

Release Hydroxide atoms when in water

Corrosive

Ph

Symbolizes the concentration of Hydrogen ions

Meaning every 1 unit on the scale is 10x more than the one

before

It is by a logarithmic scale

The scale is from 0-14

7 is Neutral

Lower on the scale means more acidic

Higher on the Scale means more basic

Acids and Bases in Water

Hydrogen is slightly Posoitive

Oxygen is negative

This polarity allows the parts of a compound to be attracted

to different parts of water

These forces can tear compounds apart.

Water

Hydrogen end is posotive

Oxygen attracts the hydrogen and the gas is attracted to the

hydrogen in water

Non Metal Part is negative

Ionization occurs and the acid is separated in the solution.

Acids

Ionic Compounds

Metallic End is Positive and attracted to oxygen

Hydroxide is pulled by hydrogen because it is negative.

Bases

Writing Chemical Equations

Always write the state of the element or compound, if

known.

(S)-Solid

(L)-Liquid

(G)-Gas

(aq) Dissolved in Water

Remember Diatomic Molecules must have a subscript of 2.

Counting Atoms

The Symbol of an element represents one atom of the element

A subscript can indicate the number of atoms

Subscript outside of brackets multiplies the number of atoms in the brackets

Coefficients in front of the element represent the number of atoms in that element or Formula

Animal Cell

Plant Cell

Cell PartsNucleus- Controls the cell. Is like the brain. Directs the activities of the cell.Endoplasmic reticulum- Transports things throughout the cell.Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum- synthesises proteins; transports protein; large Surface Area forreactions.Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum- Transfers phospholipids (Fat) and macro mloeculesMitochondria- Produces ATP (a chemical energy store) for the cell. Is often called the "powerhouse"of the cell.Vacuoles- Store things for the cell like water and waste.Golgi bodies/apparatus- sorts proteins, processes them, synthesizes carbohydrates for plant cell

walls.Vesicle-part of the Golgi Apparatus; Store ProteinCell membrane- Protects the cell and gives it shape and structure. Also controls what passes into thecell and what stays out, and recognizes signal molecules such as growth factors and hormones.Consists of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.Lysosome- Filled with enzymes that destroy waste in a cell.Chloroplasts (plant cells only)- Contain chlorophyll, which converts light energy into chemical

energy, which it uses to synthesize glucose from the simple, inorganic substances carbon dioxide andwater.Ribosomes- synthesize (make) protiens that are used to make amino acids.

Chromatin-The Combination of DNA in a cell

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Cytoplasm-Holds organelles in place; environment for chemical reactions to occur; nutrients

Cell Wall-tough rigid structure supporting the plant cell

Nucleolus-Creates ribosomes (protein)

Nuclear Membrane-Protects Nucleus controls movement of material in and out (micromolecules)

Nuclear Pores- Allows macromolecules in and out of the cell

Chromatin- Contains the genetic information

Cytoskeleton-filaments and tubes which provide framework for the cell.

Centrioles-Involved in Cell Division

Cilia and Flagella(Animal)-Move cell through the environment.

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Microscope

DNA

Contains genes which create proteins

Genes create protein

Different combinations of 4 genes leads to thousands of

possibilites

DNA testing is possible at an early age thanks to blood tests

Genetic flaws could occur with an extra or missing g ene, thuscreating over or under growth of protein.

Universal Gene code allows different organisms to read gene

code

Beneficial to help humans cure diseases such as heart, liver etc.

Mitosis

Reproduction of single celled organisms

Replacing damaged cells

Growth

Mitosis is useful for

Cytokenesis is the division of cytoplasm and other organelles

The Cell Cycle

Continuous sequence of growth and division

Interphase

Mitosis

Cytokenesis

Cell Division

Life Cycle is divided into

G1: the Cell grows and prepares for division

Single stranded --> Double Stranded

S:Cell duplicates genetic information

G2: Cell continues to grow and prepare for cell

division.

Interphase

Chromosomes have attacked to spindle fibres

DNA is damaged or not replicated

Not Enough nutrients or DNA is damaged

Checkpoints before cell division in order to prevent

defects are:

DNA is not duplicated

DNA is damaged

Not enough nutrients

Cell Division will not occur if:

Stop Dividing due to damage

Nerve Cells

Some cells are naturally like this

These cells commit suicide

Not being in the Cell Cycle is the Non-dividing stage

Cancer Cells

Grow much faster than normal cells

The more cells that usually reproduce the faster cancer grows.

Cancer cells can enter the bloodstream and spread

around the body.

Several Layers and different types of tumour and cancers

Cell Specialization and Types of Cell

Cell Specialization is the process by which cells develop into cells with specific functions, within multicellular organisms (organs/tissue)

Cell Differentiation is the stage when living organisms create specialized cells

Groups of specialized cells are called tissue.

Groups of tissue form organs, which are working together

Multicelleular organisms start on of a s ingle cell(zygote)Animal Cells that an differentiate are stem cells. The most diverse are Totipotent, than Pluipotent and finally Adult Stem Ce lls

Plants Cells which differentiate are called Meristematic cells, which can divide into Dermal/Vascular and Ground Tissue

Plant Organs

Large surface area allows it absorb more sunlight

Photosynthesis

Stored in root

Stores product of photosynthesis (glucose) as starch

The Leaf

The Stem

Physical Support for the plant

Transportation of water and other nutrients

Hollow to allow the transport of water(pipe)

Dead cells

Xylem

Transports Nutrients and waste (sugars)

Live cells which is porous

Phloem

Xylem is in the middle Phloem surrounds it

The Root

Anchors the plant to the soil

Takes water and nutrients from the soil into the plant

Root hairs are where water and nutrients are absorbed

Cotex Cells stores starch

Endodermis controls the transport of materials

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Water evaporation =Transpiration

Reduces Water loss because it prevents evaporation

Creates the cuticle(waxy)

Epidermis is a sheet of dermal tissue

Long poles used to meet sun head on

Lots of chloroplast

Performs photosynthesis

Pallisade

Contains water and gases

Spongy

Mesophyll Tissue

Note: Epidermal cells are found on upper and lower and are classified by

upper epidermal cells and lower epidermal cells.

Delivers water and sugar

Connects plant organs

Vascular Tissue

Open and close stoma to allow the exchange of water

Guard Cells

Stacks called grana made of thylakoid

Liquid within is called stroma

Occurs in the Chloroplast

Light Energy, Carbon Dioxide and Water are required to create

Glucose C6H12O6 and Oxygen gas

Photosynthesis

Hollow to allow the transport of water(pipe)

Dead cells

Xylem

Transports Nutrients and waste (sugars)

Live cells which is porous

Phloem

Xylem is in the middle Phloem surrounds it

The Root

Anchors the plant to the soil

Takes water and nutrients from the soil into the plant

Root hairs are where water and nutrients are absorbed

Cotex Cells stores starch

Endodermis controls the transport of materials

Tap Root anchors the plant and reaches down

Stabilizes soil

Fibrous roots provide large surface area

The Flower

Reproductive organ of the flower

Not all plants have flowers

The flower creates pollen/eggs

Flowering Animals (Bees) spread the pollen and help plants

reproduce

Plant Tissue

Covers plant

Controls exchange of water and gas

Protection

Dermal Tissue

Photosynthesis

Supports plant

Ground

Xylem

Phloem

Transports water and nutrients

Vascular

Types of Animal Tissue

Epithelial Tissue

Lines the surface of the body (covering)

Cell membrane is connectedMade of strongly connected cells forms a barrier

Made of thin, flat cells that form sheet

Semi permeable

Barrier between inside and outside

Fits tightly

Skin Epithelia

Made of columns of cells that line glands, stomach, intestines

May secrete mucus

Cilia projected to absorb nutrients

Columnar

Muscle Tissue

Shortening and lengthening in order to moveDesigned to change shape

Made of cells that line up in same direction

Attaches to bone allowing body to move

Skeletal Muscle

Made of cells which are tapered at each endBlood Vessels

Contracts Slowly and by itself

Smooth Muscle

Plant Organ System

Takes water and mineals in

Anchors plant

Stores nutrients

Constantly growing

Below Ground(All Organs)Root System

Photosynthesis

Transport

Reproduction

Maintain a constant flow of fluid (water)

Above Ground

Shoot System

Water, absorbed by the root needs to be

distributed.

Movement of Water

When the concentration of minerals in the xylem is

high water flows in by osmosis

Only works for a few metres

As water flows in water pressure pushes water

upward

Root Pressure

This pulls up water

When stoma opens up water vapour is lost

Water molecules stick to one anotherCohesive

Stick to other cells

Adhesive

This relies on 2 properties of water

Transpiration

Sucrose can later be dissolved in water and

redistributed through the plant.

Photosynthesis produces glucose, which is either

used or used to make sucrose to store

Food is also moved through the system in a similar

manner

Replacing and Repairing Specialized Cells

Photosynthesis

Leaves need to be replaced

Find more Nutrients

Roots need to grow

Plants grow quickly due to rapidly dividing meristetmatic

(stem cells)

Auxin controls the growth of the cells below them

Slows down lateral growthTerminal buds are located at the end of branches

In rapidly growing areas auxin(hormone) hormone is

released from the terminal bud

Therefore cutting off terminal buds removes the auxin

(temporarily) and allows plants to branch out

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Found in heart

Nuclei appears near the edge of the cells

Contracts as one unit (heart)

Cardiac Muscle

Send relay signals from brain to the muscles and organs

Nervous Tissue

Connective Tissue

Cells Surrounded by hard calcium

Movement

Supports and protects body

Bone

Large tightly packed cells for storage

Fat

RBC, WBC and Platlets

Transports Oxygen and other nutrients

Helps defend the body

Helps clot to prevent major blood loss

Blood

(temporarily) and allows plants to branch out

Movement of Molecules

Area of high concentration to low concentration

Spreading out of a liquid evenly

Diffusion

Special type of diffusion which is through a semi

permeable membrane

Low concentration of solute results in a hig h

concentration of water and in order to fix it water

is ejected from the cell, same vice versa

Osmosis

Human Body Organs

Outline of the Body and its Major organs

Human Body Systems

Transports Blood Nutrients Gases and Wastes

Heart, Blood Vessels and Blood

Circulatory

Takes in food, breaks it down absorbs the nutrients

and excretes solid waste

Mouth, Esophogus, stomach, pancreas, gall bladder,

liver, intestines.

Digestive

Controls breathing and the exchange of gas

Nose, Mouth, Trachea, Bronchi, Bronchioles, Aveoli,

Diagphram

Respirtory

Removes liquid waste from the body

Skin Kidney, bladder, urethra, ureter

Excretory

Defends body against infection

WBC, Thymus, Spleen, Lymph Nodes, Lymph Vessels

Immune

Works with bones to move parts of the body

Skeletal, Smooth and Cardiac Muscle, Tendons,

Ligaments

Muscular

Manufactures and releases hormones that act, along

with the nervous system to keep various body systems

in balance

Endocrine

Includes reproductive organs used to produce

offspring

Ovaries, fallopian tubes, vagina, uterus, testes,

epididymis, vas deferens, penis, urethra

Reproductive

Creates a waterproof barrier around the body

Skin, hair nails and glands

Integumentary

Detects changes in the environment and signals these

changes to the body for a response and help control

body temperature

Brain Nerves, Spinal Cord

Nervous

Supports, protects and works with muscles to move

parts of the body

Bone, Cartilage

Skeletal

Organ Systems Intredependence

Nervous: Excretory, Immune, Endocrine, Respiratory, Integumentary,

Muscular, Circulatory, Digestive, Skeletal, Reproductive.

Excretory: Nervous, Digestive

Immune: Circulatory, Skeletal, Nervous

Endocrine: Nervous, Circulatory, Reproductive

Respiratory: Circulatory

Integumentary: Muscular, Nervous

Muscular: Nervous, Skeletal, Integumentary

Circulatory: Digestive, Endocrine, Nervous, Respiratory, Immune

Digestive: Circulatory, Excretory, Nervous

Skeletal: Muscular, Nervous, Immune

Reproductive: Endocrine, Nervous

Dissection: Frog

Types of Respiratory System

Examples: Protists, algae, fungi, bacteria

Environment: moist, aquatic, in host

O2 diffuses through cell membrane and

CO2 diffuses out the system is also

moist and larger SA (cell membrane)

Diffusion

Examples: Earthworm, leeches

Environment: water, deep earth

O2 diffuses into and out of circulatory

vessels near the surface of the skin

Skin

Example: Mollusks, Crayfish, Tadpoles,

Fish

Environment: Water

gills that are feathery tissue structure with

many branches (increase S.A.)

gases are exchanged across the membranes

water flows one way over the gills as blood

Gills

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Medical Imaging Technology

Produced by transmitting a wavelength of

radiation through the body

Meant for hard tissue such as bone

X Ray

Very thin slices of X Ray to create 3D

image

CAT Scan

Produced by high frequency sound waves

Picked up by microphone

Shows real time movements

Used to see organs function

Ultrasound

Produced radio signals in magnetic field to

create images

MRI Scan

Public Health Strategies

A coordinated effort to track, research and

reduce the incidence of a specific health

problem in a population

Prevent the virus from occuring in the

population

Vaccinations

Make it harder for people to get it

Educated people on how to protect

themselves

Containing the spread of disease

Dissection: Worm

Dissection: Flower

Dissection: Grammar

Dissection: Grasshopper Mouth

Dissection: Bean

s pump n t oppos t r ct on p c n

up O2 and dropping off CO2 (countercurrent

exchange)

Example: Insects, Non-vertebrate

Environment: Terrestrial

internals respiratory system with external

spiracles that lead to tracheae

abdomen expands drawing in air through

anterior spiracles

abdomen contracts push air out through

posterior spiracles

tracheal tubes deliver O2 to cells

Tracheal

Example: Vertebrates

Environment: Terrestrial, Aquatic

one or two lungs

method of bringing in the aircirculatory system

Lungs

Digestive System

Blue Whale, Clams, Scale, Oysters,

Mussels

Engulfs strains of water by pushing up

its tongue, Krill is captured and

swallowed

Filter Feeding

Insects

Bites and uses anticoagulants to keep

blood flowing, digestive enzymes break

down the blood

Fluid Feeding

Large Multicellular organisms

Digestion occurs in a small isolated area,

Closed Tube have one opening Open

tube has two (mouth, anus)

Tube Arrangement

Amoeba

Engulfs food particles using phagocytes

and dissolve it using enzymes

Intracellular Digestion

Circulatory System

NO Organization

Materials are transported across the cell

membrane and distributed via cytoplasm

Waste is released through membrane

Unicellular

Fluid is taken through the mouth to the

body and then materials are exchanged to

the cavity

Multi Cellular

Open

Aorta carries blood to the body; materials

are exchanged; muscles help move the

blood around the cavity and back to aorta

No vessels, goes directly to muscles

Grasshopper

Closed

5 aortic hearts pump into ventral vessels ;

oxygen is exchanged via the skin. Oxygen

is carried around by a pigment

Annelids

1-2 chambered heart

Blood flows through the heart and is

pumped out into capillaries to gill where

gas exchange takes place. Then tr avels to

muscles

Fish

1-3 chambered heart

Blood is pumped to the lungs and mixes

with deoxygenated blood, then is pumped

out to body and back to heart

Amphibians

1-4 chambered heart

Heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the

lungs where gas is exchanged and

pumped to the rest of the body,

distributing oxygen

Birds and Mammals

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Brain

Levels of Biological Organization

From Smallest to Largest

Sub Atomic Particles: Protons, Neutrons and Electrons1.

Atoms: Basic Building blocks2.

Small Molecules: Amino Acids, Glucose, Fatty Acid3.

Macro Molecules:: Large molecules (carbohydrates)4.

Molecular Assemblies: Groups of molecules that

distribute molecules (cell membrane)

5.

Organelle: Parts of the cell which perform specific

function

6.

Cell: Basic form of life of biological organization with a

specific job. Bacteria

7.

Tissue: groups of cells with the same specialized job8.

Organs: group of tissues gr ouped together; the

grouping allows the organ to performs specific jobs

9.

Organ System: groups of organ with one broad job10.

Organism: Any form of life, a group of cells;

functioning as one

11.

Color Mixing

Also called the RGB color model

All light receptors in the eye rely on this process

This applies to light

Red+Green= Yellow

Green+Blue = Cyan

Blue + Red = Magenta

Primary Colours are Red Green and Blue

Black is made by the absence of light in the area.

White is made by the combination of the three primary colours.

Colours we do not see are not reflected by the surface, but absorbed.

Pigments absorb and reflect these rays of light, allowing us to see colour

Additive Process

Also called the CMYK model

This model applies for pigments and the mixing of pigments to make new

colours.

Magenta+ Yellow= red

Yellow + Cyan = Green

Cyan + magenta = blue

Primary Colours are Magenta, Yellow and Cyan

Black is made of pure black pigment

White is made by absence of

pigment.

Used for printers

Subtractice Process

Significant Digits, Rounding Scientific Notation

Estimates

Used to represent uncertainty in measurement.

Used to show that the numbers are only precise to a certain degree.

Rules

Non-zero digits are always significant. Thus, 22 has two

significant digits, and 22.3 has three significant digits.

Zeroes placed before other digits are not significant;

0.046 has two significant digits.

a.

Zeroes placed between other digits are always

significant; 4009 kg has four significant digits.

b.

Zeroes placed after other digits but behind a decimal

point are significant; 7.90 has three significant digits.

c.

Zeroes at the end of a number are significant only if

they are behind a decimal point as in (c). Otherwise, it

is impossible to tell if they are significant. For

example, in the number 8200, it is not clear if the

zeroes are significant or not. The number of

significant digits in 8200 is at least two, but could be

three or four. To avoid uncertainty, use scientific

notation to place significant zeroes behind a decimal

point:

d.

With zeroes, the situation is more complicated:

Pasted from

Significant Digits

When Adding or subtracting , round the answer to the value having

the fewest decimal places in the calculation.

When multiplying or dividing round the answer to the least number

of significant digits in the calculation.

One looks at the trailing digit of the string

If the number is great than 5 round up

If the number is less than 5 round down.

There are digits after it, round up

Round down if it is even

If there are no digits after it, round up if the next digit is odd

If the number is 5

Rounding

1.23 x 1011

Pasted from

Numbers are broken down into decimals multiplied by 10

The leading number must be between 1-10

Negative exponents are possible

Scientific Notation

Electromagnetic Spectrum

Different waves have different frequencies and wavelengths

As frequency rises wavelength drops and vice versa.

In a vacuum all of the waves travel at the speed of light

Different colours have varying frequencies allowing us to distinguish them.

Frequency is measured in Hz while Wavelength is measured in meters.

c = f

Pasted from

Where c is the speed of light and f is the f requency and is the wavelength

The Nature of Light

Light Travels as a wave through a vacuum

Movement of energy from one point to another

Moves in a wave form similar to water

Light waves are invisible

3.00 x 10^8 m/s

Types of Light Emission

Fusion reaction (Hydrogen fuses to become helium)

Releases huge amount of energy which excites atoms which form light

Light from the Sun

Running an electric charge through a thin metal wire.

Resistance causes heat to increase creating light

Only 95% of energy is for light

Light from Incandescence (Light Bulbs)

Producing light by passing an electric charge through a gas

Releases energy as light, colour depends on metal

Excited atoms release energy

Light from Electric Discharge (neon signs)

Visible light that is emitted as a result of the absorption of ultraviolet

light.

Fluorite glows when exposed to UV light (produces light)

Fluorescence (Fluorescent Lights)

Luminescence

Visible light that is emitted due to exposeure to UV light and continues tobe emitted even without UV light.

Glow in the dark

Store the UV light and releases it later

Phosphoerescence (Glow in the dark objects)

The production of light by a biological organisim because of a chemical

reaction going on

Bioluminescence (Firefly)

Light is produced by a chemical reaction

Chemiluminescence(Light Stick)

Reflection

Law of reflection states the angle of

incidence is the same as the angle of

reflection.

The normal and the mirror intersect

at 90 degrees

The angle of incidence and reflection

are measured from the normal.

Ray Diagrams

Draw an incident ray to the mirror at 90

degrees. Since it impacts the mirror at

90 degrees it bounces back

Draw another incident ray from A to

any angle. Reflect the ray at an equal

angle.

Extend the dashed line from the 90

degree line and the reflected ray.

The point of intersection is where the

image of the point is located.

Concave Mirror

Principal Axis: On a concave mirror

the line that passes through the

centre of curvature and is normal

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No heat is produced

Light produced by friction as a result of scartching, curshing or rubbing

certain crystals

Hammering a sugar cube

Triboluminescence

to the centre of the mrror.

Focal Point: The point on the

principal axis through which

reflected rays pass when the

incident rays are parallel to and

near the principal axis

Focal length: distance between the

mirrors and focal point

A ray parallel to the principal

axis is reflect through focal

point

A ray through Centre of

Curvature reflects back on

itself

A ray through the focal point

is reflected parallel to thenormal.

Imaging Rule:

Convex Mirror

Mirror whose reflecting surface is

curved outward

Focal point behind mirror

Imaging Rules: Any incident ray

travelling parallel to normal will

reflect so that the extended ray will

pass through the normal.

Any incident ray whose extension

will pass through the focal point will

reflect parallel to the normal

Ray Diagrams for Concave Mirrors

Draw a ray parallel to the normal

draw the reflected ray back through

the focal point

Draw a ray from the top of the object

through the focal point in the mirror

reflect the ray parallel to the normal

The point where all lines meet

is where the top of the object

is. The bottom of the object

rests on the normal.

Draw a ray towards C. This ray is

reflected on the same line

If the object is between F and C the

ray reflected from the centre of

curvature goes behind the object.

If the object is on the focal point no

clear image can be produced.

If the object is between the focal

point and the mirror then the object

is virtual and is on the other side of

the mirror and the rays must be

extended.

Ray Diagrams for Convex Mirrors

Draw a line parallel to the normal, the

reflected ray should be able to extend to

reach the focal point.

Draw a line to centre of curvature extendthe line past the mirror.

Draw a line towards the focal point and

reflect it parallel to the normal. Extend it

past the mirror

Where it intersects past the mirror is the

virtual image.

Mirror and Magnification Equations

Mirror Equation:

Where f= Focal Length

Di=distance of image

Do=Distance of object

If the image distance is negative , the

image is behind the mirror

If the focal point is negative it is

behind the mirror

Magnification Equation:

Where M= Magnification (_x)

Hi= Height of image

Ho=Height of object

Di= Distance of Image

Do= Distance of Object

If hi is negative or magnification is

negative the image is inverted relative

to the object.

Refraction

Travels through different material at

different speeds

Change in angle is called refraction

Is a property of light

The refracted ray is the ray upon entering

the new median

Angle of refraction is between the reflected

ray and the normal.

If light is moving faster in the second

median then the light bends away from the

normal, however if it is moving slower it

bends towards the normal.

The amount light bends depends on the

difference in the index of refraction

This leads to objects having distorted

positions in water. (fish)

Index of refraction is the speed of a light in

a vacuum divided by the speed of light in a

material

N=c/v

Snell's Law is the formula that uses values

for the index of refraction to calculate the

new angle that ray will take as a beam of

light strikes the interface between the two

medians

where O is the angle and N i s the index of

refraction

Characteristic of Lenses

A lens is a transparent object with at least one curved side that causes light to refr act

Lenses have surfaces that can be defines as concave or convex

There are 2 classes of lenses, converging and diverging

Bring Parallel light ray toward a common point

Have one or two convex surfaces that are THICKED IN THE CENTRE than on the

edge

Converging Lenses

Spread parallel light rays away from a common point

Have one or two concave surfaces and are THINNER IN THE CENTRE than on the

edges

Diverging lenses

When ray that are parallel to the principal axis pass through a converging lens,

the rays intersect at the focal point.

When rays that are parallel to the principal axis pass through a diverging lens

the rays diverge and by tracing the r ays backwards to the point of intersection is

the focal point

Lenses have two focal points because light can pass through both ways.

Focal Point and Focal Length of Lenses

Lenses produce spherical aberration-which are irregularities that result when

rays on the outer edges don't travel through the focal point

In thin lenses the effect is not noticeable

In thick lenses only rays near the principal axis produce a clear image because

they meet at the focal point.

Edges of think lenses can act like prism and separate light into colour

It is partially corrected by using multiple lenses and materials with different

refractive indices

Thick and Thin Lenses

Converging lens

Diverging Lens

Ray Diagrams for Diverging Lens

Draw a line vertically through the

middle of the lens (all rays movethrough there then change)

Draw a first ray parallel to the

normal, This line refracts so that it

can extend and touch the first focal

point. Extend the line by a dotted

line

Draw a second ray through the

intersection of the normal and the

principal axis. This line refracts

horizontally, there is no change in

angle.

Draw a third ray towards the

second focal point and refract it

parallel to the normal

Ray Diagrams for Converging Lenses

Draw the principal axis in the middle of the lens

Draw the first ray parallel to the normal, the line refracts

through the second focal point

Draw the second line through the intersection of the

normal and the (axis of symmetry) This line continues at

the same angle of refraction

The third ray moves through the first focal point, once it

reaches the axis of symmetry it refracts parallel to the

normal

Total Internal Reflection/Critical

Angle/Partial Reflection and

Refraction

Partial Reflection and refraction is

when some light is reflected and some

refracted

At the critical angle(produces refracted

ray of 90) all light is reflect rather than

reflection. This is called Total internal

reflection( where things reflect within

the object)

Total Internal Reflection only occurs

when light moves faster from one

medium to another and the angle of is

greater than the critical angle.

Dispersion

Since white light is composed of all

colours when it is dispersed after

leaving a prism. The colour on top is the

fastest speed. (Red)

Practical Uses of Reflection/Refraction

Optical fibres are line with mirrors which allow

light to bend and move forward through a wire.

The more light refracts(the more a medium

slows it down) results in more refraction

More faces result in more refraction

Car mirrors change angle at night in order to

divert different amounts of light into the drivers

eyes. At nights light is not directly reflected

(contrast) towards the driver, however during

the day light goes directly into the drivers eyes.

Changing the Direction of a Light Ray

Impacting a normal at 45 degrees will result in light turning 180 degr ees.

Optical Phenomena in Nature

Same as rainbows except with ice

Sun Dogs

When light is behind you and in front of you is a cloud of water then light

refracts in different colours.

Creates a rainbow

Rainbows

In water since light travels slower, objects appear shallower than they

are.

Apparent Depth

Human Vision

Parts of the Eye

Transparent layer where light enters

and is directed into the eye

Light is refracted by the cornea

Cornea

Dark circle (hole) when you look at

the eye

Light enters but does not leave

Pupil

Circular band of muscle

Determines colour of eye

Controls size of pupil

Iris

Back lining of eye

Acts as projector screen

All things are projected upside down.

Retina

Lens

Can change shape/Change focal

Converging Lens

Detecting Light

Cells that are sensetive to light

Rods: Low Light (don't sense colour)

Cones: Regular ones sense colour)

Once light reaches the retina it is absorbed by

photoreceptors

One spot on retina where there are no

photoreceptors.(location of optical nerve)

Brain fills in the image

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When hot air is caught between cold air, since they have different indices

of refraction it causes a different range of refraction.

This creates shimmering

Shimmer

Large scale shimmer. (hot highway or desert)

Brain interprets light travels in a straight line, but mirages cause light to

bend.

Depending on temperature images can appear inverted.(due to atemperature inversion) Hot air above cold air.

Mirage

Acts as projector screen

All things are projected upside down.

Lens

Can change shape/Change focal

length

Attached to cillary muscles which

hold and change the lens

Converging Lens

Muscles contract for closer objects (vice

versa)

Problems in Eyesight

Myopia (Near Sighted Vision): Eye is too long. This eye cannot focus on far things. Use

a diverging lens to correct it

Hyperopia (Far Sighted Vision): Eye is too short; This eye cannot focus on nearby

objects. Use a converging lens to fix it.

Prebyopia: Cant focus on nearby objects; Eye muscles are too stiff. Use a bifocal lens

(Top is diverging; bottom is converging

Astigmatism: Cornea is incorrectly shaped; no solution

Parts of A Camera (Eye)

Aperture: Pupil

Lens: RetinaRim : Cillary Muscles

Film: Lens

Factors that Affect Climate Change

Atmosphere is a layer of gases covering the earth

Climate is the patterns in weather conditions in an area

Climates have changed many times

Earth and Sun

Energy from the sun is the largest factor in our climate

The amount of energy produced from the sun changes over time

Earth rotates once every 24 hours around the axis (day) In 365 days the earth rotates once around the sun (year)

Axis of the earth is 23.5 Orbit+Tilt make seasons

Eccentricity is the orbit pattern Earth orbits in either a circular or elliptical pattern(More energy,

intense seasons) Tilt is the change in the axis, the greater the tilt the greater

difference between summer and winter Wobble(precision) affects amount of energy received and

difference in the temperature during the s easons Sun strikes earth perpendicular to the equator and poles at

different angles causing poles to be cooler

Atmosphere

Composed of Nitrogen, Oxygen, Water Vapour and

other gases/solids

Uneven heating of the earth(sun) causes warm air to

move to cooler areas (wind)

Winds create ocean currents by blowing them,

oceans also absorb and transfer heat.

When two air masses meet one rises, cools and

condenses to form precipitation. Jet streams (fast moving winds) carry air greater

distances; Polar Jet stream affects Canada

Hydrosphere

Mass of Water on the earth

Water has a high heat capacity (lot of heat to changetemperature) allows it to hold more heat then air, thus becoming

a reservoir.

Ice and Snow reflect solar radiation due to light colour (fraction of

energy reflected is called albedo; affects global temperature

Natural Disasters

Natural Disasters and Climate change affect many things affecting

humans

Food Supply would be affected due to loss of fisheries and crops.

Greater Disease Risk in areas which are tropical. Deforestation will

also come into affect due to dry climate leading to fires. Seal

levels rising will cause a loss of land and water conflicts will be in

effect everywhere currently lacking freshwater. Also the amount

and intensity of Tropical storms will increase, killing more people

Moving Continents

Tectonics are massive pieces of solid rock which

move a bit every year. Cause changes in circulation

and shape of continents and wind

Volcanoes release particles which reflect solar

radiation, decreasing the amount of heat; however

some may release greenhouse gases increasing

temperature

Human Activity

Burning of Fossil Fuels releases gases (greenhouse) and pollutants.

Greenhouse Effect

Natural process where gases

and clouds absorbed infrared

radiation emitted from the

earth.

Nitrogen and Oxygen are not

greenhouse gases( do not

absorb radiation)

Heating the Planet

Radiation is the transfer of energy via a

wave from the sun, factors affecting it are

latitude, tilt, albedo, heat capacity

Conduction is the transfer of thermal

energy, through particle collision (similar to

a stove)

Convection is the transfer of energy by the

mass movement of liquids or bases (warm

air rising)

Energy Transfer in the Ocean

As Water moves towards the poles it gets

colder and saltier, this is due to when salt

water freezes at the the poles the salt is

ejected from the ice and sent to the

bottom.

Cold salty Water is dense and sinks,

allowing warmer water to take its place

This is called Thermohaline circulation.

Other factors include other currents,

surface winds, shapes of coast, rotation,

convection, heat capacity of water.

Greenhouse Gases

Carbon Dioxide makes up 0.36% of the atmosphere and contributes to 1/4 of the natural greenhouse gases. It is

produced by burning fossil fuels, volcanoes, burning material, and cellular respiration. Risen after Industrial

Water Vapour makes up 2/3 of the greenhouse effect and is 1-4% of the atmosphere. Water evaporates

regularly in warm climates causing heat to increase causing more water to evaporate. (Positive Feedback Loop)

Methane (CH4) is 23 times more potent then CO2 and has risen since industrial revolution. Natural sources are

swamps, digestion, decomposition

Ozone varies frequently in atmosphere. Traps in thermal heat

Nitrous Oxide exists scarcer then even CH4 however is 300 times more potent. More after industrial age; natural

sources include bacteria and soil

Indicators of Climate Change

Largest indicator of change is global warming. Some areas are experiencing cooling, however there is an

overall warming of the earth, which has accelerated in the past 5 years

Polar and Glacial Ice has been melting in Greenland and Antarctica, which is in turn causing rising sea levels.

This destroys the habitat of aquatic animals, ruining food supply and the Inuit lifestyle.

Rising Seal level has occured due to melting glacial ice and thermal expansion( water molecules are more

excited in warmer climates and take up more space. Land is being covered in water and most major cities are

costal, proving to be a large problem.

The oceans are becoming more acidic because it is absorbing more CO2 producing carbonic acid. This

Climate and Health Risks

Increased chance of disease and infection, particularly of waterborne diseases during

flooding.

Increased temperature also causes an increase in dust , which can cause respiratory

problems

Changing wind patterns causes changing in heating distribution, which mostly causes

glacial ice to melt

Hi her tem eratures has increased eva oration causin more reci itation causin

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threatens the neutralization reaction of coral (acid-base reaction) and shelled animals. Destroying habitats and

the lives of animals

, ,

flooding. However in some areas this can lead to desertification, which can cause

famines

Biomes are being changed due to deforestation and rapidly changing environment and

habitat changes

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