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UNIT 3Part I

Transportation Compare the characteristics of blood components in terms of appearance,

origin, numbers, relative size, and function in the body.

Compare and contrast the characteristics of different blood groups.

Predict the physiological consequences of blood transfusions involving different blood groups.

Describe the blood donation process and investigate related issues.

Compare the structure and function of blood vessels.

Identify the materials transported between cells and capillaries.

Describe the cardiac cycle.

Describe, in general terms, the nervous and chemical control of heartbeat.

Explain the meaning of blood pressure readings and identify the normal range.

Identify factors that affect blood pressure or cardiac function and describe their effects.

Explain how transport systems help to maintain homeostasis in the body.

BloodIntroductionSome biologists have long referred to human blood as "the sea within us." Our blood makes available to all of our body cells all of the materials necessary for _________. The blood is the transportation system in the human body that carries __________, ____________, and _________________ to all of the body cells, regardless of how far they are situated from the heart and lungs. The blood also carries __________________________ and __________________________ away from body cells so that the body rids itself of them.

The average adult possesses about _________ of blood. It accounts for 6 to 8 percent of the person's body mass on average. Blood is actually a type of _________ in the human body.

In the human body, blood has complex functions that help to maintain homeostasis in the body. These include:

1. ___________________ – oxygen, carbon dioxide, food, waste, hormones2. ___________________ – blood clotting, defence against disease3. ___________________ – hormones, heat distribution

The Components of BloodHuman blood is composed of water, various dissolved substances, and living cells. More specifically, the blood is composed of a yellowish fluid, called plasma, in which three basic cell types are suspended. The different blood cells work together to accomplish the role of transportation within the body.

Gr. 11 Biology Transportation

BloodPlasmao Liquid part of the blood. o Composed of water (90%) and various dissolved substances (10%).o Makes up about _______% of blood by volume. o Dissolved substances in plasma include ________________________________

_____________________________________________________________ o The body monitors the concentrations of these substances and makes sure

that they remain within healthy limits. o ___________________________ in colour and appears somewhat cloudy due to

the substances dissolved within it.

Erythrocytes ( )o Make blood appear __________. o Membranous sacs filled with a protein called _______________________, which

contains ______________.o About 7.0 micrometres (10-6 metre) in diameter. o Do not have the ability to reproduce because they do not possess

____________. o When the body needs more erythrocytes, it produces new erythrocytes

instead of depending on existing red blood cells to ____________________. o Produced in the __________________________________. o A typical red blood cell will circulate for about __________________ before it is

destroyed and excreted. o Normally, there are about _______________________ red blood cells in every

millilitre of human blood.


BloodLeukocytes ( ) o They are far less numerous (about _____________ cells per millilitre of blood)

and much larger (about 12 to 15 micrometres in diameter) than red blood cells.

o White blood cells contain ________________, can reproduce, and are generated by the ______________________.

There are two groups of leukocytes:i. _________________________________

o Make up ______________________ of leukocyteso Have a life span of ____________________________o Contain granules in ______________________o __________________ engulf invading microbes using __________ and

protect the body from the effects of those microbes. o _______________________________________, are believed to play a

role in allergic reactions.

ii. _________________________________o Make up _________________ of leukocyteso Have a life span of _________________________o Do not have granules in cytoplasmo ______________ can temporarily leave the blood vessels and enter

the spaces in between body cells in order to engulf invading microbes.

o _____________________, produce ______________________, which are "flags" that are attached to foreign particles and invading microbes in order to label them as foreign.


When the white blood cell has engulfed the microbe, it produces digestive enzymes to destroy not only the microbe but also itself.

BloodThrombocytes ( ) o Produced in the ________________________ and do not possess __________. o Small and irregularly shaped cell fragments. o Consist of small amounts of ________________ surrounded by a cell

membrane. o Measure about 2 micrometres in diameter. o There are about ____________________________ cells per millilitre of blood. o They are fragile cells and rupture easily if they encounter a rough surface

such as those formed when a blood vessel is broken. o When platelets rupture, they release substances that initiate the

____________ process. When a blood vessel is broken, it is very important that clotting of the blood occurs in order to prevent the loss of too much blood from that vessel.

Dissolved Substances o Composed of various chemicals, including dissolved gases (primarily

__________). o Since most of the oxygen transported by the blood is carried by hemoglobin

molecules in red blood cells, only a small amount of oxygen is carried in the plasma itself.

o The plasma also contains dissolved sugars and inorganic salts like sodium chloride.

o ______________________ of cellular respiration are also carried in the plasma. o Various __________________________________ are transported in the blood

plasma, as are plasma proteins. There are a number of different plasma proteins with a number of different functions. Some help in ______________________. Some fight _______________. Some help to maintain an appropriate ________ in the blood and others are carrier molecules.


BloodCoagulationo The formation of a clot is called ______________ o Coagulation helps when you are injured because

it slows ________________________. o However, your blood shouldn't clot when it's

moving through your body.

Types of Clotso If blood clots inside your blood vessels, it's

called ______________________ o The tendency to clot too much is called ___________________________ which

can be very dangerous. o When abnormal clots occur, they usually form inside _____________. o A clot inside a blood vessel is called a _____________________. o A clot that gets stuck in your lungs is called a __________________________. It

keeps blood from getting to your lungs and can be life-threatening. o A clot that blocks a blood vessel in the brain can cause a ________________. o A clot in a blood vessel in the heart can cause a ________________________. o Blood clots can cause some women to have ________________________.

Certain situations or risk factors can make it easier for your blood to clot too much. These situations include the following:

Sitting on an airplane or in a car for a long time Having prolonged bed rest (several days at a time) Having surgery Having cancer Being pregnant Using birth control pills

Some people are born with an inherited tendency to develop clots. Most of the time, increased clotting happens because the anti-clotting protein in the blood isn't doing its job properly.

Blood GroupsIt was discovered in the early 1900s that there are various human _____________________________ and that sometimes they could not be successfully "mixed" in human recipients of transfusions. These blood types are due to the existence of Gr. 11 Biology Transportation

various molecules on the membrane of red blood cells, called __________________.

There are many types of glycoproteins but we will focus specifically on three of them that are found on the surface of the red blood cell. These three molecules are referred to as the "A Protein," the "B protein," and the "Rh protein." These molecules have sometimes been called "________________." The word "marker" is used because it emphasizes the fact that the human body recognizes familiar markers and foreign markers. When a foreign marker is detected, the body _______ the cell possessing that marker. In that way, the body recognizes what is foreign and tries to get rid of it. It also recognizes what is not foreign and does not attack it.

Such a "marker" on the surface of a cell is called an ________________. An antigen is recognized by the body as either a familiar antigen or as a foreign antigen. Foreign antigens trigger the production of _______________________.

Antibodies attach to the foreign antigens and cause a process that leads to the ___________________ of the foreign cell or particle. So if a person receives a blood transfusion that contains blood with a foreign glycoprotein, that person's body will produce antibodies that will attach to those foreign antigens. As a result, the blood cells will clump in a process called _________________________ and the transfusion will not be successful.


Blood GroupsThe A and B Proteinso A person with only the A protein on the

red blood cell surface is said to have ___________ blood.

o A person with only the B protein on the red blood cell surface is said to have ___________ blood.

o A person who possesses both A and B proteins on the red blood cell surface has ___________ blood.

o A person who possesses neither A nor B protein on the red blood cell surface has ___________ blood.

The type of glycoproteins that a person possesses is an inherited trait from the parents.

Group A Group B Group AB Group O

Red Blood Cell Type

Antigens Present

A antigen B antigenA and B antigens None

Antibodies Present

Anti-B Anti-A None Anti-A & Anti-B


Blood GroupsIt follows that we can identify which types of blood can be successfully accepted by recipients that possess each of the blood groups.

Recipient Blood Type

DonorBlood Type

Successful Transfusion?

A A

A B

A AB

A O

B A

B B

B AB

B O

AB A

AB B

AB AB

AB O

O A

O B

O AB

O O


O

Rh+ Rh-

Blood GroupsBecause blood type O can be successfully accepted by donors with any of the four blood types, type O is called the _________________________ blood type. Since a person with blood type AB can successfully accept any of the four blood types, type AB is called the _______________________ blood type.

The Rh FactorThe _________________________ is another antigen on the surface of red blood cells, also called the ___________________. A person who possesses the Rh glycoprotein is said to be "_______" and a person who does not possess the protein is said to be "_________". With respect to transfusions, the person who is Rh+ is able to accept a transfusion of Rh- blood. However, a person with Rh- blood cannot accept Rh+ blood because the Rh antigen would be foreign to that recipient. They would build antibodies against that antigen and cause the transfusion to be rejected.

Blood Vessels


IntroductionOur blood connects the digestive system to each body cell. It also connects each body cell to the respiratory system. The blood also carries wastes away from every body cell and transports it to organs designed to filter it from the blood and eliminate it from the body.

The human circulatory system is made up primarily of one large, muscular pumping organ —_______________ —and a series of vessels or tubes that carry the blood. Some of these vessels are large enough to see through the skin and some are microscopic in diameter. These vessels, when considered together as a system, form a network of vessels that effectively bathe all body cells in fluid.

Blood VesselsBlood is pumped away from the heart so that it can reach distant parts of the body. It then travels back to the heart in order to be pumped once again. The vessels that are specialized to carry blood away from the heart are called _________________. The vessels that are specialized to carry blood back to the heart again are called _________. And the tiny, microscopic vessels that connect arteries to veins are called _________________________.

Blood VesselsArterieso Strong blood vessels that carry blood that has just been forcefully pumped

by the heart.o Have ___________, muscular walls composed of __________ layers


o The outer and the inner layers are made of __________, _________ connective tissue.

o The middle layer is made of _____________ connective tissue and muscle.o Arteries carry _____________________ blood, with the exception of the

__________________________________.

Since blood is forcefully pushed through arteries, the diameter of these vessels _________________ to accommodate the surge of blood. The ____________ that you can feel on your wrist or on the side of your neck is actually caused by surges of blood through the arteries in those areas. A period of relaxation follows each surge of blood, clearly distinguishing one beat from the next.

CapillariesAs blood gets further away from the heart, it enters smaller branches of the arteries called __________________. These tiny vessels further branch into still smaller vessels called ___________________. The tiniest capillaries are so narrow that they only allow ______________________ to move through them in single file.

The exchange of material between the circulatory system and the fluid surrounding the individual cells of the body takes place across the wall of the capillaries. The direction of _________________ of each material is a product of its concentration gradient. _________________ diffuse out of the blood, while _______ and other waste materials diffuse in.

Blood VesselsVeinso Veins carry blood rich in ____________________ back to the _____________ so

that it can be _____________________ and pumped again. o The only veins that carry oxygen-rich blood are the ______________________. o The blood pressure in veins is much _____________ than that in arteries

because the blood is returned to the heart instead of just leaving it. o In order to keep the blood moving in the right direction, veins possess

________ that allow the blood to move ______________, not away from, the heart. The contraction of ________________ muscles also helps to push and squeeze blood back to the heart.


o At any one time, about 50% of your blood is found in veins; therefore, they act as important ___________________ for blood.

o During times of stress, such as physical exercise, venous blood flow can be increased; as a result, more blood is available to the body.

Varicose Veinso Large volumes of blood tend to

__________________ veins.o Pooling of blood over long periods of time

can ________________ valves.o If a valve does not work properly, gravity

carries the blood to the ___________ where it ___________.

o Surface veins become larger and begin to _____________ forming varicose veins.

o Prolonged standing, especially with ________________________________ increases the pooling of blood.

Heart Function and Control

The Heart

o About the size of your ___________. o Pumps about ______ times per minute and must continue to do so for as long

as you are _____________. o It is a muscle that we do not have conscious control over, its action is

considered to be ________________________. o The muscle tissue that makes up the heart is called _________________

muscle and does not fatigue easily. o The beating of the heart responds to many different changes in the

environment; external factors like temperature and exercise affect the beating of the heart.


Interior View of the Heart

Heart Function and ControlStructure Function

Left atria

Right atria

Left ventricle

Right ventricle

Septum


Superior vena cava

Inferior vena cava

Pulmonary arteries

Pulmonary veins

Aorta

Tricuspid valve

Bicuspid valve

Semilunar valve


Heart Function and ControlThe Path of Blood


Heart Function and ControlThe Heartbeato Every heartbeat is actually made of two beats, one stronger than the other. o The two ventricles contract at the same time, sending blood both to the

lungs and out to the body (___________). o Then the two atria contract at the same time, sending blood into the two

ventricles (___________). o So each heartbeat is really _____________________. o The "lub-dub" sound is the sound of the _______________ in the heart closing

after blood has moved through them.o The stronger of the two contractions is the ventricular contraction.

Contraction of the ventricles is called ___________________. o Contraction of the atria is less forceful and is called ________________.


Heart Function and ControlThe Cardiac Cycle

Heart Function and ControlGr. 11 Biology Transportation

Control of Heart RateSinoatrial Node ( )o Mass of specialized cells that initiate the ________________________ of the

heart muscles of the atria and ventricles.o Called the __________________ because it produces the impulse that starts

each heartbeat.o Located in the ______________________ near entrance of superior vena cava.o When the SA node “fires”, the nerve impulse spreads quickly over both

atria, causing the atrial muscles to ______________________.o The impulse then reaches a second node of tissue, the atrioventricular node.

Atrioventricular Node ( )o Located in the _______________ between the ventricles but in contact with the

lower portion of the right atrium.o Stimulation of the AV node causes nerve impulses to be sent down the

bundle of nerve fibres, known as the ________________________________.o Bundle of His branches into a pair of nerve fibres through the septum and

circling around the base of each ventricle.o The impulse started in the SA node and picked up by the AV node reaches

the muscles of the ventricles and causes them to contract.o The heart has special muscle fibres called _________________________ that

conduct impulses.o The Purkinje fibres form a ____________________________________ of the

impulse that ensures that the heart muscle cells contract in the most efficient pattern.


Heart Function and ControlElectrocardiographo An ____________________________ is an instrument that is used to measure

____________________________________________________________.o It measures changes in _______________________________ across the heart and

can detect the contraction pulses that pass over the surface of the heart.o The resulting record is called an __________________________ (ECG or EKG)

o An electrocardiogram translates the heart’s electrical activity into line tracings on paper.

o The spikes and the dips in the line tracings are called waves. The __________________ is a record of the electrical activity through

the upper heart chambers (atria). The __________________ is a record of the movement of electrical

impulses through the lower heart chambers (ventricles) The __________________ shows when the ventricle is contracting, but

no electricity is flowing through it. The ST segment usually appears as a straight, level line between the QRS complex and the T wave.

The __________________ shows when the lower heart chambers are resetting electrically and preparing for their next muscle contraction.

Blood Pressureo The measurement of ________ applied

to _______________ wallsGr. 11 Biology Transportation

o For blood to reach every extremity of your body, it must be pumped out of the heart under considerable pressure.

o Highest pressure occurs in the __________ and ________________ as blood moves away from the heart.

o Blood pressure readings consist of two numbers. 1st - Measure of the pressure inside your blood vessels during ____________. 2nd - Measure of the pressure inside your blood vessels during ____________.

o A typical blood pressure reading would be about _____________ mmHg (unit of pressure). The "120" is the __________________ reading and the "80" is the ________________ reading.

o Measured using a _____________________________.

Hypertension o Term used to describe __________________________________________o Consistently having a blood pressure reading of at least _______________.o One or both of these numbers can be too high.o Can be caused by high stress levels, increased salt intake, or heredity.o Without treatment, hypertension can lead to:

Blood PressureFactors that Affect Heart Rate and Blood PressureHeart rate is affected by two primary types of autonomic (_____________) nerves. 1. Sympathetic nerves

o Causes the heart rate to ________________. o Nerves fire in times of stress; as a result, blood flow to body tissues

___________, enabling the body to better deal with the source of stress.


o When the heart beats more than ________ times in one minute, or 100 BPM, it is said to be in a condition of ______________________.

o When the cause of stress is removed, the heart rate begins to _________.

2. Parasympathetic nerves o Stimulated to fire during times of ___________________. o The condition in which the heart beats very slowly is called

____________.

o "Stress" can refer to a number of conditions and situations. o Physical exercise is a form of "stress" on the body. o When the body perceives a state of emergency, it responds appropriately in

order to handle this stress. o Some drugs, like caffeine and nicotine, cause tachycardia. o Other drugs can cause the heart rate to decrease.

Affects of Stresso Blood pressure inside vessels __________ in response to a greater flow of

blood. o One result of the firing of the sympathetic nerves is _____________________ of

blood vessels.o This constriction causes blood pressure to ________________. o When the source of stress is removed, the parasympathetic nerves cause

blood pressure to drop again.o The adrenal glands release ___________________, a hormone. o Adrenaline travels to all of the body organs since it is in the blood.o Adrenaline causes the heart muscle to _________________ more frequently,

__________________ heart rate.


Circulatory Homeostasis1. Heart Rate

o Heart rate must be maintained within acceptable limits. o The heart cannot beat too _____________ or too ______________. o The appropriate heart rate at any one time depends on a number of

factors, including physical activity and stress. o Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves affect how rapidly the heart

beats. o Adrenaline released by the adrenal glands in times of stress also causes

the heart rate to ________________.

2. Blood Pressure o If the blood pressure gets too high, arterial walls can be ________________. o If blood pressure gets too low, the body's ability to transport blood is

______. o If blood pressure drops too low, the brain essentially "turns itself off"

causing the person to _________. o Special blood pressure sensors are located in the walls of the aorta and

the carotid arteries that carry blood to the head. These sensory cells are called _______________________ because they are sensitive to pressure.

o If blood pressure is too high, these cells send a nervous message to the brainstem telling it to "turn down" the sympathetic nerves and "turn up" the parasympathetic nerves. As a result, arterioles dilate and blood pressure drops.

o If the blood pressure is too low, the baroreceptors cause sympathetic nerves to fire so that cardiac output increases and arterioles constrict. As a result, blood pressure _____________.

3. Breathing Rate o We know that in times of stress or during physical exercise, breathing

rate ________________. This physiological response occurs along with an _______________ in blood pressure and an ______________ in heart rate.

4. Metabolic Waste Products o Cannot reach dangerously high levels in the blood. o Walls of arterioles are sensitive to carbon dioxide levels. o If the level of carbon dioxide in the blood is too ________, the smooth

muscles in the walls of arterioles relax, causing __________ of those vessels.

o This increased blood flow carries away potentially toxic metabolic wastes and also supplies the tissue with a greater nutrient supply.

o As a result, tissues that are very active and therefore produce more metabolic wastes are supplied with a greater blood supply.

o When the levels of metabolic wastes go down, arteriolar dilation and blood flow both _________________.


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