Government Studies short hand notes

8/14/2019 Government Studies short hand notes

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UNIVERSITY OF NAMIBIA

CENTRE OF EXTERNAL STUDIES

GOVERNMENT STUDIES

UNIT 01: THE NATURE ANS SCOPE OF POLITICAL SCIENCEINTRODUCTION

Do you follow political events in other countries?

What is happening in Zimbabwe?

As a govt. studies student, you are expected to be more political

conscious than ever before

You are able to tell who is politician and who is not;

Who is better politician than other;

Most of us understand the issue of bribery and corruption;

And how these have destroyed many government systems or evencountries

Politics is not something to be studied in classrooms alone. It happens all around us

all the time. Students need to read newspapers, visit parliament or local councils,

take a continuing interest in pressure groups, political parties and elections as well

as interest in paying attention to political analysis in the media and to

contemporary issues and controversies in general.

WHAT IS POLITICS?

Peaceful resolution of conflict.This implies that the alternative is some form of violent means of settling

differences; such as revolution, civil war or simply armed struggle, while in politics

the clash of ideas and interest is resolved through legal, organised methods which

have been agreed by which a state is governed.

Politics concerns the resolution of conflicts by non-violent means;

It necessarily involves a struggle for power and influence;

In its fullest sense, it refers to the manner in which a state is organised and

run.

OBJECTIVES

Define politics

Define political science

Briefly describe the historical development of political science

Discuss the methods of political science

Explain the importance of political science in issues of national development


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by these forces. On the analysis if Chazzan et al., state power in Africa

typically passes through three principal phases. Discuss each of the three

principal phases with reference to appropriate examples. (25)

Answer:

(a) Decision making structures. These include the executive arm of thegovernment ; the legislature and political parties.

(b) Decision enforcing institutions. These include bureaucracies, parastatals

organisation, the police and security forces.

(c) Decision mediating in bodies. These include courts, tribunals and

investigating commissions.

What is civil society?

Civil Society is developed through ideas of individualism and the right of

individuals to liberty, privacy, property ownership and security needs.

The term civil society has grown to mean all those that are outside the state.

All those who have become powerless or disfranchised (deny rights);

It includes groups such as the peasantry, workers, students ,intellectuals;

And all those who feel that they have no access to the state.

Civil society includes social groups such as business, labour, opposition

parties, churches, non-governmental agencies, nurses and the powerless

masses.

The power of civil society lies in its capacity to resist, penetrate, andneutralise the state with the aim of winning back its power and having equal

power to co-act in policy issues.

1. Do you think that civil society in Namibia has power to influence public

policy? Support your answer with examples

Answer

Human rights societies might influence public policy by crying out like the

abortion bill that has been put on hold because of opposition from

churches, amongst others.

2. What makes up civil society in Namibia? Can you list some examples of

social groups or organisations that help make up civil society in Namibia?

Answer

Organisations like human rights societies, opposition parties like RDP,

COD, DTA, etc.


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OBJECTIVES

Define the state

Describe the characteristics of a state

Outline the theories concerning the origin of the state

Define society and civil society

Discuss different types of states and how they relate with civil society.

UNIT 03: DEMOCRACY AND GOOD GOVERNANCE

INTRODUCTION

(a)What is democracy and good governance?

(b) The political situation in Zimbabwe is a learning lesson. Is

democracy being practiced in Zimbabwe?

(c)Discuss the communication bill, outline the advantages and

disadvantages with respect to democracy

We use the word democracy on daily basis both in government

and by ordinary citizens;

The word has several meaning

What is democracy as you understand it?

WHAT IS DEMOCRACY?

Democracy has several meanings, and this word democracy is constantly use on a

daily basis both in government and by ordinal citizens or people.

The word democracy comes from the Greek term demkratia, where demos

mean peopleand kratos means rule.

Then democracy means rule by the people

it is a particular form of government where the majority exercise political

control

this means the majority should be given, as part of their undeniable right,

the chance to participate in mattes of governance


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they should be consulted and be part of the policy decision machinery of

government;

Government should be transparent, responsive and accountable.

Some scholars argue that democracy does not mean rule by the people. It

is more than that. It is a philosophy of human kind, a way of life, a set ofideals and attitudes motivating and guiding the behaviour of members of

society towards one another, not only on their political life, but in their

economic, social and cultural relationships as well (Rodee, Anderson and

Christol,1957:83)

Rodee, Anderson and Christol (1957:85) indicate that a truly democratic

nation constantly strives for:

The good life for all inhabitants

The maximum of individuals liberty consistent with the general security,

order and welfare The widest possible opportunities for all to the end that men may become as

nearly equal as their native capacities will allow

The fullest development of each human personality

The active participation of the largest possible number of citizens in the

processes of government

Democracy is about representative government where political leaders are elected

through a competitive electoral process. The leaders should be accountable,

divergent (different) viewpoints should be tolerated, and basic civil rights should be

protected.

Lets examine Lincoln characteristic about democracy, and see whether

they are applicable to Namibian situation:

Abraham Lincoln cited in McNaughton (1996:99) signify that democracy is as

government of the people, by the people, for the people:

Government is chosen as a result of regular, free and fair elections in which

the whole adult population

It is implied by this description that ballots are secret and that there are

adequate safeguards to ensure results are accurate;

Such elections should be freely competitive.

The rights and liberties of individuals must be protected, preferably in a

constitution. These rights should be enjoyed equally by all citizens.


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A wide variety of beliefs should be tolerated, provided they do not threaten

the peace of the community and the existence of the state.

There should be peaceful transition of power from one government to the

next. It is a vital principle of democracy that, should a government be

removed from power by popular vote, it should accept the popular decision,

step down peacefully from power and agree to obey those laws which maybe established by the victors; so too should the supporters of the defeated

government.

The rule of law should prevail. In essence this implies that government must

be subject to its own laws, i.e. should not attempt to place itself above the

law and should not act in an arbitrary fashion. In addition all citizens should

be equal under the law and entitled to a fair trial by a judiciary which is

independent of government.

Government must be limited, that is its powers should be exercised within

parameters laid down in a constitution.

Of course no single political regime could hope to meet such stringent conditions in

all respect and without some failings. Nevertheless, they do serve as a useful

yardstick against which we can assess the democratic credentials of any state.

Zim power deal: Lesson for Namibia

While it may seem remote, the situation in Zimbabwe holds important lessons on

political accommodation and tolerance for young democracies like Namibia, the key

lesson being that by refusing to accommodate the opposition in a constitutional

way, ruling parties can derail democracies and create conditions for often

unworkable hybrid governments.

Robert Mugabes government squeezed the opposition out of its democratic space

by systematically changing the constitution, abridging public freedoms, denying

them access to public media, banning public meetings, political rallies and

eventually stifling all forms of legitimate opposition.

The opposition MDC and other non-state players campaign for democracy in

Zimbabwe had no other option but to rally the international community to impose

sanctions on Zimbabwes key leaders and bring pressure to bear on the

Zimbabwean government to respect the rule of law and accommodate the

opposition. Mugabe might try to play the blame game, but his agreement to settle

with the MDC is itself an admission of failure.

In Namibia, we have observed very worrying incidents of political intolerance

across the political spectrum, from the grassroots to senior government officials,

and it is clear that is not healthy for our young democracy.

Mines and Energy Minister Erkki Nghimtinas recent outbursts about his SWAPO

money directed at his nephew are a case in point. If we have ministers shooting at


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their nephews, or any one for that matter for joining an opposition political party,

we have a long way to go in fostering tolerance of diversity and political maturity.

Recently, police had to be called in to escort Rally for Democracy and Progress

supporters after they clashed with SWAPO supporters in Tobias Hainyeko

constituency. Such incidents show lack of political maturity and are a threat to the

political stability of the country as a nation.

Our model of government is based in on a constitutional multi-party democracy and

demands a great deal of tolerance and respect for human rights and civil liberties.

Government should make it clear, as it did in the Nghimtina case, that there is no

room for political intolerance and intimidation.

Even the trees of Ohangwena have fallen victim to political tensions, with party

loyalist threatening to cut down a tree because one party had hoisted its flag and

conducted meetings under it. This kind of pettiness detracts from the goals of

national development.

Having witnessed Zimbabwes rise and fall as a democracy and economic prosperity

in the region, Namibia should take lessons from the factors that led to the undoing

of Zimbabwes story. What has happened in Zimbabwe, like what happened in the

Democratic Republic of Congo, is a deviation from multiparty democracy due to

repression and intolerance, and although we might pontificate and praise the

leaders for sacrificing their selfish ambitions, the wishes of the people in Zimbabwe

and the letter and spirit of their constitution have been disregarded. DEMOCRACY

IS NOT NEGOTIABLE.

Questions 1

Leftwich (1993) indicates that democratic good governance refers generally to a

political regime based on based on the model of a liberal democratic policy which

protects human and civil rights, combined with a competent, non corrupt

accountable administration.

Use the three defining factors of democratic good governance to justify whether or

not there is democratic good governance in Namibia. Support your answer with

examples:

Answer: With explanations

The systemic factor the political factor

the administrative factor

Question 2

What are the reasons that have led to the promotion of democratic good

governance?


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Answer: with explanations

The fall of the Soviet Union;

The democratic wave sweeping across Africa

The sweeping wave of democratic consciousness, self determination and neo-

liberalism in Europe in the 1980s

The economic conditionalisties of the IMF and the World Bank

Question 3

What do you regard as the principle virtues of democracy? What are the dangers of

democracy? Motivate your answer.

Question 4

Within the machinery of government, why is the separation of powers considered to

be such an important liberal-democratic principle? In your answer refer to actual

cases which you are familiar with.

Discuss the assignment:

OBJECTIVES

Define the concept of democracy

Compare democracy with totalitarian and authoritarianism

Outline the major characteristics of democracy

Describe the fundamental institutions of democracy

Provide examples of democratic regimes

UNIT 04: GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS

INTRODUCTION

Three important concepts: What is government, constitution, political

system?

Governments exist everywhere

However, the manner in which they are organised differ from place

to place

Government structures depend very much on the nature of the

political system and the constitution that has been adopted

Our government is a democratic system

(a) What is government?

Although the word government can refer to the act of the governing and often does

so, the Government itself is a more specific term. It applies to those elected

ministers who claim the authority to run the state which is described above.


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Institutions are permanent; the government, on the other hand, is transient

(temporary).It represent a temporary majority thrown up in Parliament by the result

of the previous general election. By their votes the people give it a temporary

mandate (authority) to control the institutions of the state, pass laws and administer

services in accordance with the manifesto which it put before them at the election.

(b) What is Constitution?

As indicated above constitution offer sets of rules that help to define power

relationships and the operations of a state. Raney (1971:113) defines a constitution

as ...the whole body of fundamental rules, written and unwritten, legal

and extralegal, according to which a particular government operates In

the same vein, strong (1972:10) defines a constitution as ...a collection of

principles according to which the power of government, the rights of thegovernment and the rights of the governed are related and mutually

adjusted. Another simple definition is that offered by Chacek (1973:3). He

indicates that a constitution may be seen as a ...official blueprint for the use of

public power. Fox and Mayer (1995:25) defined it as ...a framework of

government and the nature and extent of government authority.

An analysis of these definitions reveals the following fundamentals about

constitution:

a) They define the operations of a state as a political institution.

b) They spell out power relations between those who rule and the ruled. Even

among those who rule, specific powers are allocated to different institutions

that make up the state, e.g. power of the legislature, judiciary and the

executive.

c) Constitutions should spell out the rights of governed so that they are not

left out of the equation of rule.

d) They are sets ofprescriptions indicating how government should conduct

its business and the institutions it should establish for such purposes.

e) They are documents that act as a guide for leadership. In certain countries

like the United Kingdom, there is no document entitled as such, but there are

several statutes that spell out the operation of government in specific areas.

The constitution is itself consistent with well-understood conventions,customs and traditions that the Namibian people feel duty bound to adhere

to.

f) They describe existing institutions and provide the powers, functions and

relations among them (Blondel 1996; Sarton 1963; and Bogdanor, 1988).


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However, we should understand from the onset that what constitutions prescribe,

may not actually be practised. Some governments deviate from constitutional

provisions in order to pursue agendas of political incumbents.

Blondel (1996:218) indicates that there are three broad principles on which

constitution is based: the principle of restraint; the principle of positive rights; and

the principle of egalitarian goals.

The principle of restraint: this is about the restriction placed on the executive so

that he could be tolerant, guard against abuse of power, and infringing upon the

rights of individuals. This is also known as constitutionalism where the the power of

government should be limited so that the rights of man are formally protected from

abridgement by public officials or private individuals (Ranney, 1971:114). This

doctrine or fundamental principle strives for the ideal where the governors and

governed are all subject to the constitutional rules to prevent arbitrary exercise of

power (du Toit, 1996:73).

The principle of positive right: After the two world wars, it was imperative todevelop a set of positive rights to protect each state. These were regarded as logical

extensions of the liberation protection. They include social, economic and political

rights. These had to be entrenched in the constitution to protect individuals and the

centralizing tendency of the state.

The principle of egalitarian goals: this was overly emphasized by constitutions

of Marxsist states particularly the 1936 Constitution of the former Soviet Union

(USSR) (Blondel, 1995:218) Blondel further notes that the egalitarian principle

advocated for the equality of all and other fundamental individual freedomshave to

be subsumed within it. The demise of communism has however seen a decline in

the paramount of this principle.

It is also important to understand the following features of constitutions:

Constitutional supremacy: i.e. that a constitution spells out the basis of

government action and provides a background for the enactment of other laws.

Thus, a constitution is the supreme law of the state.

Constitutional rigidity: Because a constitution is supreme, it is inherently rigid. It

cannot be amended easily. Thus, the process of amendment is complex and

discourages many governments who would like to change it for their own self-

interest. Its rigidity is also plausible on legal grounds as the judiciary can onlydefend and prosecute based on something thats substantive and cannot be easily

changed. Significant to note however, is that such rigidity may be inconsistent with

social changes and may lead to delays while people debate on the constitutionality

of an action.

Constitutional changes:To change a constitution, government has to follow

certain specific procedures laid down within it. Sometimes changes have to be


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made after a special majority in the legislature or only through a referendum or

both.

Thus, constitutional amendment can only be through:

Referenda on a national level

Referenda on a regional

Decision by a special constitutional body

Statutory provisions or

Court judgements

(c) Defining Political System

Fundamentals of understanding the function of government is that they function

within a political system. This is so because governments are engaged in activities

where a substantial number of actors and agents interact to develop and implement

policies (Easton, 1953 and Blondel, 1995) the question is what is a political system?

A political system can be defined as a set ofinteractions among a substantial

number of elements intended to initiate, design and implement public policies.

These elements include presidents, cabinets, legislature, judicial bodies, political

parties, interest groups, bureaucrats and individual. The political system indicates

how resources are authoritatively allocated to society. Three important concepts

need to be clarified. These are authoritative, values and allocation.

Allocation: indicates the process of distributing goods and services to

communities or members of society. This means that a political system is a

vehicle through which, those who rule can determine who gets what, when

and how. Values: this indicates the goods and services that the community wishes

to have or what those who rule decides to give the ruled. Thus, any allocative

actions should be consistent with what the people want or what they consider

to be good, desirable and appropriate for them.

Authoritative: This indicates that a political system should have a group of

men and women who have the authority to allocate resource to society.

These are mostly politicians who have been voted into power by members of

society. This authority should ensure that there is obedience and compliance

by members of society.

The political system is influenced by its environment, both the national and

international environment. This includes all the factors within a given country and

outside it that can influence the operations of this system. These provide input to

the political system. Thus, the input phase is about the articulation of demands, i.e.

an activity where policy ideas are presented for discussion and subsequent

decision-making. The black box or governmental system or still, conversion box is in


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charge of converting demands in into policy decisions. The output phase has three

distinct activities: rule implementation; rule making; rule adjudication.

It is significant that a political system helps us to answer certain fundamental

questions like who rules; in what way and for what purpose? In explaining these

questions, Blondel (1995:29) highlights the following:

The first question is concerned with the degree to which those with

governmental authority allow people to participate in decision-making. This is

the essence of democracy.

The second question is concerned with the means to the decision making

process, i.e. whether there is public discourse or open discussions or whether

these are curtailed in preference of centralised decision making.

The third question is concerned with the ends, purpose or objectives of policy

decisions, i.e. what those who rule want to achieve or their fundamental

purpose.

The Namibian Constitution promulgates a multiparty democracy promoting

development in all spheres with fundamental rights and freedom, including but not

limited to, the rights of freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of

religion. The constitution lays down the division of power between the executive,

the legislature and the judiciary.

The executive body is headed by the president, assisted by Cabinet. The president

is elected by direct popular vote for a term of five years and can be re-elected for a

second term of office. Parliament has approved an amendment to the Constitution

to allow the first President of Namibia to serve a third term. Elections were held in

December, 1999, and President Sam Nujoma served a third term.The bicameral legislature consist of the 78-member National Assembly, 72

members elected and six appointed by the president, for a term of five years, and

the 26 member National Council, consisting of two members from each

geographical region as defined by Act of Parliament. The National Council reviews

bills passed by the National Assembly and recommends legislation on matters of

regional concern. Members of the National Council are elected for six years from

members of the various Regional Council.

The judicial structure in Namibia parallels that of South Africa. In 1919, Roman-

Dutch law was declared the common law of the territory and remains so up till now.

By law all indigenous groups are able to participate equally in decisions affecting

their lands, cultures, traditions, and natural resources. Nevertheless, the Bushmen,

or San, and other indigenous people have been unable to exercise fully these rights

as a result of minimal access to education and economic opportunities under

colonial rule, coupled with their relative isolation in remote areas of the country.


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After independence the standard legal workweek was reduced from 46-45 hours

with no more than 10 hours overtime per week. In addition, the law mandates 24

consecutive days of annual leave and at least 30 workdays of sick leave per year.

The constitution and the fair Labour Act of 1992 provides for the freedom of

association, including the freedom to form and join trade unions, the right to

bargain collectively or individually, and other basic safeguards in the work place.Roughly half of the wage sector is organized to some degree, although less than 20

percent of full-time wage owners are organized.

Namibia is a first asylum country and continues to permit asylum seekers to enter

the country. Ninety percent of the more than 2,200 refugees and asylum seekers

presently at the Osire camp are from Angola. The rest are from the Democratic

Republic of Congo, Burundi, Rwanda, Tanzania, and other African countries. Those

granted refugee status are permitted to work and attend school including the

University of Namibia.

Question How does civil society influence the political system in Namibia?

Answer

Society influence the political system in Namibia in the sense that it is

involved in many decisions taken by the government. Society is also

considered in the decision making process.

Question

The Constitutions of Namibia provides for separation of powers among the

executive, the legislative and the judiciary. This means that theConstitution provides for checks and balances where institutions check

upon each other to avoid abuse of power.

Outline the powers, duties and functions of each one of the organs of the

state.

OBJECTIVES

Define and describe different political systems

Define a constitution and describe different types of constitutions

Describe the three horizontal functional categories of government generally

and Namibia in particular

UNIT 05: REGIONAL AND LOCAL GOVERNMENT

We need to bear in mind that Namibia is a unitary state: What does this

mean?

INTRODUCTION


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Regional and local govt. entities are established to meet the

demands, needs and expectsions of people at local levels;

They are entrusted with the responsibility of satisfying and

enhancing the quality of life of local communities through the

provision of basic services;

While each national govt. exists to provide various goods andservices to the entire nation,

It normally transfer some of its functions to regional and local govt.

institutions;

Local govt. is better able to work with people at the grassroots level.

Local government concerns an area which is small enough that the inhabitants

consider themselves a community. This might be a group of villages, a town, a city

or part of a city, or a country.

Regional government would involve an area which is too big to be considered a

community, but does have some distinctive characteristics with which people canidentify. These differences might consist of the economic structure, geographical

features, culture or the pattern of settlement.

Namibia is a unitary state (Insert assg).Discuss

Exercises: Which theory do you consider to be illustrative of your local

govt?

Why do you say so?

OBJECTIVES

Define the concepts: regional government , local government, governance,

and local authority

Outline and discuss the rationale for the establishment of regional and local

government systems

Explain the structures and functions of regional and local government

institutions

Describe the nature of local government finance

Compare the regional and local government systems of Namibia with other

countries.

Questions(a)Discuss the changing nature of the relationship between central and

local government.

(b) Local authorities should be free to spend how much they like, on

what policies they like, as long as they got support of local

electors. Discuss.


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UNIT 06: PUBLIC ENTERPRISES

INTRODUCTION

PE have long been part of the public sector both in developed and

developing countries;

At independence Namibian govt. faced with discourage task of

reactivating growth after a decade of essential stagnation;

But growth alone was not enough

Namibian national development objectives demanded growth of

employment;

Establishing PE in order to improve distribution and fight poverty;

These entities were viewed as instruments or vehicles for national

development;

However, their history in these countries indicates that most of them

have not lived up to their expectations; This explains the change of thought by most political leaders who

now embrace privatisation as a way of addressing problems of poor

performance experienced by some of these entities.

OBJECTIVES

Define public, enterprise and public enterprise

Outline the reasons for having public enterprise

Discuss the characteristics of public enterprises

Enumerate and describe different types public enterprises

Describe the organisational structure of public enterprises

Highlight the need for commercialisation and privatisation of public

enterprises

Discuss the assignment!

Question 1

Describe in detail the reasons for establishing public enterprise.

Answer

To enhance the economy

Ideology reasons To ensure the provision of capital investment

To streamline/ control economic activities of the private sector

To provide products under a monopolistic condition.

Question 2

What are the main reasons for having Boards of Directors in Public Enterprises


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Answer

The answer may differ from student to student:

The Board have to comply with government policy;

The acts provide the mechanism for dismissal of directors in cases of failure

to comply with government policy;

Government appoints the majority of board members, thereby ensuring that

the influence of the government is maintained in the day to day.

UNIT 07: INTER-GOVERNMENTAL RELATIONS

INTRODUCTION

We all know that in Namibia we have a central government;

Apart from this central authority, we have subsidiary authorities like

Regional Councils and Local Authorities;

Local authorities include Municipal, Town and Village Councils; In addition to these authorities, we also have Traditional Councils

and Public Enterprises bodies like NamPower, NamWater, etc;

All these government bodies are tasted with achieving a wide range

of govt. objectivise within their areas of jurisdiction.

As a Public Administrator, you need to understand or know the

position the guidelines that govt. institutions use in their

relationship, the communication process they adopt;

And all other cooperative efforts they establish in order to come up

with a well coordinated system showing unity of action in order in

trying to deliver goods and services to the people.

OBJECTIVES

Define intergovernmental relations

Differentiate between the approaches to intergovernmental relations

Outline the rationale for intergovernmental relations

State how the nature of the state influences intergovernmental relations

Outline the three types of intergovernmental relations

Apply intergovernmental relations to the Namibian situation.

Question: What do you understand by the term Intergovernmental

relations? Give example of situations where your ministry or hospitalrelates with other government agencies. List and state the reason for such

relationship.

Intergovernmental relation can be defined as relations among various government

institutions or ministries. According to Fox and Meyer, intergovernmental relation

encompasses all complex and interdependent relation among various levels of

government. (Fox and Meyer: 1995:66)


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The above means that with intergovernmental relations, two or more government

institutions enters into an agreement through which they can help each other or

they can team up to do something together.

For example, a few years back there was only one handyman at Rundu state

hospital who was responsible for carrying out all the minor repairs. All major repairs

were done by the ministry of work. And at this stage things havent change despite

the fact that the hospital managed to employ more handymen; all major repairs are

still being done by the same ministry.

The above mentioned state of affairs practically means that the ministry of health

has an agreement with the ministry of works. This is because the works ministry has

skilled employees, ranging from intensive training and experience.

Another scenario is that of the agreement between the Ministry of Defence and

Health. The ministry of defence recruits almost every year and the screening of all

the successful applicants are done at hospitals countrywide. The reason for this is

once again, skilled and qualified personnel. In addition, hospitals also have thenecessary machinery and equipment for X-ray screening and analysis of laboratory

samples (i.e. blood, urine for diabetes, hypertension and HIV/Aids). The ministry of

defence also have their own doctors and machinery (in short supply), so to save on

screening time they went into agreement with the MoHSS.

Discuss Elise & Erika assignment about unitary state.

UNIT 08: PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION IN PERSPECTIVE

INTRODUCTION

Public Administrator comes as a servant, to facilitate the ruler-ruledrelationship with a view to maintain order, peace and good

government;

Public Administrator should be conscious of the fact that his/her

powers and authority are derived through the ballot paper from

political society who may demand an explanation of their choices

aimed at enhancing good life and happiness if they are not being

pursued in an effective manner.

This show that Public Administration is part and parcel of the whole

governing process;

Government cannot function without Public Administration; If it is not there, those who rule will not have anyone to send to the

people to collect taxes and make sure that these people abide by the

policies of the country.

OBJECTIVES


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Define administration and public administration

Outline the nature and scope of public administration

Identify and outline the role of public administrators

Describe the reasons for studying public administration.

Question

Is Public Administration an art or science? Substantiate your answers.

Answer:

There is no one specific definition of public administration, but it will be narrowed

down based on definitions by three well known scholars: firstly, according to (Max,

1963), it is the organization of personnel practices and procedures essential for the

effectiveness to perform public functions allocated to the supervisory branch of

government. Secondly, it encompasses the evaluation, formulation, modification

and implementation of public policies as according to (Davis, 1974). Thirdly, it is

concerned with carrying out public policy decisions made by the authorities of a

political structure as defined by (Heady, 1955). Judging from three definitions it is

clear that public administration involves decisions by government on how things

should be carried out.

There are three primary reasons as to why a new public administration had to be

formed:

Firstly, the poor performance of public administration during the 70s and

80s

The new equation of government Managerialism

1. The poor performance of public administration

This has always been a major thorn in government civil service of the

developing world, who lack in accountability and performance as a whole.

Known for inefficiency and ineffectiveness, ruling has always been carried out

by corrupt and selfish interest groups at the expense of those communities

they serve, or suppose to serving. Lacking insight, service to communities

has always been in abandonment. Goods and services are providedsuperficially and to the choice of the ruling elite in favour of their own

interests. This is what brought about the development of the new public

administration structure that would enhance performance and carry out

incorruptible practices of public organizations that would serve public

interests truthfully.

2. The new equation of government


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Due to under-performance, continued poverty and underdevelopment in

member states of the commonwealth, a communiqu was sent as a mode of

change of public service delivery by those states. One was held in Harare in

1991 and another in Cyprus 1993. The message was aimed at improving

democratic good governance in member states by building democracy, the

rule of law, human rights, independence of the judiciary, just and honestgovernments. The idea of a new public administration was approved by the

commonwealth Secretary General in November 1995, an initiative of the

Commonwealth Heads of Governments. At that time, Chief Emeke Anyaoku,

Commonwealth Secretary General indicated certain changes that would bring

about improvements that would economically improve public service and

ensure customer needs were met. The new equation of government public

service would be irregular, varying as a driving tool for democratic good

governance and economic and competitive success.

The new Equation of government requirements are:

Value-added production

Open markets

Dynamic enterprise

Skilled workforce

Public expectations of quality service

Responsible public service

According to the Secretary General, civil service strengths would be judged by its

ability to support national success, inspiration toward employees by encouraging a

responsible work tradition, the response to customer needs and demands and the

fostering of people, systems and structures that will lead to brilliant serviceprovision to the general public (Commonwealth Secretariat, 1995:6).

3. The managerial ideology

The scholar Pollit (1990), fascinatingly argued managerialsm as an ideology

that is concrete and has immediate outcomes. It indicates that performance

of institutions can only be improved by adopting market driven strategies and

allowing managers the right to exercise their greatest judgment in the

transformation of public sectors towards success and excellence of the

highest order. Managerialism includes a set of beliefs, ideas and values; five

interior beliefs are:

The route to social progress being the achievement of continualincrease in economically defined productivity.

Information, technological hardware and organization technologies

that would increase productivity.

A disciplined labour force in accordance with the productivity ideal that

will be able to apply these technologies for success.

The professionalism and quality of managers who set the trend for any

business success.


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Thus for such success, managers must be given the right to do just

that, manage.

The important thing here is the fact that management is necessary for any

organization. It helps focus resources where benefits are greatest, eliminate waste

and keep accounts in check. It also provides clearance on goals and objectives while

keeping the employees motivated. For this kind of success, Pollit notes that

organizations which incorporate such ideals are more likely to succeed.

UNIT 09: THE DISTINCTIVES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION (Read through)

OBJECTIVES

Indicate the similarities and difference between:

a) Public administration and private administrationb) Administration and management

c) Public administration and public management and

d) Public management and business management.

Distinguish between public administration and:

a) Political science

b) History

c) Law

d) Sociology

e) Economics and

f) Psychology

UNIT 10: THE DEVELOPMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION:

PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS PARADIGMS

INTRODUCTION: NPM

Discuss the assignment about NPM

OBJECTIVES

Review the philosophical foundations of public administration

Discuss the different paradigms that outline the development of public

administration

Describe the New Public Management paradigm as a new concept that is

intended to guide modern bureaucracies.


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UNIT 11: THEORIES OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

Theories are very important tools that guide us in understanding

public administration; Guide us in what we do, give us basis for making arguments;

In this unit we are interesting in tracing the development of these

theories cognisant of the fact they can be classified as management,

public administration or organisation theories;

In fact, it is evident that these theories have been developed to

facilitate the running of organisation more than anything else.

FREDERICK TAYLOR (1856-1915)

Taylors interest in improving productivity started with his effort to improve

machinery, which lead to the construction of the largest steam hammer on the USA.He later shifted from machine improvements to improve management systems. The

management technique that he perfected is known as scientific management or

simply, Taylorism. Based on his experience as a worker, he had a low opinion of

workers. He indicated that in any work situation there was a first class man who is

highly motivated and interested in working the best he can rather than engage in

time wasting escapades that would restrict productivity and an average man who

had a lackadaisical approach to work and hindered productivity in the organisation.

To Taylor, there is no doubt that the tendency of the average man is towards

working at a slow, easy gait and its only after a good deal of thought and

observation on his part as a result that he takes a more rapid pace. He further

clarified that, a first class man is likely to degenerate into an average man due topoor incentives, peer pressure and poor management, if put together with an

average man.

Taylors manuscript for enhanced performance was for managers to adopt a

scientific approach when managing human resources. This scientific procedure

demanded the following from managers:

Provide the employee with the best implements to perform specific tasks

Analyse jobs and break them down into smaller or elementary units that can

performed repeatedly

Study a workman performing each of these tasks at a time and use astopwatch to time his motions

Discover and discard all unnecessary movements that are not connected with

the task

Carry out an extrapolation exercise of the time and motion data to come up

with what can be considered as the best method of performing the task.

(Sheldrake 1996 as cited in Nsingo 2004:289)


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As it is reflecting in the principles, the underlining emphasis is organisation

efficiency, handling personnel properly and appropriate management action. Fayol

later developed elements of management that serves as integral part of

management functions:

Planning-Organising-Command-Coordination-Control

Fayol was more interested in the question of organisational design, although he also

touched the question of organisational compliance. This can be substantiated by his

advocacy of the 14 principles in which he proposed that an organisation would be

best be structured by a hierarchical structure. He termed this a scalar chain of

command whereby the line of authority flows from the top to the lowest rank.

Division of work and centralised structures are some of the principles that would

bring about increased output and make employees more effective. In terms of the

compliance, he proposed as a core tenet for the employee to obey and respect rules

that govern the organisation. He maintained that discipline and compliance would

be enhanced if there were a good relationship between management and theworkers. There should also be a judicious use of penalties for infarctions of the rules.

He emphasised the factors like collaborations and specialisation.

MAX WEBBER (1864-1920)

Max Webber was a professor, whose interest where in law, politics, economics,

history and sociology. He wrote extensively on authority and legitimacy though at

the time of his death, none of his work was available in English. He argued that

obedience was owed to the impersonal order established by law. Thus, the authority

that any individual possessed came from the appointment or office held and notfrom essential personal attributes. In case of traditional authority by contrast,

obedience was owed to the actual person of the leader who occupies the

traditionally sanctioned position of authority and who is bound by tradition. Weber

also claimed that with charismatic authority, obedience sprang from the leaders

personal qualities that at their highest, would amount to the gift of grace. Weber

views that the legal authority was associated with the establishment of bureaucracy.

Bureaucracy was established by Weber as the most efficient means by which

organisations can achieve their ends. He referred to it as an ideal form of

organisation. Webber indicates that efficiency can only be achieved if organisations

are appropriately structured and managed in a manner that would lead to efficiency.Organisations should have the following characteristics:

Division of labour

Hierarchy of authority and responsibility

Merit employment

Rules and regulations

Impartiality or impersonality


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Promotion system based on seniority

Discipline and control

In any organisation, administrative officials are not the owner of means of

production, because the privileges belong to the office or position. Individual

performance is regulated by rules covering the rights and duties of incumbents in

order to enhance compliance. Employees are given security through tenure and this

leads to commitment. The rules and regulations help to protect employees against

arbitrary actions of senior management. All personnel are career officials and work

for a fixed salary. This bureaucratic form of organisation was hailed as the best form

that can fit any dynamic environment. It enhances organisation response to its

environment because of its well defined job descriptions, predictable relationships

and operational procedures

OBJECTIVES

Define a theory

Describe the relationship between organisation theory and publicadministration

Provide a description of the different categories through which organisation

theory has evolved

Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the different theories of

organisations as they apply to public administration.

UNIT 12: THE ENVIRONMENT OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION

INTRODUCTION

On the national front, democratisation processes that are takingplace in Africa require public administrators to be accountable and

have a customer service orientation;

Within the bureaucracy itself, there is an increasing need for public

administrators to create a conducive climate that would enable all

employees to work diligently in order to enhance the performance of

public sector institutions particularly in so far as efficiency, economy

and effectiveness are concerned.

OBJECTIVES

Define the term environment Outline the characteristics of the public administration environment

Explain the three categories of the environment

Identify and explain the techniques that can be used for environmental

scanning

Use systems theory to understand the public administration environment

Question


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Briefly discuss any five factors that influence the environment and show how they

impinge (impose) on your organisation. Give examples in each case.

Government Studies short hand notes

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