Good agricultural practices(n)

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Introduction What are Good Agricultural Practices? A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and regulations have been developed in recent years by the food industry and producers organizations but also governments and NGOs, aiming to codify agricultural practices at farm level for a range of commodities. Their purpose varies from fulfilment of trade and government regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food safety and quality), to more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets. The objective of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree: ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions, and/or creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries. Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products" (FAO COAG 2003 GAP paper) These four 'pillars' of GAP (economic viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality) are included in most private and public sector standards, but the scope which they actually cover varies widely. The concept of Good Agricultural Practices may serve as a reference tool for deciding, at each step in the production process, on practices and/or outcomes that are environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable. The implementation of GAP should therefore contribute to Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD) 1

Transcript of Good agricultural practices(n)

Page 1: Good agricultural practices(n)

Introduction

What are Good Agricultural Practices?

 A multiplicity of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) codes, standards and regulations have been developed in recent years by the food industry and producers organizations but also governments and NGOs, aiming to codify agricultural practices at farm level for a range of commodities. Their purpose varies from fulfilment of trade and government regulatory requirements (in particular with regard to food safety and quality), to more specific requirements of specialty or niche markets. The objective of these GAP codes, standards and regulations include, to a varying degree:

ensuring safety and quality of produce in the food chain capturing new market advantages by modifying supply chain governance

improving natural resources use, workers health and working conditions, and/or

creating new market opportunities for farmers and exporters in developing countries.

Good Agricultural Practices are "practices that address environmental, economic and social sustainability for on-farm processes, and result in safe and quality food and non-food agricultural products" (FAO COAG 2003 GAP paper)

These four 'pillars' of GAP (economic viability, environmental sustainability, social acceptability and food safety and quality) are included in most private and public sector standards, but the scope which they actually cover varies widely.

The concept of Good Agricultural Practices may serve as a reference tool for deciding, at each step in the production process, on practices and/or outcomes that are environmentally sustainable and socially acceptable. The implementation of GAP should therefore contribute to Sustainable Agriculture and Rural Development (SARD)

Potential benefits and challenges related to Good Agricultural Practices

Potential benefits of GAP

Appropriate adoption and monitoring of GAP helps improve the safety and quality of food and other agricultural products.

It may help reduce the risk of non-compliance with national and international regulations, standards and guidelines (in particular of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (html), World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) (html) and the International Plant Protection Convention IPPC (html)) regarding permitted pesticides, maximum levels of contaminants (including pesticides, veterinary drugs, radionuclide and mycotoxins) in food and non-food agricultural products, as well as other chemical, microbiological and physical contamination hazards.

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Adoption of GAP helps promotes sustainable agriculture and contributes to meeting national and international environment and social development objectives.

Challenges related to GAP

In some cases GAP implementation and especially record keeping and certification will increase production costs. In this respect, lack of harmonization between existing GAP-related schemes and availability of affordable certification systems has often led to increased confusion and certification costs for farmers and exporters.

Standards of GAP can be used to serve competing interests of specific stakeholders in agri-food supply chains by modifying supplier-buyer relations.

There is a high risk that small scale farmers will not be able to seize export market opportunities unless they are adequately informed, technically prepared and organised to meet this new challenge with governments and public agencies playing a facilitating role.

Compliance with GAP standards does not always foster all the environmental and social benefits which are claimed.

Awareness raising is needed of 'win-win' practices which lead to improvements in terms of yield and production efficiencies as well as environment and health and safety of workers. One such approach is Integrated Production and Pest Management (IPPM).

Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) are specific methods which, when applied to agriculture, produce results that are in harmony with the values of the proponents of those practices. There are numerous competing definitions of what methods constitute "Good Agricultural Practices".Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations GAPThe Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) uses Good Agricultural Practices as a collection of principles to apply for on-farm production and post-production processes, resulting in safe and healthy food and non-food agricultural products, while taking into account economical, social and environmental sustainability. GAPs may be applied to a wide range of farming systems and at different scales. They are applied through sustainable agricultural methods, such as integrated pest management, integrated fertilizer management and conservation agriculture. They rely on four principles: Economically and efficiently produce sufficient (food security), safe (food safety) and nutritious food (food quality);Sustain and enhance natural resources; Maintain viable farming enterprises and contribute to sustainable livelihoods; Meet cultural and social demands of society.The concept of GAPs has changed in recent years because of a rapidly changing agriculture, globalization of world trade, food crisis (mad cow disease), nitrate pollution of water, appearance of pesticide resistance, soil erosion...

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GAPs applications are being developed by governments, NGOs and private sector to meet farmers and transformers needs and specific requirements. However, many think these applications are only rarely made in a holistic or coordinated way.They provide the opportunity to assess and decide on which farming practices to follow at each step in the production process. For each agricultural production system, they aim at allowing a comprehensive management strategy, providing for the capability for tactical adjustments in response to changes. The implementation of such a management strategy requires knowing, understanding, planning, measuring, monitoring, and record-keeping at each step of the production process. Adoption of GAPs may result in higher production, transformation and marketing costs, hence finally higher costs for the consumer. To minimize production costs and maintain the quality of agri-foodGAPs require maintaining a common database on integrated production techniques for each of the major agro-ecological area (see ecoregion), thus to collect, analyze and disseminate information of good practices in relevant geographical contexts.

Basics of Good Agricultural Practices

The specific GAPs steps are outlined in detail in the “Good Agricultural Practices Self Audit Workbook” developed by Cornell University. GAPs principles can be summarized as follows: clean soil, clean water, clean hands, and clean surfaces. Examples of applicable procedures are listed below. These principles must be applied to each phase of production (field selection, pre-plant field preparations, production, harvest, and post-harvest) to be effective.

“Clean soil” involves taking steps to reduce the possibility of introducing microbial contaminants into the soil, particularly via manure and other animal excrements. GAPs address the need to properly compost, apply and store manure. Additionally, the exclusion of domesticated animals from production fields is essential in helping to reduce the possibility of faecal contamination. Taking steps to minimize the presence of wild animals in fields is also important.

“Clean water” entails making sure all water used in washing, cooling and processing is of drinkable quality. Packing ice should also be made from drinkable water. Ground and surface water sources need to be protected from runoff and animal contamination. Water used for irrigation and foliar applications also needs to be free of human pathogens. Regular water quality testing may be necessary, particularly for surface water sources.

“Clean hands” applies to workers and the use of good personal hygiene in the field and packing house. Providing washing facilities for customers at U-Pick operations is also an important consideration.

“Clean surfaces” means ensuring that all packing bins, work surfaces, storage areas, and transportation vehicles are properly washed and sanitized on a regular, often daily, basis. Farm equipment should also be routinely cleaned and sanitized. An

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essential aspect of GAPs procedures is accurate record keeping. While keeping records is an important part of any farm operation, it can become critical in cases of food safety issues. When food-borne illnesses do occur, attempts are made to trace the contamination back to the point of original. Growers who document their GAPs procedures will be able to provide evidence that their farm is an unlikely source of the outbreak.

Good Agricultural Practices for Selected Agricultural Components

Soil

The physical and chemical properties and functions, organic matter and biological activity of the soil are fundamental to sustaining agricultural production and determine, in their complexity, soil fertility and productivity. Appropriate soil management aims to maintain and improve soil productivity by improving the availability and plant uptake of water and nutrients through enhancing soil biological activity, replenishing soil organic matter and soil moisture, and minimizing losses of soil, nutrients, and agrochemicals through erosion, runoff and leaching into surface or ground water. Though soil management is generally undertaken at field/farm level, it affects the surrounding area or catchment due to off-site impacts on runoff, sediments, nutrients movement, and mobility of livestock and associated species including predators, pests and biocontrol agents.

Good practices related to soil include maintaining or improving soil organic matter through the use of soil carbon-build up by appropriate crop rotations, manure application, pasture management and other land use practices, rational mechanical and/or conservation tillage practices; maintaining soil cover to provide a conducive habitat for soil biota, minimizing erosion losses by wind and/or water; and application of organic and mineral fertilizers and other agro-chemicals in amounts and timing and by methods appropriate to agronomic, environmental and human health requirements.

Water

Agriculture carries a high responsibility for the management of water resources in quantitative and qualitative terms. Careful management of water resources and efficient use of water for rainfed crop and pasture production, for irrigation where applicable, and for livestock, are criteria for GAP. Efficient irrigation technologies and management will minimize waste and will avoid excessive leaching and salinization. Water tables should be managed to prevent excessive rise or fall.

Good practices related to water will include those that maximize water infiltration and minimize unproductive efflux of surface waters from watersheds; manage ground and soil water by proper use, or avoidance of drainage where required; improve soil structure and increase soil organic matter content; apply production inputs, including waste or recycled products of organic, inorganic and synthetic

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nature by practices that avoid contamination of water resources; adopt techniques to monitor crop and soil water status, accurately schedule irrigation, and prevent soil salinization by adopting water-saving measures and re-cycling where possible; enhance the functioning of the water cycle by establishing permanent cover, or maintaining or restoring wetlands as needed; manage water tables to prevent excessive extraction or accumulation; and provide adequate, safe, clean watering points for livestock.

Crop and Fodder Production

Crop and fodder production involves the selection of annual and perennial crops, their cultivars and varieties, to meet local consumer and market needs according to their suitability to the site and their role within the crop rotation for the management of soil fertility, pests and diseases, and their response to available inputs. Perennial crops are used to provide long-term production options and opportunities for intercropping. Annual crops are grown in sequences, including those with pasture, to maximize the biological benefits of interactions between species and to maintain productivity. Harvesting of all crop and animal products removes their nutrient content from the site and must ultimately be replaced to maintain long-term productivity.

Good practices related to crop and fodder production will include those that select cultivars and varieties on an understanding of their characteristics, including response to sowing or planting time, productivity, quality, market acceptability and nutritional value, disease and stress resistance, edaphic and climatic adaptability, and response to fertilizers and agrochemicals; devise crop sequences to optimize use of labour and equipment and maximize the biological benefits of weed control by competition, mechanical, biological and herbicide options, provision of non-host crops to minimize disease and, where appropriate, inclusion of legumes to provide a biological source of nitrogen; apply fertilizers, organic and inorganic, in a balanced fashion, with appropriate methods and equipment and at adequate intervals to replace nutrients extracted by harvest or lost during production; maximize the benefits to soil and nutrient stability by re-cycling crop and other organic residues; integrate livestock into crop rotations and utilize the nutrient cycling provided by grazing or housed livestock to benefit the fertility of the entire farm; rotate livestock on pastures to allow for healthy re-growth of pasture; and adhere to safety regulations and observe established safety standards for the operation of equipment and machinery for crop and fodder production.

Crop Protection

ii) Maintenance of crop health is essential for successful farming for both yield and quality of produce. This requires long-term strategies to manage risks by the use of disease- and pest-resistant crops, crop and pasture rotations, disease breaks for susceptible crops, and the judicious use of agrochemicals to control weeds, pests, and diseases following the principles of Integrated Pest Management. Any measure

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for crop protection, but particularly those involving substances that are harmful for humans or the environment, must only be carried out with consideration for potential negative impacts and with full knowledge and appropriate equipment.

Good practices related to crop protection will include those that use resistant cultivars and varieties, crop sequences, associations, and cultural practices that maximize biological prevention of pests and diseases; maintain regular and quantitative assessment of the balance status between pests and diseases and beneficial organisms of all crops; adopt organic control practices where and when applicable; apply pest and disease forecasting techniques where available; determine interventions following consideration of all possible methods and their short- and long-term effects on farm productivity and environmental implications in order to minimize the use of agrochemicals, in particular to promote integrated pest management (IPM); store and use agrochemicals according to legal requirements of registration for individual crops, rates, timings, and pre-harvest intervals; ensure that agrochemicals are only applied by specially trained and knowledgeable persons; ensure that equipment used for the handling and application of agrochemicals complies with established safety and maintenance standards; and maintain accurate records of agrochemical use.

Harvest and On-farm Processing and Storage

xiii) Product quality also depends upon implementation of acceptable protocols for harvesting, storage, and where appropriate, processing of farm products. Harvesting must conform to regulations relating to pre-harvest intervals for agrochemicals and withholding periods for veterinary medicines. Food produce should be stored under appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity in space designed and reserved for that purpose. Operations involving animals, such as shearing and slaughter, must adhere to animal health and welfare standards.

xiv) Good practices related to harvest and on-farm processing and storage will include those that harvest food products following relevant pre-harvest intervals and withholding periods; provide for clean and safe handling for on-farm processing of products. For washing, use recommended detergents and clean water; store food products under hygienic and appropriate environmental conditions; pack food produce for transport from the farm in clean and appropriate containers; and use methods of pre-slaughter handling and slaughter that are humane and appropriate for each species, with attention to supervision, training of staff and proper maintenance of equipment.

Energy and Waste Management

xv) Energy and waste management are also components of sustainable production systems. Farms require fuel to drive machinery for cultural operations, for processing, and for transport. The objective is to perform operations in a timely

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fashion, reduce the drudgery of human labour, improve efficiency, diversify energy sources, and reduce energy use.

xvi) Good practices related to energy and waste management will include those that establish input-output plans for farm energy, nutrients, and agrochemicals to ensure efficient use and safe disposal; adopt energy saving practices in building design, machinery size, maintenance, and use; investigate alternative energy sources to fossil fuels (wind, solar, biofuels) and adopt them where feasible; recycle organic wastes and inorganic materials, where possible; minimize non-usable wastes and dispose of them responsibly; store fertilizers and agrochemicals securely and in accordance with legislation; establish emergency action procedures to minimize the risk of pollution from accidents; and maintain accurate records of energy use, storage, and disposal.

GAP for Growers

A farmer who practices Good Agricultural Practices implements proactive food safety control measures to prevent crop contamination. GAP guidelines can be grouped into four categories; health and hygiene, water quality, soil supplements, and environmental hazards. A brief discussion of each is discussed.

Health and Hygiene – Growing fresh produce requires a significant amount of hand contact during harvesting, sorting, and packing. A worker who shows signs of diarrhea, vomiting, or sudden yellowing of the skin or eyes may have a disease that can be transmitted through food and should not handle fresh produce. Every food handler should wash his or her hands before starting work, after breaks, and especially after using the restroom. It may be difficult to provide the necessary sanitary facilities, but clean, accessible, and appropriately stocked restroom and hand washing stations are essential for preventing product contamination.

Water quality—Water has a many pre- and post-harvest uses for irrigation, pesticide application, washing harvested produce, cleaning harvest containers, and for drinking and hand washing. Food safety risks are greatest when surface water from ponds, streams, or rivers comes into contact with the edible parts of fruits and vegetables. Ground or well water is usually a safer choice, but it should be tested regularly and wells should be inspected to make sure they are intact and not located in areas that are subject to runoff during storms or floods. Municipal water is the safest source because you can be sure it has met government safety requirements. The choice of water to use and the level of risk is determined by the timing and application method. For instance, a safer source of water should be used as harvest time approaches or when overhead irrigation is used since the edible portions of the plant is likely to come into contact with the water just before harvest. Water used after harvesting should be free of human pathogens. If the safety of the water is in doubt, a sanitizer should be added to the water.

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Soil supplements—Healthy soils contain abundant populations of microorganism and most are harmless to people. In fact, they are beneficial to crops because they break down organic matter into more readily available plant nutrients. However, when animal manure is used as a soil conditioner or a source of nutrients, contamination risks increase. It should be assumed that all raw manure contains microorganism that can make people sick. Therefore, proper manure management and application techniques are essential. If raw manure is applied to fields where fresh produce is grown, allow a minimum of 120 days between manure application and harvest. Working it into the soil in the fall of the previous year is even better since long term exposure to the elements greatly reduces pathogen levels. A better choice when using animal manures is to follow established aerobic composting techniques that will raise core temperatures to above 130 oF for at least 5 days. Turn the pile several times to ensure even heat exposure to all parts of the pile. It is also important to store raw and incompletely composted manure as far away as possible from crop growing areas and to prevent runoff after heavy rains or flooding.

Field and Packinghouse Hazards—Farms and packing houses are by no means sterile environments and there are ample opportunities for contamination from harvest equipment and containers, harvest implements, packing equipment, storage facilities, and during transportation. Growers need to be aware of potential contamination sources from adjacent properties such as junk yards, toxic waste sites, and dairy or cattle operations and, to the extent possible, keep wild animals away from the crop. Harvest containers and totes should be cleaned before each use and stored so they are protected from sources of contamination.

The voluntary recommendations described above are applicable to all fresh produce growers. But growers who supply fresh produce to grocery stores and restaurants are increasingly being asked to supply documented evidence that GAP standards are being followed. An inspection from an independent third party auditor is typically required at some point during the harvest season.

There are resources available to those who have received certification notices from their wholesale buyers. A new United States Department of Agriculture audit service is available that is supported by funds from the Pennsylvania Department of Agriculture. Currently under development from Penn State Extension and the Department of Food Science is a training program that will help growers understand farm food safety risks and develop a food safety plan.

GOOD AGRICULTURAL PRACTICE (GAP)

The methods of land use which can best achieve the objectives of agronomic and environmental sustainability are described in several different Codes of Practice designed by producers organizations (eg COLEACP), importers and retailers consortia (e.g. BRC, FPC, CIMO, EUREP) and Government bodies representing consumers (e.g. UK Food Standards Agency). Many UK supermarkets have in

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addition their own codes of practice which their suppliers must satisfy. American retailers use a different standard called SQF 2000, which is based on HACCP. More information can be found on the SGS website The European Retailers Group (EUREP) is attempting to consolidate the agronomic and environmental components of all these codes into one universal set of rules or guidelines under the name EUREPGAP (= EUREP Good Agricultural Practice). This is intended to present a clear message to suppliers and reduce the confusion that flows from the current multiplicity of codes. The EUREP website sets out the rules and procedures which growers or traders must comply with in order to qualify for EUREPGAP certification. COLEACP is also trying to develop a harmonised framework taking the important parts of each code of practice. It is not clear how long this process of consolidation will take.

FERTILIZER USEApplication of fertilizers, whether organic or inorganic, is usually necessary for achieving economically viable returns but it is important to determine application rates on the basis of soil analysis, cropping history and actual requirements of the crop at each stage in its development.For smallholders who also keep livestock, use of organic manures - whether animal manure, green manure or mulch - is often desirable as a way of saving costs, improving soil structure and enabling farmers to access organic markets, but proper treatment of the manure is necessary to ensure food safety and to avoid leaching of nutrients into streams or groundwater.Where chemical fertilizers are applied even greater care is needed to match the amount and timing of applications to crop needs, food safety and environmental protection.

INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT (ICM)ICM is a system of crop production which conserves and enhances natural resources while producing food on an economically viable and sustainable foundation. It is based on a good understanding of the interactions between biology, environment and land management systems. ICM is particularly appropriate for small farmers because it aims to minimize dependence on purchased inputs and to make the fullest possible use of indigenous technical knowledge and land use practices. KEY COMPONENTS AND OBJECTIVES OF INTEGRATED CROP MANAGEMENT

Component Aim

Minimum tillage and soil conservation techniques

Low-cost maintenance of soil structure and fertility

Use of nitrogen-fixing plants, green manures and agro-forestry techniques

Improvement of soil fertility

Biological methods of pest and disease control

Cheap and sustainable plant protection

Crop rotations Prevent build-up of pests, disease and

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weeds

Productive use and disposal of plant and animal residues

Prevent damage to soil, water, human, plant and animal health

Maintenance and improvement of ecological diversity

Avoid loss of biodiversity and damage to habitat

Minimum use of purchased inputs and non-renewable fuel resources

Reduce production costs and environmental damage

8 Plantation crops in North Eastern India: Constraints and Strategies

Plantation crops are high-value crops of great economic importance and provide huge employment opportunity, specially to the women throughout the year. The sub-tropical climate of Northeastern India is extremely favourable to the cultivation of many plantation crops. Among the three important crops viz, tea, coffee and rubber, tea was introduced in Assam and Tripura as an industrial crop during the middle of nineteenth century, which has spread to other non-traditional states in the region in recent years. Suitable land and climatic conditions provide favourable environment for tea, coffee and rubber plantation in Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Meghalaya, Mizoram and Nagaland, but it is not fully exploited. At present 3.33 lakh ha area are under these crops in the region, which is a major source of revenue to the economy of the states. The data reveal that out of 14.6 per cent total geographical area under cultivation in the region, the plantation crops cover only 8.97 per cent, of which tea alone covers 7.5 per cent (2.79 lakh ha), rubber 1.20 per cent (4419 ha) and coffee only 0.27 per cent (10.1 thousand ha). The share of tea is the largest, covering 85 per cent of area under plantation crops. Historically, the cultivation of tea being a corporate activity, the involvement of common farmers was totally absent in the past, but in the changing environment, a marginal presence is seen with a total area of 40.0 thousand ha in the small-scale sector. The development of this emerging phenomenon of small-scale tea cultivation in Assam attracted the non-traditional states to introduce it as cash crop among the small farmers.

Assam is the largest producer of tea in India (about 53 per cent of total production). Its share in the region is about 96.8 per cent of area and 98 per cent of production. The productivity of tea is about 1850 kilograms per ha.Coffee was introduced in NE states during 1960s. The implementation of the scheme of expansion of subsidy of Coffee Board Of India in 1979-80 has helped in increasing its area. The Assam Plantation Crops Development Corporation took initiatives to establish coffee and rubber plantation.Rubber occupies 44.72 thousand ha in NE India, which is about 8 per cent of the total area at the all India level and produces 2.28 per cent of total rubber production in the country. Though the entry of this crop started on experimental basis during 1950s, but gained momentum only after 1985 through the project "Accelerated

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Development of Rubber Plantation". Presently Tripura alone grows 25.38 thousand ha of rubber, which is 56.7 per cent of the total rubber area in the region.

Plantation Crop Based Farming System

The monoculture in small holdings is a nightmare during the year of slump and epidemic of pest and diseases. Raising more than one crops alongwith a particular plantation crop not only reduce the gestation period but also ensure steady and higher farm income even in the period of slump. Seasonal crops like vegetables in the formative years of the plantation crops and permanent crops like orange, arecanut, agar, tree beans, black pepper, gooseberry etc. could be grown in the matured plantation to augment productivity and profitability. Intercropping also stands as insurance against crop failure and price slump.

Premium Organic FarmingThe organically, grown products have been gaining popularity worldwide and fetching premium price both at the domestic as well as international market. Since the virgin soil in the hill areas is favourable for tea cultivation, the natural production condition in the NE India could be highly gainful in the production of user-friendly tea. On account of high amount of organic matter and other plant nutrients in these soils, the plantation crops can be grown organically with minimum of agro-chemicals. The strategy to produce organic tea and popularize among the consumers would pay high dividend. Such innovation in value-addition of tea is potentially economically remunerative and helps conserve the precious soil and water resource..

Research NeedsThe identification of proper cropping system for plantation crops requires more research initiatives. The companion crops along with plantation crops as base crop, must have varying morphological frame and rooting habit for minimum competition for space, light, moisture and nutrients. Further, the selection of host crops is crucial or else it attracts pests and diseases. The promotional activity in the sector should take cognizance of local needs, knowledge network, agroclimatic condition and market facilities in a multi-pronged manner.

Conclusion Plantation crops are highly income generating if managed properly. The cultivation of these crops was traditionally limited to corporate sector. The corporate revenue however, did not percolate down to the benefit of the society. Although, the region occupies a strategic position as the highest producer of tea in the country, the social gains due to the corporate agriculture is negligible. The

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changes are taking place in the recent years, resulting in the emergence of small-scale cultivation of tea. The implication of this development on the farm income has been significant. There are, of course, several inherent problems of small-scale cultivation of plantation crops like capital lock up due to long gestation period, capital intensive nature of production system, processing and marketing problems. The solution to these multi-dimensional problems requires effective state intervention. The farmers also face the problems such as quality deterioration of green leaves due to delay in processing and locational disadvantage of tea processing units. The capital infrastructure facilities such as processing units need to be located in the site around the cluster of smaller plantations and the production management by the cooperatives of the user groups. A cluster of village model may be encouraged to grow particular type of plantation crops, viz, tea, coffee or rubber so that processing can be done in the central processing units. The location of the central unit should accompanied by the infrastructure facilities like electricity, water, road and marketing network. The ancillary infrastructure such as regular supply of raw materials, inputs, agro-chemicals and other requirements must be available. In view of existence of customary laws and property ownership rights prevailing in the tribal societies, such a socially acceptable arrangement could substantially benefit the hill states.

Tea(CamelliasinensisL.O.Kuntze.)Camelliaceae

VarietiesPandian, Sundaram, Golconda, Jayaram, Evergreen, Athrey, Brookeland, BSS 1, BSS 2, BSS 3, BSS 4, BSS 5, Biclonal seed stocks and Grafts.

Soil and climateTea requires well drained soil with high amount of organic matter and pH 4.5 to 5.5. The performance of tea is excellent at elevations ranging from 1000 - 2500 m.

NurseryThe nursery soil should be well drained and deep loam in nature with pH of 4.5 to 4.8. The soil and sand used in the preparation of rooting medium should be tested for pH and nematode infestation.

Pre-treatment of rooting mediumTreating with Aluminium sulphate can reduce soil pH. For this purpose the nursery soil is formed into beds of one metre width and about 8 cm height and of a convenient length. Then the beds are drenched with 2% solution of Aluminium sulphate applied at 10 litres/2.5 sq.m of area. Over this another layer of soil of 8 cm height is spread and again drenched with equal quantity of water twice.  Then the soil is allowed to dry and the pH is checked before use in the nursery.

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Preparation of sleevesPolythene sleeves of 150 or 200 gauge and 10 cm width and 30 - 45 cm length may be used. Drainage holes may be provided at the bottom. The lower 3/4 of the sleeves should be filled with 1:3 sand and soil mixture and the top 1/4 with 1:1 sand and soil mixture and staked in rows. Overhead shade is provided.

Selection of mother bush and its treatmentHealthy and vigorously growing high yielding bushes should be selected.  Apply to each selected bush with 40 g of young tea mixture + 60:90 NK mixture up to 5 years. The following mixture has to applied before taking the cuttings.

0.5 % AlSO4 + 1 % MgSO4 (before 3 weeks)2 % Zn SO4 (before 2 weeks)1 % Urea (before 1 week)

Preparation of cuttings Cuttings are taken on April - May and August - September. Semi hard-wood cuttings are prepared with one leaf and an internode with a slanting cut at the bottom.

Planting of cuttingsThe sleeves are watered thoroughly and holes are made in the soil. The cuttings are inserted in the hole and the soil around is pressed firmly to avoid airspace followed by watering. Small polythene tents may be provided which maintain high humidity and regulate the temperature inside. Cuttings may take 10 - 12 weeks for rooting. After 90 days i.e. when all the cuttings have rooted, the polythene tent may be removed gradually over a period of 10 - 15 days.

Manuring of nurseryAfter the tent is removed the cuttings are sorted and staked. 30 g of Nursery soluble mixture of the following composition dissolved in 10 litres of water may be applied over an area of 4 sq.m. This should be done fortnightly.

Composition of the fertilizer

               Ammonium phosphate (20:20)                   35 parts by Wt                Potassium sulphate                                 15 parts by Wt                                (or)                 MOP                                                  12 parts by Wt                Magnesium sulphate                                 15 parts by Wt                Zinc sulphate                                            3 parts by Wt                                 Total                                      80 parts by Wt

Hardening of the cuttings

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Hardening of 4 - 6 months old young cuttings should be done by removing shade gradually in stages over a period of 4 - 6 weeks starting from a few hours exposure to sun every day initially and extending the time of exposure gradually.

Methodsofplanting

Single Hedge SystemIn this method, the spacing adopted is 1.20 x 0.75 m accommodating 10,800 plants/ha.

Double Hedge SystemIn this method, the spacing adopted is 1.35 x 0.75 x 0.75 m accommodating 13,200 plants/ha.

Season and plantingMay - June or September - OctoberSleeves should be opened lengthwise without injuring the roots and planted in the pit and the soil is gently pressed.IrrigationSubsoil irrigation may be given for young tea seedlings during summer months.

ManuringManuring should be done 2 months after planting. Phosphorous should be applied at 80 - 100 kg/ha as Rock phosphate once in a year by placement at 15 - 25 cm depth up to the first pruning and thereafter once in two years. N : K ratio 2 : 3 should be adapted for the first 3 years and a ratio 1 : 1 thereafter.

Year of application

Total weight kg/ha/annum No. of

applications

Qty/plant (g)

N KAmmonium Sulphate

Urea

I year 180 270 5 13 27

II year 240 360 6 23 15

III year 300 450 6 29 18

IV year onwards

300 300 6 33 19

Application of fertilizers should be done before the onset of monsoon.  Fertilizers should be broadcast around the drip circle avoiding contact with the collar.

AftercultivationPerennial grasses (Forbicot weeds) can be controlled by spraying Glyphosate 1.75 lit + Kaoline 2 lit + 2 kg of wetting agent in 450 lit. of water followed by Gramoxone 500 ml in 200 lit of water to control dicot weeds.

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Training young tea

CenteringTo induce more laterals, centering should be done 3 - 5 months after planting.  The main leader stem should be cut, leaving 8 - 10 matured leaves.

TippingTipping is done at a height of 35 cm from the second tipping at 60 cm from ground level.

PruningPruning is done to maintain convenient height of bush and to remove dead and diseased branches.Area to be pruned every year =     Total extent of the garden                                                            Pruning cyclePruning interval = (Elevation in feet / 1000)   + 1

Pruning should be done in April - May or August - September.

Types of pruning

Rejuvenation pruningThe whole bush should be cut near the ground level less than 30 cm with a view to rejuvenate the bushes.

Hard pruningHard/ formation pruning of young tea is done at 30 to 45 cm (12" to 18") for proper spread of bushes.

Medium pruningTo check the bush growing to an inconvenient height this type of pruning is done in order to stimulate new wood and to maintain the foliage at lower levels less than 60 cm.Light pruningPruning depends on the previous history of the bush raising the height of medium pruning by an inch or less to manageable heights for plucking (less than 65 cm).

SkiffingThis is the lightest of all pruning methods.  A removal of only the top 5 - 8 cm new growth is done so as to obtain a uniform level of pruning surface (more than 65 cm).

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Shade regulationPollarding of shade trees should be done prior to heavy rains at a height of 8 - 10 m from the ground level. Annually cut the erect growing branches.

Plant protection

ScalesScales can be controlled by spraying Carbaryl 50 WP @ 2 g/lit. or Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Quinalphos 25 EC @ 2 ml/lit or Chlorpyriphos 20 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Thrips and AphidsThrips and Aphids can be controlled by spraying Phosalone 35 EC or Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

MitesMites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC @ 2 ml/lit or  Sulphur 40 WP @ 2 g/l or Sulphur 80 WP @ 1 g/l.

DiseasesBlister blightBlister blight can be controlled by adopting the following control measures.

Spray 210 g Copper oxychloride and Nickel chloride per ha at 5 days interval from June - September; 11 days intervals in October and November.

Spray Hexagonazole 200 ml + Copper oxychloride 210 g 5 days interval/ha (or)

Spray Copper oxychloride 210 g + 200 ml Propiconazole/ha 10 days interval (or)

Spray Contaf 85 g / Tilt 80 g + 85 g Copper oxychloride at 7 days interval starting from the onset of monsoon

Blister blight

Crop duration and harvest

                  Banji bud                                           Harvesting in tea    

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Plucking commences when the tea bush is 3 years old. The plucking of extreme tip of the growing branch consists of an unopened bud together with two leaves is popularly known as "Two leaves and a bud", while fine plucking is anything less than this. In South India plucking continues throughout the year at weekly intervals during March - May and at intervals of 10 -14 days during the other months.

Rush periodDuring rush period harvesting is done at 7 to 10 days interval.

Lean periodDuring lean period harvesting is done at 10 – 15 days interval.

YieldThe yield of green leaves is 10 t/ha

Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis Muell-Arg.)Euphorbiaceae

VarietiesTjir 1, PB 86, BD 5, BD 10, PR 17, GT 1, RRII 105, RRIM 600, PB 28/59, PB 217, PB 235, RRIM 703, RRII 5, PCK-1, 2 and PB 260

Soil and climateIt requires deep and lateritic fertile soil with an acidic pH of 4.5 to 6.0 and highly deficient in available phosphorous. Tropical climate with annual rainfall of 2000 – 4500 mm is suited for cultivation. Minimum and maximum temperature should be ranged from 25 to 34°C with 80 % relative humidity is ideal for cultivation. Regions prone to heavy winds should be avoided.

SeasonJune – July is optimum for cultivation

Method of propagationPropagated by green budding, brown budding and crown budding.

PlantingIn the cleared forest area, pits at 1 m x 1 m x 1 m are dug and filled up with soil and compost.  The spacing of 3 x 2 m or 5 x 5 m is adopted.

Seed at stake plantingGerminated seeds are sown in situ in the pits.  Healthy ones are retained and the others removed.

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ManuringFor immature rubber trees at pre-tapping stage Apply 12 kg of compost or FYM and 120 g of rock phosphate in each pit before planting. Apply 10:10:4:1.5 NPK and Mg as per schedule given below:

Months after plantingPeriod of application

Quantity per plant

10:10:4 12:12:6

3 September/October 225 g 190 kg

9 April/May 445 g 380 kg

15 September/October 450 g 380 kg

21 April/May 450 g 480 kg

27 September/October 550 g 480 kg

33 April/May 550 g 380 kg

39 September/October 450 g 380 kg

Apply 400 kg of mixture/ha in 2 doses, once in April/May and another in September/October from the 5th year till the tree is ready for tapping.

Matured rubber trees under tappingApply NPK 12:6:6 mixture at the rate of 400 kg/ha every year in two split doses. Add 10 kg commercial Magnesium sulphate for every 100 kg of the above mixture if there is magnesium deficiency.

After cultivationGrowing of cover crops, incorporation of cover crops and weeding are important operations. Pueraria phaseoloides, Calopagonium muconoides, Centrosema pubescens and Desmodium evalifolium are common cover crops.

TappingTrees attain tappable stage in about 7 years. First tapping in seedling trees will commence when the trunk attains a girth of 55 cm at 50 cm height from the ground. In budded trees the girth should be 50 cm at 125 cm height from the bud union.

Ethrel treatmentEthrel is recommended to increase latex yield of trees. It is applied at 5% a.i. concentration with a brush below the tapping cut to a width of 5 cm after light scraping of the outer bark. The first application may be done after a drought period preferably after a few pre-monsoon showers and subsequent applications may be done in September and November. However, continuous application of Ethrel is not recommended for periods of more than 3 years at a stretch.

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Plant protection

PestsScale insectWhen severe infestation is noticed, spray Organophosphorus insecticides like malathion 50 EC 2 ml/lit.

Mealy bugSpray fish oil rosin-soap 25 g/lit. Release Austalian lady bird beetle, Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10/tree.

Termite (White ant)Drench the soil at the base of affected plants with Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre.

Cockchafer grubDrench soil at the base of plants in the affected area with the solution of Chlorpyriphos 20 EC 2 ml/litre.

MitesSpray Sulphur 50 WP at 2 g/lit or spray Dicofol 18.5 EC 2.5 ml/lit.Diseases

Abnormal leaf fall

Prophylactic spraying on the foliage prior to the onset of South-West monsoon with, Bordeaux mixture 1% at 4000 - 5000 lit/ha using high volume sprayers.Oil based Copper oxychloride dispersed in diluent spray oil employing either low volume air blast sprayers (Micron 420 or Minimicron 77 or Shaw Duster Sprayer) from the ground or through aerial application.For micron spraying on the tree spread, foliage intensity, planting material used and age of plants, two rounds of spray using about 17 to 22 lit of fungicide oil mixture per ha per round (1:6 proportion) with gap of 10 to 15 days or a single round of spray with about 30 - 37 lit of fungicide oil mixture per ha (1:5 proportion) may be necessary.

Secondary leaf fallThe control measures suggested for abnormal leaf fall will check this disease also.

PowderymildewDusting during the defoliation period commencing from the bud break in about 10% of the trees, giving 3 to 5 rounds at weekly to fortnightly intervals before 10.00 a.m. using 11 to 14 kg 325 mesh fine Sulphur dust per round per ha. Sulphur dust can be mixed with talc in the proportion of 7:3. Wettable sulphur (1 kg in 4000 lit of water) is also effective in nurseries and for young plants as a spray.

Bird's eye spotRepeated sprayings with Bordeaux mixture 1% or Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride 0.2%. Provide shade in nursery. Give balanced manuring to increase tree vigour.

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Leaf spotSpray 1% Bordeaux mixture or 0.2% Mancozeb, or 0.1% Carbendazim at fortnightly intervals.

PinkdiseaseFrequent tree to tree inspection should be done during July – September period for detecting the infected trees and application of Bordeaux paste in the early stages upto 30 cm above and below the affected region. In advanced cases apply Bordeaux paste and when it dries up scrape off the superficial mycelium and damaged bark and apply Bordeaux paste once again. Prune off and burn the dried up branches after disinfecting by Bordeaux spraying.

Patch canker or Bark cankersThe affected region may be scraped to remove all the rooting bark and the coagulated rubber and the wound washed well with Emisan solution.  (Emisan 10 g in 2 lit).  When the fungicide dries up apply wound dressing compound.

Dry rot, Stump rot, Collar rot or Charcoal rotClean up affected areas, by washing with Emisan solution. Scrape out the fructifications. Affected bark and wood show black lines. Wash the wound again with fungicide solution. When it dries up apply a wound dressing compound.  Avoid accumulation of rubber at the base of the trees. For root infection see the treatment for brown root disease.

Brown root diseaseOpen up the root system. Completely killed and dried roots may be traced and pruned. Partially affected and healthy roots washed with Emisan solution.  When the fungicide dries up, a thin coating with a wound dressing compound may be given.  Refill the soil and drench the base with fungicide solution.

YieldRubber yield steeply increases year by year, reaching a peak after 14 years of planting. In South India, the annual yield of rubber is 375 kg/ha from seedlings trees, whereas budded plants yield 800 - 1000 kg/ha.

Varieties1. East Coast Tall2. West Coast Tall3. VPM-3 (Selection from Andaman Ordinary Tall)

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COCONUT(Cocosnucifera) Palmae

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4. ALR (CN -1) (Selection from Arasampatty Tall)5. COD (Dwarf for tender coconut purpose only)

Hybrids Tall x Dwarf(To be grown under well managed conditions)1. VHC 2 - ECT X MYD 2. VHC 3 - ECT X MOD

SoilRed sandy loam, laterite and alluvial soils are suitable. Heavy, imperfectly drained soil is unsuitable.

Planting seasonsJune - July, December - JanuaryThe planting can also be taken up in other seasons wherever irrigation and drainage facilities are available.

SpacingAdopt a spacing of 25' x 25' (7.5 x 7.5 m) with 175 plants/ha. For planting in field border as a single row, adopt 20' spacing between plants.

PlantingDug pit size of 3’ x 3' x 3'. In the pits, sprinkle Lindane 1.3 % D to prevent white ant damage.  Fill the pit to a height of two feet (60 cm) with FYM, red earth and sand mixed in equal proportions. At the center of the pit, remove the soil mixture and plant the seedling after removing all the roots.  Press the soil well around the seedling and provide the seedling with shade by using plaited coconut leaves or palmyrah leaves. Keep the pits free from weeds. Remove soil covering the collar region. As the seedlings grow and form stem, fill up the pits gradually by cutting the sides.

Water managementFrom 5th year onwards, adopt the following irrigation schedule based on pan evaporation for drip irrigation and basin irrigation.Western region of Tamil Nadu

MonthsNormal condition(for best yield)

Moderate water scarcity condition

Severe water scarcity condition

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A. Drip irrigation

February to May 65 lit / day 45 lit/ day 22 lit / day

January, August and   

 September

55 lit / day 35 lit / day 18 lit/day

June and July,    October to December

45 lit / day 30 lit/ day 15 lit / day

B. Basin irrigation

February to May 410 lit / 6 days *

January, August and   September

410 lit /7 days*

June and July,    October to December

410 lit /9 days*

Months Normal condition(for best yield)

Moderate water scarcity condition

Severe water scarcity condition

A. Drip irrigation

March - September 80 lit / day 55 lit / day 27 lit/day

October – February

50 lit / day 35 lit/ day 18 lit /day

B. Basin irrigation

March – September

410 lit / 5 days*

October – February

410 lit /8 days*

Eastern region of Tamil Nadu Quantity of water to be applied in the basin. Add 30 - 40 % of the above quantity of water (135 -165 litres/palm) to meet the conveyance loss.For drip irrigation, open four pits size of 30 x 30 x 30 cm opposite to each other at one meter distance from the trunk. Place 40 cm long PVC pipe (16 mm) in a slanting position in each pit and place the drippers inside the tube and allow the water to drip 30 cm below the soil surface. Fill the pits with coir pith to prevent evaporation. In the first year, irrigate on alternate days and from the second year to the time of maturity irrigate twice in a week based on the water requirement.

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Basin system Drought management and soil moisture conservation

Mulching with coconut husks/leaves/coir pith  Apply coconut husks with convex surface facing upwards (100 Nos.) or dried coconut leaves (15 Nos) or coir pith up to a height of 10 cm in the basin of 1.8 m radius around the palms as mulch for soil moisture conservation particularly during summer season.

Burial of coconut husk or coir pith Husk burial can be done in coconut basins or in the interspaces to overcome drought and button shedding. Bury husks @ 100 Nos. with concave surface facing upwards or 25 kg of coir pith /palm in circular trenches, dug 30 cm width and 60 cm depth at 1.5 metres radius. The husk can be also buried in the trenches at a distance of 3 m from the palm with a size of 45 cm deep and 150 cm width in between two rows of coconut. The soaking of the coconut husk or coir pith as the case may be preserves the monsoon rains.

Manuring From 5 th year onwards, apply 50 kg of FYM or compost or green manure. 1.3 kg urea (560 g N), 2.0 kg super phosphate (320 g P2O5) and 2.0 kg muriate of potash (1200 g K2O) in two equal splits during June – July and December – January. Apply manures and fertilizers in circular basins of 1.8 m from the base of the palm, incorporate and irrigate. During 2nd, 3rd and 4th year ¼, ½ and ¾ doses of the above fertilizer schedule should be adopted respectively. Sufficient moisture should be present at the time of manuring. Fertigation may be done at monthly intervals with 75% of the recommended dose of the above fertilizers. Phosphorous may be applied as super phosphate in the basins and incorporated or as DAP through drip when good quality of water is available.

TNAU Coconut tonic For nut bearing coconut, root feed TNAU coconut tonic @200ml/palm once in six months.

Bio-fertilizer recommendation Mix 50 g of Azospirillum, 50 g of Phosphobacteria  ( or ) 100 g Azophos and  50 g of VAM in sufficient quantity of compost or FYM and apply near feeding roots once in 6 months / palm starting from planting. Don’t mix with chemical fertilizers and pesticides

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Organic recycling Any one of the green manure crops like sunnhemp, Calapagonium or Daincha may be sown and ploughed in situ at the time of flowering as a substitute of compost to be applied.  Sow sunnhemp @ 50 g/palm in the basin and incorporate before flowering. Coir pith compost/vermicompost made from coir pith/ coconut leaves/ other wastes from coconut grove can be applied. 

Inter-cultural operation weed management The inter-space in the coconut garden has to be ploughed twice in a year in June - July and December - January. Intercultural operation is essential to keep weed population under check, to enhance the utilisation of the applied plant nutrients by the coconut trees, to facilitate proper aeration to the roots of coconut, to induce fresh root growth.

Weed management For the broad-leaved weeds, pre-emergence spraying of atrazine @1.0 kg a.i./ ha for the control of grasses and sedges. Post emergence spraying of glyphosate @ 10 ml and 20 g ammonium sulphate/litre of water.

Weed free coconut garden

Inter cropping Inter/mixed crops may be selected based on the climatic requirement of the inter/mixed crop, irrigation facilities and soil type. The canopy size, age and spacing of the coconut are also to be considered. Market suitability should be taken into consideration before selecting an intercrop.Below 7 years of age: Any suitable annual crop for particular soil type and climatic condition may be raised as intercrops upto 5 years after planting depending upon the canopy coverage. Groundnut, sesamum, sunflower, tapioca, turmeric and banana can be grown.  Avoid crops like paddy and sugarcane etc.7 – 20 years of age: Green manure crops and fodder crops (Napier grass and guinea grass) alone can be grown. Above 20 years of age (20 years of age has to be adjusted based on the sunlight transmission of above 50% inside the canopy): The following crops can be grown depending on the soil and climatic suitability.Annuals: Groundnut, bhendi, turmeric, tapioca, sweet potato, sirukizhangu, elephant foot yam, ginger, pineapple Biennials: Banana varieties Poovan and Monthan are suitable.Perennials: Cocoa*, pepper*(Panniyur 1 or Panniyur 2 or Panniyur 5 or

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Karimunda), nutmeg* and vanilla* *Suitable areas in Pollachi tract of western region and Kanyakumari district.  For vanilla, use disease free planting material and maintain high vigilance to maintain a disease free crop.

Multiple cropping system Coconut + banana + sirukizhangu + bhendi is suitable system for the eastern region. Crops like banana, pepper, cocoa, nutmeg, vanilla can be tried under multiple cropping system in suitable areas in the western region.  In all the systems, apply recommended quantity of water and manures and fertilizers to the intercrops separately.

Coconut mother palm selection and nursery management The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms is highly essential in a perennial crop like coconut. The following points may be remembered.

Mother palm selection Select seed gardens, which contain large proportion of high yielding trees with uniformity in yielding ability. Trees growing closer to households, cattle shed, compost pits and other favorable conditions should be avoided.High yielding mother palms giving not less than 100 nuts/palm/annum should be chosen for collecting seednuts. Alternate bearers should be avoided. The age of the palm chosen be middle age i.e., from 25 to 40 years. Even trees with 15 years age can be selected, if it is high yielding and has stabilized yield.The mother palm should have straight trunk, spherical or semi spherical crown, high rate of leaf and spathe production, short and stout petiole, more number of female flowers regular bearing habit, non – buckling bunches, high setting parentage, medium in nut size, high copra outturn and free from pest and diseases.  A good regular bearing mother palm produces on an average one leaf and an inflorescence in its axil every month. So, there will be twelve bunches of varying stages of maturity at any one time. Avoid trees producing habitually barren nuts.Harvest seednuts during the months of February - August to get maximum germination and good   quality seedlings. Harvest the bunches intended for seednut by lowering them to the ground using a rope to avoid injury to seednutsThe seednuts should be round in shape and when tapped by finger should produce metallic sound. Fully ripe nuts develop twelve months after fertilization.

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To get more quality seedlings, the seednuts of tall and hybrid are to be air cured for one month followed by sand curing for two months.  For dwarf varieties, the air curing should be lesser than one month followed by sand curing for two months.

Nursery management  Select nursery area in a well drained plot with coarse texture soil near water source for irrigation. Nursery can be raised in the open space with artificial shade or in the adult coconut garden.Plant seednuts in a long and narrow bed at a spacing of 30 x 30 cm either horizontally or vertically in deep trenches with 20-25 cm depth. Five rows of nuts may be planted in each bed accommodating 50 nuts per row. Irrigate the nursery beds once in three days.Keep the nursery free of weeds. To manage the weed problem in coconut nursery, growing sunnhemp 2 times (each harvested at flowering stage) followed by one hand weeding at 6th month was found to be very effective besides yielding green manure for manuring the adult coconut palms.Provide shade to the nursery by raising Sesbania or Leucaena on the sides of beds. The seednuts start germination 6 – 8 weeks after planting and germination continues upto six months. Select seedlings that germinate before 5 months after planting. Remove those nuts which do not germinate 5 months after sowing.Regularly survey for pest and diseases.Select seedlings 9 to 12 months after planting. Seedlings, which have germinated earlier, having good girth at collar and early splitting of leaflets, should be selected for planting. Do not select the so called Kakkamukku Pillai i.e., seednuts which have just germinated. Eliminate the seedlings which are deformed or having stunted growth.Remove the seedlings from the nursery by lifting with spade. Do not pull out the seedlings by pulling leaves or stem.Select quality seedlings with a minimum of 6 leaves and girth of 10 cm at collar.

3. Pest and disease management

A. Pest management  

Pests Management strategies

Rhinoceros beetleOryctes rhinoceros

Remove and burn all dead coconut trees in the garden (which are likely to serve as breeding ground) to maintain good sanitation.

Collect and destroy the various bio-stages of the beetle from the manure pits (breeding ground of the pest) whenever manure is lifted from the pits.

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Incorporate the entomopathogen i.e, fungus (Metarrhizium anisopliae) in manure pits to check the perpetuation of the pest.

Soak castor cake at 1 kg in 5 l of water in small mud pots and keep them in the coconut gardens to attract and kill the adults.

Treat the longitudinally split tender coconut stem and green petiole of fronds with fresh toddy and keep them in the garden to attract and trap the beetles.

Examine the crowns of tree at every harvest and hook out and kill the adults.

For seedlings, apply 3 naphthalene balls/palm weighing 3.5 g each at the base of inter space in leaf sheath in the 3 inner most leaves of the crown once in 45 days.

Set up light traps following the first rains in summer and monsoon period to attract and kill the adult beetles.

Field release of Baculovirus inoculated adult rhinoceros beetle @ 15/ha reduces the leaf and crown damage caused by this beetle.

Apply mixture of either neem seed powder + sand (1:2) @150 g/palm or neem seed kernel powder + sand (1:2) @150 g per palm in the base of the 3 inner most leaves in the crown

Place Phorate 10 G 5 g in perforated sachets in two inner most leaf axils for 2 times at 6 months intervals.

Set up Rhinolure pheromone trap @ 1/ 2 ha to trap and kill the beetles.   

Black headed caterpillarOpisina arenosella

The incidence of the pest is noticed from the month of November to May and from August to November after rainfall. The coconut trees of all ages are attacked.

Release the larval (Bethylid, Braconid and Ichneumonid) and pupal (Eulophid) on (chalcid) parasitoids and predators periodically from

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January, to check the build up of the pest during summer.

Among the larval parasitoids, the bethylid Goniozus nephantidis is the most effective in controlling the pest. The optimum level of release is 1:8 of host-parasitoid ratio. The parasitoid should be released @3000/ha under the coconut trees when the pest is in the 2nd or 3rd instar larval stage. Parasitoids should not be released in the crown region since they will be killed by predators like spiders and reduviid bugs.

Remove and burn all affected leaves/leaflets.

Spray Malathion 50 EC 0.05% (1mi/lit) to cover the undersurface of the leaves thoroughly in case of severe epidemic outbreak of the pest in young palms.

Root feeding for the control of coconut Black headed caterpillar: Select a fresh and live root, cut sharply at an angle and insert the root in the insecticidal solution containing Monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + water 10 ml in a 7 x 10 cm polythene bag. Secure the bag tightly to the root with a cotton thread. Twenty four hours later, check whether there is absorption. If there is no absorption select another root. These methods should not be resorted to as a routine practice and it is suggested only for cases of severe epidemic outbreak of the pest and when the survival of the tree is threatened.

Red palm weevilRhynchophorus ferrugineus

Remove and burn all wilting or damaged palms in coconut gardens to prevent further perpetuation of the pest.

Avoid injuries on stems of palms as the wounds may serve as oviposition sites for the weevil. Fill all holes in the stem with cement.

Avoid the cutting of green leaves. If needed, they should be cut about 120 cm away from the stem.

Fill the crown and the axils of top most three leaves with a mixture of fine sand and neem seed powder or neem seed kernel powder (2:1) or Lindane 1.3 D

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(1:1 by volume) once in three months to prevent the attack of rhinoceros beetle damage in which the red palm weevil lays eggs.

Plug all holes and inject Pyrocone E or Carbaryl 1% or 10 ml of Monocrotophos into the stem by drilling a hole above the points of attack.

Setting up of attractant traps (mud pots) containing sugarcane molasses 2½ kg or toddy 2½ litres + acetic acid 5 ml + yeast 5 g + longitudinally split tender coconut stem/logs of green petiole of leaves of 30 numbers in one acre to trap adult red palm weevils in large numbers.

Install pheromone trap @1/2 ha

Root feeding: As under black headed caterpillar

TermitesOdontotermes obesus

Locate termite mounds in or near the coconut nursery or garden and destroy.

Swabbing with neem oil 5% once on the base and upto 2 m height of the trunk for effective control.

Spray Copper sulphate 1% or cashew nut shell oil 80% or spray Chlorphyriphos @ 3ml/lit of water, neem oil 5% or NSKE 20% to preserve plaited coconut leaves from the termite attack.

Scale insectAspidiotus destructor

Pluck mature nuts and spray Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/ha.

Do not harvest nuts for 45 days after spraying.

Mealy bugsPseudococcus longispinus

Remove leaflets harbouring these insects and destroy them

Spray any one of the following :

Malathion  50 EC 2 ml/lit (or)

Dimethoate  30 EC 1 ml/lit (or)

Methyl demeton 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)

Phosphamidon 40 SL 1.25 ml/lit (or)

Monocrotophos 36 WSC 1 ml/lit (or)

Methomyl 25 EC 1 ml/lit (or)

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Neem oil 3%  (or)

Leaf caterpillarsTurnaca acuta

Collect and destroy the immature stages of the insects by conducting study (or neem compaign) wherever possible and spray carbary 50 WP 2 gm/lit

Root feeding with monocrotophos 36 WSC @ 10 ml + 10 ml water at 45 days interval for 3 times for control of leaf caterpillar.

Set up light trape to trap and collect adult moths

Spray Dichlorvas 76 WSC 2 ml / lit.

 

Nut caterpillar

Nut coreid bug

Slug caterpillarContheyla rotunda

Spray any one of the following:

Dichorvos 76 WSC  2 ml/lit

Bacillus thuringiensis 2 g/lit,

Triazophos  40 EC  5 ml

Methyl demeton 25 EC 4 ml/lit

Root feeding with monocrotophos 15 ml + 15 ml of water

Scolytid bark borer beetlesXyleborus parvulus

Stem injection through a stove wick soaked in 0.2% fenthion or 0.2% dichlorvos and plugging the hole and repeating the treatment using the same wick and hole a month after.

Palm civetVivera zibatha

Poison baiting with ripe banana fruit sandwiched with 0.5 g carbofuran 3 G granules.

RatRattus rattus wroughtoni

Tree banding with inverted iron cones or Prosophis thorns. Baiting with bromodialone 0.005% at 10 g/tree at crown region twice at an interval of 12 days.

Special problem: Coconut eriophyid mite (Aceria guerreronis)

Package of recommendations for the management of the coconut eriophyid mite

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Coconut eriophyid mite

Manurial and fertilizer recommendation (Soil application/tree/year)

Urea 1.3 kgSuper phosphate 2.0 kgMuriate of potash* 3.5 kg* Increased quantity is recommended to increase the plant resistance to the mite.Neem cake application @ 5 kg Organic manure (well rotten FYM) @ 50 kg

Micronutrients (Soil application / tree / year)

Borax 50 gGypsum 1.0 kgMagnesium sulphate 500gGrow sunnhemp as intercrop twice a year (Seed rate 30 kg/ha)

Spot application of ecofriendly Botanicals

Round Eco-friendly Botanical Quantity / tree 

1. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water

2. Neem oil + Teepol 30 ml in one lit. of water

3. Azadirachtin 1% 5 ml in one lit. of water

Method of application

The botanicals should be applied in the sequence indicated above at 45 days interval using a one litre hand sprayer.  Rocker or Pedal sprayer can be used for spraying small trees.

The spray should be applied at the crown region by a climber covering only the top six bunches during non rainy season.

The bunches must be covered well by the spray fluid and approximately one litre of spray fluid may be required per tree

Precautions and safety measures

Spraying should be avoided during windy season to prevent contamination. At the time of spraying, protective mask and clothing should be used.

Wash face and hands cleanly with soap after spraying.

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B. Disease management

Name of the Disease Management

Basal stem rot Ganoderma lucidum

Cultural Method

Apply Pseudomonas fluorescens (Pf1) @ 200 g/palm + Trichoderma viride @ 200 g/palm/year

Apply 200g phosphobacteria and 200 g Azotobactor mixed with 50 Kg of FYM/palm

Green manure crops must be raised and ploughed in situ

Neem cake 5 kg/tree must be applied along with fertilizers

o Chemical

Aureofungin-sol 2 g + 1 g Copper sulphate in 100 ml water or 2 ml of Tridemorph in 100 ml water applied as root feeding. (The active absorbing root of pencil thickness must be selected and a slanting cut is made. The solution to be taken in a polythene bag or bottle and the cut end of the root should be dipped in the solution).

Forty litres of 1% Bordeaux mixture should be applied as soil drench around the trunk in a radius of 1.5 metre.

Bud rot Phytophthora palmivora

The infected tissues from the crown region should be removed and dressed with Bordeaux paste or 1% Bordeaux mixture to be sprayed to reach the crown region as pre-monsoon spray.

Stem bleeding disease Thielaviopsis paradoxa

The bark of the trunk should be removed in the bleeding area and Bordeaux paste should be applied.

Lethal leaf blight (LLB) Lasiodiplodia theobromae

Spray 1.0 per cent Bordeaux mixture or 0.25 per cent Copper oxychloride or 0.2 per cent Indofil M 45 (4 times at monthly interval during February, March, April and May).

a. Preparation of 1% Bordeaux mixture A quantity of 400 g of copper sulphate should be dissolved in 20 litres of water and 400 g of lime in another 20 litres of water separately. The copper sulphate solution should be added to the lime solution constantly stirring the mixture. Earthen or wooden vessels alone should be used and metallic containers should not be used. To find out whether the mixture is in correct proportion, a polished knife should be dipped in the mixture for one minute and taken out. If there is reddish brown deposit of copper, additional quantity of lime should be added till there is no deposit in the knife.

 b. Preparation of Bordeaux pasteTake 200 g of Copper sulphate and dissolve it in one litre of water and 200 g of lime in

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one litre of water separately. Both are mixed simultaneously in a third vessel and the resultant mixture can be used as a paste.

4.  Harvest and post harvest technologyHarvest 11-12 months old fully matured nuts at an interval of 30-45 days depending on the yield level of the garden. For household use keep the nuts in vertical direction. Dry copra either by sun drying or by using copra dryers. Store the copra at 5-6 % moisture content. Store the copra in polythene tar coated gunny bags.

SPECIAL PROBLEMS IN COCONUT 1.  Rejuvenation of existing gardenThe low yield in vast majority of gardens is due to thick population, lack of manuring and irrigation. These gardens could be improved if the following measures are taken.

Thinning of thickly populated gardens: In the farmer’s holdings where thick planting is adopted, many trees give an yield of less than 20 nuts/palm/year. By cutting and removal of these trees, the yield could be increased. Besides, there is saving in the cost of cultivation and increase in net profit. After removal of low yielding trees, the populations should be maintained at 175 palms/ha.

Ensuring adequate manuring and irrigation: The yield can be increased in the existing gardens when manuring + irrigation + cultural practice is adopted as per recommendation.

2.  Pencil point disorder (Micronutrient deficiency)Because of micronutrient deficiency, the stem will taper towards its tip with lesser number of leaves. The leaf size will be greatly reduced and the leaves will be pale and yellow in colour. Along with the recommended fertilizer dose, 225 g each of Borax, Zinc sulphate, Manganese sulphate, Ferrous sulphate, Copper sulphate and 10 g of Ammonium molybdate may be dissolved in 10 litres of water and poured in the basin of 1.8 m radius. This disorder can be corrected if noticed early.  Severely affected palms may be removed and replanted with new seedlings.

3.  Button shedding

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Button shedding

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Shedding of buttons and premature nuts may be due to any one of the following reasons: i. Excess acidity or alkalinityii. Lack of drainage iii. Severe droughtiv. Genetic causesv. Lack of nutrients vi. Lack of pollination vii. Hormone deficiency viii. Pests ix. Diseases            The following remedial measures are suggested.

a. Rectification of soil pH Excess acidity or alkalinity of soil may cause button shedding. If the soil pH is less than 5.5, it is an indication of excess acidity. This could be rectified by adding lime. Increase in alkalinity is indicated by soil pH higher than 8.0. This situation could be rectified by adding gypsum.

b. Providing adequate drainage facilitiesLack of drainage lead to suffocation of roots of coconut trees for want of aeration. Shedding of buttons is noticed under such condition. Drainage channels have to be dug along the contours to drain the excess water during rainy season.

c. Management of young coconut gardens under waterlogged conditions

A trench between two rows of young coconut palms should be dug during onset of the monsoon rains. The size of the trench is 3 m width, 30 – 45 cm depth to entire length of field. The soil excavated from the trench should be placed along the rows of palms to make a raised bed.

Form mound around the young palms to a radius of 1.2 m width with height of 30 –45 cm.

d. Genetic causesIn some trees button shedding may persist even after ensuring adequate manuring, irrigation and crop pest and disease management. This is an indication of inherent defect of the mother palm from which the seed material was obtained. This underlines the need for proper choice of superior mother palm for harvesting seed coconut to ensure uniformly good yielding trees.

e. Lack of nutrition  Button shedding occurs due to inadequate or lack of manuring. The recommended dose of manurial schedules and proper time of application are important to minimise the button shedding. Apply extra 2 kg of muriate of potash with 200 g of Borax/palm over and above the usual dosage of fertilizer to correct the barren nuts in coconut for period of 3 years. 

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f. Lack of pollinationButton shedding also occurs due to lack of pollination. Setting up of beehives @ 15 units/ha may increase the cross pollination in the garden. Further the additional income obtained through honey, increases the net profit per unit area.

g. Hormone deficiencyThe fertilised female flowers i.e., buttons shed in some cases. By spraying 2, 4- D at 30 ppm or NAA 20 ppm (2,4-D 30 mg or NAA 20 mg per litre of water) on the inflorescence one month after opening of the spathe, the setting percentage could be increased.

h. PestsButton shedding may happen due to the attack of bug. Spraying of systemic insecticides like Methyldematon 0.025% (1ml/lit) or Dimethoate 0.03% (1ml/lit) may reduce the occurrence.

i. DiseasesButton shedding also occurs due to disease incidence such as basal stem rot. Adoption of control measures suggested for the disease reduces not only spread of the disease but also prevents shedding of buttons.

Coconut mother palm selection and nursery management The need for collecting seed materials from high yielding coconut palms is highly essential in a perennial crop like coconut. The following points may be remembered.

Arecanut(ArecacatechuL.)Palmae

VarietiesMangala, Sumangala, Subamangala, Mohitnagar, Srimangala and Samruthi (Andaman) are mainly cultivated.

Soil and climateArecanut is capable of growing in a variety of soils. It thrives best in well drained soils. Adequate protection from exposure to South-Western sun is essential to avoid sun-scorch.  Quick growing shade trees have to be planted on the southern and western sides well in advance of planting seedlings. It is sensitive to moisture deficit and should be grown where adequate water facilities are available.

SeasonJune – December is found to be the optimum.

Seeds and sowingFor raising seedlings seed nuts from pre-marked and pre-potent mother palms of outstanding performance are selected and sown at a spacing of 5 - 6 cm apart in

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sand beds under partial shade with their stalk end pointing upwards.  After the sprouts have produced two to three leaves, they are transplanted to a polythene bag 30 x 10 cm filled with forest soil and are allowed to grow for 12 to 18 months under partial shade. The seedlings can also be transplanted in secondary nursery beds with a spacing of 30 cm on either side. Periodical watering should be given.

PlantingDwarf and compact seedlings with more number of leaves should be selected. Seedlings of 1 - 2 years age are planted in pits of about 90 cm x 90 cm x 90 cm at a spacing of 2.75 m either way and covered with soil to the collar level and pressed around.  Provide shade during summer months. Growing Banana or other crops in advance may also provide shade.

IrrigationIrrigation should be given as and when necessary.

ManuringApply to each bearing palm (5 years and above) 10 - 15 kg of FYM or green leaf. 100 g N, 40 g P and 150 g K. To palms less than five years old, half of the above dose is recommended. Manures are applied during January - February after the North - East monsoon in a basin of 0.75-1.00 m radius around the tree to a depth of 20 - 30 cm.

Time of applicationN P K

(kg/ha)

Trees less than 5 years 50 20 25

Trees more than 5 years old 100 40 50

AftercultivationWeeding is done twice or thrice a year by spade digging.  Wherever the land is sloppy, terracing has to be done to prevent soil erosion. Vanilla can be grown as intercrop under optimum conditions.

Intercropping Vanilla in Arecanut

Plant protection

PestsMitesMites can be controlled by spraying Dicofol 18.5 EC at 2.5 ml/lit.

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Spindle bugThe spindle bugs may be controlled by a drenching spray with Lindane 1.3 D @ 2.5 g/lit of water.

Inflorescence caterpillarsInflorescence caterpillars can be controlled by spraying Lindane 20 EC 2 ml/lit or WP @ 2.5 g/litre of water.

DiseasesBud rot or Mahali diseaseInfected tissues of the bud should be scooped off and treated with 10 % Bordeaux paste. Destruction and removal of seed palms and also bunches affected by Mahali and drenching crowns of surrounding healthy palms with 1 % Bordeaux mixture would help in minimizing the incidence of the disease.

Foot rot or AnabeAffected palms have to be isolated by digging trenches all round. The severely affected palms should be cut and destroyed. The stumps should be pulled out by digging and the drainage improved. Root feeding with 125 ml of 1.5 % (15 ml/litre of water) Tridemorph at 3 months interval.

Stem breakingWrap up of the green portion of the stem which is exposed to the South-West sun to protect against sun-scorch.

HarvestThe bearing starts after 5 years of planting. Nuts are harvested when they are three quarters ripe. The number of harvests will vary from three to five in one year depending upon the season and place of cultivation.

YieldAn average of about 1250 kg/ha can be obtained.

 

Cashewnut (Anacardium occidentale L.)Anacardiaceae

VarietiesVRI 1, VRI 2, VRI 3, VRI 4, vengurla 4, Vengurla 7 and BPP – 8 (H2/16) are the popular varieties

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                            Soil and climateIt grows up well in all soils. Red sandy loam is best suited. Plains as well as hill slopes upto 600 - 700 feet elevation are suitable.

SeasonJune – December is optimum for cultivation.

PropagationMainly propagated by soft wood grafting, air layering and epicotyl grafting

Requirement of plants

About 200 plants/ha can be planted.Preparation of field

Pits of 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm size are dug and filled up with a mixture of soil + 10 kg FYM + one kg neem cake and 100 g Lindane 1.3 %.

SpacingA spacing of 7 m either way is adopted

Manuring (per tree)

Manures and fertilizers

I year old

II year old

III year old

IV year old

V year onwards

FYM or compost 10 20 20 30 50

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(kg)

N (g) 70 140 210 280 500

P (g) 40 80 120 160 200

K (g) 60 120 180 240 300

Fertilizer application may be done during November - December in the East Coast areas. Wherever possible the fertilizer can be applied in 2 equal split doses during June-July and October-November periods.

IntercroppingPlough the interspaces after the receipt of rain and raise either groundnut or pulses or minor millets till the trees reach bearing age.

Training and pruningDevelop the trunk to a height of 1 m by removing low lying branches. The dried twigs and branches should be removed every year.

Rejuvenation of old cashew orchard by top workingOld and senile cashew orchards with poor yielder are cut down leaving a stump of 1 – 3 m height from the ground level. The emerging new sprouts are used as rootstock for epicotyl grafting. Suitable scions are collected and grafted on to the new sprouts.

Plant protection

PestsStemborer1.Collection and destruction of affected shoots

2. Swabbing the bark of exposed roots and shoots with Carbaryl 50 WP 2 g/lit. Twice a year before the onset of South West Monsoon (March – April) and after cessation of monsoon (November) painting of coal tar + kerosene mixture (1:2) or swabbing with a suspension of Carbaryl 50 WP (4 g/lit) can be done up to one metre length in the exposed trunk region after shaving the bark.3. Root feeding with Monocrotophos 36 WSC 10 ml + 10 ml of water kept in a polythene bag on one side of the tree and keep the same amount on the other side of the tree (Total 20 ml/tree) divided into two equal halves will give protection when there is moderate incidence.4. Swab the trunk with Lindane 20 EC 1 ml/lit or Carbaryl 50 WP 500 g in 20 lit of water.

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Tea mosquito bugTea mosquito bug can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit. The first spray can be done at the time of emergence of new flushes, the second at floral formation and the third at fruit-set.

                                                         

Shoot caterpillarsShoot caterpillar can be controlled by spraying Endosulfan 35 EC @ 2 ml/lit.

Root borerRoot borer can be controlled by pouring Monocrotophos 10 ml/tree in the bore holes (Insecticide 5 ml + 5 ml water).

Leaf miner1. Collect and destroy the damaged plant parts2. Spray NSKE 5% two rounds, first at new flush formation, second at flower formation

DiseasesDie back or Pink diseasePrune the affected shoots just below the affected portion and apply Bordeaux paste. Spray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or any copper fungicide like Blitox or Fytolan 0.25 % twice i.e. in May - June and again in October as a prophylactic measure.

Anthracnose1. Remove the affected portions of plant/branches2. Spray 1 % of Bordeaux mixture + Ferrous sulphate at the time of flush initiation

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HarvestThe peak picking months are March and May. Good nuts are grey green, smooth and well filled. After picking, the nuts are separated from the apple and dried in the sun for two to three days to bring down the moisture content to 10 to 12 %. Properly dried nuts are packed in alkathene bags. This will keep for 6 months.

YieldAbout 3 - 4 kg/tree/year can be obtained.

Cocoa(TheobromacacaoL.)Sterculiaceae

VarietiesCriollo, Forestero and Trinitario are most popular.

Forestero Trinitario

Soil and climatePotash rich alluvial soils friable in nature with high humus and moisture retentivity with a pH of 6.6 - 7.0 are suitable. Cocoa is normally cultivated at altitudes up to 1200 m with an annual rainfall of 150 cm and a relative humidity of 80 % and annual mean temperature of 24°C to 25°C. Cocoa can be grown as intercrop in coconut and areca nut gardens.

SeasonJune - July and September - October

Seeds and sowingCocoa is normally propagated by seed. Before sowing the seeds the pulp adhering to the seeds has to be removed. Cocoa seeds are individually sown in polybags soon after extraction. The bags are filled with surface soil and sub-soil mixed with

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compost, leaf mould and fertilizers. Nursery plants are ready for transplanting at 6 months of age when they attain a height of 60 cm.Planting

Seedlings are transplanted with a ball of earth in 45 cm x 45 cm x 45 cm pits at a spacing of 3 x  3 m either way. Periodical mulching with leaves and watering should be done. Temporary shade has to be provided.IrrigationIrrigation should be given as and when necessary. During summer months irrigation should be given once in three days.

Manuring Trees of 3 years of age and above are manured with 100 g N, 40 g P and 140 g K per tree in two split doses during April - May and August - September.  Trees younger than three years may be applied with half of this dose.

AftercultivationWeeding is done as and when necessary. The unproductive shoots, dead, diseased twigs should be removed periodically. Banana is better as a primary shade plant in the early years of plantation. For permanent shades Jack, Silver Oak, etc. are planted.

1. Plant protectionPestsMealy bug Mealy bug can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1 ml/lit or Dimethoate 2 ml/lit at fortnightly intervals. Release Coccinellid predator Cryptolaemus montrouzieri @ 10 tree.

2. AphidsAphids can be controlled by spraying Dimethoate 35 EC 1 ml/lit at monthly intervals.

3. Grey weevilGrey weevil can be controlled by spraying Phosphamidon 85 EC 1ml/lit.

4. Hairy caterpillarHairy caterpillar can be controlled by dusting Lindane 1.3 D or spray Lindane 20 EC @ 2ml/lit.

5. DiseasesBlack pod diseaseSpray 1 % Bordeaux mixture or 0.2 % Mancozeb or Copper oxychloride at 20 days interval.

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Time of applicationN P K

(kg/ha)

1 – 3 years old trees 50 20 70

Trees more than 3 years old 100 96 140

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Black pod disease6. Dieback disease

The disease can be controlled by spraying 1 % Bordeaux mixture.7. Charcoal disease

Charcoal disease can be controlled by spraying with 1 % Bordeaux mixture.8. Pink disease

Prune the affected branches and swab the cut ends regularly with 1 % Bordeaux mixture.

9. HarvestBearing starts from 4th year but economic yield starts from 6th year onwards. The season of harvest is November - December and May - June.

10. YieldThe yield ranges from 500 - 1000 kg of dry beans/ha

Betelvine(Piperbetel)Piperaceae

VarietiesKarpurakodi, Kallarkodi, Revesi, Karpuri, SGM 1, Vellaikodi, Pachaikodi, Sirugamani 1, Anthiyur kodi, Kanyur kodi and Bangla type are under cultivation

SGM 1 SGM (BV) 2Soil and climateWell drained fertile clay loams are suitable. It does not tolerate saline and alkaline conditions. Betelvine require a cool humid with considerable humidity and regular supply of moisture in the soil is essential.

Seeds and sowingThe vines are propagated by terminal stem cutting or setts about 30 - 45 cm long. Setts obtained from the top portions of the vines are easy to root and hence best for planting. On an average 1, 00,000 setts are required for planting one hectare. Setts with vigorous apical buds and nodal adventitious roots are selected and planted at the base of the live supports, which are to be planted 4 to 5 months earlier.

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SeasonNovember - December and January – February are optimum for cultivation.

Preparati on of fieldThe field is prepared to a fine tilth and beds of 2 m wide are formed to a convenient length. Provide drainage trenches of 0.5 m width by 0.5 m depth in between two adjoining beds. Plant the seeds of the live supports i.e. Agathi (Sesbania grandiflora) in long rows. About 750 banana suckers are planted at the edges of the beds, which are used, for tying the vines on the live support and for packing the betel leaf.  When the Agathi plants reach 4 m height, they are topped off for maintaining the height. The crop is planted in two rows in beds of 180 cm width on Agathi plants with a spacing of 45 cm between plants in the row.

IrrigationIrrigate the field immediately after planting and afterwards once in a week.

After cultivationTraining of the live standardsBefore the establishment of vines, the side branches of Agathi trees upto a height of 2 m are removed for early creeping of the vines.

Training of the vinesTraining is done by fixing the vine at intervals of 15 to 20 cm along the standards loosely with the help of banana fibre. Training is done at every 15 - 20 days interval depending upon the growth of vines.

Lowering of vinesUnder normal cultivation, the vines grow to height of 3 m in one year period. When they reach this height their vigour to produce normal size leaf are reduced and they need rejuvenation by lowering during March - April. After the vine is lowered, the tillers spring up from the nodes at the bends of the coiled vines at the ground level and produce many primary vines. Irrigation should be given after each lowering.ManuringApply 150 kg N/ha/year through Neem cake (75 kg N) and Urea (75 kg N) and 100 kg P2O5 through Super phosphate and 30 kg Muriate of potash in three split doses first at 15 days after lifting the vines and second and third dose at 40 - 45 days intervals.  Apply on beds shade dried neem leaf or Calotropis leaves at 2 t/ha and cover it with mud (2 t in 2 split doses).

Time of application N P K

(kg/ha)

44

Row spacingVines/hectare

Single vine Double vine

20 cm 50,000 1,00,000

30 cm (1 ft) 30,000 60,000

45 cm (11/2 ft)

22,500 45,000

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Basal dressing 37.5 100 50

Top dressing @ 3 split doses 112.5 0 0

.

VarietyTellaku (Kapoori Type)Leaf is greenish yellow, ovate in shape, smooth with acute tip, juicy and nonpungent. It produces large number of laterals/vine and hence the yield is more when compared to other types. The vine bears 10-15 lateral shoots. Susceptible to foot rot disease. It yields on an average 80,000 panthas per hectare per year (approximately) 100 leaves make one pantham.

Karapaku (Bangla Type)It is moderately vigorous. The leaf is green to dark green, cordate in shape, thick with broad lamina, coarse to touch and pungent. With very few or no laterals/vine.

PropagationThis is usually propagated by terminal stem cuttings obtained from sufficiently mature plantations. The length of the vines used for planting is about 30 to 45 cm having 6 to 7 nodes.

Land PreparationApply farmyard manure 25 t/ha as basal dressing in the last ploughing. The land is laid out into ridges and furrows 45cm apart and irrigation channels formed at convenient places. Generally Agati is used as supporting betelvines. The seeds of Agati are sown at the rate of 40 to 50 kg/ha during June-July along the ridges spaced at 100 cm. Irrigations are given to the standards twice a week or even more frequently. Along the border sow some seeds of Moringa or Pangara, Glyricidia as wind breaks. Apply gypsum @2.5 t/ha and plough the field before sowing live standards in saline and alkaline soils. Prepare the field into small plots to facilitate good drainage to avoid the incidence of foot rot disease.

PlantingThe vines are planted during September-October in place where live standards are raised in June-July. 50,000 sets (vine cuttings) are required for planting a hectare. The vine sets are planted at 100 x 20 cm spacing. The seed vines of top ‘50’ cms length must be collected from vigorously growing, disease free gardens. Seed vines should be treated with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture + 500 ppm streptomycin for 15-30 minutes. For seed vine treatment 2 kg copper sulphate, 2 kg lime, 400 lts of water and 200 g. of streptomycin (9%) per one acre are required.For treatment of seed vines require for one acre, the following composition is to be used.

Copper sulphate : 2 Kgs.Quick lime : 2 Kgs.

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Water : 400 lit.streptomycin (9%) : 200 g

After seed vine treatment the remaining Bordeaux mixture can be applied to the field.

Manures and FertilizersFirst Year

Black Alluvial Soils200 kg N/ha in 4 split doses at monthly interval starting from 2nd month of planting through organic (Neem cake) and inorganic manures in 1:1 ratio, 100 kg P2O5/ha through single superphosphate and 100 kg K2O/ha through Muriate of potash/sulphate of potash as basal dosage during land preparation.

Red Soils200 kg N/ha (100 kg N through FYM or oilcake, 100 kg N through Ammonium sulphate),100 kg P2O5 through single super Phosphate and 100 kg K2O through muriate of potash.

Second YearManuring schedule of first year except FYM is to be followed.

Third YearManuring schedule of first year is to be followed.

Irrigation and drainage Irrigation is given after planting betelvine cuttings, twice in a day for 3 days, once in a day for next 3 days and later once in two days for 3 times. Later light irrigation is to be given depending on the soil conditions and season. Subsequent irrigations are to be given based on the seasonal and soil conditions i.e. once in 2 days during summer and 5 to 6 days during winter. Proper drainage channels are to be provided in the field for every 10-12 m row length and water should not be allowed to stagnate at the base of plants.

IntercultivationWeedingWeeding should be done whenever necessary.

Propping

Train the vines to the standards at 20-30 days interval. Fix dry bamboos wherever there is no standard.

ToppingSesbania (Avisi) tops are pruned at 4m height. The pruning of sesbania branches is a regular and continuous process. Less number of branches are retained during

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winter to allow sufficient sunlight and more during summer to protect the vine from hot sun and wind.

Tying with ropesWhen the vines grow to the top of sesbania, the latter have to bear a heavy burden, hence they are tied with strong coir and these ropes are tied strongly to a thick bamboo poles to protect from strong gales during April-May and cyclonic storms during October to November.

Wind breaksThe garden is protected from the strong gales, hot summers and cool winters by sowing some seeds of Moringa/Pangara/Glyricidia or fencing with banana leaves/coconut fronds/gunny sacs as wind breaks along the border.

Lowering the vinesWhen the first year crop is completed, the vine grows beyond 3-3.5m and picking leaves is difficult. Hence, the vines are lowered by forming a ring (lower leaves of shoots are stripped and then coiled) and fastened to live supports just above the ground level, leaving the apical 50cm of the vine. The top 50cm of the vines is erected and tied to live support. This operation is called lowering of vine for rejuvenation.

Second year gardenAt the time of lowering the vines, the coiled vines are to be sprayed with 0.5% Bordeaux mixture solution and then tied to the sesbania standard.

Crop rotationCrop rotation with maize once in two years recorded the lowest foot rot disease incidence. Crops like castor, brinjal, chillies, bhendi, tomato should not be include in the rotation.

HarvestingGenerally betelvine is ready for harvest after 2-3 months of planting and thereafter for every 25 to 30 days.Average yield: First year 60,000 - 70,000 bundles/haSecond year 80,000 – 1,00,000 bundles/ha(1 Bundle: approximately 100 leaves)

Integrated crop Management moduleBest plant population (50,000 sets vine cuttings)

+

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252 200 kg N through Neem cake + Urea (1 : 1) (Neem cake as basal and Urea in 4 splits at bimonthly interval) 100 kg P2O5 and 100 kg K2O as basal.

+Irrigation 100% replenishment of CPE

+Application of Bordeaux mixture (4 drenches + 8 sprays)

+Recommended insecticides if required.

OIL PALM(Elaeis quineenis)

PalmaeOil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is the highest oil yielding plant among perennial oilyielding crops, producing palm oil and palm kernel oil. These are used for culinary as well as industrial purposes. On an average, oil palm produces 4-6 tonnes oil/ha. It can also contribute substantially to the nutritional and energy requirements of the masses. Oil palm is a crop for future and a source for diversification, import substitution, value addition, health and nutrition, waste utilization, energy generation (non-conventional energy) eco friendly and sustainable. Oil palm is a native of West Africa, is now extensively grown in Malaysia, Nigeria, Indonesia, Republic of Zaire and Ivory Coast. Increasing demand for palm oil and also the technological developments for its extraction have greatly changed the entire scenario of the palm industry. In India about 80% of the area is located in Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.

ClimateOil palm is a humid tropical palm which thrives well where annual temperature range is 29O-33OC (maximum) and 22O-24O C (minimum) with an evenly distributed rainfall of 2,500-4,000 mm, relative humidity more than 80%, and not less than 5 hr sunshine/day. It can be grown up to 900m above mean sea-level.

SeasonPlanting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-July.

SoilsIt can be grown on a variety of soils. But moist, deep, loamy and alluvial soils rich in organic matter with good water permeability are best-suited, for its cultivation. Highly alkaline, saline, waterlogged and coastal sandy soils should be avoided. At least 1 m depth of soil is necessary. The soil pH should be 5.5-8.0.

Varieties

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There are three main types of oil palm. They are dura, pisifera and tenera

DuraWith a thick shell (2-8mm) its fruits have low to medium mesocarp content (35-55%). This is not grown commercially.

PisiferaIt is a shell less, fruit bearing variety.

TeneraThis is a hybrid obtained by crossing Dura (Female) and Pisifera (Male). It has a thin shell usually measuring 0.5 to 4 mm with medium to high mesocarp content of about 60-241 90%. This is a widely cultivated hybrid all over the world due to higher mesocarp content and resultant oil output.

Seeds and SowingThe seeds are subjected to a temperature of 40O C for 80 days for stratification. Seeds are soaked in water for five days changing the water daily. Thereafter the seeds spread out in shade for drying for two hours. The dried seeds are kept in polythene bags in cool place in order to maintain the moisture content. The poly bags (preferably black) of 400-500 guage measuring 40 x 35 cm are used. The bags are filled with top soil and compost, arranged at a spacing of 45 cm2 and one seed/bag is dibbled. The germination commences in about 10-12 days. Watering the seedlings weekly thrice is essential.

PlantingOil palm is planted in the main field in triangular system at a spacing of 9 x 9 m accommodating about 143 palms/ha in hexagonal system of planting. Planting is preferably done at the onset of rains during June-July.

Manures and Fertilizers g/palm/year

Age NP2O5

K2O

First year 400 200 400

Second year 800 400 800

Third year 1200 600 1200

Fertilizers should be applied in two equal split doses (in June and September) within 2 m diameter around the palm and forked in. Apply 50-100 g of Borax per tree every year. Application of potassium fertilizer may be enhanced depending on the requirement of the palm.

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Inter cultivation and Weed ControlThe base of the palm is to be kept clean by weeding and pruning of cover crops. Forconserving the moisture in the basins apply coconut husk or paddy husk or saw dust, cut leaves or male inflorescence as mulching.

PruningMaximum number of green leaves should be retained on the palm. As a regular practice, all dead and diseased leaves should be pruned. Severe pruning adversely affects 242 both growth and yield of palm. Pruning should be done by giving clear cut to the petiole as close to the stem as possible with the help of a sharp chisel.

AblationAblation is the removal of male and female flowers produced in early stages of plantation. This enables the plant to gain adequate stem girth, vigour and develop adequate root system. Flowering starts 14-18 months after planting. Ablation can be started immediately after the appearance of inflorescences on plams and extended upto two and a half to 3 years depending upon plant growth and vigour. After this stage, pollinating weevil Elaeidobius kamerunicus has to be introduced for better pollination since oil palm is a cross pollinated crop.

IrrigationOil palm requires sufficient irrigation, as it is a fast-growing crop with high productivity and biomass production. Insufficient irrigation reduces the rate of leaf production, affects the sex ratio and results in inflorescence abortion and leaf production. For grown-up yielding palms of 3 years age and above, a minimum of 200-250 litres water/day is a must. However, in older plantations during hot summer, this amount may be increased up to 300 litres. When water is not a constraint, basin irrigation can be taken up. Required quantity of water can be given at weekly intervals or once in 5 days depending on soil condition. Irrigation channels must be prepared in such a way that the individual palms are connected separately by sub-channels. For light soils, frequent irrigation with less water should be given. In heavy soils irrigation interval can be longer. If irrigation water is limited and land is of undulated terrain, drip or microsprinkler irrigation can be advantageous. When drip irrigation is given, care should be taken to avoid clogging and for uniform discharge of water. Four drippers are sufficient to discharge 200-250 litres water within 6-7 hr.

IntercropsAnnuals like chillies, gourds and other vegetables can be profitably grown as intercrops leaving an area of 2 m around the palm for the first two years only. After the onset of flowering there should not be any competition from other intercrops for the early stabilization of yields.

Harvest

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First harvest 3 . -4 years after planting. A chisel is used for harvesting bunches from young palms. When the palms become taller, a harvesting hook has to be used. Under very good maintenance especially with irrigation the yield could be 4-6 tonnes of oil per hectare per year.The fresh fruit bunches harvested from the palm are to be transported for oil extraction immediately preferably within 24 hours.

Pest of adult palms

The rhinoceros beetle

The rhinoceros beetle is primarily a serious pest of coconut palm, and in recent years has attained the pest status in oilpalm also. The adult beetle which bores through into the spear leaves, resulting in snapping of the fronds at the feeding sites. In oil palm plantations failed female inflorescences, dead palm trunks, persistent leaf axils and empty bunch heaps, act as breeding sites for the pest.

The red palm weevilInfestation by the red palm weevil Chynchophorus ferrungineus was noticed in majority of oil palm plantations resulting in the death of the palms. Damage is due to the feeding activity of the grubs, usually 12-87 per palm, which bore through and feed on the softer tissues of stem and meristem. Palms infested by R.ferrugineus show gradual wilting and drying of outer whorl of fronds. In some cases roofing of spear was also noticed.

Biological control In nature, the rhinoceros beetle is suppressed by entomophogens like Baculovirus oryctusvirus and Metarhizium anisopliae. Release of Baculovirusoryctes minimise the pest incidence.

Cultural controli) Field sanitation and elimination of breeding sites like dead palm trunks, empty bunch heaps etc., within the plantations are essential for the management of both red palm weevil and rhinoceros beetle.ii) When the infestation by rhinoceros beetle is very high, especially in young plantations, Hand picking of the adult beetles using hooks is very effective.iii) For red palm weevils, use of attractants incorporating fermented sugarcane juice, acetic acid, yeast etc., to collect and kill the adult weevils is recommended.

Chemical controli) For rhinoceros beetles, placing 3-4 napthalene balls in the youngest spear axils at weekly intervals is recommended.

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ii) For palms with advanced stage of infestation by red palm weevil, stem injection of 5-8 ml of Monocrotophos is advised.

Fruit bunch covering against avian pests Covering the bunches with different materials such as noirenets, reed baskets, plaited coconut leaf baskets and senile oil palm leaf are effective in preventing the fruit damage. But senile oil palm leaf covering is more practical and economical as the material is readily available and involves only the labour charges and cost of rope bits.

Rodent control

Among rats, the burrowing type is more serious which tunnel into the bole of the seedlings. Different baits such as acute poison baits (Zinc phosphide, Aluminium phosphide etc.) anticoagulants (warfarin, fumarin, bromadiolone) and traps such as iron like traps, snap traps, deathfall trap, boro trap etc. may be used as an integrated approach to minimise the rodent damage to the crop.

Disease BudrotHigher disease incidence is noticed in young plantations. Rotting initiates at the basal portion of the spear closure to the meristem and extends to the whole spear. The spear could be easily pulled off. Cleaning the affected tissues and drenching the crown with carbendazim 0.1 percent cures the disease. The leaves emerging immediately after the application of fungicides are shorter and successively emerging ones are normal.

Leaf spots

Leaf spots caused by Curvularia noticed on the inner whirl and young leaves. The fungal spots enlarge with a yellow ring around spots. As these spots enlarge the leaf will be scorched. Pestalotipsis fungal spots are irregular with grey to brown centre. Numerous black dots, the acervuli of the fungus, are seen on the lesions. Management: 1. Affected leaves must be cut and burnt. 2. Spray Mancozeb @ 0.2%.

Collante

Collante is a symptom associated with inadequate soil moisture conditions. Planting of seedlings in the field during dry weather also induces collante symptoms in the affected seedlings, the leaves fail to unfurl properly with a constriction developing in the central portion of the leaf. The rains become prominent and the leaves rigid. In extreme cases the leaf remains as a woody spike without separation of leaf lets. The symptoms are not seen in fresh leaves, when adequate watering is done.

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Harvesting Proper and timely harvesting of fruit bunches is an important operation which determines the quality of oil to a great extent. The yield is expressed as fresh fruit bunches (FFB) in kg per hectare per year or as oil per hectare per year. The bunches usually ripen in six months after anthesis. Unripe fruits contain high water and carbohydrate and very little oil. As the fruit ripens oil content increase to 80 - 85% in mesocarp. Over ripe fruit contains more free fatty acids (FFA) due to decomposition and thus increases the acidity. Usually the ripe fruits, attached to the bunches contain 0.2 to 0.9% FFA and when it comes out of extraction plant the FFA content is above 3%.Ripeness of the fruit is determined by the degree of detachment of the fruit from bunches, change in colour and change in texture of the fruit. Ripening of fruits start from top downwards and fruits also get detached from tip downward in 11 - 20 days time. Ripeness is faster in young palms than in older palms for the bunches of equal weight. The criteria used in determining the degree of ripeness based on the fruit detachment are as follows:

a) Fallen fruits: 10 detached or easily removable fruits for young palms and 5 for adult palms, b) Number of fruits detached after the bunch is cut; 5 or more fruits/kg of bunch weight,

c) Quantity of detachment per bunch; fruit detachment on 25% of visible surface of bunch. These criteria could be applied with flexibility.

Frequency of harvesting

Harvesting rounds should be made as frequent as possible to avoid over ripening of bunches. A bunch which is almost ripe but not ready for harvest for a particular harvesting round should not be over-ripe by next round. In lean period of production, harvesting can be made less frequent and it should be more frequent in peak periods. Harvesting rounds of 7 - 14 days are generally practiced. Other factors determining frequency are, extraction capacity of the mill, transportation facilities, labour availability and skill of the workers. In India, harvesting is usually carried out with a chisel of 6 - 9 cm wide attached to a wooden pole or light hollow aluminium pipe, Bunches are cut without damaging the petiole the leaf that supports it. Use of narrow chisel is usually carried out till the palm reaches two meters above the ground. For taller palms upto 4 meters, a wider chisel of 14 cm is used. The curved knife is attached to a long bamboo or aluminium pole with screws or steel wires to harvest from taller palms. In uneven stands, an adjustable, telescopic type of pole is in use.

Ideal stage of harvesting in Oil palm

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Yield of Oilpalm In well maintained garden the yield of oilpalm will be as furnished below:

Age of oil palm YieldTon/ha/year

3-4 years 5

4-5 years 12

5-6 years 25

6-25 years 30

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