goldenShultes.doc

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Clockwise from lower left: fly agaric mushroom, sinicuichi, morning glory, tree datura, peyote, cannabis.

What are hallucinogenic plants? How do they affect mind and body? Who uses them - and why? This uniue !olden !uide sur"eys the role ofpsychoacti"e plants in primiti"e and ci"ili#ed societies from early times to the present. The first nontechnical guide to both the cultural significance andphysiological effects of hallucinogens, H$%%&C'()!*('C +%$(T will fascinate general readers and students of anthropology and history as well asbotanists and other specialists. $ll of the wild and culti"ated species considered are illustrated in brilliant full color. '(--/0-12/31-4 The filesat this &5% are transmitted under the 67air &se6 rulings regarding the 4803 Copyright $ct for ()(-profit academic and general information purposes.

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H$%%&C'()!*('C +%$(Tby RICHARD EVANS SHULTES

Illustrated by ELMER W. SMITH.

GOLDEN PRESS - NEW YORK 1976Western Publishing Co!"n#$ %n&'

S&"nning "n( 'ht b# lo!lo!$ )ug *99

FOREWORD

Hallucinoenic !lants "a#e been used by $an %or t"ousands o% years& !robably since "e beanat"erin !lants %or %ood. T"e "allucinoens "a#e continued to recei#e t"e attention o% ci#ili'ed $an

t"rou" t"e aes. Recently& (e "a#e one t"rou" a !eriod durin ("ic" so!"isticated Western society"as )disco#ered) "allucinoens& and so$e sectors o% t"at society "a#e ta*en u!& %or one reason oranot"er& t"e use o% suc" !lants. T"is trend $ay be destined to continue.

It is& t"ere%ore& i$!ortant %or us to learn as $uc" as (e can about "allucinoenic !lants. A reat bodyo% scienti%ic literature "as been !ublis"ed about t"eir uses and t"eir e%%ects& but t"e in%or$ation is o%tenloc*ed a(ay in tec"nical +ournals. T"e interested lay$an "as a ri"t to sound in%or$ation on ("ic" tobase "is o!inions. T"is boo* "as been (ritten !artly to !ro#ide t"at *ind o% in%or$ation.

No $atter ("et"er (e belie#e t"at $en,s inta*e o% "allucinoens in !ri$iti#e or so!"isticated societiesconstitutes use& $isuse& or abuse& "allucinoenic !lants "a#e undeniably !layed an e-tensi#e role in"u$an culture and !robably s"all continue to do so. It %ollo(s t"at a clear understandin o% t"ese!"ysically and socially !otent aents s"ould be a !art o% $an,s eneral education. R. E. S.

RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES& ".D.& /.L.S.& is !ro%essor o% natural sciences and director o% t"e 0otanicalMuseu$ at Har#ard Uni#ersity. An internationally *no(n botanist s!eciali'in in narcotic& $edicinal and!oisonous !lants& Dr. Sc"ultes s!ent so$e 12 years in Sout" A$erica li#in a$on Indian tribes in orderto in#estiate directly t"eir uses o% suc" !lants. Dr. Sc"ultes is t"e reci!ient o% nu$erous "onors& a$ont"e$ a decoration %ro$ t"e o#ern$ent o% Colo$bia %or "is (or* in t"e A$a'on& and is a $e$ber o%se#eral A$erican and %orein acade$ies o% science& includin t"e National Acade$y o% Sciences. He iseditor o% t"e +ournal Econo$ic 0otany and t"e aut"or o% $any scienti%ic !a!ers3 (it" Albert Ho%$ann "e(rote T"e 0otany and C"e$istry o% Hallucinoens.

ELMER W. SMITH& a ne( Enland 4an*ee by birt" and inclination& is a %ree5lance artist& sel%5tau"t inart& (it" an M.S. deree %ro$ t"e Uni#ersity o% Massac"usetts. He illustrated t"e 6olden 6uide 7RCHIDS&and "as tra#eled and collected in t"e A$a'on (it" "is %riend and colleaue t"e aut"or o%HALLUCIN76ENIC LANTS. S$it",s (or* a!!ears in c"ildren,s boo*s as (ell as in scienti%ic +ournals& and

"e "as illustrated nu$erous te-tboo*s in t"e %ield o% bioloy. Currently "e is an artist at t"e 0otanicalMuseu$ o% Har#ard Uni#ersity.

67LDEN RESS 8 NEW 47R9

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CONTENTS.

W"at Are Hallucinoenic lants: ......................................;Hallucinoens in ri$iti#e Societies .................................2 8 Aara& Ereriba& >@ 8 9(as"i& 6alana& > 8 Mari"uana& B= 8 Tur*estan Mint& 2>8 Syrian Rue& 2B 8 9anna& 22 8 0elladonna& 2? 8 Henbane& 2@ 8 Mandra*e& ;= 8 D"atura& ;> 8 Iboa& ;2 8

Ne( World Hallucinoens ................................................;?u%%balls& ;< 8 Mus"roo$s& ;@ 8 Ra! dos Indios& 8 S(eet /la& 2 8

Hierbo Loca& 1>? 8 Sacred Mornin 6lories& 1>@ 8 Ho+as de la astora& 1B< 8 Coleus& 0orrac"era& Arbol delos 0ru+os& 1B@ 8 C"iric5 Cas!i& 12= 8 Daturas& 12> 8 Tree Daturas& 12; 8 Culebra 0orrac"era& 12@ 8

S"anin& 9eule& Taiue& 1;= 8 Tu!a& Facatec"ic"i& 1;> 8syc"o!"ar$acoloy ...................................................&..1;27t"er Hallucinoenic lants .........................................&..1;?More In%or$ation .........................................................&.1;


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WHAT ARE HALLUCINOGENIC PLANTS?

In "is searc" %or %ood& early $an tried all *inds o% !lants. So$e nouris"ed "i$& so$e& "e %ound& cured"is ills& and so$e *illed "i$. A %e(& to "is sur!rise& "ad strane e%%ects on "is $ind and body& see$in tocarry "i$ into ot"er (orlds. We call t"ese !lants "allucinoens& because t"ey distort t"e senses andusually !roduce "allucinations 5 e-!eriences t"at de!art %ro$ reality. Alt"ou" $ost "allucinations are#isual& t"ey $ay also in#ol#e t"e senses o% "earin& touc"& s$ell& or taste 5 and occasionally se#eralsenses si$ultaneously are in#ol#ed.

T"e actual causes o% suc" "allucinations are c"e$ical substances in t"e !lants. T"ese substances aretrue narcotics. Contrary to !o!ular o!inion& not all narcotics are danerous and addicti#e. Strictly andety$oloicolly s!ea*in& a narcotic is any substance t"at "as a de!ressi#e e%%ect& ("et"er sli"t or reat&on t"e central ner#ous syste$.

Narcotics t"at induce "allucinations are #ariously called "allucinoens G"allucination enerators&!syc"oto$i$etics G!syc"osis $i$ic*ers& !syc"otara-ics G$ind disturbers& and !syc"edelics G$ind$ani%esters. No one ter$ %ully satis%ies scientists& but "allucinoens co$es closest. syc"edelic is $ost(idely used in t"e United States& but it co$bines t(o 6ree* roots incorrectly& is bioloically unsound& and"as acuired !o!ular $eanins beyond t"e drus or t"eir e%%ects.In t"e "istory o% $an*ind& "allucinoens "a#e !robably been t"e $ost i$!ortant o% all t"e narcotics.

T"eir %antastic e%%ects $ade t"e$ sacred to !ri$iti#e $an and $ay e#en "a#e been res!onsible %orsuestin to "i$ t"e idea o% deity.

Paramount among the hallucinogens of religious significance is the peyote cactus. This illustration, called "MorningPrayer in a Peyote eremony," is adapted from a painting by Tsa To!e, a io#a $ndian. These $ndians are ritual users

of peyote. entral fire and crescent shaped alter are flan!ed by ceremonial eagle feather fans% feathers symboli&emorning, and the birds, rising prayers.


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HALLUCINOGENS IN PRIMITIVE SOCIETIES

Hallucinoens !er$eate nearly e#ery as!ect o% li%e in !ri$iti#e societies.T"ey !lay roles in "ealt" and sic*ness& !eace and (ar& "o$e li%e andtra#el& "untin and ariculture3 t"ey a%%ect relations a$on indi#idualsillaes& and tribes. T"ey are belie#ed to in%luence li%e be%ore birt" anda%ter deat".

MEDICAL AND RELIGIOUS USESo. h"llu&inogeni& !l"nts "re !"rti&ul"l# i!ort"nt in!riiti/e so&ieties' )borigin"l !eo!le "ttribute si&0ness "n( he"lth to the or0ing o. s!irit

.or&es' Conse2uentl#$ "n# 3e(i&ine3 th"t &"n tr"ns!ort "n to the s!irit orl( is &onsi(ere(b# "n# "borigines to be better th"n one ith !urel# !h#si&"l e..e&ts'

Ps#&hi& !oers h"/e "lso been "ttribute( to h"llu&inogens "n( h"/e be&oe "n integr"l

!"rt o. !riiti/e religions' )ll o/er the orl( h"llu&inogeni& !l"nts "re use( "s e(i"torsbeteen "n "n( his go(s' 4he !ro!he&ies o. the or"&le o. Del!hi$ .or e5"!le$ "re thought

to h"/e been in(u&e( through h"llu&inogens'

"0un" %n(i"n e(i&ine "n un(er in.luen&e o. &""!i "#"hu"s&" or #"8e !re!"re( .rob"r0 o.Banisteriopis caapi'

tatue of =ochipilli, the $#tec 6+rince of 7lowers.6 unearthed in Tlalmanalco on the slopes of the "olcano +opocatepetland now on display in the >useo (acional in >eico City. %abels indicate probable botanical interpretations of styli#ed

glyphs.

OTHER ABORIGINAL USESo% "allucinoens #ary %ro$ one !ri$iti#e culture to anot"er. Many"allucinoenic !lants are basic to t"e initiation rituals o% adolescents. T"e Alonuin Indians a#e an

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into-icatin $edicine& (ysoccan& to t"eir youn $en& ("o t"en beca$e #iolently deraned %or >= days.Durin t"is !eriod& t"ey lost all $e$ory& startin $an"ood by %orettin t"ey "ad been boys. T"e iboaroot in 6abon and caa!i in t"e A$a'on are also used in suc" rituals.

In Sout" A$erica& $any tribes ta*e aya"uasca to %oresee t"e %uture& settle dis!utes& deci!"er ene$y!lans& cast or re$o#e s!ells& or insure t"e %idelity o% t"eir (o$en. Sensations o% deat" and se!aration o%body and soul are so$eti$es e-!erienced durin a drea$li*e trance.

T"e "allucinoenic !ro!erties o% Datura"a#e been t"orou"ly e-!loited& !articularly in t"e Ne( World.In Me-ico and in t"e Sout"(est& Daturais used in di#ination& !ro!"ecy& and ritualistic curin.

Modern Me-ican Indians #alue certain $us"roo$s as sacra$ents and use $ornin lories and t"e!eyote cactus to !redict t"e %uture& dianose and cure disease& and !lacate ood and e#il s!irits.

T"e Mi-tecs o% Me-ico eat !u%%balls to "ear #oices %ro$ "ea#en t"at ans(er t"eir uestions. T"e Wai*s

o% 0ra'il and Vene'uela snu%% t"e !o(dered resin o% a +unle tree to rituali'e deat"& induce a trance %ordianosin disease& and t"an* t"e s!irits %or #ictory in (ar. T"e Witotos o% Colo$bia eat t"e sa$e!o(er%ul resin to )tal* (it" t"e little !eo!le.) eru#ian $edicine $en drin* ci$ora to $a*e t"e$sel#eso(ners o% anot"er,s identity. Indians o% eastern 0ra'il drin* +ure$a to "a#e lorious #isions o% t"e s!irit(orld be%ore oin into battle (it" t"eir ene$ies.

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USE IN MODERN WESTERN WORLD

7ur $odern society "as recently ta*en u! t"e use& so$eti$es illeally& o% "allucinoens on a randscale. Many !eo!le belie#e t"ey can ac"ie#e )$ystic) or )reliious) e-!erience by alterin t"e c"e$istryo% t"e body (it" "allucinoens& seldo$ reali'in t"at t"ey are $erely re#ertin to t"e ae 5 old !racticeso% !ri$iti#e societies. W"et"er dru5induced ad#entures can be identical (it" t"e $eta!"ysical insi"tclai$ed by so$e $ystics& or are $erely a counter%eit o% it& is still contro#ersial. T"e (ides!read ande-!andin use o% "allucinoens in our society $ay "a#e little or no #alue and $ay so$eti$es e#en be"ar$%ul or danerous. In any e#ent& it is a ne(ly i$!orted and su!eri$!osed cultural trait (it"outnatural roots in Western tradition.

@etail of a painting of a primiti"e ayahuasca "ision by Aando del 5ios, contemporary peru"ian artist

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CHEMICAL COMPOSITION Hallucinoens are li$ited to a s$all nu$ber o% ty!es o% c"e$ical co$!ounds. All "allucinoens %ound in!lants are oranic co$!oundsJt"at is& t"ey contain carbon as an essential !art o% t"eir structure and(ere %or$ed in t"e li%e !rocesses o% #eetable oranis$s. No inoranic !lant constituents& suc" as$inerals& are *no(n to "a#e "allucinoenic e%%ects.

Hallucinoenic co$!ounds $ay be di#ided con#eniently into t(o broad rou!sK t"ose t"at containnitroen in t"eir structure and t"ose t"at do not. T"ose (it" nitroen are %ar $ore co$$on. T"e $osti$!ortant o% t"ose lac*in nitroen are t"e acti#e !rinci!les o% $ari"uana& ter!eno!"enolic co$!oundsclassed as diben'o!yrans and called cannabinolsJin !articular& tetra"ydrocannabinols. T"e"allucinoenic co$!ounds (it" nitroen in t"eir structure are al*aloids or related bases.

ALKALOIDSare a di#erse rou! o% so$e ;&=== co$!ounds (it" co$!le- $olecular structures. T"eycontain nitroen as (ell as carbon& o-yen& and "ydroen. All al*aloids are o% !lant oriin& t"ou" so$e!rotoal*aloids occur in ani$als. All are sli"tly al*aline& "ence t"eir na$e. T"ey are classi%ied into series

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based on t"eir structures. Many "allucinoenic al*aloids are indoles Gsee belo( or are related to indoles&and t"e $a+ority "a#e or $ay "a#e oriinated in t"e !lant %ro$ t"e a$ino acid *no(n as try!to!"an.Most $edicinal and to-ic !lants& as (ell as "allucinoenic !lants& o(e t"eir bioloical acti#ity to al*aloids.E-a$!les o% (idely #alued al*aloids are $or!"ine& uinine& nicotine& stryc"nine& and ca%%eine.

INDOLESare "allucinoenic al*aloids or related bases& all o% t"e$ nitroen5containin co$!ounds. It is$ost sur!risin t"at o% t"e $any t"ousands o% oranic co$!ounds t"at act on #arious !arts o% t"e bodyso %e( are "allucinoenic. T"e indole nucleus o% t"e "allucinoens %reuently a!!ears in t"e %or$ o%try!ta$ine deri#ati#es. It is co$!osed o% !"enyl and !yrrol se$ents Gsee diara$ %ollo(in.

Try!ta$ines $ay be )si$!le)Jt"at is& (it"out substitutionsJor t"ey $ay "a#e #arious )side c"ains)*no(n as "ydro-y G7H& $et"o-y GCH3& or !"os!"olo-y G773H rou!s in t"e !"enyl rin.

T"e indole rin Gs"o(n in red in t"e diara$ is e#ident not only in t"e nu$erous try!ta$inesGdi$et"yltry!ta$ine& etc. but also in t"e #arious eroline al*aloids Gerine and ot"ers& in t"e iboaineal*oloids& and in t"e 5carboline al*aloids G"ar$ine& "ar$aline& etc.. Lyseric acid diet"yla$ide GLSD"as an indole nucleus. 7ne reason %or t"e sini%icance o% t"e indolic "allucinoens $ay be t"eir structuralsi$ilarity to t"e neuro"u$oral try!ta$ine serotonin G;5"ydro-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ine& !resent in t"ener#ous tissue o% (ar$5blooded ani$als. Serotonin !lays a $a+or role in t"e bioc"e$istry o% t"e centralner#ous syste$. A study o% t"e %unctionin o% "allucinoenic try!ta$ine $ay e-!eri$entally "el! toe-!lain t"e %unction o% serotonin in t"e body.

A c"e$ical relations"i! si$ilar to t"at bet(een indolic "allucinoens and serotonin e-ists bet(een$escaline& an "allucinoenic !"enylet"yla$ine base in !eyote& and t"e neuro"or$one nore!ine!"rine.

T"ese c"e$ical si$ilarities bet(een "allucinoenic co$!ounds and neuro"or$ones (it" roles inneuro!"ysioloy $ay "el! to e-!lain "allucinoenic acti#ity and e#en certain !rocesses o% t"e central

ner#ous syste$. 7t"er al*aloidsJt"e isouinolines& tro!anes& uinoli'idines& and iso-a'olesJare $ore$ildly "allucinoenic and $ay o!erate di%%erently in t"e body. G!ae 1@

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PSEUDOHALLUCINOGENS

T"ese are !oisonous !lant co$!ounds t"at cause ("at $i"t be called secondary "allucinations or!seudo"allucinations. T"ou" not true "allucinoenic aents& t"ey so u!set nor$al body %unctions t"ott"ey induce a *ind o% deliriu$ acco$!anied by ("at to all !ractical !ur!oses are "allucinations. So$eco$!onents o% t"e essential oilsJt"e aro$atic ele$ents res!onsible %or t"e c"aracteristic odors o% !lantsJa!!ear to act in t"is (ay. Co$!onents o% nut$e oil are an e-a$!le. Many !lants "a#in suc"co$!onents are e-tre$ely danerous to ta*e internally& es!ecially i% inested in doses "i" enou" to

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induce "allucinations. Researc" "as not yet s"ed $uc" li"t on t"e *ind o% !syc"oacti#ity !roduced bysuc" c"e$icals.

HOW HALLUCINOGENS ARE TAKEN

Hallucinoenic !lants are used in a #ariety o% (ays& de!endin on t"e *ind o% !lant $aterial& on t"e acti#ec"e$icals in#ol#ed& on cultural !ractices& and on ot"er considerations. Man& in !ri$iti#e societiese#ery("ere& "as s"o(n reat inenuity and !ers!icacity in bendin "allucinoenic !lants to "is uses.

PLANTS MAY BE EATEN& eit"er %res" or dried& as are !eyote and teononacatl& or +uice %ro$ t"e crus"edlea#es $ay be drun*& as (it"Salvia divinorumGin Me-ico. 7ccasionally a !lant deri#ati#e $ay be eaten&as (it" "as"ees". More %reuently& a be#erae $ay be drun*K aya"uasca& caa!i& or ya+ %ro$ t"e bar* o%a #ine3 t"e San edro cactus3 +ure$a (ine3 iboa3 lea#es o% toloac"e3 or crus"ed seeds %ro$ t"e Me-ican$ornin lories. 7riinally !eculiar to Ne( World cultures& ("ere it (as one (ay o% usin tobacco&

s$o*in is no( a (ides!read $et"od o% ta*in cannabis. Narcotics ot"er t"an tobacco& suc" as tu!a&$ay also be srno*ed.

SNUFFINGis a !re%erred $et"od %or usin se#eral "allucinoens 5 yo!o& e!ena& sbil& ra! dos indios.Li*e s$o*in& snu%%in is a Ne( World custo$. A %e( Ne( World Indians "a#e ta*en "allucinoensrectally 5 as in t"e case o%Anadenanthera.

7ne curious $et"od o% inducin narcotic e%%ects is t"e A%rican custo$ o% incisin t"e scal! and rubbint"e +uice %ro$ t"e onionli*e bulb o% a s!ecies o% Pancratiumacross t"e incisions. T"is $et"od is a *ind o%!ri$iti#e counter!art o% t"e $odern "y!oder$ic $et"od.

Se#eral $et"ods $ay be used in t"e case o% so$e "allucinoenic !lants. Virolaresin& %or e-a$!le& islic*ed unc"aned& is usually !re!ared in snu%% %or$& is occasionally $ade into !ellets to be eaten& and$ay so$eti$es be s$o*ed.

PLANT ADDITIVESor ad$i-tures to $a+or "allucinoenic s!ecies are beco$in increasinly i$!ortantin researc". Subsidiary !lants are so$eti$es added to t"e !re!aration to alter& increase& or lent"en t"enarcotic e%%ects o% t"e $ain inredients. T"us& in $a*in t"e aya"uasca& caa!i& or ya+ drin*s& !re!ared

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basically %ro$ Banisteriopsis caapior B. inebrians& se#eral additi#es are o%ten t"ro(n inK lea#es o%Psychotria viridis or Banisteriopsis rusbyana& ("ic" t"e$sel#es contain "allucinoenic try!ta$ines3 orBrunfelsiaor Datura& bot" o% ("ic" are "allucinoenic in t"eir o(n ri"t. G!ae >1

OLD WORLD HALLUCINOGENS

E-istin e#idence indicates t"at $an in t"e 7ld World JEuro!e& Asia& A%rica& and AustraliaJ"as $adeless use o% nati#e !lants and s"rubs %or t"eir "allucinoenic !ro!erties t"an "as $an in t"e Ne( World.

T"ere is little reason to belie#e t"at t"e #eetation o% one "al% o% t"e lobe is !oorer or ric"er in s!ecies(it" "allucinoenic !ro!erties t"an t"e ot"er "al%. W"y& t"en& s"ould t"ere be suc" dis!arity: Has $an in

t"e 7ld World si$!ly not disco#ered $any o% t"e nati#e "allucinoenic !lants: Are so$e o% t"e$ tooto-ic in ot"er (ays to be utili'ed: 7r "as $an in t"e 7ld World been culturally less interested innarcotics: We "a#e no real ans(er. 0ut (e do *no( t"at t"e 7ld World "as %e(er *no(n s!eciese$!loyed "allucinoenically t"an does t"e Ne( WorldK co$!ared (it" only 1; or >= s!ecies used in t"eEastern He$is!"ere& t"e s!ecies used "allucinoenically in t"e Western He$is!"ere nu$ber $ore t"an1==

4et so$e o% t"e 7ld World "allucinoens today "old !laces o% !ri$acy t"rou"out t"e (orld. Cannabis&undoubtedly t"e $ost (ides!read o% all t"e "allucinoens& is !er"a!s t"e best e-a$!le. T"e se#eralsolanaceous inredients o% $edie#al (itc"es, bre(sJ"enbane& ni"ts"ade& belladonna& and $andra*eJreatly in%luenced Euro!ean !"iloso!"y& $edicine& and e#en "istory %or $any years. So$e !layed ane-traordinarily #ital reliious role in t"e early Aryan cultures o% nort"ern India.

T"e role o% "allucinoens in t"e cultural and social de#elo!$ent o% $any areas o% t"e 7ld World is onlyno( bein in#estiated. At e#ery turn& its e-tent and de!t" are beco$in $ore e#ident. 0ut $uc" $ore

needs to be done in t"e study o% "allucinoens and t"eir uses in t"e Eastern He$is!"ere. G!ae >>

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FLY AGARIC MUSHROOM&Amanita muscaria$ay beone o% $an,s oldest "allucinoens. It "as beensuested t"at !er"a!s its strane e%%ects contributedto $an,s early ideas o% deity.

/ly aaric $us"roo$s ro( in t"e nort" te$!eratereions o% bot" "e$is!"eres. T"e Eurasian ty!e "as abeauti%ul dee! orane to blood5red ca! %lec*ed (it"("ite scales. T"e ca! o% t"e usual Nort" A$erican ty!e#aries %ro$ crea$ to an orane5yello(. T"ere are alsoc"e$ical di%%erences bet(een t"e t(o& %or t"e Ne(World ty!e is de#oid o% t"e stronly "allucinoenice%%ects o% its 7ld World counter!art.

A$anita $uscaria ty!ically occurs in association (it"birc"es.

T"e use o% t"is $us"roo$ as an oriastic ands"a$anistic inebriant (as disco#ered in Siberia in1


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!ri$iti#e tribes GC"uc*c"ee& 9orya*& and 9a$c"adal in nort"eastern Siberia. T"ese tribes "ad no ot"erinto-icant until t"ey learned recently o% alco"ol.

T"ese Siberians inest t"e $us"roo$ alone& eit"er sun5dried or toasted slo(ly o#er a %ire& or t"ey $ayta*e it in reindeer $il* or (it" t"e +uice o% (ild !lants& suc" as a s!ecies o% Vacciniumand a s!ecies o%Epilobium. W"en eaten alone& t"e dried $us"roo$s are $oistened in t"e $out" and s(allo(ed& or t"e(o$en $ay $oisten and roll t"e$ into !ellets %or t"e $en to s(allo(.

A #ery old and curious !ractice o% t"ese tribes$en is t"e ritualistic drin*in o% urine %ro$ $en ("o "a#ebeco$e into-icated (it" t"e $us"roo$. T"e acti#e !rinci!les !ass t"rou" t"e body and are e-cretedunc"aned or as still acti#e deri#ati#es. Conseuently& a %e( $us"roo$s $ay inebriate $any !eo!le.

$ siberian Chukchee man with wooden urine "essel, about to recycle and etend intoication fromAmanita muscaria.

T"e nature o% t"e into-ication #aries& but one or se#eral $us"roo$s induce a condition $ar*ed usuallyby t(itc"in& tre$blin& sli"t con#ulsions& nu$bness o% t"e li$bs& and a %eelin o% ease c"aracteri'ed by"a!!iness& a desire to sin and dance& colored #isions& and $acro!sia Gseein t"ins reatly enlared.Violence i#in (ay to a dee! slee! $ay occasionally occur. artici!ants are so$eti$es o#erta*en bycurious belie%s& suc" as t"at e-!erienced by an ancient tribes$an ("o insisted t"at "e "ad +ust beenborn Reliious %er#or o%ten acco$!anies t"e inebriation.

Recent studies suest t"at t"is $us"roo$ (as t"e $ysterious 6od5 narcotic so$a o% ancient India.T"ousands o% years ao& Aryan conuerors& ("o s(e!t across India& (ors"i!ed so$e& drin*in it inreliious cere$onies. Many "y$ns in t"e Indian Ri5Veda are de#oted to so$a and describe t"e !lant

and its e%%ects.T"e use o% so$a e#entually died out& and its identity "as been an eni$a %or >&=== years. Durin t"e

!ast century& $ore t"an 1== !lants "a#e been suested& but none ans(ers t"e descri!tions %ound in t"e$any "y$ns. Recent et"nobotanicol detecti#e (or*& leadin to its identi%ication asA. muscaria& isstrent"ened by t"e re%erence in t"e #edas to cere$onial urine drin*in& since t"e $ain into-icatinconstituent& $usci$ole G*no(n only in t"is $us"roo$& is t"e sole natural "allucinoenic c"e$icale-creted unc"aned %ro$ t"e body.

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7nly in t"e last %e( years& too& "as t"e c"e$istry o% t"e into-icatin !rinci!le been *no(n. /or a

century& it (as belie#ed to be $uscarine& but $uscarine is !resent in suc" $inute concentrations t"at itcannot act as t"e inebriant. It is no( reconi'ed t"at& in t"e dryin or e-traction o% t"e $us"roo$s&ibotenic acid %or$s se#eral deri#ati#es. 7ne o% t"ese is $usci$ole& t"e $ain !"ar$acoloically acti#e!rinci!le. 7t"er co$!ounds& suc" as $usca'one& are %ound in lesser concentrations and $ay contributeto t"e into-ication.

/ly aaric $us"roo$ is so called because o% its ae5old use in Euro!e as a %ly *iller. T"e $us"roo$s(ere le%t in an o!en dis". /lies attracted to and settlin on t"e$ (ere stunned& succu$bin to t"einsecticidal !ro!erties o% t"e !lant.

>ap of (orthern *urasia shows regions of birches and pines, whereAmanita muscariatypically grows, and areas inhabited by ethnic groups that usethe mushroom as a hallucinogen.

AGARAGGalbulimima Belgraveana is a tall %orest tree o% Malaysia and Australia. In a!ua& nati#es $a*ea drin* by boilin t"e lea#es and bar* (it" t"e lea#es o% ereriba. W"en t"ey i$bibe it& t"ey beco$e#iolently into-icated& e#entually %allin into a dee! slee! durin ("ic" t"ey e-!erience #isions and%antastic drea$s. So$e >@ al*aloids "a#e been isolated %ro$ t"is tree& and alt"ou" t"ey are bioloicallyacti#e& t"e !syc"oacti#e !rinci!le is still un*no(n. Aara is one o% %our s!ecies o% Galbulimimaandbelons to t"e Hi$ontandraceae& a rare %a$ily related to t"e $anolias.

ERERIBA& an undeter$ined s!ecies o% Homalomena& is a stout "erb re!orted to "a#e narcotic e%%ects("en its lea#es are ta*en (it" t"e lea#es and bar* o% aara. T"e acti#e c"e$ical constituent is un*no(n.Ereriba is a $e$ber o% t"e aroid %o$ily& Araceae. T"ere are so$e 12= s!ecies o% Homalomenanati#e totro!ical Asia and Sout" A$erica.

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KWASHIGPancratium trianthum is considered to be !syc"oacti#e by t"e 0us"$en in Dobe& 0ots(ana.T"e bulb o% t"is !erennial is re!utedly rubbed o#er incisions in t"e "ead to induce #isual "allucinations.Not"in is *no(n o% its c"e$ical constitution. 7% t"e 12 ot"er s!ecies o% Pancratium& $ainly o% Asia andA%rica& $any are *no(n to contain !syc"oacti#e !rinci!les& $ostly al*aloids. So$e s!ecies are !otentcardiac !oisons. Pancratiumbelons to t"e a$aryllis %a$ily& A$aryllidaceae.

GALANGAor MARABAGaempferia galanga is an "erb ric" in essential oils. Nati#es in Ne( 6uinea eatt"e r"i'o$e o% t"e !lant as an "allucinoen. It is #alued locally as a condi$ent and& li*e ot"ers o% t"e


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Current researc" indicates t"at t"ere $ay be ot"er s!eciesK !. indicaand !. ruderalis. All Cannabis isnati#e to central Asia.

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C"inese c"aracters TA MA& t"e oldest *no(n na$e %or cannabis. TA G!ronounced DA. Literallyt"is $eans an adult $an& and by e-tension $ay sini%y reat or tall. MA. It re!resents a %iber!lant& literally a clu$! o% !lants& ro(in near a d(ellin. Hence& t"e t(o sy$bols toet"er$ean )t"e tall %iber !lant&,, ("ic" e#ery("ere in C"ina sini%ies cannabis.

HISTORY OF CANNABIS USEdates to ancient ti$es. He$! %abrics %ro$ t"e late @t" century0.C. "a#e been %ound in Tur*ey. S!eci$ens "a#e turned u! in an Ey!tian site nearly 2&=== years o% ae.

In ancient T"ebes& t"e !lant (as $ade into a drin* (it" o!iu$5li*e e%%ects. T"e Scyt"ians& ("o t"re(cannabis seeds and lea#es on "ot stones in stea$ bat"s to !roduce an into-icatin s$o*e& re( t"e!lant alon t"e Vola B&=== years ao.

C"inese tradition !uts t"e use o% t"e !lant bac* 2&@== years. Indian $edical (ritin& co$!iled be%ore1=== 0.C.& re!orts t"era!eutic uses o% cannabis. T"at t"e early Hindus a!!reciated its into-icatin!ro!erties is attested by suc" na$es as )"ea#enly uide) and soot"er o% rie%. ) T"e C"inese re%erred tocannabis as )liberator o% sin) and )deli"t i#er.) T"e 6ree* !"ysician 6alen (rote& about A.D. 1?=& t"ateneral use o% "e$! in ca*es !roduced narcotic e%%ects. In 1Bt" century Asia Minor& orani'ed $urderers&re(arded (it" "as"ees"& (ere *no(n as "as"is"ins %ro$ ("ic" $ay co$e t"e ter$ assassin in Euro!eanlanuaes.

He$! as a source o% %iber (as introduced by t"e ilri$s to Ne( Enland and by t"e S!anis" andortuuese to t"eir colonies in t"e Ne( World.

)bects connected with the use of cannabis were found in fro#en tombs of the ancient cythians, in the $ltai >ountains and theborder between 5ussia and )uter >ongolia. The small, tepee-like structure was co"ered with a felt or leather mat and stood o"er thecopper censer 9four-legged stool-like obect. Carboni#ed hemp seeds were found nearby. The two-handled pot contained cannabisfruits. The cythian custom of breathing cannabis fumes in the steam bath was mentioned about ; .C. by the !reek naturalist

Herodotus.

THE MEDICINAL VALUE OF CANNABIS"as been *no(n %or centuries. Its lon "istory o% use in %ol*$edicine is sini%icant& and it "as been included $ore recently in Western !"ar$aco!oeias. It (as listed

in t"e United S"tes Pharmacopoeiauntil t"e 1B=,s as #aluable& es!ecially in t"e treat$ent o% "ysteria.T"e !roress $ade in $odern researc" encouraes t"e belie% t"at so !roli%ic a c"e$ical %actory as!annabis$ay indeed o%%er !otential %or ne( $edicines.

THE CHEMISTRY OF CANNABISis co$!le-. Many oranic co$!ounds "a#e been isolated& so$e (it"narcotic !ro!erties and ot"ers (it"out. A %res" !lant yields $ainly cannabidiolic acids& !recursors o% t"etetra"ydrocannabinols and related constituents& suc" as cannabinol& cannabidiol& tetra"ydrocannabinol5carbo-ylic acid& stereoiso$ers o% tetra"ydroconnabinol& and cannabic"ro$ene.

It "as been de$onstrated recently t"at t"e $ain e%%ects are attributable to delta 515tetra"ydrocannobinol. T"e tetra"ydrocannabinols& ("ic" %or$ an oily $i-ture o% se#eral iso$ers& are non5nitroenous oranic co$!ounds deri#ed %ro$ ter!enes Gsee !ae 1?. T"ey are not al*aloids& alt"ou"traces o% al*aloids "a#e been re!orted in t"e !lant.

Until recently& little (as *no(n about t"e e%%ects o% !ure tetra"ydrocannabinol on $an. Controlled

studies are basic to any !roress. T"ese are no( !ossible (it" t"e recent synt"esis o% t"e co$!ound& a$a+or ad#ance in studyin t"e $ec"anis$ o% !"ysioloical acti#ity o% t"is into-icant. 0ecause t"e crudecannabis !re!arations nor$ally used as a narcotic #ary reatly in t"eir c"e$ical co$!osition& anycorrelations o% t"eir bioloical acti#ity (ould be relati#ely $eaninless.

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$ssortment of cannabis pipes and water pipes.

METHODS OF USING CANNABIS#ary. In t"e Ne( World& $ari"uana G$acon"a in 0ra'il is s$o*edJt"e dried& crus"ed %lo(erin ti!s or lea#es& o%ten $i-ed (it" tobacco in ciarettes& or )ree%ers.)Has"ees"& t"e resin %ro$ t"e %e$ale !lant& is eaten or s$o*ed& o%ten in (ater !i!es& by $illions inMosle$ countries o% nort"ern A%rica and (estern Asia. In A%"anistan and a*istan& t"e resin is co$$only

s$o*ed. Asiatic Indians reularly e$!loy t"ree !re!arations narcoticallyK b"an consists o% !lants t"stare at"ered reen& dried& and $ade into a drin* (it" (ater or $il* or into a candy G$a+un (it" suarand s!ices3 c"aras& nor$ally s$o*ed or eaten (it" s!ices& is !ure resin3 an+a"& usually s$o*ed (it"tobacco& consists o% resin5ric" dried to!s %ro$ t"e %e$ale !lant. Many o% t"ese unusually !otent!re!arations $ay be deri#ed %ro$ !. indica.

NARCOTIC USE OF CANNABIS"as ro(n in !o!ularity in t"e !ast 2= years as t"e !lant "as s!read tonearly all !arts o% t"e lobe. T"e narcotic use o% cannabis in t"e United States dates %ro$ t"e 1>=,s andsee$s to "a#e started in Ne( 7rleans and #icinity. Increase in t"e !lant,s use as an inebriant in Westerncountries& es!ecially in urban centers& "as led to $a+or !roble$s and dile$$as %or Euro!ean andA$erican aut"orities. T"ere is a s"ar! di#ision o% o!inion as to ("et"er t"e (ides!read narcotic use o%cannabis is a #ice t"at $ust be sta$!ed out or is an innocuous "abit t"at s"ould be !er$itted leally.T"e sub+ect is debated "otly& usually (it" li$ited *no(lede. We do not yet "a#e t"e $edical& social&

leal& and $oral in%or$ation on ("ic" to base a sound +ud$ent. As one (riter "as said& t"e $ari"uana!roble$ needs )$ore li"t and less "eat.) Controlled& scienti%ically #alid e-!eri$ents (it" cannabis&in#ol#in lare nu$bers o% indi#iduals& "a#e not as yet been $ade.

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Contemporary $merican cannabis shoulder patches.

EFFECTS OF CANNABIS& e#en $ore t"an o% ot"er "allucinoens& are "i"ly #ariable %ro$ !erson to!erson and %ro$ one !lant strain to anot"er. T"is #ariability co$es $ainly %ro$ t"e unstable c"aracter o%so$e o% t"e constituents. 7#er a !eriod o% ti$e& %or e-a$!le& t"e inacti#e cannabidiolic acid con#erts toacti#e tetra"ydrocannabinols and e#entually to inacti#e cannabinol& suc" c"e$ical c"anes usuallyta*in !lace $ore ra!idly in tro!ical t"an in cooler cli$ates. Material %ro$ !lants o% di%%erent aes $ayt"us #ary in narcotic e%%ect.

T"e !rinci!al narcotic e%%ect is eu!"oria. T"e !lant is so$eti$es not classi%ied as "allucinoenic& and itis true t"at its c"aracteristics are not ty!ically !syc"oto$i$etic. E#eryt"in %ro$ a $ild sense o% easeand (ell5bein to %antastic drea$s and #isual and auditory "allucinations are re!orted. 0eauti%ul si"ts&(onder%ul $usic& and aberrations o% sound o%ten entrance t"e $ind3 bi'arre ad#entures to %ill a centuryta*e !lace in a $atter o% $inutes.

Soon a%ter ta*in t"e dru& a sub+ect $ay %ind "i$sel% in a drea$y state o% altered consciousness.Nor$al t"ou"t is interru!ted& and ideas are so$eti$es !lenti%ul t"ou" con%used. A %eelin o% e-altationand inner +oy $ay alternate& e#en danerously& (it" %eelins o% de!ression& $oodiness& uncontrollable%ear o% deat"& and !anic. erce!tion o% ti$e is al$ost in#ariably altered. An e-aeration o% sound& out o%all relation to t"e real %orce o% t"e sound e$itted& $ay be acco$!anied by a curiously "y!notic sense o%r"yt"$. Alt"ou" t"e occasional #i#id #isual "allucinations $ay "a#e se-ual colorin& t"e o%ten5re!orteda!"rodisiac !ro!erties o% t"e dru "a#e not been substantiated.In $any !arts o% Asia t"e use o% cannabis !re!arations is bot" socially and leally acce!table. In!redo$inantly Mosle$ countries& Cannabis is usually s$o*ed in (ater !i!es so$eti$es called "oo*a"s.T"e illustration s"o(s an A%"ani usin one o% t"e $any *inds o% (ater !i!es seen in Asia. '

>arket forms of cannabis include finely ground or 6manicured6 marihuana, DDreefersDD 9smaller than commercial tobaccocigarettes, pure hasheesh, ond compressed kilo bricks.

W"et"er cannabis s"ould be classi%ied !ri$arily as a sti$ulant or de!ressant or bot" "as ne#er beendeter$ined. T"e dru,s acti#ities beyond t"e central ner#ous syste$ see$ to be secondary. T"ey consisto% a rise in !ulse rate and blood !ressure& tre$or& #ertio& di%%iculty in $uscular coordination& increased

tactile sensiti#ity& and dilation o% t"e !u!ils. Alt"ou" cannabis is de%initely not addicti#e& !syc"oloical de!endence $ay o%ten result %ro$ continualuse o% t"e dru.

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TURKESTAN MINTG"agochilus inebrians is a s$all s"rub o% t"e dry ste!!es o% Tur*estan. /or centuriesit "as been t"e source o% an into-icant a$on t"e Ta+i*& Tartar& Tur*o$an& and U'be* tribes$en. T"elea#es& at"ered in 7ctober& are toasted& so$eti$es $i-ed (it" ste$s& %ruits& and %lo(ers. Dryin andstorae increase t"eir aro$atic %rarance. Honey and suar are o%ten added to reduce t"eir intensebitterness.Valued as a %ol* $edicine and included in t"e @t" edition o% t"e Russian !"ar$aco!oeia& it is used totreat s*in disease& to "el! c"ec* "e$orr"aes& and to !ro#ide sedation %or ner#ous disorders. Acrystalline co$!ound isolated %ro$ t"e !lant and na$ed laoc"iline "as !ro#ed to be aditer!ene.W"et"er or not it !roduces t"e !syc"oacti#e e%%ects o% t"e ("ole !lant is un*no(n. T"ere are so$e B2ot"er s!ecies o% "agochilus. Me$bers o% t"e $int %a$ily& Labiatae& t"ey are nati#e %ro$ central Asia to

Iran and A%"anistan.

SYRIAN RUEGPeganum harmala ro(s %ro$ t"e Mediterranean to nort"ern India& Monolia& andManc"uria. E#ery("ere it "as $any uses in %ol* $edicine. Its seeds "a#e been e$!loyed as a s!ice& andits %ruits are t"e source o% a red dye and an oil.

T"e seeds !ossess *no(n "allucinoenic al*aloids& es!ecially "ar$ine and "ar$aline. T"e estee$ in("ic" t"e !eo!les o% Asia "old t"e !lant is so e-traordinary t"at it $i"t indicate a %or$er reliious useas an "allucinoen& but t"e !ur!ose%ul use o% t"e !lant to induce #isions "as not yet been establis"edt"rou" t"e literature or %ield (or*.

T"e caltro! %a$ily& Fyo!"yllaceae& to ("ic" Syrian rue belons& co$!rises about t(o do'en enera

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nati#e to dry !arts o% t"e tro!ics and subtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

KANNAG#esembryanthemum e$pansumand #. tortuosum is t"e co$$on na$e o% t(o s!ecies o%Sout" A%rican !lants. T"ere is stron e#idence t"at one or bot" (ere used by t"e Hottentots o% sout"ernA%rica as #ision inducin narcotics. More t"an t(o centuries ao& it (as re!orted t"at t"e Hottentotsc"e(ed t"e root o% *anna& or c"anna& *ee!in t"e c"e(ed $aterial in t"e $out"& (it" t"ese resultsK)T"eir ani$al s!irits (ere a(a*ened& t"eir eyes s!ar*led and t"eir %aces $ani%ested lau"ter and aiety.T"ousands o% deli"tso$e ideas a!!eared& and a !leasant +ollity ("ic" enabled t"e$ to be a$used bysi$!le +ests. 0y ta*in t"e substance to e-cess& t"ey lost consciousness and %ell into a terrible deliriu$.)

Since t"e narcotic use o% t"ese t(o s!ecies "as not been obser#ed directly& #arious botanists "a#esuested t"at t"e "allucinoenic *anna $ay actually "a#e been cannabis or ot"er into-icatin !lants&suc" as se#eral s!ecies o% Sclerocaryao% t"e cas"e( %a$ily. T"ese t(o s!ecies o% #esembryanthemumdo "o#e t"e co$$on na$e *anna& "o(e#er& and t"ey also contain al*aloids t"at "a#e sedati#e& cocaine5li*e !ro!erties ca!able o% !roducin tor!or in $an.

In t"e drier !arts o% Sout" A%rica& t"ere are altoet"er 1&=== s!ecies o% #esembryanthemum % $any&li*e t"e ice !lant& o% bi'arre %or$. About t(o do'en s!ecies& includin t"e t(o described "ere& areconsidered by so$e botanists to re!resent a se!arate enus& Sceletium. All belon to t"e car!et(eed%a$ily& Ai'oaceae& $ainly Sout" A%rican& and are belie#ed to be related to t"e !o*e(eed& !in*& and cactus%a$ilies.

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BELLADONNAGAtropa belladonna is (ell *no(n as a "i"ly !oisonous s!ecies ca!able o% inducin#arious *inds o% "allucinations. It entered into t"e %ol*lore and $yt"oloy o% #irtually all Euro!ean!eo!les& ("o %eared its deadly !o(er. It (os one o% t"e inredients o% t"e truly "allucinoenic bre(s andoint$ents concocted by t"e so5called (itc"es o% $edie#al Euro!e. T"e attracti#e s"iny berries o% t"e!lant still o%ten cause it to be accidentally eaten& (it" resultant !oisonin.

T"e na$e belladonna G)beauti%ul lady) in Italian co$es %ro$ a curious custo$ !racticed by italian(o$en o% "i" society durin $edie#al ti$es. T"ey (ould dro! t"e sa! o% t"e !lant into t"e eye to dilatet"e !u!il enor$ously& inducin a *ind o% drun*en or lassy stare& considered in t"at !eriod to en"ance%e$inine beauty and sensuality.

T"e $ain acti#e !rinci!le in belladonna is t"e al*aloid "yoscya$ine& but t"e $ore !syc"oacti#esco!ola$ine is also !resent. Atro!ine "as also been %ound& but ("et"er it is !resent in t"e li#in !lant oris %or$ed durin e-traction is not cleor. 0elladonna is a co$$ercial source o% atro!ine& an al*aloid (it" a(ide #ariety o% uses in $odern $edicine& es!ecially as an antis!as$odic& an antisecretory& and as a$ydriatic and cardiac sti$ulant. T"e al*aloids occur t"rou"out t"e !lant but are concentrated es!eciallyin t"e lea#es and roots.

T"ere are %our s!ecies o%Atropadistributed in Euro!e and %ro$ central Asia to t"e Hi$alayas.Atropabelons to t"e ni"ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae. 0elladonna is nati#e to Euro!e and Asia Minor. Until t"e1t" century& co$$ercial collection (as !ri$arily %ro$ (ild sources& but since t"at ti$e culti#ation "asbeen initiated in t"e United States& Euro!e& and India& ("ere it is an i$!ortant source o% $edicinal drus.

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HENBANEGHyoscyamus niger (as o%ten included in t"e (itc"es, bre(s and ot"er to-ic !re!arations o%$edie#al Euro!e to cause #isual "allucinations and t"e sensation o% %li"t. An annual or biennial nati#e toEuro!e& it "as lon been #alued in $edicine as a sedati#e and an anodyne to induce slee!.

T"e !rinci!al al*aloid o% "enbane is "yoscya$ine& but t"e $ore "allucinoenic sco!ola$ine is also!resent in sini%icant a$ounts& alon (it" se#eral ot"er al*aloids in s$aller concentrations.Henbane is one o% >= s!ecies o% Hyoscyamus& $e$bers o% t"e ni"ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae. T"ey arenati#e to Euro!e& nort"ern A%rica& and (estern and central Asia.

Medieval #itches coo!ing "magic" bre# #ith toad and henbane.

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MANDRAKEG#andragora officinarum& an "allucinoen (it" a %antastic "istory& "as lon been *no(nand %eared %or its to-icity. Its co$!le- "istory as a $aic "y!notic in t"e %ol*lore o% Euro!e cannot beeualed by any s!ecies any("ere. Mandra*e (as a !anacea. Its %ol* uses in $edie#al Euro!e (ereine-tricably bound u! (it" t"e )Doctrine o% Sinatures&) an old t"eory "oldin t"at t"e a!!earance o% anob+ect indicates its s!ecial !ro!erties. T"e root o% $andra*e (as li*ened to t"e %or$ o% a $an or (o$an3"ence its $aic. I% a $andra*e (ere !ulled %ro$ t"e eart"& accordin to su!erstition& its uneart"ly s"rie*scould dri#e its collector $ad. In $any reions& t"e !eo!le clai$ed stron a!"rodisiac !ro!erties %or$andra*e. T"e su!erstitious "old o% t"is !lant in Euro!e !ersisted %or centuries.

'oodcuts from Hortus sanitatis, (st edition Mayence, ()*+

Mandra*e& (it" t"e ro!ane al*aloids "yoscya$ine& sco!ola$ine& and ot"ers& (as an acti#e"allucinoenic inredient o% $any o% t"e (itc"es, bre(s o% Euro!e. In %act& it (as undoubtedly one o% t"e$ost !otent inredients in t"ose co$!le- !re!arations. Mandra*e and %i#e ot"er s!ecies o% #andragora

belon to t"e ni"ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& and are nati#e to t"e area bet(een t"e Mediterranean andt"e Hi$alayas.

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DHATURAand DUTRAGDatura metel are t"e co$$on na$es in India %or an i$!ortant 7ld Worlds!ecies o% Datura. T"e narcotic !ro!erties o% t"is !ur!le5%lo(ered $e$ber o% t"e deadly ni"ts"ade%a$ily& Solanaceae& "a#e been *no(n and #alued in India since !re"istory. T"e !lant "as a lon "istory inot"er countries as (ell. So$e (riters "a#e credited it (it" bein res!onsible %or t"e into-icatin s$o*eassociated (it" t"e 7racle o% Del!"i. Early C"inese (ritins re!ort an "allucinoen t"at "as beenidenti%ied (it" t"is s!ecies. And it is undoubtedly t"e !lant t"at A#icenna& t"e Arabian !"ysician&$entioned under t"e na$e +ou'$at"el in t"e 11t" century. Its use as an a!"rodisiac in t"e East Indies(as recorded in 1;


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IBOGAG&abernanthe iboga& nati#e to 6abon and t"e Cono& is t"e only $e$ber o% t"e dobane %ancily&

A!ocynaceae& *no(n to be used as an "allucinoen. T"e !lant is o% ro(in i$!ortance& !ro#idin t"estronest sinle %orce aainst t"e s!read o% C"ristianity and Isla$ in t"is reion. T"e yello(is" root o% t"e iboa !lant is e$!loyed in t"e initiation rites o% a nu$ber o% secret societies& t"e$ost %a$ous bein t"e 0(iti cult. Entrance into t"e cult is conditional on "a#in )seen) t"e od !lant0(iti& ("ic" is acco$!lis"ed t"rou" t"e use o% iboa.T"e dru& disco#ered by Euro!eans to(ard t"e $iddle o% t"e last century& "as a re!utation as a !o(er%ulsti$ulant and a!"rodisiac. Hunters use it to *ee! t"e$sel#es a(a*e all ni"t. Lare doses induceun(orldly #isions& and )sorcerers) o!en ta*e t"e dru to see* in%or$ation %ro$ ancestors and t"e s!irit(orld.Iboaine is t"e !rinci!al indole al*aloid a$on a do'en ot"ers %ound in iboa. T"e !"ar$acoloy o%iboaine is (ell *no(n. In addition to bein an "allucinoen& ibooine in lare doses is a stron centralner#ous syste$ sti$ulant& leadin to con#ulsions& !aralysis& and arrest o% res!iration.

'Payment of the Ancestors(' ta)ing place bet*een t*o shrubby bushes of tabernanthe iboga in the +ang !ult of B*iti( !ongo.

,Photo by -. . +ernande/ 0

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NEW WORLD HALLUCINOGENS

In t"e Ne( WorldJNort"& Central& and Sout" A$erica and t"e West IndiesJt"e nu$ber and cultural

i$!ortance o% "allucinoens reac"ed a$a'in "ei"ts in t"e !astJand in !laces t"eir role isundi$inis"ed.More t"an ninety s!ecies are e$!loyed %or t"eir into-icatin !rinci!les& co$!ared to %e(er t"an a do'enin t"e 7ld World. It (ould not be an e-aeration to say t"at so$e o% t"e Ne( World cultures& !articularlyin Me-ico and Sout" A$erica& (ere !ractically ensla#ed by t"e reliious use o% "allucinoens& ("ic"acuired a dee! and controllin sini%icance in al$ost e#ery as!ect o% li%e. Cultures in Nort" A$erica andt"e West Indies used %e(er "allucinoens& and t"eir role o%ten see$ed secondary. Alt"ou" tobacco andcoca& t"e source o% cocaine& "a#e beco$e o% (orld(ide i$!ortance& none o% t"e true "allucinoens o% t"eWestern He$is!"ere "as assu$ed t"e lobal sini%icance o% t"e 7ld World cannabis.

No et"noloical study o% A$erican Indians can be considered co$!lete (it"out an in5de!t"a!!reciation o% t"eir "allucinoens. Une-!ected disco#eries "a#e co$e %ro$ studyin t"e "allucinoenicuse o% Ne( World !lants. Many "allucinoenic !re!arations called %or t"e addition o% !lant additi#esca!able o% alterin t"e into-ication. T"e acco$!lis"$ents o% aboriinal A$ericans in t"e use o% $i-tures

"a#e been e-traordinary.W"ile *no(n Ne( World "allucinoens are nu$erous& studies are still unco#erin s!ecies ne( to t"e list.T"e $ost curious as!ect o% t"e studies& "o(e#er& is ("y& in #ie( o% t"eir #ital i$!ortance to Ne( World

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cultures& t"e botanical identities o% $any o% t"e "allucinoens re$ained un*no(n until co$!arati#elyrecent ti$es.

PUFFBALLSG"ycoperdon mi$tecorumand ". marginotum are used by t"e Mi-tec Indicins 7% 7a-aca&Me-ico as auditory "allucinoens. A%ter eatin t"ese %uni& a nati#e "ears #oices and ec"oes. T"ere isa!!arently no cere$ony connected (it" !u%%balls& and t"ey do not en+oy t"e !lace as di#inatory aentst"at t"e $us"roo$s do in 7a-aca. ". mi$tecorumis t"e stroner o% t"e t(o. It is called i5i5(a& $eanin,,%unus o% t"e %irst uality.) ". marginatum& ("ic" "as a stron odor o% e-cre$ent is *no(n as i5i5sa5(a&$eanin ,,%unus o% t"e second uality.

Alt"ou" into-icatin substances "a#e not yet been %ound in t"e !u%%balls& t"ere are re!orts in t"eliterature t"at so$e o% t"e$ "a#e "ad narcotic e%%ects ("en eaten. Most o% t"e esti$ated ;= to 1==s!ecies o% "ycoperdonro( in $ossy %orests o% t"e te$!erate 'one. T"ey belon to t"e Lyco!erdaceae& a%a$ily o% t"e 6astero$ycetes.

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The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms, #hich dates bac! several thousand years, centers in the mountains of southern Meico.

MUSHROOMSo% $any s!ecies (ere used as "allucinoens by t"e A'tec Indians& ("o colled t"e$

teonanacotl& $eanin )%les" o% t"e ods) in t"e Na"uatl Indian lanuae. T"ese $us"roo$s& all o% t"e%a$ily Aaricaceae& are still #alued in Me-ican $aic or eliious rites. T"ey belon to %our eneraK!onocybeand Panaeolus& al$ost cos$o!olitan in t"eir rane3 Psilocybe& %ound in Nort" and Sout"A$erica& Euro!e& and Asia3 and Stropharia& *no(n in Nort" A$erica& t"e West Indies& and Euro!e.

MUSHROOM WORSHIPsee$s to "a#e roots in centuries o%nati#e tradition. Me-ican %rescoes& oin bac* to A.D. B==& "a#edesins suesti#e o% $us"roo$s. E#en $ore re$ar*able aret"e arti%acts called $us"roo$ stones G!. ?=& e-ca#ated in larenu$bers %ro$ "i"land Maya sites in 6uate$ala and datinbuc* to 1=== 0.C. Consistin o% a ste$ (it" a "u$an or ani$al%oce and sur$ounted by an u$brella5s"a!ed to!& t"ey lon!u''led arc"aeoloists. No( inter!reted as a *ind o% iconconnected (it" reliious rituals& t"ey indicate t"at B&=== yearsao& a so!"isticated reliion surrounded t"e sacra$ental use o%t"ese %uni.

It "as been suested t"at !er"a!s $us"roo$s (ere t"eearliest "allucinoenic !lants to be disco#ered. T"e ot"er5(orldly e-!erience induced by t"ese $ysterious %or$s o% !lantli%e could easily "a#e suested a s!iritual !lane o% e-istence.

Detail %ro$ a %resco at a Te!antitla GTeoti"uacn Me-icore!resentin Tloloc& t"e od o% clouds& rain& and (aters. Notet"e !ale blue $us"roo$s (it" orane ste$s and also t"e)colorines, 5 t"e dar*er blue& bean5s"a!ed %or$s (it" red s!ots.

See !aes = and < %or discussion o% colorines and !iule.GA%ter Hei$ and Wasson.

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Typical icons associated with mushroom cults dating back /, years in !uatemala.

'

Detail %ro$ %resco at Sacuala& Teoti"uacn& Me-ico& s"o(in %our reenis" ,,$us"roo$s) t"at see$ to be e$erin %ro$ t"e $out"o% a od& !ossibly t"e Sun 6od.

EARLY USE OF THE SACRED MUSHROOMSis *no(n $ainly %ro$ t"e e-tensi#e descri!tions (rittenby t"e S!anis" clerics. /or t"is (e o(e t"e$ a reat debt.7ne c"ronicler& (ritin in t"e $id51;==,s& a%ter t"e conuest o% Me-ico& re%erred %reuently to t"ose$us"roo$s ) ("ic" are "ar$%ul and into-icate li*e (ine& ) so t"at t"ose ("o eat t"e$ )see #isions& %eel a%aintness o% "eart and are !ro#o*ed to lust,,3 t"e nati#es )("en t"ey bein to et e-cited by t"e$ startdancin& sinin& (ee!in. So$e do not (ant to eat but sit do(n . . . and see t"e$sel#es dyin in a#ision3 ot"ers see t"e$sel#es bein eaten by a (ild beast3 ot"ers i$aine t"at t"ey are ca!turin!risoners o% (ar& t"at t"ey are ric"& t"at t"ey !ossess $any sla#es& t"at t"ey "ad co$$itted adulteryand (ere to "a#e t"eir "eads crus"ed %or t"e o%%ense....)A (or* o% A'tec $edicine $entions t"ree *inds o% into-icatin $us"roo$s. 7ne& tey"uintli causes )

$adness t"at on occasion is lastin& o% ("ic" t"e sy$!to$ is an uncontrollable lau"ter3 t"ere are ot"ers("ic" . . . brin be%ore t"e eyes all sorts o% t"ins& suc" as (ars and t"e li*eness o% de$ons. 4et ot"ersare not less desired by !rinces %or t"eir %esti#als and banuets& and t"ese %etc" a "i" !rice. Wit" ni"t5lon #iils are t"ey sou"t& a(eso$e and terri%yin.)

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SPANISH OPPOSITIONto t"e A'tecs, (ors"i! o% !aan deities (it" t"e sacra$ental aid o% $us"roo$s(as stron. Alt"ou" t"e S!anis" conuerors o% Me-ico "ated and attac*ed t"e reliious use o% all"allucinoens 5 !eyote& ololiuui& toloac"e& and ot"ers 5 teonanocatl (as t"e taret o% s!ecial (rat". T"eirreliious %anaticis$ (as dra(n es!ecially to(ard t"is des!ised and %eared %or$ o% !lant li%e t"at& t"rou"its #ision5i#in !o(ers& "eld t"e Indian in a(e& allo(in "i$ to co$$une directly (it" "is ods. T"e ne(reliion& C"ristianity& "ad not"in so attracti#e to o%%er "i$. Tryin to sta$! out t"e use o% t"e$us"roo$s& t"e S!aniards succeeded only in dri#in t"e custo$ into t"e "interlands& ("ere it !ersiststoday. Not only did it !ersist& but t"e ritual ado!ted $any C"ristian as!ects& and t"e $odern ritual is a!aan5C"ristian blend.

T"e !aan od o% t"e under(orld s!ea*s t"rou" t"e $us"roo$& teononocatl& as re!resented by aMe-ican artist in t"e 1?t" century. G/ro$ t"e #agliabecchiano !ode$& 0iblioteca Na'ionole& /lorence.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE SACRED MUSHROOMS(as slo( in co$in. Dri#en into "idin by t"eS!aniards& t"e $us"roo$ cult (as not encountered in Me-ico %or %our centuries. Durin t"at ti$e&alt"ou" t"e Me-ican %lora (as *no(n to include #arious to-ic $us"roo$s& it (as belie#ed t"at t"eA'tecs "ad tried to !rotect t"eir real sacred !lantK t"ey "ad led t"e S!aniards to belie#e t"at teonanacatl$eant $us"roo$& ("en it actually $eant !eyote. It (os !ointed out t"at t"e sy$!to$s o% $us"roo$into-ication coincided re$ar*ably (it" t"ose described %or !eyote into-ication and t"at dried $us"roo$s$i"t easily "a#e been con%used (it" t"e s"ri#eled bro(n "eads o% t"e !eyote cactus. 0ut t"e nu$erousdetailed re%erences by care%ul (riters& includin $edical $en trained in botany& arued aainst t"ist"eory.

Not until t"e 1B=,s (ere botanists able to identi%y s!eci$ens o% $us"roo$s %ound in actual use indi#inatory rites in Me-ico. Later (or* "as s"o(n t"at $ore t"an >= s!ecies o% $us"roo$s are si$ilarlye$!loyed a$on se#en or ei"t tribes in sout"ern Me-ico.

A 1?t"5century illustration o% teononacatl Ga& t"e into-icatin $us"roo$ o% t"e A'tecs& still #alued in

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Me-ican $aico5reliious rites3 identity o% Gb is un*no(n. /ro$ Sa"aun,s Historia general de las cosasde 1ueva Espana& Val. IV G/lorentine Code-.

THE MODERN MUSHROOM CEREMONYo% t"e Ma'atec Indians o% nort"eastern 7a-aca illustrates t"ei$!ortance o% t"e ritual in !resent5day Me-ico and "o( t"e sacred c"aracter o% t"ese !lants "as!ersisted %ro$ !re5conuest ti$es. T"e di#ine $us"roo$s are at"ered durin t"e ne( $oon on t"e"illsides be%ore da(n by a #irin3 t"ey are o%ten consecrated on t"e altar o% t"e local Cat"olic c"urc".T"eir strane ro(t" !attern "el!s $a*e $us"roo$s $ysterious and a(eso$e to t"e Ma'atec& ("o callt"e$ ,nti5si5t"o& $eanin )(ors"i!%ul ob+ect t"at s!rins %ort".) T"ey belie#e t"at t"e $us"roo$ s!rinsu! $iraculously and t"at it $ay be sent %ro$ outer real$s on t"underbolts. As one Indian !ut it!oeticallyK )T"e little $us"roo$ co$es o% itsel%& no one *no(s ("ence& li*e t"e (ind t"at co$es (e *no(not ("en or ("y.)T"e all5ni"t Ma'atec cere$ony& led usually by a (o$an s"a$an Gcurandera& co$!rises lon&co$!licated& and curiously re!etitious c"ants& !ercussi#e beats& and !rayers. 7%ten a curin rite ta*es!lace durin ("ic" t"e !ractitioner& t"rou" t"e )!o(er) o% t"e sacred $us"roo$s& co$$unicates andintercedes (it" su!ernatural %orces. T"ere is no uestion o% t"e #ibrant rele#ance o% t"e $us"roo$rituals to $odern Indian li%e in sout"ern Me-ico. None o% t"e attraction o% t"ese di#ine $us"roo$s "asbeen lost as a result o% contact (it" C"ristianity or $odern ideas. T"e s!irit o% re#erence c"aracteristic o%t"e $us"roo$ cere$ony is as !ro%ound as t"at o% any o% t"e (orld,s reat reliions.

Curandera (it" Ma'atec !atient and dis" o% sacred $us"roo$s. Scene is ty!ical o% t"e all5ni"t$us"roo$ cere$ony. Curandera is under t"e in%luence o% t"e $us"roo$s.

KINDS OF MUSHROOMS USEDby di%%erent s"a$ans are deter$ined !artly by !ersonal !re%erence and!artly by t"e !ur!ose o% t"e use. Seasonal und reional a#ailability also "a#e a bearin on t"e c"oice.Stropharia cubensisand Psilocybe me$icana$ay be t"e $ost co$$only e$!loyed& but "al% a do'enot"er s!ecies o% Psilocybeas (ell as!onocybe siliginoides and Panaeolus sphinctrinusare alsoi$!ortant. T"e nati#e na$es are color%ul and so$eti$es sini%icant.. Psilocybe a/tecorumis called)c"ildren o% t"e (aters)3 P. /apotecorum& )cro(n5o%5t"orns $us"roo$)3 and P. caerulescens#ar. nigripes&)$us"roo$ o% su!erior reason.) GSee illustrations on !!. ??5?


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THE EFFECTS OF THE MUSHROOMS include $uscular rela-ation or li$!ness& !u!il enlare$ent&"ilarity& and di%%iculty in concentration. T"e $us"roo$s cause bot" #isual and auditory "allucinations.Visions are breat"ta*inly li%eli*e& in color& and in constant $otion. T"ey are %ollo(ed by lassitude& $entaland !"ysical de!ression& and alteration o% ti$e and s!oce !erce!tion. T"e user see$s to be isolated %ro$t"e (orld around "i$3 (it"out loss o% consciousness& "e beco$es ("olly indi%%erent to "is surroundins&and "is drea$li*e state beco$es reality to "i$. T"is !eculiarity o% t"e into-ication $a*es it interestin to!syc"iatrists.7ne in#estiator ("o ate $us"roo$s in a Me-ican Indian cere$ony (rote t"at )your body lies in t"edar*ness& "ea#y as lead& but your s!irit see$s to soar . . . and (it" t"e s!eed o% t"ou"t to tra#el ("ereit listet"& in ti$e and s!ace& acco$!anied by t"e s"a$an,s sinin . . . W"at you are seein and . . ."earin a!!ear as one3 t"e $usic assu$es "ar$onious s"a!es& i#in #isual %or$ to its "ar$onies& and

("at you are seein ta*es on t"e $odalities o% $usicJt"e $usic o% t"e s!"eres.)All your senses are si$ilarly a%%ected3 t"e ciarette . . . s$ells as no ciarette be%ore "ad e#er s$elled3

t"e lass o% si$!le (ater is in%initely better t"an c"a$!ane . . . t"e be$us"roo$ed !erson is !oised ins!ace& a dise$bodied eye& in#isible& incor!oreal& seein but not seen . . . "e is t"e %i#e sensesdise$bodied . . . your soul is %ree& loses all sense o% ti$e& alert as it ne#er (as be%ore& li#in an eternity ina ni"t& seein in%inity in a rain o% sand . . . GT"e #isions $ay be o% al$ost anyt"in . . . e-ce!t t"escenes o% your e#eryday li%e.) As (it" ot"er "allucinoens& t"e e%%ects o% t"e $us"roo$s $ay #ary (it"$ood and settin.

A scientist,s descri!tion o% "is e-!erience a%ter eatin B> dried s!eci$ens o% silocybe $e-icana (as as%ollo(sK ). . . W"en t"e doctor su!er#isin t"e e-!eri$ent bent o#er $e . . . "e (as trans%or$ed into an

A'tec !riest& and I (ould not "a#e been astonis"ed i% "e "ad dra(n an obsidian *ni%e . . . it a$used $e tosee "o( t"e 6er$anic %ace . . . "ad acuired a !urely Indian e-!ression. At t"e !ea* o% t"e into-ication . .. t"e rus" o% interior !ictures& $ostly abstract $oti%s ra!idly c"anin in s"a!e and color& reac"ed suc"an alar$in deree t"at I %eared t"at I (ould be torn into t"is ("irl!ool o% %or$ and color and (oulddissol#e. A%ter about si- "ours& t"e drea$ ca$e to an end . . . I %elt $y return to e#eryday reality to be a"a!!y return %ro$ a strane& %antastic but uite really e-!erienced (orld into an old and %a$iliar "o$e.)

CHEMICAL CONSTITUTIONo% t"e "allucinoenic $us"roo$s "as sur!rised scientists. A ("itecrystalline try!ta$ine o% unusual structure 5 an acidic !"os!"oric acid ester o% 25"ydro-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ine 5 (as isolated. T"is indole deri#ati#e& na$ed !silocybin& is a ne( ty!e o%structure& a 25substituted try!ta$ine (it" a !"os!"oric acid radical& a ty!e ne#er be%ore *no(n as anaturally occurrin constituent o% !lant tissue. So$e o% t"e $us"roo$s also contain $inute a$ounts o%anot"er indolic co$!ound 5 !silocin 5 ("ic" is unstable. W"ile !silocybin "as been %ound also in Euro!eanand Nort" A$erican $us"roo$s& a!!arently only in Me-ico and 6uate$ala "a#e !silocybin 5 containin$us"roo$s been !ur!ose%ully used %or cere$onial into-ication.

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silocin is belie#ed by so$e bioc"e$ists to be t"e !recursoro% t"e $ore stable !silocybin.

$laboratory culture of +silocybe meicana, grown from spores, an inno"ation that speeded analysis of the ephemeral mushroom.

9$fter Heim E Wasson: -es hampignons Hallucinogens du Mei/ue

CHEMICAL INVESTIGATIONo% t"e Me-ican $us"roo$s (as di%%icult until t"ey could be culti#ated. T"eyare al$ost ("olly (ater and reat uantities o% t"e$ are needed %or c"e$ical analyses because t"eirc"e$ical constitution is so e!"e$eral. T"e clari%ication o% t"e c"e$istry o% t"e Me-ican $us"roo$s (as!ossible only because $ycoloists (ere able to culti#ate t"e !lants in nu$bers su%%icient to satis%y t"eneeds o% t"e c"e$ists. T"is acco$!lis"$ent re!resents a !"ase in t"e study o% "allucinoenic !lants t"at$ust be i$itated in t"e in#estiation o% t"e c"e$istry o% ot"er narcotics. T"e laboratory& in t"is case&beca$e an e%%icient substitute %or nature. 0y !ro#idin suitable conditions& scientists "a#e learned to

ro( $any s!ecies in arti%icial culture.Culti#ation o% edible $us"roo$s is an i$!ortant co$$ercial enter!rise and (as !racticed in /ranceearly in t"e se#enteent" century. Culti#ation %or laboratory studies is a $ore recent de#elo!$ent.

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SWEET FLAGGAcorus calamus& also called s(eet calo$el& ro(s in da$! !laces in t"e nort" and sout"

te$!erate reions. A $e$ber o% t"e aru$ %a$ily& Araceae& it is one o% t(o s!ecies o%Acorus. T"ere isso$e indirect e#idence t"at Indians o% nort"ern Canada& ("o e$!loy t"e !lant as a $edicine and asti$ulant& $ay c"e( t"e rootstoc* as an "allucinoen. In e-cessi#e doses& it is *no(n to induce stron#isual "allucinations. T"e into-icatin !ro!erties $ay be due to a5asorone and 5asarone& but t"ec"e$istry and !"ar$acoloy o% t"e !lant are still !oorly understood.

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Colombian 'ndians using a snuffing tube fashioned from a bird bone.

VIROLASGVirola calophylla& V. colophylloidea& and V. theiodora are a$on t"e $ost recently disco#ered"allucinoenic !lants. T"ese +unle trees o% $ediu$ si'e "a#e lossy& dar* reen lea#es (it" clusters o%tiny yello( %lo(ers t"at e$it a !unent aro$a. T"e into-icatin !rinci!les are in t"e blood5red resinyielded by t"e tree bar*& ("ic" $a*es a !o(er%ul snu%%.

Virolatrees are nati#e to t"e Ne( World tro!ics. T"ey are $e$bers o% t"e nut$e %a$ily&Myristicaceae& ("ic" co$!rises so$e B== s!ecies o% trees in 1@ enera. T"e best *no(n $e$ber o% t"e%a$ily is #yristica fragrans& an Asiatic tree t"at is t"e source o% nut$e and $ace.

In Colo$bia& t"e s!ecies $ost o%ten used %or "allucinoenic !ur!oses are Virola calophyllaand V.calophylloidea& ("ereas in 0ra'il and Vene'uela t"e Indians !re%er V. theiodora& ("ic" see$s to yield a

$ore !otent resin.


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AN INTOXICATING SNUFF is !re!ared %ro$ t"e bar* o% Virolatrees byIndians o% t"e nort"(estern A$a'on and t"e "ead(aters o% t"e 7rinoco.An ant"ro!oloist ("o obser#ed t"e 4e*(ana Indians o% Vene'uela int"eir !re!aration and use o% t"e snu%% in 1= co$$entedK

)7% s!ecial interest are cures& durin ("ic" t"e (itc" doctor in"ales"a*udu%"a. T"is is a $aical snu%% used e-clusi#ely by (itc" doctors and!re!ared %ro$ t"e bar* o% a certain tree ("ic"& !ounded u!& is boiled in as$all eart"en(are !ot& until all t"e (ater "as e#a!orated and a

sedi$ent re$ains at t"e botto$ o% t"e !ot. )T"is sedi$ent is toasted in t"e !ot o#er a sli"t %ire and is t"en %inely!o(dered (it" t"e blade o% a *ni%e. T"en t"e sorcerer blo(s a little o% t"e!o(der t"rou" a reed . . . into t"e air. Ne-t& "e snu%%s& ("ilst& (it" t"esa$e reed& "e absorbs t"e !o(der into eac" nostril successi#ely.

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)T"e "a*udu%"a ob#iously "as a stron sti$ulatin e%%ect& %or i$$ediately t"e (itc" doctor beins tosin and yell (ildly& all t"e ("ile !itc"in t"e u!!er !art o% "is body bac*(ards and %or(ards.)

Stri! o% bar* %ro$ Virolatree& s"o(in oo'in resin.

A$on nu$erous tribes in eastern Colo$bia& t"e use o% Virolasnu%%& o%ten called ya*ee or !arica& isrestricted to s"a$ans. A$on t"e Wai* or 4anona$o tribes o% t"e %rontier reion o% 0ra'il andVene'uela& e!ena or nya*(ana& as t"e snu%% is called& is not restricted to $edicine $en& but $ay besnu%%ed cere$onially by all adult $ales or e#en ta*en occasionally (it"out any ritual basis by $enindi#idually. T"e $edicine $en o% t"ese tribes ta*e t"e snu%% to induce a trance t"at is belie#ed to aid

t"e$ in dianosin and treatin illness.Alt"ou" t"e use o% t"e snu%% a$on t"e Indians o% Sout" A$erica "ad been described earlier& itssource (as not de%initely identi%ied as t"e Virolatree until 1;2.

WaikF 'ndian scraping Girola resin into pot, preparatory to cooking it.

PREPARATION OF VIROLA SNUFF#aries a$on di%%erent Indians. So$e scra!e t"e so%t inner layer o%t"e bar* and dry t"e s"a#ins ently o#er a %ire. T"e s"a#ins are stored %or later use. W"en t"e snu%% isneeded& t"e s"a#ins are !ul#eri'ed by !oundin (it" a !estle in a $ortar $ade %ro$ t"e %ruit case o%t"e 0ra'il5 nut tree. T"e resultin !o(der is si%ted to a %ine& !unent bro(n dust. To t"is $ay be addedt"e !o(dered lea#es o% a s$all& s(eet5scented (eed&-usticia& and t"e as"es o% a$asita& t"e bar* o% abeauti%ul tree& Eli/abetha princeps. T"e snu%% is t"en ready %or use.

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@ried usticio lea"es are ground before being added to snuff

7t"er Indians %ell t"e tree& stri! o%% and ently "eat t"e bar*& collect t"e resin in an eart"en(are !ot&boil it do(n to a t"ic* !aste& sun5dry t"e !aste& crus" it (it" a stone& and si%t it. As"es o% se#eral bar*sand t"e lea% !o(der o%-usticia$ay or $ay not be added.

Still ot"er Indians *nead t"e inner s"a#ins o% %res"ly stri!!ed bar* to suee'e out all t"e resin andt"en boil do(n t"e resin to et a t"ic* !aste t"at is sun5dried and !re!ared into snu%% (it" as"es added.

T"e sa$e resin& a!!lied directly to arro("eads and conealed in s$o*e& is one o% t"e Wai*a arro(!oisons. W"en su!!lies o% snu%% are used u! in cere$onies& t"e Indians o%ten scra!e t"e "ardened resin%ro$ arro( ti!s to use it as a substitute. It see$s to be as !otent as t"e snu%% itsel%.

Waika 'ndian si#ing ground ustica lea"es to make fine powderfor additi"e to Girola snuff.

A SNUFF-TAKING CEREMONYis conducted annually by $any Wai* tribes to $e$oriali'e t"ose ("o"a#e died t"e !re#ious year. Endocannibalis$ co$!rises !art o% t"e rite3 t"e as"es o% calcined bones o%t"e de!arted are $i-ed into a %er$ented banana drin* and are s(allo(ed (it" t"e be#erae.

T"e cere$ony ta*es !lace in a lare round "ouse. /ollo(in initial c"antin by a $aster o% cere$ony&t"e $en and older boys %or$ rou!s and blo( "ue a$ounts o% snu%% t"rou" lon tubes into eac"

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ot"er,s nostrils G!.


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'ai!0 $ndian holding poison darts in smo!y fire to congeal 1irola resin, applied by dipping or spreading #ith fingers.

MASHA-HARIG-usticia pectoralis#ar. stenophylla is a s$all "erb culti#ated by t"e Wai* Indians o% t"e0ra'ilian5 Vene'uelan %rontier reion. T"e aro$atic lea#es are occasionally dried& !o(dered& and $i-ed(it" t"e "allucinoenic snu%% $ade %ro$ resin o% t"e Virolatree. 7t"er s!ecies o%-usticia"a#e beenre!orted to be e$!loyed in t"at reion as t"e sole source o% a narcotic snu%%.

Hallucinoenic constituents "a#e not yet been %ound in-usticia& but i% any s!ecies o% t"e enus isutili'ed as t"e only inredient o% an into-icatin snu%%& t"en one or $ore acti#e constituents $ust be!resent. T"e B== s!ecies o%-usticia& $e$bers o% t"e acant"us %a$ily& Acant"aceae& ro( in t"e tro!icsand subtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

JUREMAG#imosa hostilis is a !oorly understood s"rub& t"e roots o% ("ic" !ro#ide t"e )$iraculous+ure$a drin*&) *no(n in eastern 0ra'il as a+uca or #in"o de +ure$a. 7t"er s!ecies o% #imosaare alsolocally called +ure$a. Se#eral tribes in erna$bucoJt"e 9ariri& an*arur& Tus"a& and /ulnio 5 consu$e

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t"e be#erae in cere$onies. Usually connected (it" (ar%are& t"e "allucinoen (as used by no( e-tincttribes o% t"e area to )!ass t"e ni"t na#iatin t"rou" t"e de!t"s o% slu$ber) +ust !rior to sallyin %ort"to (ar. T"ey (ould see )lorious #isions o% t"e s!irit land . . . Gor catc" a li$!se o% t"e clas"in roc*st"at destroy souls o% t"e dead +ourneyin to t"eir oal or see t"e T"underbird s"ootin li"tnin %ro$ a"ue tu%t on "is "ead and !roducin cla!s o% t"under . . .) it a!!ears& "o(e#er& t"at t"e "allucinoenicuse o% #. hostilis"as nearly disa!!eared in recent ti$es.

Little is *no(n about t"e "allucinoenic !ro!erties o% t"is !lant& ("ic" (as disco#ered $ore t"an 1;=years ao. Early c"e$ical studies indicated an acti#e al*aloid i#en t"e na$e nierine but later s"o(n tobe identical (it" N. N5di$et"yltry!"$ine. Since t"e try!ta$ines are not acti#e ("en ta*en orally unlessin t"e !resence o% a $onoa$ine o-idase in"ibitor& it is ob#ious t"at t"e +ure$a drin* $ust containinredients ot"er t"an #. hostilisor t"at t"e !lant itsel% $ust contain an in"ibitor in its tissues.

T"e enus #imosa& closely allied toAcacia andAnadenanthera& co$!rises so$e ;== s!ecies o% tro!icaland subtro!ical "erbs and s$all s"rubs. T"e $i$osas belon to t"e sub%a$ily Mi$osoideae o% t"e bean%a$ily& Leu$inosae. Most o% t"e$ are A$erican& alt"ou" so$e occur in A%rica and Asia. ure$a isnati#e only to t"e dry reions o% eastern 0ra'il.

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YOPOorPARICAGAnadenanthera peregrinaor Piptadenia peregrina is a Sout" A$erican tree o% t"ebean %a$ily& Leu$inosae. A !otent "allucinoenic snu%% is !re!ared %ro$ t"e seeds o% t"is tree. T"esnu%%& no( used $ainly in t"e 7rinoco basin& (as %irst re!orted %ro$ His!aniola in 12?& ("ere t"e TainoIndians called it co"oba. Its use& ("ic" "as died out in t"e West Indies& (as undoubtedly introduced tot"e Caribbean area by Indian in#aders %ro$ Sout" A$erica.

T"e "allucinoenic !rinci!les %ound inA. peregrinaseeds include N. N5di$et"yltry!ta$ine& N5$ono$et"yltry!"$ine& ;5$et"o-ydi$et"yltry!ta$ine& and se#eral related bases. 0u%otenine& also!resent inA. peregrina seeds& a!!arently is not "allucinoenic. Elucidation o% t"e c"e$ical $a*e5u! o%t"e seeds o% t"e yo!o tree "as only recently been acco$!lis"ed. /uture studies $ay increase our*no(lede o% t"e acti#e !rinci!le o% t"ese seeds.

THE PREPARATION OF YOPO SNUFF#aries so$e("at %ro$ tribe to tribe. T"e !ods& ("ic" are borne!ro%usely on t"e yo!o tree& are %lat and dee!ly constricted bet(een eac" seed. 6ray5blac* ("en ri!e& t"eseed !ods brea* o!en& e-!osin %ro$ t"ree to about ten %lat seeds& or beans. T"ese are at"ered durinanuary and /ebruary& usually in lare uantities and o%ten cere$onially. T"ey are %irst sli"tly $oistenedand rolled into a !aste& ("ic" is t"en roasted ently o#er a slo( %ire until it is dried out and toasted.So$eti$es t"e beans are allo(ed to %er$ent be%ore bein rolled into a !aste. A%ter t"e toastin& t"e"ardened !aste $ay be stored %or later use. So$e Indians toast t"e beans and crus" t"e$ (it"out$oldin t"e$ into a !aste& rindin t"e$ usually on an ornate slab o% "ard(ood $ade es!ecially %or t"e!ur!ose.

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Se#eral early e-!lorers described t"e !rocess. In 1@=1 Ale-ander #on Hu$boldt& t"e 6er$an naturalistand e-!lorer& detailed t"e !re!aration o% yo!o by t"e Mai!ures o% t"e 7rinoco. In 1@;1& Ric"ard S!ruce&an Enlis" e-!lorer& #isited t"e 6ua"ibos& anot"er tribe o% t"e 7rinoco& and (roteK ) in !re!arin t"esnu%%& t"e roasted seeds o% nio!o are !laced in a s"allo( (ooden !latter t"at is "eld on t"e *nee by

$eans o% a broad "andle ras!ed %ir$ly (it" t"e le%t "and3 t"en crus"ed by a s$all !estle o% t"e "ard(ood o% !ao d,arco . . . ("ic" is "eld bet(een t"e %iners and t"u$b o% t"e ri"t "and.)T"e resultin rayis"5reen !o(der is al$ost al(ays $i-ed (it" about eual a$ounts o% so$e al*aline

substance& ("ic" $ay be li$e %ro$ snail s"ells or t"e as"es o% !lant $aterial. A!!arently& t"e as"es are$ade %ro$ a reat #ariety o% !lant $aterialsK t"e burned %ruit o% t"e $on*ey !ot& t"e bar* o% $anydi%%erent #ines and trees& and e#en t"e roots o% sedes. T"e addition o% t"e as"es !robably ser#es a$erely $ec"anical !ur!oseK to *ee! t"e snu%% %ro$ ca*in in t"e "u$id cli$ate.

T"e addition o% li$e or as"es to narcotic or sti$ulant !re!arations is a #ery (ides!read custo$ in bot""e$is!"eres. T"ey are o%ten added to betel c"e(& !ituri& tobacco& e!ena snu%%& coca& etc. In t"e case o%yo!o snu%%& t"e al*aline ad$i-ture see$s not to be essential. So$e Indians& suc" as t"e 6ua"ibos& $ayoccasionally ta*e t"e !o(der alone. T"e e-!lorer Ale-ander #on Hu$boldt& ("o encountered t"e use o%yo!o in t"e 7rinoco 1


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4o!o snu%% is in"aled t"rou" "ollo( bird5bone or ba$boo tubes. T"e e%%ects bein al$ost i$$ediatelyK

a t(itc"in o% t"e $uscles& sli"t con#ulsions& and lac* o% $uscular coordination& %ollo(ed by nauseaisual "allucinations& and disturbed slee!. An abnor$al e-aeration o% t"e si'e o% ob+ects G$ocro!sia isco$$on. In an early descri!tion& t"e Indians say t"at t"eir "ouses see$ to ). . . be turned u!side do(nand t"at $en are (al*in on t"eir %eet in t"e air'3

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$ yopo tree 9Anadenanthera peregrina in $ma#onian ra#il.The seeds of this tree are the source of a potent hallucinogenic snuff.

outh $merican 'ndians of the upper )rinoco region in characteristic gesticulating postures while under the influence of yopo snuff.

VILCAand SEBILare snu%%s belie#ed to "a#e been !re!ared in t"e !ast %ro$ t"e beans o%Anadenanthera colubrinaand its #ariety c2bilin central and sout"ern Sout" A$erica& ("ereA. peregrinedoes not occur.A. colubrinaseeds are *no(n to !ossess t"e sa$e "allucinoenic !rinci!les asA.peregrinaGsee !. @?.

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An early eru#ian re!ort& dated about 1; tribes o% Indians in nort"ern Me-ico& Ne( Me-ico& and Te-as !racticed t"e

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#ision5see*in Red 0ean Dance centered around t"e inestion o% a drin* !re!ared %ro$ t"ese seeds.9no(n also as t"e Wic"ita& Deer& or W"istle Dance& t"e cere$ony utili'ed t"e beans as an oracular&di#inatory& and "ollucinoenic $ediu$.

0ecause t"e red bean drin* (as "i"ly to-ic& o%ten resultin in deat" %ro$ o#erdoses& t"e arri#al o% a$ore s!ectacular and sa%er "allucinoen in t"e %or$ o% t"e !eyote cactus Gsee !. 11 2 led t"e nati#es toabandon t"e Red 0ean Dance. Sacred ele$ents do not o%ten disa!!ear co$!letely %ro$ a culture3 todayt"e seeds are used as an adorn$ent on t"e uni%or$ o% t"e leader o% t"e !eyote cere$ony.

An early S!anis" e-!lorer $entioned $escal beans as an article o% trade in Te-as in 1;B. Mescalbeans "a#e been %ound at sites datin be%ore A.D. 1===& (it" one site datin boc* to 1;== 0.C.Arc"aeoloical e#idence t"us !oints to t"e e-istence o% a !re"istoric cult or cere$ony t"at used t"e redbeans.

T"e al*aloid cytisine is !resent in t"e beans. It causes nausea& con#ulsions& and deat" %ro$as!"y-iation t"rou" its de!ressi#e action on t"e dia!"ra$.

T"e $escal bean is a $e$ber o% t"e bean %a$ily& Leu$inosae. So!"ora co$!rises about ;= s!eciest"at are nati#e to tro!ical and (ar$ !arts o% bot" "e$is!"eres. 7ne s!ecies& S. 3aponica& is $edicinallyi$!ortant as a ood source o% rutin& used in $odern $edicine %or treatin ca!illary %raility.

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COLORINESGse#eral s!ecies o% Erythrina $oy be used as "allucinoens in so$e !arts o% Me-ico. T"ebri"t red beans o% t"ese !lants rese$ble $escal becans Gsee !. 2& lon used as a narcotic in nort"ernMe-ico and in t"e A$erican Sout"(est. 0ot" beans are so$eti$es sold $i-ed toet"er in "erb $ar*ets&and t"e $escal bean !lant is so$eti$es called by t"e sa$e co$$on na$e& colorin.

So$e s!ecies o% Erythrinacontain al*aloids o% t"e isouinoline ty!e& ("ic" elicit acti#ity rese$blint"at o% curare or arro( !oisons& but no al*aloids *no(n to !ossess "allucinoenic !ro!erties "a#e yetbeen %ound in t"ese seeds.

So$e ;= s!ecies o% Erythrina& $e$bers o% t"e bean %a$ily& Leu$inasce& ro( in t"e tro!ics andsubtro!ics o% bot" "e$is!"eres.

PIULEGse#eral s!ecies o% 4hynchosia "a#e beauti%ul red and blac* seeds t"at $ay "a#e been #alued asa narcotic by ancient Me-icans. W"at a!!ear to be t"ese seeds "a#e been !ictured& toet"er (it"$us"roo$s& %allin %ro$ t"e "and o% t"e A'tec rain od in t"e Te!antitla %resco o% A.D. B==52== Gsee !.;& suestin "allucinoenic use. Modern Indians in sout"ern Me-ico re%er to t"e$ as !iule& one o% t"ena$es also a!!lied to t"e "allucinoenic $ornin5lory seeds. Seeds o% so$e s!ecies o% 4hynchosia"a#e i#en !ositi#e al*aloid tests& but t"e to-ic !rinci!les "o#e still not been c"aracteri'ed. So$e B==s!ecies o% 4hynchosia& belonin to t"e bean %a$ily& Leu$inosae& are *no(n %ro$ t"e tro!ics andsubtro!ics. T"e seeds o% so$e s!ecies are i$!ortant in %ol* $edicine in se#eral countries.

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EARLIEST PUBLISHED REPORTSo% aya"uasca date %ro$ 1@;@ but in 1@;1 Ric"ard S!ruce& an Enlis"e-!lorer& "ad disco#ered t"e !lant %ro$ ("ic" t"e into-icatin drin* (as $ade and described it as a ne(s!ecies. S!ruce also re!orted t"at t"e 6ua"ibos alon t"e 7rinoco Ri#er in Vene'uela c"e(ed t"e driedste$ %or its e%%ects instead o% !re!arin a drin* %ro$ t"e bar*. S!ruce collected %lo(erin $aterial andalso ste$s %or c"e$ical study. Interestinly& t"ese ste$s (ere not analy'ed until 1?& but e#en a%ter$ore t"an a century& t"ey a#e results G!. 1=B indicatin t"e !resence o% al*aloids.

In t"e years since S!ruce,s disco#ery& $any e-!lorers and tra#elers ("o !assed t"rou" t"e (esternA$a'on reion (rote about t"e dru. It is (idely *no(n in t"e A$a'on but t"e ("ole story o% t"is !lant isyet to be unra#eled. So$e (riters "a#e e#en con%used aya"uasca (it" co$!letely di%%erent narcotic!lants.

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Colorado 'ndian from *cuador rasping the bark of anisteriopsis - a step in preparation of the narcotic ayahuasca drink.

The ceremonial "essel used in the ayahuasca ritualis always hung by the 'ndians under the ea"es at the right side of a house.

$lthough occasionally redecorated, it is ne"er washed.

EFFECTSo% drin*in aya"uasca rane %ro$ a !leasant into-ication (it" no "ano#er to #iolent reactions(it" sic*enin a%ter 5 e%%ects. Usually t"ere are #isual "allucinations in color. In e-cessi#e doses& t"e drubrins on ni"t$aris" #isions and a %eelin o% rec*less abandon. Consciousness is usually not lost& nor ist"ere i$!air$ent o% t"e use o% t"e li$bs. In %act& dancin is a $a+or !art o% t"e aya"uasca cere$ony in

so$e tribes. T"e into-ication ends (it" a dee! slee! and drea$s.An aya"uasca into-ication is di%%icult to describe. T"e e%%ect o% t"e acti#e !rinci!les #aries %ro$ !erson

to !erson. In addition& !re!aration o% t"e drin* #aries %ro$ one reion to anot"er& and #arious !lantadditi#es $ay also alter t"e e%%ects.

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Chemical formulas of 2anisteriopis caapiand 2.inebriansalkaloids.'ndole nucleus is shown in red.

PLANTS ADDED TO AYAHUASCAby so$e Indians in t"e !re!aration o% t"e "allucinoenic drin* area$a'inly di#erse and include e#en %erns. Se#eral are no( *no(n to be acti#e t"e$sel#es and to alter

e%%ecti#ely t"e !ro!erties o% t"e basic drin*. A$on t"ese are Datura suaveolensG!. 12; and a s!ecieso% BrunfelsiaG!. 12=Jbot" $e$bers o% t"e ni"ts"ade %a$ily& Solanaceae& and bot" containin acti#e!rinci!les.

T(o additi#es& e$!loyed o#er a (ide area by $any tribes& are es!ecially sini%icant. T"e lea#es Gbutnot t"e bar* o% a t"ird s!ecies o% Banisteriopsis % B. rusbyana5 are o%ten added to t"e !re!aration )tolent"en and bri"ten t"e #isions.) Called oco5ya+ in t"e (estern$ost A$a'on reion o% Colo$bia andEcuador& t"e liana is culti#ated %or t"is !ur!ose& alon (it" B. caapi and B. inebrians.

7#er a $uc" (ider area& includin A$a'onian 0ra'il& Colo$bia& Ecuador& and eru& t"e lea#es o%se#eral s!ecies o% Psychotria % es!ecially P. viridis % are added. T"is >=5%oot %orest treelet belons to t"eco%%ee %a$ily& Rubioceae. Li*e B. rusbyana& it "as been %ound recently to contain t"e stronly"allucinoenic N. N5di$et"yltry!ta$ine.

(, (-@imethyltryptamine 9@>T

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ANOTHER KIND OF CAAPIis !re!ared %ro$ &etrapteris methistica& a %orest #ine also belonin to t"e%a$ily Mal!i"ioceae. 7ne rou! o% Ma*u Indians o% t"e nort"(estern$ost !art o% t"e 0ra'ilian A$a'on!re!ares a cold5(ater drin* %ro$ t"e bar*. T"ere is no ot"er !lant inredient. T"e drin* is #ery bitter and"as an unusual yello( "ue. T"is $ay be t"e ) second *ind) o% caa!i $entioned by se#eral e-!lorers ascaa!i5!ini$a& $eanin )!ainted caa!i.)

Alt"ou" &. methystica!roduces e%%ects identical (it" t"ose o% Banisteriopsis caapi& (e still *no(not"in o% its c"e$istry. Ho(e#er& it is closely related to 0anisterio!sis and t"ere is e#ery !robability t"atsi$ilar or identical al*aloids are !resent.

T"ere are = s!ecies o% &etrapteris5 #ines and s$all trees %ound t"rou"out t"e "u$id A$ericantro!ics.

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SHANSHIG!oriaria thymifolia is a (ides!read Andean s"rub lon reconi'ed as #ery !oisonous tocattle. It "as recently been re!orted as one o% t"e !lants used as an "allucinoen by !easants in Ecuador.

S"ans"i is t"eir na$e %or t"e !lant. T"e %ruits are eaten %or t"eir into-icatin e%%ects& ("ic" include t"esensation o% %li"t. T"e (eird e%%ects are due !ossibly to an unidenti%ied lycoside& but t"e c"e$istry o%t"is s!ecies is still !oorly understood. S"ans"i is one o% 1; s!ecies o%!oriaria& $ost o% ("ic" are s"rubs.T"ey are %ound in t"e $ountains %ro$ Me-ico to C"ile& %ro$ t"e Mediterranean area east(ard to a!an&and also in Ne( Fealand. !orioriais t"e only *no(n enus in t"e %a$ily& Corioriaceae.

SINICUICHIGHeimia salicifolia is a !oorly understood but %ascinatin auditory "allucincoen o% centralMe-ico. Its lea#es& sli"tly (ilted& are crus"ed and soa*ed in (ater. T"e resultin +uice is !ut in t"e sun to

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SAN PEDROG&richocerous pachanoi is a lare colu$nar cactus (idely culti#ated as a "allucinoen int"e Andes o% eru& Ecuador& and 0oli#ia. T"e nati#es& ("o also call it auacolla& or ianton& reconi'ese#eral )*inds&) ("ic" di%%er $ainly in t"e nu$ber o% ribs& t"e $ost co$$on ty!e "a#in se#en. T"iscactus is so$eti$es !lanted alon %ields as a %ence ro( to *ee! s"ee! and cattle %ro$ ra'in.

An into-icatin drin* called ci$ora is $ade %ro$ t"e San !edro cactus. S"ort lent"s o% t"e ste$& o%tensold in nati#e $ar*ets& are sliced li*e loa#es o% bread and t"en boiled in (ater %or se#eral "ours&so$eti$es (it" su!erstitious ob+ects suc" as ce$etary dust and !o(dered bones.

Alt"ou" ci$ora is o%ten $ade %ro$ San edro alone& se#eral %ield researc"ers indicate t"at a #ariety o%ot"er !lants $ay so$eti$es be added to t"e bre(. T"ese include t"e cactus 1eoraimondia macrostibas&an Andean s!ecies t"e c"e$istry o% ("ic" "as not yet been deter$ined3 t"e s"rub Pedilanthustithymaloideso% t"e castor oil %a$ily3 and t"e ca$!anulaceous 5sotoma longiflora. All t"ese !lants $ay"a#e biodyna$ic constituents. 7n occasion& ot"er $ore ob#iously !otent !lants are added 5 Datura& %ore-a$!le.

7nly recently "a#e researc"ers beco$e a(are o% t"e i$!ortance o% t"e )secondary) !lant inredientso%ten e$!loyed by !ri$iti#e societies. T"e %act t"at $escaline occurs in t"e San edro cactus does not$ean t"at t"e drin* !re!ared %ro$ it $ay not be altered by t"e addition o% ot"er !lants& alt"ou" t"esini%icance o% t"e additi#es in c"anin t"e "allucinoenic e%%ects o% t"e bre( is still not %ullyunderstood.

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Ci$ora is t"e basis o% a %ol* "ealin cere$ony t"at co$bines ancient indienous ritual (it" i$!ortedC"ristian ele$ents. An obser#er "as described t"e !lant as )t"e catalyst t"at acti#ates all t"e co$!le-%orces at (or* in a %ol* "ealin session& es!ecially t"e #isionary and di#initory !o(ers) o% t"e nati#e

$edicine $an. 0ut t"e !o(ers o% San edro are su!!osed to e-tend beyond $edicine3 it is said to uard"ouses li*e a do& "a#in t"e ability to ("istle in suc" uneart"ly %as"ion t"at intruders %lee in terror.

Alt"ou" San edro is not closely related botanically to !eyote& t"e sa$e al*aloid& $escaline& isres!onsible %or t"e #isual "allucinations caused by bot". Mescaline "as been isolated not only %ro$ Sanedro but %ro$ anot"er s!ecies o% &richocereus. C"e$ical studies o% &richocereusare #ery recent& andt"ere%ore it is !ossible t"at additional al*aloids $ay yet be %ound in &. pachanoi.

&richocereusco$!rises about 2= s!ecies o% colu$nar cacti t"ot ro( in subtro!ical and te$!erate!arts o% t"e Andes.

T"ere is no reason to su!!ose t"at t"e use o% t"e San edro cactus in "allucinoenic and di#inatoryrituals does not "a#e a lon "istory. We $ust reconi'e& certainly t"at t"e $odern use "as been a%%ectedreatly by C"ristian in%luences. T"ese in%luences are e#ident e#en in t"e na$in o% t"e cactus a%ter Sainteter& !ossibly ste$$in %ro$ t"e C"ristian belie% t"at Saint eter "olds t"e *eys to "ea#en. 0ut t"eo#erall conte-t o% t"e ritual and our $odern understandin o% t"e San edro cult& ("ic" is connected

inti$ately (it" $oon $yt"oloy& leads us to belie#e t"at it re!resents an aut"entic a$ala$ o% !aanand C"ristian ele$ents. Its use see$s to be s!readin in eru.

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eyote (as %irst described botanically in 1@2; and called Echinocactus *illiamsii. It "as been i#en$any ot"er tec"nical na$es. T"e one used $ost co$$only by c"e$ists "as beenAnhalonium le*inii.Most botanists no( aree !eyote belons in a distinct enus& "ophophora. T"ere are t(o s!eciesK t"e(ides!read ". *illiamsiiand t"e local ". diffusain Puertaro.

eyote is nati#e to t"e Rio 6rande #alley o% Te-as and nort"ern and central !arts o% t"e Me-ican!lateau. It belons to t"e cactus %a$ily& Cactaceae& co$!risin so$e >&=== s!ecies in ;= to 1;= enera&nati#e !ri$arily to t"e drier !arts o% tro!ical A$erica. Many s!ecies are #alued as "orticultural curiosities&

and so$e "a#e interestin %ol* uses a$on t"e Indians.

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USE OF PEYOTE BY THE AZTECS(as described by S!anis" c"roniclers. 7ne re!orted t"at t"ose ("oate it sa( %ri"t%ul #isions and re$ained drun* %or t(o or t"ree days3 t"at it (as a co$$on %ood o% t"eC"ic"i$eca Indians& )sustainin t"e$ and i#in t"e$ courae to %i"t and not %eel %ear nor "uner nort"irst3 and t"ey say t"at it !rotects t"e$ %ro$ all daner.) In 1;1& anot"er c"ronicler (rote t"at t"enati#es ("o eat it )lose t"eir senses& see #isions o% terri%yin si"ts li*e t"e de#il& and are able to!ro!"esy t"eir %uture (it" ,satanic tric*ery., )

Dr. Hernnde'& t"e !"ysician to t"e 9in o% S!ain& described t"e cactus as Peyotl /acatecensisand(rote o% its )(onder%ul !ro!erties.) He too* note o% its s$all si'e and described it by sayin t"

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