Gold deposits and gold metallogeny of Far East Russia

Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123–151

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Ore Geology Reviews

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Review

Gold deposits and gold metallogeny of Far East Russia

Nikolay A. Goryachev a,⁎, Franco Pirajno b

a North East Interdisciplinary Scientific Research Institute, named afterN.A. Shilo, Far East Branch of the RussianAcademy of Sciences (NEISRI FEB RAS), 16 PortovayaUlitsa,Magadan 685000, Russiab Centre for Exploration Targeting (CET), University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, WA 6009, Australia

⁎ Corresponding author.E-mail address: [email protected] (N.A. Goryachev)

0169-1368/$ – see front matter © 2013 Published by Elsehttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.oregeorev.2013.11.010

a b s t r a c t
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:Received 6 April 2013Received in revised form 29 November 2013Accepted 29 November 2013Available online 26 December 2013

Keywords:Far East RussiaOrogenicIntrusion related and epithermal gold depositsGold metallogeny and tectonics

The Russian Far East or Far East Russia (FER) is host to a huge gold endowment and has produced more than6500 t of gold, since the 1860s. Much of this gold has come from several mining districts: Aldan, Upper Amur,Lower Amur, Okhotsk, Allakh-Yun, Yana-Kolyma, Priokhotie, Omolon, and Chukotka. These districts include sev-eral gold deposits, mostly of orogenic and epithermal nature, as well as large and very large alluvial placer de-posits. The main gold districts are of Late Mesozoic age, but there are also three districts (Aldan, Omolon, andsouthern Primorie) with pre-Mesozoic gold ores and three districts (Kamchatka, Sakhalin–South Kurile, andLower Amur) with gold ores of Cenozoic age. This review paper attempts to marshal on the regional scale allavailable data aiming to provide a framework for generating and testing new ideas on the gold deposits of FER.The focus is on: (1) gold metallogeny, (2) details of key gold deposits, and (3) relationship between gold oreforming processes, metamorphic processes and granitoid intrusions in different geodynamic settings. The largestgold metallogenic belts in FER were formed in the late Mesozoic, namely: in the Late Jurassic (Yana-Kolyma),Early Cretaceous (eastern flank of Mongol–Okhotsk, Aldan, Oloy–Chukotka, Okhotsk–Koryak) and Late Creta-ceous (Sikhote-Alin).The Mesozoic era was also the time when most of the gold-hosting orogens were formed. Paleozoic, Mesozoicand Cenozoic orogens resulted from the interaction between the Pacific oceanic plates with the Siberian cratonand the North China craton. These orogens are products of diverse geodynamic settings and can be dividedinto four types: (1) collisional (e.g., Yana-Kolyma), (2) accretionary or uncompleted collisional (e.g., Okhotsk–Koryak or Kamchatka), (3) combined collisional and transformmargin (Mongol–Okhotsk), and (4) active trans-form margin (Sikhote-Alin). The first two types are typical of North East Russia, whereas the third and fourthtypes are in the southern part of FER. The Late Cretaceous Okhotsk–Chukotka and East Sikhote-Alin gold prov-inces are associated with continental margin magmatic arcs and are post-accretionary (post-orogenic).Comparison of lode gold deposits from different geodynamic settings reveals specific features in metallogeny ofthe late Mesozoic orogens at the southern and eastern margins of the Siberian craton (Yana-Kolyma collisionalorogen, Okhotsk–Koryak accretionary orogen and Mongol–Okhotsk transform margin orogen). These orogenspossess different metal associations. The Yana-Kolyma belt contains Au, Sn, W, and Cu–Pb–Zn lode deposits.The Late Jurassic Transbaikalian sector of the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen contains Au, Mo, Pb–Zn, Sn, Ta–Nb, W,Hg–Sb lode deposits, whereas Early Cretaceous Au, Cu–Mo, Hg–Sb lode deposits are present in the Amur sector.Finally, theOkhotsk–Koryak orogen hosts Au, Cu–Mo, Cu–W–Bi, Ag–Co–Bi–As, and Be–Sn–Li–Wdeposits of EarlyCretaceous age.Epithermal gold deposits occur in two different geodynamic settings: (1) island arcs (Kamchatka, Kurile islands)and magmatic belts at active continental margins (Omolon, Okhotsk–Chukotka and Eastern Sikhote-Alin), and(2) rift-relatedmagmatism, linkedwith orogenic events and strike-slip kinematics, such as transform-like conti-nental margin settings (Aldan and Upper Amur in the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen). Mineralogic–geochemical andisotope systematics indicate a metamorphic–magmatic origin of hydrothermal–plutonic systems in collisionalsettings (Yana-Kolyma, Okhotsk–Koryak, and Oloy–Chukotka orogens) and active continental margin(Okhotsk–Chukotka and East Sikhote-Alin) settings, with source contributions from the lower crust and mantle.The Mongol–Okhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens are of transform fault-related origin and suggest a source of theore-forming fluids mostly from the mantle.

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Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1242. A brief history of gold mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1243. Tectonic framework of Far East Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

3.1. Arctic (Oloy–Chukotka) orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263.2. Yana-Kolyma orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263.3. Okhotsk–Koryak orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263.4. Mongol–Okhotsk orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263.5. Sikhote-Alin–West Sakhalin orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273.6. East Sakhalin–Kamchatka–Kurile orogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1273.7. Uda-Murgal continental margin magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.8. Okhotsk–Chukotka continent margin arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.9. East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1283.10. Kamchatka–Kurile magmatic arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

4. Gold ore deposit styles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284.1. Sediment-hosted auriferous sulfides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1284.2. Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted gold–quartz veins and stockworks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1294.3. Intrusion (granitoid)-related Au lode type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1334.4. Au–Ag epithermal deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1344.5. Au–Sb–Hg lode deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

5. Gold metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395.1. Gold mineralization of pre-Mesozoic metallogenic epochs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395.2. Late Mesozoic gold metallogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395.3. Cenozoic gold metallogenic belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

6. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.1. Orogenic gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

6.1.1. Tectonic settings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1426.1.2. Fluid inclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144

6.2. Epithermal gold deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446.3. Lead isotope systematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1446.4. Genetic model for the orogenic gold deposits of Far East Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

6.4.1. Geodynamic and metallogenic styles of orogenic belts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148

1. Introduction

Far East Russia (FER) has a huge gold endownment, distributed be-tween several metallogenic provinces, and has produced more than6500 t of gold since the 1860 s, contributing to Russia's standing asthe 4th largest gold producer in 2012, after China, Australia and theUSA (USGS Mineral Commodity Summary, 2013). Much of this goldhas come from several mining districts: Aldan, Upper Amur, LowerAmur, Okhotsk, Allakh-Yun, Yana-Kolyma, Priokhotie, Omolon,Chukotka, South Primorie, Kamchatka and some additional smallerdistricts (Fig. 1; Table 1). These districts include numerous lode golddeposits mostly of orogenic and epithermal nature, as well as largeand very large alluvial placers.

In terms of ore ranking, we distinguish the following units (fromlarger to smaller): ore province – ore belt (if linear)/area (if isometric) –ore district – ore deposit. The main gold provinces are of late Meso-zoic age, but the three provinces (Aldan, Omolon, and part of theSouthwestern Primorie) contain pre-Mesozoic gold ores, and threedistricts (Kamchatka, Sakhalin–Kurile, and East Sikhote-Alin) havegold ores of Cenozoic age.

These deposits have been investigated by researchers, explorers, andminers, and reports have been published in Russian language papersand books (Amuzinsky, 2005; Amuzinsky et al., 1988; Anert, 1929;Bilibin, 1937; Buryak, 2003; Eirish, 2002, 2003; Firsov, 1985;Gamyanin, 2001; Goncharov, 1983; Khanchuk, 2006; Khomich et al.,1991; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996; Nekrasov, 1991; Parfenov andKuzmin, 2001; Rozhkov et al., 1971; Shilo, 1960, 1976, 2002; Sidorov,1966, 1978; Struzhkov and Konstantinov, 2005; Volkov et al., 2006;

and many others). Several geological, genetic, geodynamic, petrologic,exploration models and ideas have been proposed and discussed byprominent Russian geologists (E.E. Anert, Yu.A. Bilibin, N.S. Bortnikov,V.A. Buryak, V.I. Goncharov, V.G. Khomich, V.G. Moiseenko, I.Ya.Nekrasov, V.A. Obruchev, S.V. Obruchev, Yu.S. Rozhkov, N.A. Shilo, A.A.Sidorov, V.A. Stepanov) over a period spanning 150 years. However,English language publications on the gold metallogeny and individualdeposits of FER are not many and mostly deal with deposits in NorthEast Russia (Berger, 1993; Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Goldfarb et al.,1998; Goryachev, 1995; Goryachev and Edwards, 1999; Goryachevand Yakubchuk, 2008; Nokleberg, 2010; Nokleberg et al., 2005;Yakubchuk, 2009).

This paper attempts to marshal on a regional scale all availabledata aiming to provide a framework for generating and testing newmodels on the gold deposits of FER. More specifically, this paperaims to synthesize and reinterpret some of existing geological, geo-chemical and mineralogical data pertaining to FER gold deposits.The focus is on: (1) gold metallogeny, (2) detailing the large and/orkey gold deposits, and (3) relationship between gold ore formingprocesses, metamorphic processes and granitoid intrusions in differentgeodynamic settings.

2. A brief history of gold mining

Gold production in FER commenced in 1868 in several major goldfields in the Amur mining districts, but the first discovery of alluvialgold took place in theOkhotskmining district in 1829 (Anert, 1929). Ini-tial production was from very rich alluvial workings in the Upper and

Table 1Gold production from major gold districts of the Far East Russia.

District Estimated totalproduction, t

Primary gold, t Placers gold, t

Aldan 540 280 260Upper Amur 950 110 840Low Amur 200 55 145Allakh Yun 200 30 170Kular 170 No data 170Yana-Kolyma 3000 250 2750Chukotka andAnadyr–Koryak

800 150 650

Omolon 140 100 40Okhotsk 50 – 50Priokhotie 50 50 No dataSouth Primorie 25 5 20Kamchatka 20 10 10Sakhalin–Kurile 12 No data 12Total 6157 1040 5117

References: Anert, 1929; Khatylaev, 1972; Rudakov, 2003; Stepanov et al., 2008;Benevolsky, 1995; Sukhov et al., 2000 and Goryachev's estimates (unpublished).

125N.A. Goryachev, F. Pirajno / Ore Geology Reviews 59 (2014) 123–151

Lower Amur districts between 1868 and 1871. The first auriferousquartz veins were discovered in the Upper Amur mining district in1889 (Anert, 1929; Stepanov et al., 2008). The first discoveries of goldin Aldan were made in 1899, with a discovery of economically viablegold ores made by M.P. Tarabukin and V.P. Bertin in 1924 (Khatylaev,1972). In Allakh-Yun district, this has happened in 1932; and in theYana-Kolyma district presence of gold was reported in 1914, althoughdiscovery of commercially viable gold in placers was made by Yu.A.Bilibin in 1928. Other districts were discovered in 1851 (Kamchatka),in 1886 (South Primorie), in 1898 (American prospectors in GoldenRange – Eastern Chukotka), in 1937 (Omolon), in 1948 (West-CentralChukotka), and in 1969 (Priokhotie).

The Yana-Kolyma mining district is the largest of the FER primaryproducers, with 3000 t of gold, including 90 t gold extracted from theNatalka mine (Table 1). It is followed by: Upper Amur (950 t, includeshardrock gold from Pokrovskoye mine (about 70 t) and Tokur (30 t);Aldan (500 t, includes Kuranakh area with 250 t); Chukotka (morethan 800 t, including about 90 t from Kupol), Allakh-Yun (about 200 t,including 20 t from Nezhdaninskoye), Lower Amur (about 200 t,including more than 40 t from Mnogovershinnoye), Kular (170 t),Omolon (140 t, including 90 t from Kubaka).

3. Tectonic framework of Far East Russia

Various tectonic models for the FER region have been proposed byBogdanov and Tilman (1992), Parfenov (1991, 1994), Chekhov (2000),Parfenov and Kuzmin (2001), Parfenov et al. (2003) Oxman (2003),

Fig. 1.Main gold mining districts of Far East Russia.

Nokleberg et al. (2000, 2005), Khanchuk (2006) and in various publica-tions by Goryachev (1998, 2003, 2005, 2010) and Goryachev et al.(2011a,b). On the basis of theseworks, FER comprises the following tec-tonic units (Fig. 2): Siberian craton and its deformed eastern passivemargin, the Omolon and Okhotsk cratonic terranes attached to the cra-ton in the east; the Arctic orogen; the Mesozoic–Cenozoic collage oforoclinally-bent island arc terranes of the Kolyma Loop and Indigirka–Kolyma accretionary wedge terranes; the collage of terranes extendingfrom the Koryak Highlands, to Kamchatka, Okhotsk Sea, Sakhalin Islandand Sikhote-Alin; and theMongol–Okhotsk orogenic collage. The age ofthe orogenic events is Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (Mongol–Okhotsk,Yana-Kolyma and Okhotsk–Koryak), Early Cretaceous (Oloy–Chukotka(or Arctic)), Koryak and Sikhote Alin), and Cenozoic (Sakhalin and Kam-chatka). All these orogens reveal a different pre-Mesozoic history, withbasements of different ages, ranging from the Archean to the Paleozoic.Proterozoic rock assemblages form the basement of Yana-Kolyma, partof Mongol–Okhotsk, and Arctic orogens. The basement of Koryak,Sikhote Alin, and Kamchatka–Kurile orogens is Paleozoic in age.

The boundaries between these major tectonic units, according to2-DV geophysical transects, are trans-crustal or trans-lithosphericfaults (Goryachev et al., 2007). Following the orogenic events,these faults evolved from thrust kinematics to strike-slipmovements(Goryachev et al., 2007). Detailed investigations along the Anyui–Oloy suture zone between the Arctic orogen and Indigirka–Kolymaaccretionary terrane show that this boundary is a deep crustal thrust,accompanied by anticlinorium uplift with fan-like folds (Byalobzheskyet al., 2007; Goryachev et al., 2011a,b). Late Mesozoic fold belts formedas a result of the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous (160–135 Ma) andCretaceous (130–100 Ma) events. These fold belts are of collisional(Yana-Kolyma belt with S-type granite magmatism), accretionary–collisional (Arctic), and accretionary–transform margin origin(Mongol–Okhotsk, Sikhote-Alin, and Okhotsk–Koryak accretionaryorogens), and the tectono-magmatic processes are currently activein the Kamchatka–Kurile magmatic arcs. Broadly speaking, thesePaleozoic, Mesozoic and Cenozoic orogens can be considered asproducts of interaction between the Pacific oceanic plates with theSiberian craton. They can be explained in terms of two different kine-matic regimes: (1) frontal collision (with thrusting) and (2) strike-slipor transform style movements (Khanchuk, 2006).

A brief description of the main gold-hosting orogens, mostly basedon Khanchuk (2006), is provided below. They host orogenic andepithermal (pre- or post-orogenic) gold lode deposits. These depositsare associated in space and time with the late Mesozoic (Arctic, Yana-Kolyma, Mongol–Okhotsk, Sikhote-Alin) and Cenozoic (Koryak,Kamchatka–Kurile) gold belts. Few gold lodes are located within

Fig. 3. Gold metallogenic belts of Far East Russia and major gold deposits discussed in thispaper: 1 —Natalka, 2 —Nezhdaninskoye, 3 —Mayskoye, 4 —Duet-Yur, 5 —Agnie-Afanasievskoye, 6 —Tokur, 7 —Badran, 8 —Malomyr, 9 —Glukhoye, 10 —Degdekan, 11 —

Utinka, 12 —Shkolnoye, 13 —Berezitovoye, 14 —Kirovskoye, 15 —Askold, 16 —Kubaka,17—Kupol, 18—Kuranakh, 19—Kyuchus, 20—Sarylakh, 21—Sentachan. See Fig. 2 for tec-tonic legend.

Fig. 2.Main tectonic units of Far East Russia (Goryachev, 2006); 1 —Siberian craton; 2 —

Verkhoyansk deformed passive continental margin; 3 —Omolon (a), and Okhotsk(b) cratonic terranes; 4—island arc terranes of Kolyma Loop; 5–7—Central Asian orogen-ic belt: (5) Argun cratonic terrane, (6) Solonker accretionary terrane, (7) Bureya-Khankacratonic terrane; 8–11 —Mesozoic orogens: Mongol–Okhotsk (8), Yana-Kolyma(9), Okhotsk–Koryak (10), Arctic (11) and its Chukotka shelf terrane (11a); 12–14 —Mesozoic–Cenozoic orogens: Koryak (12), Sikhote-Alin (13) and Kamchat-ka–Kurile island arc terranes (14).


fragments of Paleozoic or older belts (Omolon and Khanka terranes)and Aldan shield of the Siberian craton (Fig. 3).

3.1. Arctic (Oloy–Chukotka) orogen

The tectonic event responsible for the deformation in the Arcticorogen took place in the Early Cretaceous and is characterized byBarrovian-style greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphismand granitoid intrusions. The intrusions are I-type ilmenite granitoidsin the Chukotka granitoid belt, emplaced, according to Rb–Sr data, at130–125 Ma (Bakharev et al., 1988), but recent U–Pb SHRIMP datingyielded ages ranging from 117 to 103 Ma (Katkov et al., 2007). ThePaleozoic and Mesozoic volcano-clastic, mafic and ultramafic, granitoidand terrigeneous rocks are the principal host of the gold mineralization.The ore deposits and metallogenic epochs of the Arctic orogenic beltinclude: pre-orogenic (Cu, Mo, Au–Ag, Pb–Zn); orogenic (Au, Sn); andpost-orogenic (Au–Ag, Sn, W, Mo) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,2005).

3.2. Yana-Kolyma orogen

The Precambrian metamorphic rocks are present in the Omolon,Okhotsk and Prikolyma terranes (Khanchuk, 2006). The major oro-genic event took place in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous timesand is characterized by deformation, Barrovian-style metamor-phism, and granitoid intrusions. These constitute a unique exampleof typical collision belt in FER (Khanchuk, 2006; Parfenov andKuzmin, 2001). Collisional S- and I-type granitoids in the Yana-Kolyma orogen are represented by the Main Kolyma granitoid belt,which, according to U–Pb SHRIMP (Akinin et al., 2009) and Ar–Ardata, was formed at 149–153 Ma and 137–149 Ma, respectively(Layer et al., 2001; Newberry et al., 2000). Mineralization is hostedin Paleozoic and Mesozoic terrigeneous, carbonate, and, more rarely,

in volcano-clastic rocks. The types of ore deposits and associatedmetallogenic epochs of the Yana-Kolyma orogen include: pre-accretionary (Cu, Pb–Zn, Fe, Au in the Omolon and Prikolymaterranes); orogenic (Au, Sn, W); and post-orogenic (Au–Ag, Sb–Hg,Ag–Sb, Sn in the Okhotsk–Chukotka magmatic arc) (Gamyaninet al., 2007; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).

3.3. Okhotsk–Koryak orogen

In this accretionary orogen (Khanchuk, 2006; Sokolov, 2010), themajor orogenic event took place in Early Cretaceous times, marked bydeformation, local metamorphism and granitoid intrusions. The time ofintrusion of collisional granitoids, according to K–Ar data, was 134–110 Ma (Goryachev, 2005). Mineralization is hosted in Late PaleozoicandMesozoic volcano-clastic and terrigeneous rocks and in Precambrianmetamorphic rocks in the Okhotsk and Omolon terranes. The types ofore deposits and metallogenic epochs are: pre-accretionary (Cu, Mo,Au–Ag in the Uda-Murgal magmatic arc); orogenic (Au, Sn, Co, Li, Be);and post-orogenic (Au, Ag, Sn, W, Mo, Cu, U in the Okhotsk–Chukotkamagmatic arc) (Goryachev, 2005; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,2005).

3.4. Mongol–Okhotsk orogen

Themajor orogenic event on the eastern flank of this belt took placein Early Cretaceous times, with deformation, Barrovian-style metamor-phism and granitoid intrusions. The belt was formed in a left-lateralstrike-sleep setting, interpreted as transform continental margin(Khanchuk, 2000a,b, 2006). The time of granitoid intrusion, accordingto U–Pb SHRIMP and Ar–Ar data, is 144–125 Ma (Ponomarchuk et al.,2008; Sorokin et al., 2002, 2004, 2006, 2008, 2011). Goldmineraliazation is hosted in Precambrian to Paleozoic metamorphic,granitoid and gabbroic rocks and in Mesozoic volcano-clastic andterrigeneous sedimentary rocks. The ore deposits in the major terranes

image of Fig.�3

image of Fig.�2

Fig. 4. (A) Cross section of theDegdekan golddeposit (Manshin andGoryachev, 2009); (B)field photographs from theDedgekandeposit, illustrating the complexity of goldmineralization.The top photo shows sheeted auriferous quartz veins emplaced into carbonaceous siltstone; the photo below shows a hand specimen of carbonaceous siltstonewith disseminated sulfides(with invisible gold?) and three generations of cross-cutting sulfide veinlets.


of theMongol–Okhotsk orogen span a very narrow time interval (about10–15 m.y.) and include: pre-accretionary (Cu, Mo); orogenic (Au);and post-orogenic (Au–Ag, Sb–Hg) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al.,2005; Stepanov et al., 2008).

3.5. Sikhote-Alin–West Sakhalin orogen

This orogen, described as a transform continental margin byKhanchuk (1994, 2000a,b), was formed in response to a major orogenicevent, which took place in late Early Cretaceous times and was charac-terized by deformation, Barrovian-style zonal metamorphism, andgranitoid intrusions. The time of intrusion of collisional granitoids,based on U–Pb SHRIMP, Ar–Ar and Rb–Sr data, was 125–100 Ma and90 Ma at the southern flank of the orogenic belt (Khanchuk, 2006).Here, mineralization is hosted in Paleozoic metamorphic, granitoidand gabbroic rocks and Mesozoic volcano-clastic and terrigeneous sed-iments. The ore deposit types and metallogenic epochs in the Sikhote-

Alin–West Sakhalin orogenic belt are pre-accretionary (Pb–Zn–CaF2,Li–Be in the Khanka terrane); orogenic (Au, Sn, W, Be); and post-orogenic (Au–Ag, Sn, B, Pb–Zn, Cu–Mo in the East Sikhote-Alinmagmat-ic arc) (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).

3.6. East Sakhalin–Kamchatka–Kurile orogen

This is an accretionary orogen formed in late Eocene times, withstrong deformation, Barrovian-style zoned metamorphism, accompa-nied by collisional granitoid intrusions. The time of granitoid emplace-ment, according to K–Ar data, was 45–38 Ma (Khanchuk, 2006). Hostrocks for the mineralization are late Paleozoic metamorphic and gab-broic rocks, Mesozoic to early Cenozoic volcano-clastic and terrigenoussediments. The types of ore deposits in the East Sakhalin–Kamchatka–Kurile orogen are pre-accretionary (Cu–Ni in the Central Kamchatkaterrane); orogenic (Au, W); and post-orogenic (Au–Ag–Sb–Hg)(Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).

image of Fig.�4


3.7. Uda-Murgal continental margin magmatic arc

This continental margin subduction-related volcano-plutonic arc(Fig. 2) was formed in Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous times(Khanchuk, 2006). The Uda-Murgal magmatic arc extends along thenorthern coast of the Okhotsk Sea (Goryachev, 2005). The early stageof this magmatic arc was characterized by andesite to dacitic volcanism,whereas its second stage is marked by the emplacement of I-type gran-itoids, comprising gabbrodiorite–granodiorite–granite igneous suites,with K–Ar ages ranging from 150 to 135 Ma. These suites consist ofNa-rich granitoids of the ilmenite and magnetite series. EpithermalAu–Ag and Cu–Mo ores were formed in this magmatic arc.

3.8. Okhotsk–Chukotka continent margin arc

This arc (Fig. 2) is of Albian to Campanian (106–77 Ma) age (Akininand Miller, 2011). It extends for more than 3000 km along the OkhotskSea coast through the Chukotka Peninsula to Alaska (Khanchuk, 2006).Felsic volcanic and plutonic magmatism (with subordinate maficmagmatism) are the dominant igneous suites. This belt comprises Au–Ag, Cu–Mo, Ag–Sb, Ag–Sn, Sn, and Sb–Hg deposits, which were formedthroughout the geodynamic evolution of this belt (Khanchuk, 2006;Nokleberg et al., 2005).

3.9. East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc

The East Sikhote-Alin arc extends along the Sea of Japan and TatarStraight coast for more than 1500 km. This is a subduction-related con-tinental margin magmatic arc (Fig. 2) of Late Cenomanian toMaastrichtian age (Khanchuk, 2006), slightly younger than theOkhotsk–Chukotka arc. We do not include the overlapping Cenozoicvolcanic assemblages into this arc because, they form isolated volcanicfields in the Primorie region, mostly with intraplate signatures andclosely correlate with riftogenic depressions (Khanchuk, 2006). Themetallogenic signature of these volcanic fields is characterized bysmall Au–Ag epithermal prospects and Ag-base metal to fluoritedeposits.

In the East Sikhote-Alin magmatic arc are the three phases of igne-ous activity: 1) a Cenomanian phase, with basalt-andesite volcanicrocks; 2) a Turonian–Santonian phase, characterized by large volumesof felsic tuffs and ignimbrites; 3) a Maastrichtian phase, with andesitesand dacites. These volcanic rocks are accompanied by granitoid plutonsuites, including multiphase I-type (magnetite series), diorite–granodi-orite–granite, a single stage I-type granite of the ilmenite series,emplaced at shallow levels. The magmatic arc contains Au–Ag, Sn, B,Pb–Zn, and Cu–Mo deposits (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).

3.10. Kamchatka–Kurile magmatic arc

This arc includes the Sredinny Kamchatka and East Kamchatka–Kurile volcanic belts. Their magmatic activity began in the Late Oligo-cene (Sredinny Kamchatka) and the Pleistocene (East Kamchatka) andcontinues to present day (Khanchuk, 2006). Andesites and basalts arethe dominant volcanic rocks, whereas gabbro and diorite predominateamong plutonic rocks. Rhyolites, dacites and granodiorites are of subor-dinate significance. The magmatic arc contains numerous gold–silverepithermal deposits and occurrences (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberget al., 2005).

4. Gold ore deposit styles

A classification of goldmineralization based on an assumed relation-ship with granitoid intrusions in Northeast Asia was common through-out the middle part of the 20th century (Firsov, 1957; Konychev, 1953;Shilo, 1960; Skornyakov, 1949). Traditionally, lode gold deposits werelabeled mesothermal and classified as sediment-hosted gold–quartz

vein, gold-bearingdike and gold-raremetal vein types. Thefirst and sec-ond types have a spatial relationship with granitoids, although theyshow no clear connection with igneous activity, whereas the thirdtype is genetically related to granitic intrusions. This classification iscommonly accepted by Russian geologists even in modern times. If wecompare the last type, gold-rare metal veins, with established interna-tional classifications (Cox and Singer, 1986; Extrand, 1984; Goldfarbet al., 2001, 2005, 2008; Lang et al., 2000; Thomson et al., 1999), wecan conclude that they would fit the intrusion-related type.Mesothermal lode gold deposits are also hosted in dikes and small plu-tons and can be further subdivided as intrusion (granitoid)-hosted andintrusion (granitoid)-related subtypes. Gold-bearing dikes or intrusion-hosted gold deposits are hosted in small granitoid plutonswith porphy-ritic textures and associated porphyry dikes, but do not have a closegenetic releationship with the host intrusions, because gold depositsand intrusions may have either the same or different age. For the firsttime, the epithermal gold–silver deposits in North East Russia wererecognized by A.A. Sidorov in the Chukotka area (Sidorov, 1966).Volarovich described epithermal gold deposits in the Lower Amurdistrict (Khanchuk, 2006). According to Russian classifications, thesedeposits were considered as volcanogenic gold–silver formation,which effectively corresponds to epithermal precious metal systems(Goryachev, 2006; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Sidorov,1978).

The gold lodes of FER include the following types (Goryachev, 1998,2003):

− Intrusion (granitoid)-related (skarns, greisens and quartz veins);− Dike-hosted and shear zone-controlled gold–quartz (early orogenic

and late orogenic veins);− Gold–sulfide-disseminated zones (early orogenic);− Gold–silver epithermal (pre- and post-accretionary);− Au–Sb and Au–Sb–Hg lodes (post-accretionary).

At present, the notion of orogeny-related gold deposits has becomewidespread. This deposit type is now considered as one of the majorrecognizedmineral systems, in the sameway as the Carlin-type gold de-posits, epithermal gold–silver, porphyry copper–gold, iron oxide cop-per–gold (IOCG) and VMS and SEDEX polymetallic deposit types(Goldfarb et al., 2001; Kerrich et al., 2000). In compliance with theexisting viewpoints, orogeny-related deposit type typically includesgold–quartz vein deposits and intrusion (granitoid)-related ones, aswell as gold–sulfide deposits, because they originated from orogeny-related granitoid magmatic systems (Gamyanin et al., 2003;Goryachev, 1998, 2003, 2010). All these deposit typeswere formed dur-ing the orogenic stage in the evolution of fold belts.

Goryachev (2006) and Goryachev and Gamyanin (2006) proposedto classify the orogenic gold deposits on the basis of their geological set-ting, style, age and relationships with orogenic granitoid assemblages,such as: (1) disseminated sulfides with gold; 2) sediment-hosted andintrusion-hosted gold quartz veins, stockworks zones, and shearzones; and 3) intrusion-(granitoid)-related gold–bismuth. The deposittypes and their characteristics are discussed below.

4.1. Sediment-hosted auriferous sulfides

The examples of deposits of this type in FER include Degdekan,Maiskoye and Malomyr. They are typically structurally controlled andare characterized by disseminated mineralization in mylonite zones.

The Degdekan deposit is hosted in Permian clastic sediments of theAyan-Yuryakh anticlinorium in the southeastern flank of theVerkhoyansk passive margin (Fig. 3). The ore bodies occur along amajor NW-trending thrust zone and comprise two main types of ores:disseminated pyrite and arsenopyrite (up to 3–5%) in carbonaceousterrigeneous rocks, with carbonate–chlorite and sericite alteration;and sheeted quartz veins, locally associatedwith felsic dikes (DegdekanLode; Goryachev and Fridovsky, 2013) (Fig. 4A, B). The age of this

Fig. 5.Malomyr gold deposit (after Vasiliev at al., 2000). Note association of gold orebodies with altered mylonite zones.


mineralization is 134–130 Ma (Voroshin et al., 2004). The overall aver-age grade is about 1.2 g/t Au, with a resource of about 200 t. Besidesgold, the ore also contains minor amounts of unusual or rare PGE min-erals (RuIrOs, RuS2, RuOs, IrAs, native Os) (Goryachev et al., 2011a,b;Khanchuk et al., 2011).

The Mayskoye deposit is hosted in Triassic clastic rocks of theChukotka shelf terrane, part of the Arctic orogen (Fig. 2). Triassic sedi-ments are intruded by granite- and granodiorite-porphyries, rhyolites,and lamprophyres dikes. Fine-grained, acicular disseminated arsenopy-rite andpyrite (6–8%) are themain oreminerals,mostly concentrated inhighly enriched carbon-bearing sub-vertical north-trending shearzones, up to 10–12 m thick, extending to depths ranging from 1500 mto 1000 m and with about 9 g/t average gold grade (Bortnikov et al.,2004; Volkov and Sidorov, 2001; Volkov et al., 2006). According tothese authors, arsenopyrite is gold-bearing (up to 181–1554 ppm)and about 90% of the total gold in the deposit is hosted by pyrite and ar-senopyrite. Late stibnite–quartz veins and veinlets contain no morethan 10% of gold, mostly as native coarse grains with 800–920 fineness.

TheMalomyr deposit is another example of goldmineralization fromthe eastern flank of the Mongol–Okhotsk belt (Fig. 3). This deposit islocalized in Paleozoic greenschist facies metamorphic rocks in thesouth-western flank of the Nizhnyaya Stoiba metamorphic dome(Buryak and Perestoronin, 2000; Buryak et al., 1988) of late Mesozoic

deformational age (Fig. 5). The main Diagonalnaya ore zone dips at25–30° towards the NW, with a thickness of 60 to 100 m and a lengthof 4200 m. The average gold grade varies from 1 to 11.8 g/t. Arsenian–pyrite (30–50 ppm Au) and acicular arsenopyrite disseminations (upto 5%) are located in altered (sericite, adularia, carbonate, ankerite,quartz)metasandstones,metasiltstone, greenschist and also in Paleozo-icmetamorphosed granite. Small quartz veins and veinlets, with adular-ia and sulfides (pyrite, arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, marcasite)and wolframite occur in altered rocks (Buryak and Perestoronin, 2000;Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). More than 50% of native goldhas a grain size less than 0.02 mm. The fineness of gold is 700–820.

4.2. Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted gold–quartz veins and stockworks

These gold deposits are usually characterized by quartz veins andstockworks in shear zones (Kerrich et al., 2000; Goldfarb et al., 2001,2005). Examples of this type are Natalka, Nezhdaninskoye, Duet,Tokur, Agnie-Afanasievskoye, Glukhoye, Pavlik, Utinka, Shkolnoye andKaralveem deposits in different parts of FER (Fig. 3).

The largest gold deposit is the Natalka deposit (Fig. 6A, B), with re-sources of more than 1700 t of gold grading 1.7 g/t (Eremin et al.,1994; Mikhalitsyna, 2011). The total past production from hard rockores and placers of the Omchak district is about 280 t of gold. The

image of Fig.�5

Fig. 6. Rock types of the Natalka deposit: (A) weakly foliated diamictite; (B) hydraulic fracturing with silica infill cutting diamictite; (C) pervasively altered, shallow-dipping felsic dike.


deposit is located in the Omchak goldfield (with 30 km2 of goldanomalism) in the south-east of the Yana-Kolyma gold belt. TheOmchak district includes, in addition to Natalka, two gold lode deposits(Omchak and Pavlik), several prospects and alluvial placers. The hostrocks of the ore deposits are foliated Permian sandstones, diamictites,volcano-clastic and terrigeneous rocks, part of the Ayan-Yuryakhanticlinorium in the Verkhoyansk passive margin. All gold deposits arelocated within a Middle Permian lithostratigraphic level, consisting ofvolcano-clastic rocks, rich in carbon and gold (Astakhov et al., 2010).The gold deposits and prospects are controlled by the regional scaleNW-striking Ten'ka fault and are associated with dike swarms (gran-ite-porphyry and lamprophyre dikes) (Fig. 6C). The Ar–Ar age of sericitefrom the altered rocks is 135 Ma (Newberry et al., 2000). The ore bodyhas a strike length of about 4 km, is 1 kmwide and 500 m deep. It con-sists of disseminated arsenopyrite and pyrite and quartz–sulfide veinsand stockworks (Golub et al., 2008; Goryachev et al., 2008). Themainsulfide minerals are pyrite, arsenopyrite and pyrrhotite. The gangueminerals are quartz and calcite. The alteration halo consists of anouter zone of chlorite–carbonate altered terrigeneous rocks and an

inner quartz–sericite or quartz–albite altered rocks. The deposit oc-curs within a large Au–As–W geochemical anomaly (Bortnikov andGoryachev, 2010; Goncharov et al., 2002).

The Nezhdaninskoye deposit is the second largest orogenic gold de-posits in FER (Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Goryachev, 1998; Parfenovand Kuzmin, 2001). It is located in the Lower Permian terrigeneous sed-iments in the core of a large anticline. This deposit consists of two orestyles: (1) disseminated sulfides (5%) with pyrite (10–150 ppm Au)and arsenopyrite (30–500 ppm Au), associated with numerous quartzveinlets and stockworks in shear zones (grading about 5–9 g/t Au)and (2) sub-vertical plate-like quartz veins, up to 2 m thick and 200–400 m long, and grading 10 to 2000 g/t Au (Goryachev, 1998;Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). The host rocksare pervasively altered (sericite, chlorite, quartz, Fe–dolomite), forming50 to 200 mwide alteration haloes. Themain ore zone (No.1) is locatedin a sub-vertical shear zone (Fig. 7); it is 1–40 m thick, 7 km long, and1600 m deep. The reserves are 475 t of gold grading 8–9 g/t Au and10–200 g/t Ag. Based on geological observations, the Nezhdaninskoyedeposit was formed in three stages: (1) metamorphogenic low Au

image of Fig.�6

Fig. 7. Vertical cross section of the main ore body No.1 of the Nezhdaninskoye deposit(adapted from Goryachev, 1998, 1999).


grade (less than 2 g/t), (2) main gold–quartz hydrothermal and (3)silver-base metals (Gamyanin et al., 1985, 2000a,2000b; Goryachev,1998). The age of mineralization is 122–119 Ma (Chugaev et al., 2010;Gamyanin, 2001; Gamyanin et al., 2003).

The Duet, Yur and Nekur deposits are stratabound gold-bearingquartz veins in a sequence of interlayered Upper Carboniferous toLower Permian sandstone and shale (Fig. 8) in the southern part ofthe Allakh-Yun gold belt (Fridovsky, 2002; Konstantinov et al., 2002;Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Sukhov et al., 2000). Five levels of saddle-shaped gold–quartz veins are hosted in Upper Carboniferous (4 levels)and Lower Permian (1 level) sandstone sequences (Fridovsky, 2002;Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). The length of veins is up to 5 km, withthicknesses ranging from 0.5 to 2.5 m, rarely up to 10 m. Native goldis associated with arsenopyrite, pyrite and galena. The sulfide amountin the veins is generally no more than 3%. The same deposit types areknown along the northern flank of Kular district (Emelyanovskoye,Kyllakh, Emis) (Fridovsky, 2002; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov andKuzmin, 2001). Similar deposits from the Yana-Kolyma belt(Zhdannoye, Svetloye) are represented by veins (Zhdannoye) at lowangle to bedding or parallel to the strike of the sedimentary rocks(Svetloye) (Goryachev, 1995, 1998; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenovand Kuzmin, 2001).

The Agnie-Afanasievskoye gold–quartz vein deposit is in the northernflank of the Sikhote-Alin fold belt, from which more than 11 t of goldfrom low-sulfide quartz veins have been recovered.

Many discordant gold–quartz veins are also known in different golddistricts. These veins (for example, the Igumenovskoye deposit in

Verkhoyansk passive margin (Goryachev, 1995, 1998)) filled subsidiaryfaults and are related to late orogenic fissures.

The Tokur and Badran gold-bearing quartz veins are good examplesof thrust-related vein deposits. The gold–quartz veins of the Tokurdeposit (Upper Amur belt) are localized in a large thrust zone (Fig. 9).Early Cretaceous post-ore diorite porphyry stocks and dikes cut theveins, with some redistribution of gold into secondary ore shoots(Eirish et al., 2002).

The main gold–quartz vein of the Badran deposit (Verkoyansk pas-sive margin) is hosted in the thrust zones (Fig. 10; Fridovsky, 2002;Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001), with very high-grade gold shoots (up to200–1000 g/t Au). These deposits are characterized by high grades(up to 25–50 g/t Au), but have small resources (less than 30 t ofgold). Quartz is themain gangue mineral (typically more than 90%). Al-terationminerals (about 1–3%) comprise albite, sericite, chlorite, calciteand Fe–dolomite. Arsenopyrite and pyrite (up to 5%), small and raregrains of galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite and native gold are also present(Goryachev, 1995, 1998; Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996;Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001).

Similar deposits, but of smaller size, occur in the Yana-Kolyma belt(Vetrenskoye, Kellyam) (Mikhalitsyna, 2011; Nokleberg et al., 2005;Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001) and in the Sikhote-Alin orogen (Glukhoye)(Eirish, 2003; Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999).

The Glukhoye gold deposit is in the central-southern part of theSikhote-Alin orogen (Fig. 3) (Eirish, 2003; Khanchuk and Ivanov,1999). The host rocks are flysch sediments of Early Cretaceous age,which are folded into an anticline. Gold-bearing shear zones are local-ized in the central portion of the anticline, closely related to the largenorth-south trending Kuleshov fault (Fig. 11). This fault is a branch ofthe Central Sikhote-Alin sinistral strike-slip fault. The main ore body ismore than 1000 m long, with an average thickness of 19 m. Drill holesindicate that this ore body extends to a depth of at least 400 m. Goldgrades range from1.56 to 3.8 g/t. The ore bodies aremainly representedby sulfide–quartz veinlets forming linear stockworks in intensivelyfolded and altered (quartz–sericite)carbonaceous (up to 1% C) shale,with pyrrhotite, pyrite and arsenopyrite disseminations (2–12%volume). Pyrite contains 10–36 ppm Au, and arsenopyrite contains50–160 ppm Au (Eirish, 2003). According to Eirish (2003), about 50%of the gold is native, with less than 0.1 mm grain size and a finenessof 508 to 943. Chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, tetrahedrite, stibnite,and scheelite are rare ore minerals.

TheUtinka (Utinskoye) deposit is a good example of intrusion (dike)-hosted deposit. Deposits of this sub-type occur mostly in the Yana-Kolyma belt (Shkolnoye, Dorozhnoye, Novaya, Srednekan, Arik,Tungus), but are less common in the Arctic and Koryak districts(Ozernoye, Aliskerovo, Nutekin) (Goryachev, 1998; Khanchuk, 2006;Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Volkov et al.,2006). At Utinka, the main ore body is in the diorite-porphyry dikeNo. 7. Quartz–albite–arsenopyrite veinlets form a stockwork in thehosting dike (Fig. 12). This sub-vertical dike is more than 4 km long,1–2 m thick and was traced to a depth of at least 500 m. Gold gradesare 4–5 g/t, but individual ore shoots have grades of more than 50–100 g/t. Past production is about 12 t of gold, with a current resourceof about 10 t. Native gold (880–980 fineness) is associated with coarsegrains of arsenopyrite, galena, jensenite, boulanjerite and tetrahedrite(Gamyanin et al., 2003). The age of the dike is 150 ± 3 Ma (U–PbSHRIMP data) (Akinin et al., 2009), whereas the Ar–Ar age of minerali-zation is 138–126 Ma (Newberry et al., 2000).

Another example of a similar system is the Shkolnoye deposit. Here,gold–silver–quartz veins cut through diorite and granodiorite rocks ofthe Burgagyn stock (about 4 km2), U–Pb dated at 150 Ma (Khanchuk,2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). High grade gold (about 50 g/t) ore veinsare associated with quartz–sericite alteration haloes in the host intru-sion. The E-W-trending ore body No. 1 is 400 m long, 1 m thick and600 m deep. This deposit is now mined out with past production ofabout 20 t of gold.

image of Fig.�7

Fig. 8. Geology of Yur gold deposit (Goryachev, 1995, 1998) with concordant gold–quartz veins (A) and regional position of gold–quartz veins in Carboniferous sediments in longitudinalprojection (B).

Fig. 9. Geological map of the Tokur gold deposits (after Vasiliev et al., 2000).


image of Fig.�8

image of Fig.�9

Fig. 10. Thrust-controlled Badran orogenic gold deposit (Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001).


4.3. Intrusion (granitoid)-related Au lode type

The gold deposits of this type have a good exploration potential inFER. However, only three are currently economically significant. They

Fig. 11. Glukhoye gold deposit (modified

are the Berezitovoye and Kirovskoye deposits in east of the Mongol–Okhotsk belt and the Askold deposit in the south of the Sikhote-Alinbelt. Gold deposits of this type differ from other deposits because: (1)they have a close spatial and temporal relationship with I- and S-types

after Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999).

image of Fig.�10

image of Fig.�11

Fig. 12. Dike-hosted Utinka gold deposit (Goryachev, 1998; Nokleberg et al., 2005). Re-gional location (A) and local cross sections (B).


granitoids, (2) thenative gold constantly associateswith a variety of bis-muth minerals (native bismuth, bismuthinite, maldonite, Bi-telluridesand sulfotellurides, and Bi-sulfosalts) (Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b;Goryachev and Gamyanin, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). An interna-tionally well-known example of this deposit type is Fort Knox (Alaska,USA) (Bakke, 1995; McCoy et al., 1997; Nokleberg et al., 2005).

The Berezitovoye deposit is hosted in granodiorite of the Khaikta–Orogzhan pluton. The average gold grade in the ores is 3.3 g/t, andgold metal reserve is estimated at 42.3 t. Other interesting features ofthese ores are the presence of Zn (0.97%), Pb (0.92%), and Ag(14.83 g/t) (Sukhov et al., 2000), and at least twomineralization stages.This pluton is located in the apical portion of the large late MesozoicKhaikta granite batholith (Fig. 13), with K–Ar and Ar–Ar ages of 134–132 Ma (Ponomarchuk et al., 2012; Sorokin et al., 2008; Stepanovet al., 2008). The Berezitovoye ore field also includes the orogenicKhaikta and Trubny gold quartz veins and the Orogzhan intrusion-related occurrences. The main ore body of the Berezitovoye mine islens-like (Fig. 13). The first stage formed disseminated low-grade goldwith pyrite + galena + sphalerite and massive ores, accompanied byquartz–sericite alteration in explosive breccias in the host rocks(Stepanov et al., 2008; Vakh et al., 2008). The second stage is represented

by quartz stockwork-like veins and veinlet zones in quartz–muscovite–tourmaline–garnet-altered granitoids. These high grade gold orescontain diverse amounts of sulfides (pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, andtypical Pb–Bi-sulphosalts, Pb–Bi- and Bi-sulphotellurides and nativegold) (Stepanov et al., 2008; Vakh et al., 2011).Metamorphosed dikes in-truded between the early and late stages, whereas spessartite anddiorite-porphyry dikes are part of a post-ore event (Stepanov et al.,2008; Vakh et al., 2008). The Ar–Ar age data suggest that first ore stageoccurred at 132–131 Ma, and the second, at 125 Ma (Ponomarchuket al., 2012). The Rb–Sr age of Khaikta pluton and related granite porphy-ry dikes is 133–126 Ma (Stepanov et al., 2008).

The Kirovskoye deposit consists of auriferous quartz veins, hostedin late Mesozoic granodiorite pluton and Paleozoic and Mesozoicmetamorphic and terrigeneous rocks, mostly along the Mongol–Okhotsk suture (Fig. 14). Fifty five ore veins were mined since the1880s with about 9.65 t of gold recovered (Sukhov et al., 2000).The ore bodies are 0.1 to 1.5–2 m thick, 50 to 600 m long, and extendingto a depth ofmore than 200 m. The ores also contained up to 1.6% Bi andAs, 0.9% Cu, 0.4% W, and locally Zn, Pb, Ni (Eirish, 2002). The main oreminerals comprise arsenopyrite, chalcopyrite, bismuhtite, Bi and Cusulphosalts, Bi-tellurides and sulpho-tellurides, tennantite–tetrahedrite,native Bi and Au (920–940 fineness), and stibnite (Gvozdev et al., 2011).

TheAskold deposit is situated on an island of the same name in SouthPrimorie. This deposit has been known since 1886 and has producedabout 2 t of gold (Sukhov et al., 2000). Very narrow (up to 1.5 cmthick) high grade (usually more than 100 g/t Au) quartz veinlets forma linear stockwork along a fault zone in greisenized early Late Creta-ceous granite, and sericite-altered Paleozoic to Mesozoic metamorphic,volcanic, and sedimentary rocks of the late Mesozoic Askold granitic-metamorphic dome (core complex) (Goryachev, 1995; Nokleberget al., 2005). The average grade is 5.9–7.6 g/t Au (Nokleberg et al.,2005). The ore minerals include pyrite, chalcopyrite, bismuthinite, na-tive Bi and Au, Bi-sulfo-tellurides and arsenopyrite.

Many occurrences of this type are also known in the Yana-Kolyma(Chistoye, Malysh-Dubach, Ergelyak), Allakh-Yun (Levo-Dybinskoye),Chukotka (Palyangai), Kular (Novoe, Solur) and Lower Amur (VerkhneOemku, Bolotisty) districts (Gamyanin et al., 2000a; Goryachev, 1995;Goryachev and Edwards, 1999; Goryachev and Yakubchuk, 2008;Khanchuk, 2006; Lotina, 2011; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov andKuzmin, 2001).

4.4. Au–Ag epithermal deposits

Continental margin arc and island arc terranes host epithermalgold–silver deposits. In FER, these deposits are typically of low-sulfidation type and have historically produced about 550 t of goldand several thousand tons of silver. The largest epithermal gold–silverdeposits in FER are Kubaka, Kuranakh, Kupol, with a total productionof about 330 t of Au. The famous Dukat deposit is a silver-dominantepithermal system, with small amount of gold (30 t; Konstantinovet al., 1998).

The Kubaka deposit is a Paleozoic epithermal deposit. It is hosted infelsic volcanic rocks of the Devonian-age Kedon volcanic belt, overlyingthe Precambrian Omolon terrane. It was the first deposit discovered inthis area, and many papers have been published on this deposit(Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish, 1996; Nokleberg et al., 2005;Savva et al., 2007; Sidorov and Goryachev, 1994; Stepanov andShishakova, 1994; Sukhov et al., 2000). The past production of gold is90 t. The Kedon volcanic belt also contains two medium-sizeepithermal deposits of Olcha (Savva and Shakhtyrov, 2011) andBirkachan. Steep-dipping (Fig. 15) 1–2 m thick adularia–quartz sheetedveins at Kubalka can be grouped into three ore zones with a total lengthof about 2 km (Stepanov and Shishakova, 1994). The host rocks areMiddle and Upper Devonian agglomerate tuffs, ignimbrites, and rhyo-lite–dacite and andesite–dacite sills. Chlorite, sericite, hydromica, andquartz are the main alteration minerals. Post-ore dolerite dikes are of

image of Fig.�12

Fig. 13. Berezitovoye gold deposit: regional position (A) and local geology (B) (modified from Avchenko et al., 2010).


Carboniferous and late Mesozoic age. Isochron Rb–Sr ages of the oresrange from340 to 334 Ma. Besides adularia and quartz, the ores containcalcite, fluorite, barite and 0.5% ore minerals (with dominant electrum,native gold, acanthite, hessite, pyrite and lesser quantities of arsenopy-rite, galena, and sphalerite). The Au–Ag ratio is 1:1.

The Kupol epithermal deposit is in the Chukotka district (Fig. 3).This deposit is located in the southern flank of a large volcanic struc-ture, in the northern part of the late Cretaceous Okhotsk–Chukotka

volcanic belt (Fig. 3). Its tectonic setting has been compared to thatof the San Juan deposit in Colorado (Belyi et al., 2007). The mainore body is north-south-trending and is characterized by a vein ofquartz–chalcedony with calcite and adularia, with a thickness rangingfrom 1.5 to 20 m and lengths of up to 2.4 km. It dips east at 75–90°,down to 350 m. The average grade is 20 g/t Au with a Ag–Au ratio12:1 (Golden and Thompson, 2011). The past production was 90 t ofgold, with current estimated resources of about 100 t of gold. Host

image of Fig.�13

Fig. 14. Kirovskoye intrusion-related gold deposit (modified after Vasiliev at al., 2000).


rocks are Late Cretaceous (84 Ma) ash and lapilli tuffs and andesitic lavaflows. Post-ore rhyolite dikes (81 Ma) cut through the andesitesequence. Hydrothermal alteration consists of quartz–illite–pyrite,quartz–illite, illite, chlorite–calcite–epidote (distal) (Golden andThompson, 2011). The ore minerals are native gold, electrum, gold sele-nides, Ag–sulphosalts (pyrargyrite, stephanite, freibergite, tetrahedrite),and acanthite in association with pyrite, arsenopyrite, galena, sphaleriteand chalcopyrite. The amount of ore minerals is less than 4%.

Fig. 15. Position of Kubaka deposit in Devonian volca

The Kuranakh deposit is an unusual epithermal jasperoidal deposit inthe Aldan district (Rodionov et al., 2005). It is characterized by large orebodies hosted along the contact of Lower Cambrian carbonate (mostlydolomites) and Jurassic rocks, outside the volcanic area, but in close asso-ciation with northerly-trending Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceouslamprophyre and syenite dikes and small diatremes of alkaline trachyte(Fig. 16; Maksimov et al., 2010). The past production is 240 t of gold,with remaining reserves of not more than 50 t of gold. The ore bodies

nic rocks (adapted from Stepanov et al., 1989).

image of Fig.�14

image of Fig.�15

Fig. 16. Kuranakh epithermal gold deposit (adapted fromMaksimov et al., 2010).


have ribbon-like shapes (Fig. 17). The adularia–quartz fine-grainedmin-eralization (75–90%) includes up to 5–10 to 60% pyrite, pyrrhotite, arse-nopyrite (1–2%), galena, chalcopyrite, native gold and gold-tellurides.This is the primarymineralization,which occurs as fragments of differentsize in strongly oxidized secondary ores. The sub-horizontal ore bodiesare 2–5 km long, 50–800 m wide, and 10–20 m thick (Moiseenko andEirish, 1996). The main gold mineralization event is of supergene origin,associated with Fe-hydroxides. The average size of the gold grains is0.0006 mmwith a fineness of 900–923. The primary gold has a fineness

Fig. 17. Cross section of a typical ore body of the Kuranakh deposit (adapted afterMaksimov et al., 2010).

of 725–900, with grain size of up to 0.1–0.3 mm (Konstantinov et al.,2002). The average grade is 5–7 g/t Au.

Other medium-size deposits (Pokrovskoye, Khakandzha,Mnogovershinnoye, Aginskoye, Ametistovoye, Asachinskoye, Julietta,Valunistoye, Karamken) and small size (Prasolovskoye, Belaya Gora)epithermal deposits are scattered in the late Mesozoic to Cenozoicvolcanic arcs of FER.

4.5. Au–Sb–Hg lode deposits

These are multiphase lode deposits, which can be partly orogenicand partly post-orogenic. They can be divided into two subtypes: Au–Sb–Hg (Kyuchus) and Au–Sb (Sarylakh and Sentachan), both hostedin terrigeneous rocks.

The Kyuchus deposit is located in the eastern flank of the Kulardistrict and the horst-anticlinorium of the same name. The gold re-serve is 246 t with an average grade of 8.7 g/t Au (Benevolsky,1995; Sukhov et al., 2000). The gold ores also contain 0.4% Sb,0.024% Hg, and 1.5% As. Host rocks are Upper Triassic interbeddedsiltstones, black shales and sandstones (Berzon et al., 1999). Theore body consists of several sub-parallel sulfide-mineralized shearzones, along a subsidiary fault zone to a regional strike-slip north-south trending Yana–Dulgalakh fault (Nokleberg et al., 2005;Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001). This fault controls the regional distribu-tion of Late Cretaceous Hg and Sb deposits in this sector of theVerkhoyansk deformed passive continental margin. The ore zone ex-tends for 3.8 km in a northeast-southwest direction and is up to 15 mthick. The central parts of the mineralized shear zones are characterizedby quartz–stibnite replacement veins with haloes of jasperoidal anddickite–hydromica–Fe–dolomite and sericite alteration. All mineralizedrocks host disseminated aggregates of gold-bearing pyrite and arsenopy-rite. The gold content of pyrite is up to 60–70 ppm, and in arsenopyrite itis up to 400–500 ppm. The quartz–stibnite veins also contain nativemercury and gold, gold amalgam, cinnabar, orpiment, metacinnabar, re-algar, tetrahedrite, chalcostibite, bournonite and jamsonite (Parfenovand Kuzmin, 2001).

The Sarylakh Au–Sb deposit has been known since 1966. It is lo-cated in the Indigirka part of the Yana-Kolyma district. The ore re-serves are 115,602 t of Sb, and 14 t of Au, grading 20.89% Sb and10.4 g/t Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). The past production accounts for13 t of Au and 105,000 t of Sb. Originally, it was a large (500 mlong, 2 m thick and 665 m deep) quartz–stibnite vein within theRudny fault zone, which is part of the regional Adycha-Tarynstrike-slip fault (Berger, 1979; Indolev et al., 1980; Parfenov andKuzmin, 2001; Sukhov et al., 2000). During the latest explorationworks, seven smaller ore veins have been identified in the Rudnyfault zone (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Host rocks are siltstone andshale of Upper Triassic age. The deposit is spatially associated withan Early Cretaceous (130–115 Ma) diorite stock and Jurassic (155–148 Ma) rhyolite dikes (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). This area alsohosts the recently discovered and potentially large Malotarynskoyegold deposit.

The Sentachan deposit is located 345 km north-west of the Sarylakhdeposit and also within the Adycha-Taryn fault. The host rocks are thesame as in the Sarylakh deposit (Amuzinsky et al., 2001; Berger, 1979;Indolev et al., 1980). Three ore bodies (No. 1, 2, and 2a) contain133,022 t of Sb, and 21.8 t of Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). TheNo. 2 orebodyaccounts for 96% of the total reserve. Gold grade is 51.5 g/t, and Sb gradeis 30–40% (Sukhov et al., 2000). The ore bodies are up to 210 m long, 0.2to 8 m thick and extend to a depth of 550 m. The past production isabout 4000 t of Sb and 2 t of Au (Sukhov et al., 2000).

The ores of Sarylakh and Sentachan deposits have a similar min-eral composition (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Main sulfide and gangueminerals (more than 10%) are quartz and stibnite in veins (dolomiteand pyrite are up 1 to 10%), with an alteration halo consisting ofquartz, dolomite and sericite (pyrite and arsenopyrite), dickite,

image of Fig.�16

image of Fig.�17

Table 2Age data of gold deposits in Far East Russia.

Deposit Mineral Data, Ma Method Belt Type References

Kubaka Hydromica 335–330 Rb–Sr OM EP Stepanov et al. (1998)Olcha Adularia 255–265 K–Ar OM EP Pokazaniev (1976)Svetloye Sericite 130 reset 150 max Ar–Ar YaK OSH Voroshin et al. (2004)Ryzhyi Muscovite 148 Ar–Ar YaK IR Voroshin et al. (2004)Chepak Muscovite 146 Ar–Ar YaK IR Newberry et al. (2000)Malysh-Dubach Muscovite 147 Ar–Ar YaK IR Newberry et al. (2000)Netchen Khaya Muscovite 146 Ar–Ar YaK IR Newberry et al. (2000)Chistoye Muscovite + quartz 140 K–Ar YaK IR Goryachev (2005)Transportnoye Muscovite 140 Ar–Ar YaK OIH IbidDaryal-2 Muscovite 140 Ar–Ar YaK OIH Newberry et al. (2000)Surmyanaya Sericite 139.5 Ar–Ar Yak OIH Voroshin et al. (2004)Yugler Sericite 138 YaK OIH Voroshin et al. (2004)Shturmovskoye Muscovite 134.4–139.2 Ar–Ar YaK OIH Voroshin et al. (2004)Dorozhnoye Muscovite 136 Ar–Ar YaK OIH Newberry et al. (2000)Natalka Sericite 135.2 Ar–Ar YaK OSH Newberry et al. (2000)Shkolnoye Muscovite 135.2 Ar–Ar YaK OIH Newberry et al. (2000)Degdekan Sericite 133–137 Ar–Ar Yak OIH Akinin et al. (2003)Nagornoye Sericite 135 K–Ar YaK OSH Akimov (2004)Malo-arynskoye Sericite 130 K–Ar YaK OSH Akimov (2004)Pavlik Sericite N110 Yak OSH Voroshin et al. (2004)Goltsovoye Sericite 128.2 Ar–Ar YaK OSH Voroshin et al. (2004)Nadezhda Sricite 126.5 Ar–Ar Yak OIH Newberry et al. (2000)Vetrenskoye Sericite 125 Ar–Ar YaK OSH Newberry et al. (2000)Sarylakh Hydromica 124–115 K–Ar YaK Au–Sb Indolev et al. (1980); Berger, 1979Kyuchus Altered rocks 122 K–Ar Yak Au–Sb Berzon et al. (1999)Myakit Muscovite 141 Ar–Ar OKR IR Newberry et al. (2000)Teutedzhak Muscovite + tourmaline 103 K–Ar OKR IR Goryachev (2005)1Nezhdaninskoye (Au)Nezhdaninskoye (Ag)

Sericite 119–118.498.2–95.2

Ar–Ar OKR OSH Chugaev et al. (2010);Borisenko et al. (2012)

Julietta Adularia 136 Rb–Sr OKR EP Struzhkov et al. (1994)Talanakh Sericite 126 Ar OKR IR Borisenko et al. (2012)Pilnen Sericite 126 Ar OKR IR Borisenko et al. (2012)Levo-Dybin Muscovite 124.8 Ar–Ar OKR IR Borisenko et al. (2012)Zaderzhnoye Sericite 123.5 Ar–Ar OKR OSH Kondratieva et al. (2010)Tuguchak Muscovite 124.2 Ar–Ar OCH IR Newberry et al. (2000)Mayskoye Altered rocks 110–113 K–Ar OCH OSH Volkov and Sidorov (2001)Karalveem Muscovite 104–123 K–Ar OCH OIH Davidenko (1975)Kirovskoye 131–126 Rb–Sr MO IR Moiseenko et al. (1999)Berezitovoye 131.2 and 125.3 Ar–Ar MO IR Ponomarchuk et al. (2012)Bamskoye 129 Rb–Sr MO OSH Stepanov et al. (2008)Kuranakh Sericite 136.2 Ar–Ar MO EP Borisenko et al. (2012)Malomyr Sericite 132 Ar–Ar MO OSH Buchko et al. (2011)Pokrovskoye Altered rocks 129 Rb–Sr MO EP Stepanov et al. (2008)Tokur Adularia 122 Ar–Ar MO OSHNyavlenga Adularia 93.7 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Arylakh Hydromica 86 Rb–Sr OCVB EP Struzhkov et al. (1994)Porozhistoye sericite 83 Ar–Ar OCVB IR Newberry et al. (2000)Irbychan Adularia 82.5 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Evenskoye Adularia 80.4 A–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Kegali Adularia 79.9 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Karamken Adularia 78.9 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Oira Adularia 76.1 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Khalali Altered rock 73 Rb–Sr OCVB IR Struzhkov et al. (1994)Teply Hydromica 72 Rb–Sr OCVB EP Struzhkov et al. (1994)Valunistoye Adularia 71.8 Ar–Ar OCVB EP Layer et al. (2001)Dalnegorsk Carbon rich shear zones 115 Rb–Sr SA OSH Tomson et al. (2001)Krinichnoye Muscovite 88 K–Ar SA IR Sayadyan (2004)Askold Sericite 79 Ar–Ar SA IR Layer et al. (2001)Mnogovershinnoye Adularia 70–60 K–Ar ESA EP Khanchuk (2006)Milogradovskoye Altered rock 70.4 U–Pb SHRIMP ESA EP Alenicheva and Sakhno (2008)

Types: IR—intrusion related, EP—epithermal, OSH—orogenic sediment-hosted, OIH—orogenic intrusion-hosted.


stibnite and hydromica minerals. Native gold, arsenopyrite, calciteand white mica are present in the ore veins. Less common ore min-erals include: berthierite, chalcostibite, native antimony, sphalerite,aurostibite and Pb–sulfosalts (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). Very unusualnative aluminum and chrome have been identified at the deeperlevels of the Sarylakh deposit (Amuzinsky et al., 2001). The orewas formed in three stages, consisting of: (1) polysulfide–carbon-ate–quartz, (2) quartz–stibnite and (3) stibnite–carbonate–quartz(Amuzinsky et al., 2001). However, it must be emphasized thatother investigators proposed a two-stage formation model for theores: (1) gold–quartz and (2) stibnite with gold remobilization

(e.g., Indolev et al., 1980). Also contradictory is the age of ores.One group of researchers proposed an Early Cretaceous age basedon K–Ar dating of hydromica, yielding 145, 124, 115 Ma (Sarylakh)and 116 Ma (Sentachan) (Berger, 1979). Another group proposeda Late Cretaceous age based on latest structural position of Au–Sb oresindependent from orogenic tectonic deformation and a single youngerK–Ar age of 80–90 Ma (Amuzinsky et al., 2001; Goryachev andEdwards, 1999; Indolev et al., 1980; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenovand Kuzmin, 2001). We further discuss the age and geodynamic settingof the Kyuchus, Sarylakh and Sentachan deposits in the metallogenysection of this contribution.


5. Gold metallogeny

As noted above, themajor gold belts and districts in FER do cluster inthree age groups (Table 2): (1) Paleozoic: Omolon district of earlyPaleozoic mesothermal and middle Paleozoic epithermal deposits, andlate Paleozoic Laoelin–Grodekov belt in South Primorie; (2) LateMesozoic belts: Yana-Kolyma, Arctic, Okhotsk–Koryak, Okhotsk–Chukotka, Mongol–Okhotsk, West Sikhote-Alin, and East Sikhote-Alin;and (3) Cenozoic: Sakhalin, Kamchatka–Kurile (Fig. 3). All these golddistricts and gold belts are described in many publications (Buryak,2003; Goldfarb et al., 1998; Khanchuk, 2006; Moiseenko and Eirish,1996; Nokleberg et al., 2005; Parfenov and Kuzmin, 2001; Sukhovet al., 2000). Some are described in more detail (Petrenko, 1999;Goryachev, 1998; Eirish, 2002, 2003; Buryak et al., 2002; Struzhkovand Konstantinov, 2005; Volkov et al., 2006). Many publications havebeen devoted to gold metallogeny (Buryak et al., 2001; Goncharov,1983; Konstantinov et al., 1992; Vasiliev et al., 2000). Data from thesepublications, integratedwith thefirst author's field observations on sev-eral deposits in the Yana-Kolyma, Oloy–Chukotka, Okhotsk–Koryak,Mongol–Okhotsk,West Sikhote-Alin, and Kamchatka, were used to dis-tinguish some general characteristics of the gold metallogeny in thesebelts.

5.1. Gold mineralization of pre-Mesozoic metallogenic epochs

We do not have reliable information about Precambrian gold de-posits within the belts being considered in this review. The early Prote-rozoic Pinegin gold deposit is the only one known in the Aldan shield tothewest of theAldan gold district (Smelov andTimofeev, 2005). TheAr-chean rocks of the Omolon and Okhotsk terranes host small gold occur-rences of uncertain age, suggested by some authors as Precambrian(Shevchenko, 2006). Other investigators have proposed an early Paleo-zoic age, based on the relationships between early Paleozoic granitoidsand small early Paleozoic mesothermal gold–quartz veins of the Noddyprospect in the Omolon district (Goryachev and Egorov, 2001;Nokleberg et al., 2005). A middle to late Paleozoic age has been definedfor Kubaka (330–340 Ma) and Olcha (older than 255 Ma) epithermaldeposits (Pokazaniev, 1976; Savva and Shakhtyrov, 2011; Stepanovand Shishakova, 1994). These are all low-sulfidation deposits, formed

Fig. 18. Yana-Kolyma gold b

during activity in the Kedon continental margin (Nokleberg et al.,2005). A late Paleozoic age (270–255 Ma) is assigned to smallepithermal occurrences in the Laoelin–Grodekovo magmatic arc in thepresent-day South Primorie area (Alenicheva and Sakhno, 2008;Nokleberg et al., 2005). A late Paleozoic age is also assigned to severalgold occurrences in the Argun terrane (Buchko and Sorokin, 2005).These occurrences are spatially and temporally associated withsubduction-related high-Na granitoids and felsic volcanic rocks, and itis possible that these two areas represent fragments of a formerly singlelate Paleozoic metallogenic belt.

5.2. Late Mesozoic gold metallogeny

The largest gold metallogenic belts in FER were formed during thelate Mesozoic. These gold belts were developed in the Late Jurassic(Yana-Kolyma), Early Cretaceous (Mongol–Okhotsk, Arctic, Okhotsk–Koryak) and the Late Cretaceous (Sikhote-Alin), contemporaneouswith the tectonic events in the corresponding orogens. These orogenscan be divided into four types (Goryachev, 2010; Khanchuk, 2006;Khanchuk and Ivanov, 1999; Nokleberg et al., 2000, 2005): (1) collisional(Yana-Kolyma), (2) accretionary or incomplete collisional (Arctic,Okhotsk–Koryak), (3) combined collisional–transform margin(Mongol–Okhotsk), and (4) active transform margin (Sikhote-Alin). The first two are typical for FER, whereas the third and fourthtypes are known only in its southern part. The Late CretaceousOkhotsk–Chukotka and East Sikhote-Alin gold belts are associatedwith active continental magmatic arcs, which are post-accretionary(post-orogenic) relative to the main deformational events.

The Yana-Kolyma, Arctic and Okhotsk–Koryak gold beltswere formedduring three stages of Mesozoic orogenic events (Goldfarb et al., 2014).The first stage is the main one and occurred at 150–136 Ma (based onU–Pb and Ar–Ar age data) during which the Yana-Kolyma orogenicgold beltwas established (Fig. 18). Fold and thrust structures are accom-panied by regional greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphismand the intrusion of S- and I-type ilmenite series granitoids with Au,Sn and W mineral systems (Goryachev and Berdnikov, 2006;Goncharov et al., 1995; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). Thiswas a time when large gold deposits, such as Natalka, Pavlik, andDegdekan were formed. Perhaps, the gold–quartz sheeted veins of the

elt (Goryachev, 1998).

image of Fig.�18

Fig. 19. Chukotka gold belt (Goryachev, 1998).


Allakh-Yun district (Yur, Duet and others deposits) originated duringthis stage as well and may have been synchronous with the develop-ment of epithermal gold deposits (Julietta) in the Uda-Murgal arc.

The second stage occurred between 140 Ma and 105 Ma, when theOkhotsk–Koryak orogenic beltwas developed. This resulted in the forma-tion of the Uda-Murgal magmatic arc, thrust and strike-slip deforma-tion, accompanied by diorite–granite intrusions of I-type ilmenite andmagnetite series and, more rarely, A-type intrusions, with Mo, Sn, W,Au, Comineral systems in the Allakh-Yun belt and Okhotsk cratonic ter-rane. The main phase of this orogeny occurred between 130 Ma and115 Ma (Goryachev, 2005, 2010), resulting in the formation of severalorogenic gold deposits in the Yana-Kolyma belt, namely Vetrenskoye,

Fig. 20. Kular gold area on the western flank of the O

Shkolnoye, Darial, and Nagornoye (Table 2), synchronous with strike-slip movements along earlier large thrusts. We propose that the Au–Sb deposits (including Sarylakh and Sentachan) were formed duringthis stage too, because they are controlled by strike-slip faultsreactivated in this time, and the ores have K–Ar ages ranging from 128to 116 Ma (Table 2) (Goldfarb et al., 2014). But deformation, metamor-phic and igneous events of this stage also occurred in the Allakh-Yundistrict. The Ar–Ar ages of orogenic deformation, I-type granitoidmagmatism of ilmenite series and local metamorphism in the axialpart of the Allakh-Yun fold belt are the same as the 125–119 Ma K–Arages (Borisenko et al., 2012; Goryachev, 1998, 2003; Goryachev andGoncharov, 1995; Layer et al., 2001; Prokopiev et al., 2006). The largest

loy–Chukotka orogenic belt (Goryachev, 1998).

image of Fig.�19

image of Fig.�20

Fig. 21. Distribution of orogenic gold deposits in the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen (tectonic base modified after Zonenshain et al., 1990).


orogenic gold deposit of this belt is Nezhdaninskoye, whichwas formedat this time, together with other orogenic gold deposits, such asZaderzhnoye, Voskhod and Lazurnoye (Goryachev, 1995, 1998;Kondratieva et al., 2010). Small intrusion-related gold occurrences(Levo-Dybin, Kurum) were also emplaced between 125 and 115 Ma(Borisenko et al., 2012; Goryachev, 1998). Similar deposits in the north-ern Priokhotie area were formed at 120–103 Ma (Teutedzhak,Vetvistyi), during the late stages of this orogeny (Goryachev, 2005).

The third stage affected the northern part of FER and resulted in theformation of theOloy–Chukotka orogen, associated with several orogen-ic gold deposits. This orogen consists of four segments (from west toeast): Kular, Ulakhan-Tas, Anyui-Chukotka and Chaun-Chukotka(Fig. 19). It extends as far as Alaska to the east (Goryachev et al.,2007) and is characterized by several Early Cretaceous granite-metamorphic domes (core complexes), which are more or less alignedalong a northwest-southeast trend. Some of the eroded core complexescontrol the position of orogenic and intrusion-related gold deposits inthe Chukotka (Karalveem, Mayskoye, Sovinoye, Dor) and Kular areas(Fig. 20). The main axis of this belt is a zone of thrusts, dividing the oro-genic belt into northern and southern parts. The northern upper partconstitutes an accreted shelf and island-arc terranes, in which orogenicand intrusion-related gold deposits, aswell as tin and tungsten deposits,are present in the eastern and central segments. The southern part is acollage of island arc terranes, hosting porphyry copper (Peschanka,Innakh) and small epithermal gold–silver deposits (Polevaya,Vesenneye), whereas in Kular is the deformed shelf terrane of theVerkhoyansk passive continental margin, hosting numerous orogenicgold–quartz veins. Unlike the linear distribution of gold deposits inYana-Kolyma belt, mineral systems in the Okhotsk–Koryak and Arcticbelts form a series of en-echelon clusters.

The Mongol–Okhotsk gold belt extends between the Siberian cratonand the Central Asian orogenic belt from Mongolia in the west to theOkhotsk Sea in the east (Fig. 21). The geodynamic setting of this belt isinterpreted here as a combination of two events: (1) Jurassic collisionand (2) Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous transform margin (Khanchuk,2006). The eastern flank of this belt includes the main gold zone,which is controlled by the Mongol–Okhotsk suture and a chain of lateMesozoic granite-metamorphic core complexes. The age of metamor-phism and of the granitoid plutons is 143–128 Ma (Ar–Ar dating)(Khanchuk, 2006; Sorokin et al., 2006). It is interesting to note thatthe gold deposits in the Aldan shield and Stanovoy Range (e.g.,Bamskoye and Dess deposits) in the north have the same age and

general trend. Therefore, the style and spatial distribution of thegold deposits in this belt is similar to those in the Okhotsk–Koryakand Oloy–Chukotka belts. Orogenic and intrusion-related golddeposits are spatially and temporally associated with small- andmedium-size I-type granitoid plutons and dike swarms. The out-standing feature of this belt is the spatial association of not so largeand slightly younger (128–122 Ma) volcanic structures (Sorokinet al., 2008), which host small and medium-size epithermal Au–Agdeposits (Pokrovskoye mine) (Khomich and Vlasov, 2004), as wellas small Sb and Hg deposits (Stepanov et al., 2008).

The West Sikhote-Alin gold belt forms a well defined area along theEarly Cretaceous active transform margin, characterized by giantupright folds and strike-slip faults (Khanchuk, 1994, 2001, 2006). Thedistribution of gold deposits is controlled by the above-mentionedstructures. Thesedeposits are typical orogenic (mostly auriferous quartzveins) in the northern part of the belt (Agnie-Afanasievskoye, Oemku,Albazino) and intrusion (granitoid)-related Au–Bi occurrences and de-posits, forming several clusters in the central and southern parts of thebelt (Verkhne-Oemku, Bolotistoye, Malinovoye, Glukhoye, Krinichnoye,Askold). The host rocks are Paleozoic and Mesozoic volcanic andterrigeneous sediments of accretionary wedge terranes, gabbro–dioriteand high-Na granitoid plutons of ilmenite and magnetite series (Eirish,2003; Khanchuk, 2006).

The Andean-type Late Cretaceous Okhotsk–Chukotka and EastSikhote-Alin gold belts form a giant arc-like structure along an activecontinental marginwithmagmatic arcs that extend from East Chukotkato South Primorie. The polyphase Albian–Campanian Okhotsk–Chukotkacontinental magmatic arc (Akinin and Miller, 2011) extends for morethan 3000 km from East Chukotka in the north to the Uda River in thesouth. This volcanic belt contains many calderas of different size andsubvolcanic intrusions with local uplifts, in which several epithermalAu–Ag deposits are spatially and temporally related to the felsic volca-nism and sub-volcanic granitoids. All these deposits are hosted inaltered (sericite, illite, smectite, kaolinite) volcanic rocks, controlled byradial and ring-like faults, in the central or peripheral parts of suchvolcanic structures. The age of these deposits varies from 90 to 70 Ma(Layer et al., 1997). The deposits include Dukat (Ag), Utro (Ag–Sb),Arman, Mechta (Ag–Pb–Zn), Tigrets (Sn–Ag), in the central and south-ern sectors, and Ag–Sb, Sn–Ag, Sb–Hg (Plamennoye) deposits, inChukotka–Bering sector (Nokleberg et al., 2005). Nokleberg et al.(2005) andNokleberg (2010) named this belt a giant Eastern Asia–Arcticmetallogenic belt, occupying a back-arc position in Northeast Asia. But

image of Fig.�21


according to Goryachev et al. (2010), the gold deposits formed at thistime are concentrated in the Okhotsk–Chukotka volcanic belt. The goldores belong to the low-sulfidation epithermal systems and consist ofquartz–adularia veins with 1–5% of ore minerals (pyrite, acanthite, Ag–sulfosalts, electrum, and rare Ag–Au selenides and Ag tellurides) hostedin altered felsic volcanic rocks.

The Late Cenomanian–Maastrichtian East Sikhote-Alin belt extends formore than 1600 km along the coast of the Japan Sea, from Amur Rivermouth, in the north, to Kievka Bay, in the south (Khanchuk, 2006;Nokleberg et al., 2005). This belt includes several epithermal gold–silver(Mnogovershinnoye, Belaya Gora,Milogradovskoye, Progress) and silver(Tayozhnoye) deposits, lead–zinc skarn deposits (Dalnegorsk area), por-phyry copper (Lazurnoye, Nochnoye, Verkhnezolotoye) and tin(Yantarnoye) deposits (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005). In thismetallogenic belt are included all the Au–Ag deposits from several dis-tricts, such as Sergeevka, Kema, Mnogovershinnoye (Nokleberg et al.,2005), because all these mineral systems have similar ores, associatedwith subduction-related magmatism and timing of formation (Table 2).

Fig. 22.Age data histograms for orogenic granitoids and gold ores of Yana-Kolyma (YKGB)and Okhotsk–Koryak (OKGB) gold belts (compiled after Akinin et al., 2009; Goryachev,1998; Newberry et al., 2000; Voroshin et al., 2004). Gold deposit types: SH —sediment-hosted, IH—intrusion-hosted, IR—intrusion-related.

5.3. Cenozoic gold metallogenic belts

Cenozoic metallogenic belts are related to the formation of theEast Sakhalin–Kamchatka orogen and its Kamchatka–Kurile mag-matic arc (Figs. 2 and 3). The main tectonic event in the Sakhalinarea took place in Late Eocene times (Khanchuk, 2006), duringwhich small orogenic gold occurrences were formed in the Langeryarea of Sakhalin Island. Mesothermal scheelite-bearing gold–quartzveins are hosted in amphibolites, schists, migmatites and small concor-dant granitic bodies (Buryak et al., 2002; Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberget al., 2005). They were interpreted as part of Eocene granitic–meta-morphic domes (core complexes). Similar small occurrences areknown in Sredinny Kamchatka Range (Tumannoye) (Nokleberg et al.,2005). The Late Oligocene to Quaternary Kamchatka–Kurile magmaticarc is a host to several medium- (Ametiystovoye, Aginskoye,Ozernovskoye) to small-size epithermal Au–Ag deposits (Asachinskoye,Baranievskoye, Mutnovskoye and Rodnikovoye in Kamchatka;Prasolovskoye and Aion in the Kurile Islands) (Khanchuk, 2006;Kurinnaya et al., 2011; Liessman and Okrugin, 1994; Nokleberg, 2010;Nokleberg et al., 2005; Okrugin and Zelensky, 2004; Petrenko, 1999;Sukhov et al., 2000; Takahasi et al., 2001). K–Ar dating shows thatthese deposits were formed in three main pulses: 41.1–38.3 Ma;21.4–13.9 Ma; and 8.9–0.3 Ma (V.M. Okrugin, pers. comm., 2010) andare associated with basalt–andesite–dacite volcanic sequences andsmall diorite and granodiorite plutons. The amount of ore minerals inthe ore veins is less than 5%. The main ore minerals are pyrite, sphaler-ite, galena, tennantite–tetrahedrite, Sb- and As-sulfosalts, Hg minerals,tellurides, and others. Apart from native gold and electrum, the oresalso include Au–Ag selenides and tellurides. The ore reserves of thesedeposits vary from 20 to 60 t of contained gold metal, with averagegrades of 7 to 20 g/t Au (Sukhov et al., 2000). Small Au–Ag deposits(Prasolovskoye) in the Kurile Islands are hosted in Miocene greentuffs and Late Miocene plagiogranite and diorite bodies and Pliocenevolcano-plutonic settings (Khanchuk, 2006; Nokleberg et al., 2005).Quite unusual for island arc metallogeny, these mineral systems arecharacterized by Au–Sn (Miocene) and Au–Te (Pliocene) mineraliza-tion (Nokleberg et al., 2005).

6. Discussion

The review of gold deposit types, related geodynamic settings andrelationships with magmatic and metamorphic processes, integratedwith published isotopic and fluid inclusion data, constitute the basisfor this discussion about the origin of the gold in orogenic belts andcontinental magmatic arcs.

6.1. Orogenic gold deposits

The orogenic gold deposits share common features such as tectonicsetting and fluid inclusion characteristics.

6.1.1. Tectonic settingsOrogenic gold deposits are controlled by thrust fault zones (Badran

in Yana-Kolyma, Tokur in Mongol–Okhotsk) or subsidiary faults tomain tectonic sutures (Mongol–Okhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens). Agood example is the Omchak gold district, hosting the Natalka deposit,where three stages have been recognized: (1) long-lived sedimentarybasin history with primary accumulation of carbon and gold in shelf-facies volcano-clastic sediments; (2) short-lived early compressional

image of Fig.�22

Table3

Mineralog

ical

andge

oche

mical

data

oforog

enicAulode

s.

Type

sMajor

minerals

Typicalm

inerals

Amou

ntof

sulfide

minerals

Geo

chem

ical

compo

sition

Goldpo

sition

OSH

DQua

rtz,arseno

pyrite,p

yrite,sericite,

albite,Fe-do

lomitean

dcalcite

Galen

a,sp

halerite,cha

lcop

yrite,tetrah

edrite,

boulan

gerite,stibn

ite,ge

rsdo

rffite

Less

than

3%Au–

As–Sb

–Pb

(W)

NativeAuin

quartz

andin

sulfo

saltpa

rage

nesis.Fine

ness

is60

0–95

0‰withup

to5g/tBi.Inv

isible

Auin

pyrite

and

arseno

pyrite

OIH

DQua

rtz,arseno

pyrite,p

yrite,py

rrho

tite,

sericite,slbite,Fe–do

lomitean

dcalcite

Galen

a,sp

halerite,cha

lcop

yrite,tetrah

edrite,

boulan

gerite,jam

sonite,

Bi–su

lfosalts(lillianite,k

obellite)

Up1to

10%.

Ave

rage

—5%

Au–

As–Sb

–Pb

(Bi–W

–Ag)

sulfo

saltswith

upto

5–7%

Bi

Nativego

ldin

quartz

andin

sulfo

saltmineral

parage

nesis.

Fine

ness

is60

0–90

0‰withup

to5–

100g/tBi.

OIRD

Qua

rtz,arseno

pyrite,lollin

gite

pyrrho

tite,

sericite

side

rite

andcalcite

Bi-telluride

san

dsu

lpho

tellu

ride

s,na

tive

Bi,

maldo

nite,b

ismuthite,B

i–sulfo

salts,nickelite,

coba

ltite,ge

rsdo

rfite

From

1to

60.

Ave

rage

notmore10

%Au–

Bi–Te

–As–W

(Cu,

Mo,

Sb)

Bimineralswith

upto

5–7%

Sbor

Pb

InvisibleAuin

lolling

itean

darseno

pyrite.N

ativeAuin

quartz

andin

Bi–Te

–Sminerals.Fine

ness

is70

0–10

00‰

OSH

D—orog

enic

sedimen

t-ho

sted

depo

sits;O

IHD—orog

enic

intrus

ion-ho

sted

depo

sits;O

IRD—orog

enic

intrus

ion-relatedde

posits.


tectonics and metamorphic fluid activity; and (3) short-lived late oro-genic extension and magmatic fluid activity (Golub et al., 2008;Goryachev et al., 2008). The last two stages include the proposed directsupply of ore components from an underplated layered magma cham-ber andmobilization of these components due to processes of dehydra-tion and decarbonation of host rocks during regional metamorphism(Goryachev et al., 2008).

The commonly observed auriferous sheeted quartz veins, located inthe deformed Verkhoyansk passive margin (Allakh-Yun and Kularareas), are interpreted as early orogenic in a collisional geodynamicsetting. These veins were formed during folding, possibly pre-thrust,and concurrent with regional metamorphic processes. Anotherstructural-morphological type of veins was formed in relation to thrustand strike-slip movements during late orogenic stages, which are post-metamorphic. This model is supported by dating of these veins. Thefirst group of veins yielded ages of 170–150 Ma (Rb–Sr mineral iso-chron on carbonates; Nenashev, 1979), pre-dating the collisional S-granites in the Yana-Kolyma belt (Akinin et al., 2009), which areolder than Early Cretaceous accretion-related metamorphism andgranitoid intrusions of the Okhotsk–Koryak orogenic event (Borisenkoet al., 2012). The second group of veins was formed after the intrusionof collisional granites (Fig. 22) and as such they marked a time ofcooling of all orogenic structures. The age difference is more than15 m.y. In other instances, the formation of orogenic gold depositstook place in orogenic belts, controlled by strike-slipmovements (Mon-gol–Okhotsk and Sikhote-Alin). The age difference is less than 10 m.y.(Fig. 22).

Worthy of note is the connection between orogenic gold depositsand granite-metamorphic domes (metamorphic core complexes) inthe Arctic and Mongol–Okhotsk orogens. The structural position ofthese domes is not fully understood, because deformed greenschistand amphibolite facies metamorphic rocks in the Arctic orogen cut un-deformed granitic intrusions and are therefore slightly younger (Katkovet al., 2007). This is in contradiction with the previously proposed ex-tensional geodynamic setting (Miller et al., 2009), because thesedomes do not show typical detachment structures (Katkov, 2010). Webelieve that these domes are the result of orogenic events, formed dur-ing a change from collision to strike-slip movements.

The common spatial and temporal association of intrusion (granit-oid)-related gold deposits with orogenic granitoid plutons or in thethermally metamorphosed rocks (hornfels) above the cupolas (apicalpart of a pluton). The ore deposits of this type in FER were formed as aresult of tectono-thermal events and must be distinguished as an oro-genic sub-type. Similarly, the ore composition of intrusion-related de-posits (Khalali, Kukhtui) at active continental margin magmatic arcdiffers from this sub-type in the absence of W-bearing minerals andtourmaline, which are typical in FER.

The comparison between orogenic sediment-hosted, intrusion-hosted and intrusion-related deposits shows many differences alongwith some similarities in terms of mineralogical and geochemical fea-tures (Table 3). Sediment-hosted and intrusion-hosted orogenic golddeposits are characterized by close correlation of gold with sulfosaltsand arsenopyrite, and of small and moderate bismuth content with na-tive gold, respectively. The ore body styles include veins, veinlets inshear zones and disseminations (sediment-hosted) and mineralizeddikes, 1 to 25–30 m thick, or mineralized stocks in altered granitoids(intrusion-hosted). For both ores types, typical alteration (albite,sericite, paragonite, sulfides, quartz) occurs around the ore bodies.Many intrusion-related deposits exhibit wall rock alteration haloes, in-cluding skarn (Kandidat deposit in the Oloy-Chukotka belt)), greisenand sericite (Myakit, Teutedzhak, Levo-Dybin in Okhotsk–Koryak belt;Ergelyak, Chistoe in the Yana-Kolyma orogen, Kirovskoye, Berezitovoyein the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen; Verkhne-Oemku, Krinichnoye in theSikhote-Alin belt); quartz, chlorite, tourmaline, epidote and feldspar(e.g. Teutedzhak). The alteration haloes also include disseminatedpyrite, arsenopyrite and lollingite. The altered rocks reveal gold grades


ranging from 0.5 to 3.0 g/t. Spatial links between intrusion-related andintrusion-hosted gold lodes are in the localization of the mineralizationin the apical portion of I- and S-type granitoid plutons, dikes, and stocks.It is interesting that fluid inclusions in quartz of gold-bearing granitesfrom the Yana-Kolyma and Okhotsk–Koryak belts have high contentsof CO2 and H2O, and also NaCl with CH4 and N2 admixtures; the salinityof secondary inclusions is more than 12% NaCl equivalent (Goryachevand Berdnikov, 2006). These data correspond to the fluid compositionand concentration in gold-bearing quartz (Gamyanin et al., 2003,2011; Goryachev, 2003; Struzhkov et al., 2008) and support linksbetween sediment-hosted, intrusion-hosted and intrusion-relateddeposit types.

6.1.2. Fluid inclusionsFluid inclusion studies (Bortnikov et al., 2010; Gamyanin et al., 2011;

Goryachev et al., 2008; Struzhkov et al., 2008) carried out on orogenicand intrusion-related gold deposits show that fluid concentrations inthe intrusion-related gold deposits are higher than fluid concentrationsof orogenic quartz veins (Table 4). Orogenic gold ores formed at250–350 °C and 1.1–2.4 kb (interval of gold deposition) as a result ofphase separation under conditions of decreasing P and T, according tothe REE patterns of altered rocks and gold-bearing quartz veins andfluid inclusions of orogenic sediment-hosted, intrusion-hosted andintrusion-related deposits (Bortnikov et al., 2010; Struzhkov et al.,2008; Volkov et al., 2011; Goryachev et al., 2008; Bortnikov andGoryachev, 2010). The parental fluids of the early and late mineral as-semblages were probably derived from a homogeneous magmaticsource and were characterized by Δ18OH2O = +6.3 to +8.8‰ at350 °C and +3.6 to +5.9‰ at 280 °C, respectively (Table 5)(Bortnikov et al., 2004; Goryachev et al., 2008; Struzhkov et al., 2008),and by very heavy oxygen isotope systematics for sheeted veins, as intheDuet deposit (Konstantinov et al., 2002). Intrusion (granitoid)-relat-ed deposits were formed in a temperature range of 400 to 250 °C andwithin a wide range of pressures (0.2–2.5 kb). The fluids originatedfrom magma chambers of the plutons, according to Δ18OH2O data(Gamyanin et al., 2000a,b; Struzhkov et al., 2008). The composition ofore minerals (arsenopyrite, Co–Ni-arsenides and sulfoarsenides and Bi-tellurides and sulfotellurides) (Gamyanin, 2001; Goryachev and

Table 4Fluid inclusion data.

Deposittype

Belt Homogenizationtemperatures, °C

Pressure,Kbar

Concentration,NaCl eq.%

Deposi

OSHD YKB 380–165 0.4–1.6 3–11 UtinskDegde

OIHD YKB 450–150 1.3–2.5 3.7–10.7 KrokhaOSHD OCB 430–119 0.2–1.2 0.7–10.1 Sypuch

MaiskoOSHD OKB 368–189 0.3–2.3 0.8–8.3 NezhdOIHD OKB 387–129 0.4–1.9 1.2–9.6 ShkolnAu–Sb OSHD YKB 380–100 – 1–2.5 Sarylak

IRD YKB 380–184 1–2.5 4.7–46 MalyshChugu

OCB 382–281 0.01–0.36 1.2–10.3 TuguchOKB 550–160 0.2–2,4 2.2–45.9 Pauk, T

Levo-DOCVB 540–120 – 26 Khalal

ED OM 300–100 0.01–0.2 1.4–11.2 Birkach

OKB 380–100 – About 3 JuliettaAD 250–125 – – KuranaMOB 140–125 – – PokrovOCVB 430–100 0.02–0.12 0.4–5.3 Karam

LunnoESAB 120–90 – low BelayaKKIB 300–100 0.01–0.1 0.2–9.2 Asachi

OSHD—orogenic sediment-hosted deposits; OIHD—orogenic intrusion-hosted deposits; IRD—Okhotsk–Chukotka belt; AD—Aldan area;MOB—Mongol–Okhotsk belt; OCVB—Okhotsk–Chukot

Gamyanin, 2006) is in agreement with the fluid inclusion data (widerange of pressure = 0.01–2.4; Gamyanin et al., 2011; Prokofiev et al.,2011; Struzhkov et al., 2008).

6.2. Epithermal gold deposits

The epithermal gold deposits occur in two different geodynamicsettings: (1) island arc magmatic belts (Kamchatka–Kurile belt, pre-accretionary epithermal deposits in Oloy–Chukotka belt) and activecontinental margin magmatic arcs (Omolon area, Okhotsk–Chukotka and Eastern Sikhote-Alin belts), and (2) rift-relateddeprressions, linked with orogenic belts and general strike-slip ki-nematics, such as transform-like active continent margin settings(Aldan area and Pokrovskoye deposit in the Mongol–Okhotskorogen). The epithermal deposits of the second group exhibitmany varieties, such as jasperoid-like low-angle (stratabound? ormanto-like) ore body morphologies, pyrite dominant and gold-telluride ores, and low amounts of Ag-sulfosalts. These deposits(Aldan area especially) are similar to the epithermal gold depositsof the Basin-and-Range province, such as Cripple Creek in Colora-do (USA). Fluid inclusion data are not so representative (Table 3).The epithermal gold ores formed at temperatures of between 150and 350 °C and pressures of between 0.01 and 0.12 kb, from verylow salinity fluids, with phase separation and boiling under condi-tions of decreasing T and P. The stable isotope data show good ev-idence about mixing between magmatic and meteoric water(Table 5). Some cases, such as the ore fluids of the Kuranakh de-posit, show evidence of dominant meteoric water (Konstantinovet al., 2002).

6.3. Lead isotope systematics

Lead isotope signatures in galena, pyrite and arsenopyrite from oro-genic, intrusion-related, and epithermal gold deposits show differentranges for each gold belt and seem to be independent of ore types(Fig. 23). The late Mesozoic gold deposits from Precambrian terranesand continental blocks reveal very low-radiogenic lead isotope compo-sition (deposits in the Omolon and Stanovoy terranes), which, for the

ts References

oye, Natalka, Taryn, Badran,kan, Yugler, Khakhchan,

Gamyanin et al. (2003); Akimov (2004);Goryachev et al. (2008); Struzhkov et al. (2008)

linoye, Srednekan, Berezitovoye Volkov et al. (2006)ee, Karalveem, Sovinoyeye

Bortnikov et al. (2004); Volkov et al. (2006);

aninskoye, Zaderzhnoye Gamyanin et al. (2007); Kondratieva et al. (2010)oye Volkov et al. (2011)h, Sentachan, Kyuchus Bortnikov et al. (2010);

Berzon et al. (1999)-Dubach, Delyuvialnoye,luk, Ergelyakh

Struzhkov et al. (2008);Gamyanin et al. (2011)

ak Gamyanin et al. (2011)eutedjak, Chumysh, Kurum,ybin, Arkachan, Butarnoye

Struzhkov et al. (2008); Gamyanin et al. (2011);Prokofiev et al. (2011)

i, Porozhistoye Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)an, Kubaka Konstantinov et al. (2002); Stepanov and

Shishakova (1994)Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)

kh Konstantinov et al. (2002)skoye Stepanov et al. (2008)ken, Dalnee, Dukat,ye, Arylakh, Teply

Kravtsova (2010);Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)

Gora Mishin and Berdnikov (2004)nskoye Borovikov et al. (2008)

intrusion-related deposits; YKB—Yana-Kolyma belt; OKB—Okhotsk–Koryak belt; OCB—kamagmatic arc; ESAB—East Sikhote-Alinmagmatic arc; KKIB—Kamchatka Kurile Islands arc.

Table 5δ18O data for fluids from gold deposits.

Deposit Mineral Thom average 18O Quartz, ‰ 18O Fluid,‰ 18O ‰ Fluid average References

Birkachan (ED) Quartz 190–150 6.2…7.7 −6.3…−7.7 −7.3 Konstantinov et al. (2002)Teply (ED) Kfspar 340 −6.4…−10.0 −10.3…−13.9 −12.5 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Dukat-1 (ED) Kfspar 350 −6.9…−11.1 −11.1…−15.3 −12.4 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Dukat-2 (ED) Kfspar 370 −3.4…−9.3 −7.2…−13.1 −9.3 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Lunny (ED) Kfspar 280 −2.5…−7.8 −8.3…−14.6 −11.9 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Arylakh (ED) Kfspar 290 −3.0…−8.4 −9.1…−13.8 −10.4 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Jullietta (ED) Kfspar 170 2.6 −9.2 −9.2 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Kuranakh (ED) Quartz 230 6.3…8.1 −2.1..−3.7 −2.8 Konstantinov et al. (2002)

150 11.0 −3.2 −3.2Belaya Gora (ED) Kaolinite 100 1…−1.5 −10.7…−13.2 −11.7 Mishin and Berdnikov (2004)Khalali (IRGD) Kfspar 280 −0.6…−5.8 −6.4…−11.6 −8.9 Struzhkov and Konstantinov (2005)Natalka (OSHD) Quartz 350 6.3… 8.8 Goryachev et al. (2008)

280 3.6…5.9Nezhdaninskoye (OSHD) Quartz 300 5.0…15.2 8.0…−1.0 Gamyanin et al. (2000a)Duet, Yur, Nekur (OSHD) Quartz 320–350 9.8…11.2 3.8…4.3 −2.5 Buryak et al. (1990);

Konstantinov et al. (2002)150 6.7…15.7 4.7…−5.5 8.1320–350 14.2…16.1 7.1…9.2

ED—Epithermal deposit; IRGD—Intrusion-related gold deposit; OSHD—orogenic sediment-hosted deposits.


FER orogenic and continental marginmagmatic belts, are quite uniformand plot within a narrow range (Fig. 23). These data provide evidencefor a large input of a lower crustal source into the gold deposits of thisregion. In theMongol–Okhotsk belt, a significant contribution of mantlesource is suggested.

Fig. 23. Lead isotope data for orogenic gold deposits frommain gold belts of the Russian Far Eastand Moiseenko, 2004; Stepanov et al., 2008). Fields of pictures according to Zartman (1974).

6.4. Genetic model for the orogenic gold deposits of Far East Russia

The data on isotopic-geochemical, thermometric, barometric andmineralogical–geochemical characteristics of mineral deposits serve asa basis for researchers to create a model of gold mineralization in the

andAlaska (after Avchenko et al., 2013; Dril et al., 2012; Goryachev et al., 2000; Ostapenko

image of Fig.�23

Fig. 24. A plutonic–metamorphic ore genesis model for orogenic gold deposits (modified after Goryachev, 2003), showing (A) early stage and (B) late stage (middle stage not shown; seetext for details).


orogenic belts (Goryachev, 2006). We propose that the geochemicaldifferences in orogenic granitoids are due both to distinct levels ofpartial melts and heterogeneous nature of the country rocks, as indi-cated by: (1) occurence of compositionally different xenolithshosted by S- (mostly gneiss) and I- (mostly amphibolites) type gran-ites; (2) differences in initial Sr ratio (0.7040–0.7120); (3) positionin basement blocks that have different densities, according to geo-physical data (Mikhailov and Goryachev, 2000; Goryachev, 2003).The fact that S- and I-type granites have similar fluid phase composi-tions (Goryachev and Berdnikov, 2006) indicates a genetic link be-tween crystallization products that formed at different depths inthe regional plutonic–metamorphic system of the Yana-Kolyma

collisional orogen. Two main stages were first envisaged byGoryachev (2003). However, based on the data provided in Table 2(and references therein), we suggest that it is more likely thatthree stages were involved as follows:

(1) The first stage is early orogenic and it is marked by Barrovianmetamorphism, ductile deformation andmetamorphic reactionsin sedimentary and igneous lithologies. This is time of incipientgrowth of granitic–metamorphic dome (core complexes), thestage of metamorphic fluid originating from progressivedevolatilization of volatile-bearing (OH, CO2, SO2) minerals(Pirajno, 2009; Zhang et al., 2013) and of partial melting of the

image of Fig.�24


lower crust. Orogenic gold–quartz veins and gold–sulfidedisseminated ores form during this early orogenic stage. Thefinal part of this stage is responsible for the change from ductileto brittle deformation and thrust faulting;

(2) The second stage is characterized by the emplacement of orogenicgranitic intrusions and formation of intrusion-related golddeposits;

(3) The third stage is the time of granite-metamorphic dome (corecomplexes) completion and emplacement of collisional graniticintrusions. The strike-slip structures are predominant duringthis late orogenic stage. The interacting metamorphic andmagmatic-hydrothermal fluids, sourced from cooling plutons,are associated with the late orogenic auriferous quartz veins,shear zone-associated and intrusion-related gold deposits. Thefirst and third stages are illustrated in Fig. 24.

6.4.1. Geodynamic and metallogenic styles of orogenic beltsComparison of orogenic gold deposit features fromdifferent orogens

shows a gold-specific metallogeny for the late Mesozoic orogens on thesouthern and eastern margins of the Siberian craton (Yana-Kolyma,Okhotsk–Koryak and Mongol–Okhotsk transform margin) (Goryachev,2010). These belts have different metal associations. The Yana-Kolymaorogen contains Au, Sn, W, Cu–Pb–Zn lode deposits. The Transbaikaliansector of the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen contains Au, Mo, Pb–Zn, Sn, Ta–Nb, W, Hg–Sb lode deposits, whereas Early Cretaceous Au, Cu–Mo,Hg–Sb lode deposits are present in the Amur sector of the latter. TheOkhotsk–Koryak accretionary orogen hosts Au, Cu–Mo, Cu–W–Bi, Ag–Co–Bi–As, Be–Sn–Li–W deposits of Early Cretaceous age. Position of Auand Sb–Hg deposits is different in all these orogens. In the Mongol–Okhotsk orogen, these deposits were formed during a short time inter-val and are controlled by specific tectonic elements (Stepanov et al.,

Fig. 25. (A) Extensive placer workings along the Tuora-Tas River in Yakutia; (B) nuggetsrecovered from placer deposits (photo taken in Ust-Nera Geological Museum (Northeast-ern Yakutia, Russia).

2008). Early orogenic gold deposits and late orogenic antimonydepositsare found in the Yana-Kolyma belt. Mesothermal orogenic gold depositsin the Yana-Kolyma belt are associated with tin-tungsten andmolybde-num deposits. The antimony and mercury lode deposits formed laterand are related to the second orogenic or post-orogenic (Hg) stage.The gold lode deposits of Mongol–Okhotsk and Yana-Kolyma orogenicbelts have dissimilar bismuth and antimony mineral parageneses fordifferent deposit types. Collisional orogens are characterized by anAu–Sn–Wmetal association. The accretionary orogens generally featurea Au–Sn–Cu–Mo association (suggesting a dominant crustal source),whereas transform continental margin orogenic belts typically have aAu–Mo–Sb–Hg association (suggesting a dominant mantle source).These metallogenic differences help in constraining the geodynamicconditions and evolutionary trends of the FER orogens.

7. Conclusions

FER was an exciting theater of early prospecting and explorationsince the mid–late 1800s, although much less publicized than its west-ern counterparts (e.g., North America, Australia, NewZealand). Its logis-tical and climatic conditions are probably more demanding. For thisreason and notwithstanding the previous publications, such asNokleberg (2010), which covered the wider part of North East Asia,we feel that in some way this review, which specifically deals withFER, also honors and acknowledges the early prospectors and explorerswho have toiled in the years past in the harsh conditions of the localterrains.

Here, we have presented a wide range of gold deposits, within thetectonic framework of the vast FER region, which comprises orogens,consisting of variably deformed passive continental margin sequences,as well as continental margin volcanic and accreted island arcs. Thetypes of gold deposits in FER include orogenic, sedimentary-rock-hosted, intrusion-related and intrusion-hosted systems, as well asgold–silver and gold–antimony–mercury epithermal systems, typicallylinked with island arc magmatism. The gold metallogeny of FER formedduring three major geological epochs: Paleozoic, late Mesozoic andCenozoic.

Mineralogical, geochemical and isotope data indicate a combinationof metamorphic and magmatic–hydrothermal origin in collisional set-tings (Yana-Kolyma, Okhotsk–Koryak, and Oloy–Chukotka orogens)and active continental margin settings (Okhotsk–Chukotka and EasternSikhote-Alin), with source contributions from the lower crust andman-tle (Fig. 24). The Mongol–Okhotsk and Sikhote-Alin orogens are oftransform fault-related origin and indicate that the source of the ore-forming fluids is mostly from the mantle. These data provide evidenceof a combination of lower crust and mantle sources for formation ofmost gold ore deposits in FER. The sialic basement has an importantrole for the formation of orogenic gold intrusion (granitoid)-relatedand intrusion-hosted lodes, in combination with tin and tungstendeposits.

Epithermal precious metal mineral systems, on the other hand, areintrinsically related to subduction regimes of island arcs and continentalmargins or, more rarely, to rift-associated back-arc tectonic settings.

Lastly, we point out that the substantial contribution of gold produc-tion from alluvial placers in FER is effectively the result of the ongoingprogressive erosion by fluvial drainage systems of the gold deposits, en-hanced by permafrost environment, herein discussed (Fig. 25).

Acknowledgments

Wewould like to thank the Editors of Ore Geology Reviews and TimHorscroft, for the invitation to prepare this review. Discussions and fieldtrips with the first author's colleagues, Alexandr Vakh and VitalyGvozdev from the Far East Geological Institute and Viktor Okruginfrom the Institute of Volcanology and Seismology, provided useful infor-mation about gold deposits in Primorie, Amur region and Kamchatka.

image of Fig.�25


We also extend our gratitude to the following colleagues, for their stim-ulating discussions which have assisted in the preparation of this work:Richard Goldfarb, Alex Khanchuk, Gennady Gamyanin, VladimirGolozubov, and Vladimir Shpikerman. Alexander Yakubchuk handledthis manuscript as Associate Editor and is thanked for his insightfulcomments, which resulted in considerable improvement of this contri-bution. This manuscript is part of IGCP-592 and supported by Far EastBranch of RAS Project 12-II-CO-08-30.

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