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FU

EL

Fuel is any material that stores energy that canlater be extracted to perform mechanical work in a

controlled manner.

Most fuels used by humans undergo combustion,a redox reaction in which a combustible substancereleases energy after it ignites and reacts with the

oxygen in the air.

Other processes used to convert fuel into energyinclude various other exothermic chemical

reactions and nuclear reactions, such as nuclearfission or nuclear fusion.

Fuels are also used in the cells of organisms in aprocess known as cellular respiration, where

organic molecules are oxidized to release usableenergy.

Hydrocarbons are by far the most common sourceof fuel used by humans, but many other

substances, such as radioactive metals, arecurrently used as well.

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Thereare three

majorforms of

fuels

Coal

OilNatural

Gas

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Coal is hard, black coloured-rock-like substances. Itis made up of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen

and varying amounts of sulphur

Coal is classified into four categories based on howit responded to increasing heat and pressure over

long periods of time and how much carbon itcontains

The Four

MajorCategories

of Coal

Lignite

Subbituminous

Bituminous

Antharacite

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Lignite (soft). Lignite, often referred to as brown coal, or Rosebudcoal by Northern Pacific Railroad, is a soft brown fuel with characteristicsthat put it somewhere between coal and peat.

Lignite is brownish-black in color and has a carbon content of around 25-35%, a high inherent moisture content sometimes as high as 66%, andan ashcontent ranging from 6% to 19% compared with 6% to 12%for bituminous coal.

The energy content of lignite ranges from 10 - 20 MJ/kg (9-17million BTU per short ton) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis. Lignite hasa high content of volatile matter which makes it easier to convert into gas

and liquid petroleum products than higher ranking coals. However, its highmoisture content and susceptibility to spontaneous combustion can causeproblems in transportation and storage.

Because of its low energy density and typically high moisture content,brown coal is inefficient to transport and is not traded extensively on theworld market compared with higher coal grades. It is often burned in powerstations constructed very close to any mines, such as in Australia's LatrobeValley andLuminant's Monticello plant in Texas.

Primarily because of latent high moisture content of brown coal, carbondioxide emissions from traditional brown coal fired plants are generallymuch higher than for comparable black coal plants, with the world's highestemitting being Hazelwood Power Station, Victoria.

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Subbituminous coal is a type of coal whoseproperties range from those of lignite to thoseof bituminous coal and are used primarily as fuelfor steam-electric power generation.

Sub-bituminous coals may be dull, dark

brown to black, soft and crumbly at thelower end of the range, to bright jet-black, hard, and relatively strong at theupper end. They contain 15-30% inherentmoisture by weight and are non-coking (undergo little swelling uponheating).

The heat content of sub-bituminous coalsrange from 8300 to 11,500 BTu/lb or19,306 to 26,749 kJ/kg. Their relatively lowdensity and high water content renderssome types of sub-bituminous coalssusceptible to spontaneous combustion ifnot packed densely during storage in orderto exclude free air flow.

A major source of sub-bituminous coal in theUnited States is the Powder RiverBasin in Wyoming. Sub-bituminous coals, inthe United States, typically have a sulfur contentless than 1% by weight, which makes them anattractive choice for power plants toreduce SO2 emissions under the Acid RainProgram.

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Bituminous coal or black coal is a relatively soft coal containing a tarlikesubstance called bitumen.

It is of higher quality than lignite coal but of poorer quality than Anthracite.It is usually formed as a result of high pressure on lignite.

Bituminous coal is an organic sedimentary rock formed by diagenetic andsub metamorphic compression of peat bog material.

Bituminous coal has been compressed and heated so that its primaryconstituents are macerals vitrinite, exinite, and so on. The carbon contentof bituminous coal is around 60-80%; the rest is composed of water, air,hydrogen, and sulfur, which have not been driven off from the macerals.

The heat content of bituminous coal ranges from 21 million to 30million Btu/ton (24 to 35 MJ/kg) on a moist, mineral-matter-free basis.

Bituminous coal is usually black, sometimes dark brown, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. Bituminous coal seams arestratigraphically identified by the distinctive sequence of bright and darkbands and are classified accordingly as either "dull, bright-banded" or"bright, dull-banded" and so on.

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THE USES OFBITUMINOUS

Bituminous coals are graded according tovitrinite reflectance, moisture

content, volatile content, plasticity and ashcontent. Generally, the highest value bituminous

coals have a specific grade ofplasticity, volatilityand low ash content, especially withlow carbonate, phosphorus, and sulfur.

Plasticity is vital for coking as it represents itsability to gradually form specific plasticity

phases during the coking process, measured bycoal dilatation tests. Low phosphorus content isvital for these coals, as phosphorus is a highly

deleterious (damaging) element in steel making.

Coking coal is best if it has a very narrow rangeof volatility and plasticity. This is measured by

the free swelling index test. Volatile content andswelling index are used to select coals for coke

blending as well.

Volatility is also critical for steel-making andpower generation, as this determines the burn

rate of the coal. High volatile content coals,while easy to ignite often are not as prized as

moderately volatile coals; low volatile coal maybe difficult to ignite although it contains more

energy per unit volume. The smelter mustbalance the volatile content of the coals tooptimize the ease of ignition, burn rate, and

energy output of the coal.

Low ash, sulfur, and carbonate coals are prizedfor power generation because they do notproduce much boiler slag and they do not

require as much effort to scrub the flue gases toremove particulate matter. Carbonates are

deleterious as they readily stick to the boilerapparatus. Sulfide contents are also deleterious

in some fashion as this sulfur is emitted andcan form smog, acid rain and haze pollution.

Again, scrubbers on the flue gases aim toeliminate particulate and sulfur emissions.

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This type of coal has the highest carbon content and the lowest moistureand ash content. Anthracite burns slowly and makes good heating fuel forhomes

Anthracite is the most metamorphosed type of coal (but still represents low-grade metamorphism), in which the carbon content is between 92.1% and98%.

The term is applied to those varieties of coal which do not give off tarry orother hydrocarbon vapours when heated below their point of ignition.Anthracite ignites with difficulty and burns with a short, blue, and smokelessflame.

The properties of Anthracite differs from ordinary bituminous coal by itsgreater hardness, its higher relative density of 1.31.4, and lustre, which isoften semi-metallic with a mildly brown reflection.

It contains a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentageof volatile matter. It is also free from included soft or fibrous notches anddoes not soil the fingers when rubbed. Anthracitization is the transformationof bituminous into anthracite.

The moisture content of fresh-mined anthracite generally is less than 15percent. The heat content of anthracite ranges from 22 to 28million Btu per short ton (26 to 33 MJ/kg) on a moist, mineral-matter-freebasis.

The heat content of anthracite coal consumed in the United States averages25 million Btu/ton (29 MJ/kg), on the as-received basis (i.e., containing bothinherent moisture and mineral matter).

Note: Since the 1980s, anthracite refuse or mine waste has been usedfor steam electric power generation.

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Anthracite may be considered to be a transition stage betweenordinary bituminous and graphite, produced by the more or lesscomplete elimination of the volatile constituents of the former, and it isfound most abundantly in areas that have been subjected toconsiderable earth-movements, such as the flanks of great mountain

ranges.

Anthracite is a product of metamorphism and is associatedwith metamorphic rocks, just as bituminous is associatedwith sedimentary rocks.

For example, the compressed layers of anthracite that are deep minedin the folded (metamorphic) Appalachian Mountains of the CoalRegion of northeastern Pennsylvania are extensions of the layers ofbituminous coal that are strip mined on the (sedimentary) AlleghenyPlateau of Kentucky and West Virginia, and Western Pennsylvania.

In the same way the anthracite region of South Wales is confined to thecontorted portion west of Swansea and Llanelli, the central and easternportions producing steam coal, coking coal and domestic house coals.

Structurally it shows some alteration by the development of secondarydivisional planes and fissures so that the original stratification lines arenot always easily seen.

The thermal conductivity is also higher, a lump of anthracite feelingperceptibly colder when held in the warm hand than a similar lump ofbituminous at the same temperature.

The chemical composition of some typical anthracites is given in thearticle coal.

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HOW DOES COAL FORMED?

Coal forms from the accumulation of plant debris, usually in a swamp

environment. When plant debris dies and falls into the swamp the standingwater of the swamp protects it from decay.

Swamp waters are usually deficient in oxygen, which would react with theplant debris and cause it to decay. This lack of oxygen allows the plantdebris to persist. In addition, insects and other organisms that mightconsume the plant debris on land do not survive well under water in anoxygen deficient environment.

To form the thick layer of plant debris required to produce a coal seam therate of plant debris accumulation must be greater than the rate of decay.Once a thick layer of plant debris is formed it must be buried by sedimentssuch as mud or sand. These are typically washed into the swamp by aflooding river.

The weight of these materials compacts the plant debris and aids in itstransformation into coal. About ten feet of plant debris will compact into justone foot of coal.

Plant debris accumulates very slowly. So, accumulating ten feet of plantdebris will take a long time. The fifty feet of plant debris needed to make a

five-foot thick coal seam would require thousands of years to accumulate.

During that long time the water level of the swamp must remain stable. If thewater becomes too deep the plants of the swamp will drown and if the watercover is not maintained the plant debris will decay. To form a coal seam theideal conditions of perfect water depth must be maintained for a very longtime.

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It is very easy to understand why the conditions for forming coal hasoccurred only a small number of times throughout Earth's history. The

formation of a coal requires the coincidence of highly improbable events.

For a coal seam to form perfect conditions of plant debris accumulationand perfect conditions of subsidence must occur on a landscape that

maintains this perfect balance for a very long time.

Most coal seams are thought to have formed under condition in a deltaenvironment. On a delta large amounts of river sediments are beingdeposited on a small area of Earth's crust and the weight of those

sediments causes the subsidence.

It can only occur under one of two conditions:

1) a rising water level that perfectly keeps pace with the rate of plant debrisaccumulation; or,

2) a subsiding landscape that perfectly keeps pace with the rate of plantdebris accumulation.

If you are an astute reader you are probably wondering: "How can fiftyfeet of plant debris accumulate in water that is only a few feet deep?" Theanswer to that question is the primary reason that the formation of a coal

seam is a highly unusual occurrence.

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Car Fuel

PetroleumPlatform

Cooking gas

Fertiliser

Plastic

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NATURAL GAS

Natural gas isgenerally considered a

nonrenewable fossilfuel. (There are somerenewable sources of

methane, the mainingredient in natural

gas, also discussed inthis factsheet.)

Natural gas is

considered a fossilfuel because mostscientists believe that

natural gas wasformed from the

remains of tiny seaanimals and plantsthat died 300 to 400

million years ago

When these tinysea animals andplants died, they

sank to the bottomof the oceans

where they wereburied by layers of

sediment thatturned into rock.Over the years, the

layers of sedimentaryrock became

thousands of feetthick, subjecting the

energy-rich plant andanimal remains to

enormous pressure.

Most scientistsbelieve that the

pressure, combinedwith the heat of theEarth, changed thisorganic mixture into

petroleum andnatural gas.

Eventually,concentrations of

natural gas becametrapped in the rock

layers like a wetsponge traps water

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Raw natural gas is a mixture of different gases. The main ingredient ismethane, a natural compound that is formed whenever plant and

animal matter decays.

By itself, methane is odorless, colorless, and tasteless. As a safetymeasure, natural gas companies add a chemical odorant calledmercaptan (it smells like rotten eggs) so escaping gas can be detected.

Natural gas should not be confused with gasoline, which is made frompetroleum.

The world's largest gas field is Qatar's offshore North Field, estimatedto have 25 trillion cubic meters (9.01014cubic feet) of gas in placeenough to last more than 420 years at optimum extraction levels.

The second largest natural gas field is the South Pars GasField in Iranian waters in the Persian Gulf.

Located next to Qatar's North Field, it has an estimated reserve of 8 to14 trillion cubic meters[7] (2.81014 to 5.01014 cubic feet) of gas.

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THE USES OFNATURAL GAS

Powergeneration

Natural gas is a major sourceof electricity generation through

the use of gasturbines and steam turbines.

Most grid peaking power

plants and some off-grid engine-generators use

natural gas.

Domestic use

Natural gas dispensed from asimple stovetop can generate

heat in excess of 2000F(1093C) making it a powerfuldomestic cooking and heating

fuel.

Transportation

Gasoline/petrol vehiclesconverted to run on natural gas

suffer because of thelowcompression ratio of their

engines

Fertiliser

Natural gas is a majorfeedstock for the productionof ammonia, via the Haber

process, for usein fertilizer production.

Aviation

Russian aircraftmanufacturer Tupolev is

currently running a

development program toproduce LNG- and hydrogen-powered aircraft.

Other

Natural gas is also used in themanufacture

of fabrics, glass, steel, plastics,paint, and other products.

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Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek: petra(rock) + Latin: oleum(oil))or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of acomplex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights and otherliquid organic compounds, that are found in geologic formations beneaththe Earth's surface.

Petroleum is recovered mostly through oil drilling. This latter stage comesafter the studies of structural geology (at the reservoir scale), sedimentarybasin analysis, reservoir characterization (mainly in terms of porosity andpermeable structures).

It is refined and separated, most easily by boiling point, into a largenumber of consumer products, from petrol and kerosene to asphalt andchemical reagents used to makeplastics and pharmaceuticals. Petroleumis used in manufacturing a wide variety of materials.

An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some naturalgas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface thanunderground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered

(or burned) as associated gasor solution gas.

A gas well produces predominantly natural gas. However, because theunderground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, thegas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane,and heptane in the gaseous state.

At surface conditions these will condense out of the gas to form naturalgas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensateresembles petrol in appearance and is similar in composition tosome volatile light crude oils.

The proportion of light hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture variesgreatly among different oil fields, ranging from as much as 97% by weightin the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils andbitumens.

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One 42-gallon barrel of oil creates 19.4 gallons of gasoline. The rest (over half)

is used to make things like:

Solvents Diesel fuel Motor Oil Bearing Grease

Ink Floor Wax Ballpoint Pens Football Cleats

Upholstery Sweaters Boats Insecticides

Bicycle Tires Sports Car Bodies Nail Polish Fishing lures

Dresses Tires Golf Bags Perfumes

Cassettes Dishwasher parts Tool Boxes Shoe Polish

Motorcycle Helmet Caulking Petroleum Jelly Transparent Tape

CD Player Faucet Washers Antiseptics Clothesline

Curtains Food Preservatives Basketballs Soap

Vitamin Capsules Antihistamines Purses ShoesDashboards Cortisone Deodorant Footballs

Putty Dyes Panty Hose Refrigerant

Percolators Life Jackets Rubbing Alcohol Linings

Skis TV Cabinets Shag Rugs Electrician's Tape

Tool Racks Car Battery Cases Epoxy Paint

Mops Slacks Insect Repellent Oil Filters

Umbrellas Yarn Fertilizers Hair Coloring

Roofing Toilet Seats Fishing Rods Lipstick

Denture Adhesive Linoleum Ice Cube Trays Synthetic Rubber

Speakers Plastic Wood Electric Blankets Glycerin

Tennis Rackets Rubber Cement Fishing Boots Dice

Nylon Rope Candles Trash Bags House Paint

Water Pipes Hand Lotion Roller Skates Surf Boards

Shampoo Wheels Paint Rollers Shower Curtains

Guitar Strings Luggage Aspirin Safety Glasses

Antifreeze Football Helmets Awnings Eyeglasses

Clothes Toothbrushes Ice Chests Footballs

Combs CD's & DVD's Paint Brushes Detergents

Vaporizers Balloons Sun Glasses Tents

Heart Valves Crayons Parachutes Telephones

Enamel Pillows Dishes Cameras

Anesthetics Artificial Turf Artificial limbs Bandages

Dentures Model Cars Folding Doors Hair Curlers

Cold cream Movie film Soft Contact lenses Drinking Cups

Fan Belts Car Enamel Shaving Cream AmmoniaRefrigerators Golf Balls Toothpaste Gasoline

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Lipstic

Umbrella

Ballon

Wheel

Hand Lotion

Shampoo

CD player

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ENVIRON

MENTALEFFECT

Global Warming

When burned, petroleum releases carbon dioxide;a greenhouse gas. Along with the burning of coal,petroleum combustion is the largest contributor to

the increase in atmospheric CO2.

Atmospheric CO2 has risen steadily sincethe industrial revolution to current levels of over

380ppmv, from the 180 - 300ppmv of the prior 800thousand years, driving global warming

Extraction

Oil extraction is simply the removal of oil from thereservoir (oil pool). Oil is often recovered as a

water-in-oil emulsion, and specialty chemicalscalleddemulsifiers are used to separate the oilfrom water.

Oil extraction is costly and sometimesenvironmentally damaging, although Dr. John

Hunt of the Woods Hole OceanographicInstitution pointed out in a 1981 paper that over70% of the reserves in the world are associatedwith visible macroseepages, and many oil fields

are found due to natural seeps.

Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbsthe surrounding marine environment.

Oil spills

Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tankership accidents have damaged

natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Gulf of Mexico,the Galapagos Islands, Franceand many other

places.

Oil spills at sea are generally much moredamaging than those on land, since they can

spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oilslick which can cover beaches with a thin coating

of oil.

This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish andother organisms it coats.