GMRC American eel technical report

8/8/2019 GMRC American eel technical report

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Gespegewaq Migmaq Resource Council 94B Riverside West, Listuguj Migmag First Nation, Listuguj, Quebec G0C 2R0

Tel: 418-788-3017 Fax: 418-788-3192 Web:www.migmaqresource.org

Gespegewaq Migmaq Resource Counc

Monica Schuegraf B.Sc., M.E.S.

Peter Dowd B.A.

TAN TELNENASGL GATEGATIL GESPEGEWAGIG

PERCEPTIONS OF AMERICAN EEL HABITATIN GESPEGEWAGI
http://www.migmaqresource.org/http://www.migmaqresource.org/http://www.migmaqresource.org/


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Table of Contents

Abbreviations 1List of Abbreviations 1List of Table and Figures 1

Tables 1Figures 1Executive Summary 2Eel in Migmaw Culture 3History of the Eel 3Risks of the Eel Population 3Materials and Methods 3

Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge 3Habitat and Maps 4Water Quality 4Results 4Food and Use 5Fishing Historical 5Fishing Present 5Changes in Eel Population and Habitat 6Eel River Bar: 6Pabineau: 6Listuguj: 6Water Quality 7

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Migration Barriers 7Discussion 7Why has Eel Fishing Declined? 7Dams and Pollution 8

The Arrival of Industry and Acid Rain 8Conclusion 9Future Research 9

Acknowledgements 10Literature Cited 10

Appendix A Guideline Questions for Interviews 12Appendix B Questionnaire 12

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Abbreviations

List of Abbreviations

CCME Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment

CEWG Canadian Eel Working Group

COSEWIC Committee On the Status of Endangered Wildlife In Canada

DO Dissolved Oxygen

DFO Department of Fisheries and Oceans Canada Fw Fresh water

GMCME Gulf of Maine Council on the Marine Environment

GMRC Gespegewag Migmaq Resource CouncilEC Environment Canada

NPRI National Pollutant Release Inventory

Sw Salt water

List of Table and Figures

Tables

Table 1. Water quality assessment for sites in three different communities. August 25-27, 2007

Table 2. Industrial operations situated on the Bay of Chaleur. Construction and dates of reselling or renovation in-

cluded where known. Letters corresponds to maps in Figure 5.

Figures

Figure 1. Maritimes showing the traditional Migmaq region of Gespegewagi. 1) Listuguj First Nation, 2) Eel River

Bar First Nation, 3) Pabineau First Nation.

Figures 2 and 3. Best eel fishing sites in Eel River Bar First Nation (Fig. 2) and Pabineau First Nation (Fig 3). Boxed

numbers are water quality sample sites from Table 1.

Figure 3. Best eel fishing sites of Pabineau First Nation members. Hatch Eels believed no longer present. Check

Eel population unchanged. Numbers corresponds to sample sites for Water Quality in Table 1.

Figure 4. Best eel fishing sites near Listuguj First Nation. Boxed numbers are water quality sample sites from Table

1.

Figure 5. Bay of Chaleur showing major towns and First Nations communities. Pollution point sources () are identi-

fied with letters, ID chart on locator map. Data: Environment Canada: National Pollutant Release Inventory (2005).

Tan telnenasgl gategatil Gespegewagig 1


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Executive Summary

American eel populations (Anguilla rostrata) are in decline throughout Ontario and Quebec. COSEWIC has recently listedAmerican Eel as a Species of Concern. Yet eel population data for Atlantic Canada are ambiguous at best. The Ameri-can Eel is physically, spiritually and traditionally significant to Maritime Migmaq culture. The Gespegewag Migmaq Re-source Council (GMRC) in New Brunswick was concerned that First Nations groups were not consulted prior to the list-ing of the eel and decided to undertake research of eel populations and traditional knowledge with participating commu-nities, Listuguj First Nation, Eel River Bar First Nation, Pabineau First Nation. This study involved Migmaw people, pri-marily elders, in identifying past locations of key eel fishing grounds and habitat, any major migration barriers, knowledgeof population size and reasons for population changes.

19 people participated in the study; 4 people through interviews with the authors and 15 people through a GMRC ques-tionnaire. Individuals were asked about use of eel, eel fishing, habitat and populations. Water quality (pH and dissolvedoxygen) was measured in order to test for serious problems.

The elder population (>50 years, 13/19 people) constituted the largest proportion of this traditional knowledge study. Eel

was an important part of Mikmaq diets. Some elders would eat eel every day. Today only 2 people eat eel. Yet, 88% ofindividuals said they would eat eel if it was available. Many methods were used to fish eel, spearing was the most com-mon method used all year around. Locations of traditional eeling grounds were identified. 100 % of respondents said thateel fishing has decreased in their communities. The most common reasons offered for the decrease in eel fishing are, (1)pollution/sewage in the water, (2) change in diet, (3) traditions not passed down, (4) damming of the Eel River. In general,respondents did not think eel populations had changed that much. But, in Eel River Bar people think eel population hasdeclined because of the dam on the Eel River.

Aquatic pollution was most common reason given for the decline of the eel fishery. Serious eel fishing has not occurredfor 25-30 years (~1970s). Industrialization in the Bay of Chaleur also occurred during the 1970s. Industrial effluents, mu-nicipal wastewater and acid rain were all entering aquatic systems. People perceived the water as highly polluted. It wasinferred that the perception of pollution contributed to the decline of eel fishing.

Perceived pollution (regardless of actual levels) has contributed to a partial loss of faith, and changing of the relationship

between the Migmaq and the natural world. The Migmaq of Gespegewagi retain large amounts of traditional knowl-edge about the American Eel. If eel fishing and related traditions are not resurrected, then it is likely that the traditions willsoon be lost, with the eventual loss of those remaining elders who carry the knowledge.

Further research is required to ascertain the status of eel populations in this region. Monitoring programs should be im-plemented in order to record any changes. Finally, eel should be tested for heavy metals and contaminants in order todetermine effect on humans and to recommend a safe level of eel consumption for this area. Furthermore, these resultsshould be communicated to the people of this area.Introduction

The American Eel (Anguilla rostrata) was recently listed by COSEWIC (2006) as a Species of Concern. The listing wasmade with little input from Aboriginal and First Nation peoples and was primarily based on information from Ontario andcentral Quebec where eel populations are experiencing drastic declines. The status of eel populations in Atlantic Canadais more difficult to determine because Atlantic eel population data comes primarily from fisheries landings and electro-

fishing surveys. In New Brunswick, data was mined from salmon electro-fishing surveys on the Restigouche and Mi-ramichi Rivers (COSEWIC 2006). The results of these surveys showed no conclusive trends (CEWG 2007)

The purpose of this research is to address the lack of information about eel from both Atlantic Canada, and a First Nationpeople the Migmaq. This study involved Migmaw people, primarily elders, in identifying past locations of key eel fish-ing grounds and habitat, any major migration barriers, knowledge of population size and reasons for population changes.



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Eel in Migmaw Culture

The Gespegewagi Migmaq Resource Council (GMRC) is a conservation oriented Migmaw organization based in Listu-guj, Quebec at the head of the Bay of Chaleur (Figure 1). The Listiguj First Nation, Eel River Bar First Nation and PabineauFirst Nation all contributed to the creation of the organization. The American Eel, known as gat in Migmaw is of sig-nificant physical, spiritual and traditional importance to the Migmaw culture. Historically, the eel has been an importantsource of food, celebrations, and medicine as well as part of a number of Migmaw legends (Vicaire 2007, Davis et al.

2004, Prosper and Paulette 2002). The listing of the eel as a Species of Concern without significant aboriginal inputprompted the GMRC to take an interest in this issue.

History of the Eel

The American Eel is a catadromous fish that can take up to 20 years to reach sexual maturity. Eels use a diverse rangeof habitat and hence it is difficult to identify specific eel habitat (Daverat et al. 2006, Domingos et al. 2006, Laffaille et al.2004, Wiley et al. 2004). During maturation, eels may be found in marine, brackish and/or freshwater (Arai et al. 2006,Lamson et al. 2006) and over any substrate, including mud, cobble and bigger rocks, although they do tend build bur-rows in softer substrates (Aoyama et al. 2005). When the American Eel reaches maturity (from age 7-20+) it returns to the

Atlantic Ocean and migrates to the Sargasso Sea where it is believed that all American Eel spawn at the same time (CO-SEWIC 2006). Adult eels die following reproduction (DFO 2006). Young eggs and leptocephali larvae drift with oceancurrents. After metamorphosis, glass eels actively move to inland North American waters. Anguilla rostrata populations

are believed to be panmictic, meaning eels throughout North America are one genetic population (COSEWIC 2006).

Risks of the Eel Population

Eels are semelparous and can take up to 20 years to reach sexual maturity. Consequently, the single biggest threat tothe eel population is death prior to reproduction. The two primary anthropogenic factors contributing to pre-spawningdeath in eels are dams and fisheries. In Ontario and Quebec, turbines in hydro-electric dams kill large numbers of adultfemale eels as they migrate back to the Atlantic Ocean (COSEWIC 2006). Eel fisheries also threaten Anguilla rostratapopulations. Since the life-cycle of eels involves long migrations leading to a single reproductive event, every eel that iscaught in inland waters is caught before it has spawned (COSWEWIC 2006). Selective fishing for larger animals alsoreduces the number of highly fecund females that are reproducing.

A lesser risk is habitat loss caused by barriers which stop or limit access to high-quality habitat. Hydro-electric and other

dams limit seasonal migrations of adult eels from salt to freshwater and back (GMCME 2007, CEWG 2007, Lamson et al.2006). Dams, culverts and some fish ladders also reduce habitat available to elvers. Elvers penetrate quite far up inlandstreams, yet they cannot swim fast or long enough to pass through most culverts and fish ladders (GMCME 2007).Elvers smaller than 10 cm can climb some vertical surfaces and thus penetrate beyond dams. However, young eelsgreater than 10 cm cannot climb vertically and must be assisted in passing dams or fail to colonize lakes and rivers be-yond (GMCME 2007, Lamson et al. 2006).

Because American Eel are panmictic, a population crash in one North American region may affect the number of youngeel that come to any region (COSEWIC 2006). As such, a decline of American Eel in Ontario and Quebec could alsopose a problem for eel in the Maritimes.

Materials and Methods

Aboriginal Traditional Knowledge

The GMRC received approval for the research from Mikmaw Ethics Watch at Cape Breton University (Mikmaw EthicsWatch 2007). Following approval, nineteen people from three different communities contributed information to this study.Elders were identified by GMRC and Band leaders. Two different methods were used to gather information, 1) semi-directed interview (4 people, Appendix A) and 2) a questionnaire (15 people Appendix B).



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The authors interviewedtwo people from Listugujand one elder each fromPabineau and Eel River.

The authors were ac-

companied by a memberof the GMRC to thehomes of the elders.Each interview tookabout an hour. Theauthors asked questionsonly when necessary torefocus the discussionaround eel and relatedissues. Topographicmaps of the area wereprovided in order forinterviewees to identifykey eel fishing grounds.

For the , in Eel River andPabineau, a GMRC em-ployee approached theBand Council office whorecommended knowl-edgeable individuals tocomplete the question-naire (about 5 from eachcommunity). In almost

every case, the employee sat down with individuals and assisted in completing the questionnaire. In Listuguj, some eld-ers recommended other knowledgeable elders. The information was collated by the authors.

Habitat and Maps

Key eel habitat was identified by interview and questionnaire respondents. The interviewees identified past eel fishinggrounds on the topographic maps. In contrast, the questionnaire respondents only wrote down locations of good eelfishing locations. Consequently, it was not possible to locate all of the eel grounds on the maps (Figures 2, 3 and 4) dueto the use of local names which are not labeled as such on the topographic maps.

Water Quality

Temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity and pH values were measured using YSI 55 and YSI 85 handheld digitalmeters. Parameters were collected from most of the important eel fishing sites between August 25 and 27, 2007. Sam-pling sites are illustrated in Figures 2, 3 and 4. Dissolved oxygen and pH values were compared to acceptable valuesfrom the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (1999).

Results

All of the individuals that were asked to participate responded to the questionnaire and agreed to have their responsesused in this study. The elder population (>50 years) constituted the largest proportion of this traditional knowledge study:Of the 19 respondents, 13 were over the age of 50 (72%), three were between 40 and 50, two were between the ages of30 and 40 (one age was not provided).


Figure 1. Maritimes showing the traditional Migmaq region of Gespegewagi.

1) Listuguj First Nation, 2) Eel River Bar First Nation, 3) Pabineau First Nation.


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Food and Use

Traditionally, eel was a staple in the Migmaw diet. Available for every day meals, i t was also a part of feasts and celebra-tions. In discussions with the authors, three elders stated that eel was very good and would be chosen above salmonand lobster. Eel was eaten quite frequently by elders in most communities. Some elders ate eel every day, while otherswould eat it once a week for their Friday fish. Some of the younger respondents have never eaten eel.

However, eel is no longer an important part of a modern Migmaw diet. In fact, only 2 of 18 people currently consumeeel as a regular part of their diet. This low rate of consumption is not by choice: 88% of respondents said they would eateel if it was available. Younger people also stated they would eat it, although they expressed a desire to learn more aboutits nutritional value.

Eel fishing was not just a subsistence activity. Fishing eel commercially also provided a source of income for many Mig-maq. Fishers used to sell eel for $1.00-2.00 per dozen. Eel were also traded with different communities for potatoes andother garden produce.

Fishing Historical

Eel fishing was a common activity in all three communities. Eels were caught by hook and l ine, by hand, using eel trapsor, the most common method, spearing. Eels were speared both in winter through the ice, and in open water. Eels were

speared through the mud or in rocky pools. There are two different types of eel spears, one used in winter, one used insummer and fall.

In Eel River Bar, people would most com-monly spear eel at night from a boat with akerosene torch to attract the eel. The boatwould circle the harbour. This was the bestarea for eel fishing in Eel River. (Figure 2)

Pabineau First Nation members fished eel inthree primary locations: (1) in the PabineauRiver; (2) the Nepisiguit River (especially atPabineau Falls) and in (3) in Bathurst Har-bour, especially around Indian Island (Figure

3).

The community of Listuguj is on the famoussalmon fishing river, the Restigouche. In Lis-tuguj, salmon fishing was more commonthan eel fishing, for most people. Yet, therewere still a number of people that fished eelnear the community (Figure 4). Fishing tookplace along the north shore of the Res-tigouche where the substrate was quitemuddy around the old piers at the Drumwas a favorite spot. Eel were also fishedamong the islands further up the Res-tigouche, and at the piers from the old

boom, both on the north and south shores.

Fishing Present

Today eel fishing is a rare activity. 100% ofrespondents said that the number of peoplefishing eel has decreased. The most com-mon reasons offered for the decrease in eelfishing are, in order: (1) pollution/sewage in


Figures 2 and 3. Best eel fishing sites in Eel River Bar First Nation (Fig. 2)

and Pabineau First Nation (Fig 3). Boxed numbers are water quality sample


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the water [6 people], (2) change in diet [5 people], (3) the tradition was not passed down to the present generation [4people], (4) Eel River Bar only the damming of Eel River [3 people], (5) the lack of eels available to be caught [2 people],(6) less interest in / fear of eels [2 people].

Changes in Eel Population and Habitat

Interviewees were asked their perceptions of changes in eel population sizes1. One interviewee from Pabineau statedthat, in general, there are the same amount of eel today as there used to be, that there is little problem for the populationbecause people no longer eat eel. Another interviewee responded that they had not noticed a change in eel population,

but in how people perceive the eel.However, three interviewees stated itwas difficult to estimate populationbecause no one fishes for eel any-more.

Eel River Bar:

The damming of the Eel River haschanged the hydrography. According

to respondents, the harbour at EelRiver Bar was muddy with a healthypopulation of eelgrass. Today this har-bour is soft and silty and lacks eelgrass. The siltation is primarily due tothe dam that was constructed in 1963.Evidence of siltation was observedeven in 1967 (Medcof 1967). Largesand and gravel bars are now presentin the harbour. Before the dam wasbuilt, sand and gravel build-up wouldbe washed out during spring runoff

and flash storms. The interviewee from Eel River Bar believed that as a consequence of the dam, eel, other fish and mol-lusk populations in Eel River have decreased significantly.

Pabineau:

The perception in Pabineau is that eel populations have changed little. In some traditional fishing areas, however, eel areno longer present, such as the downtown section of Bathurst Harbour. The harbour has a soft silt and sand substrate,there are still large areas of eelgrass meadows in the harbour and it appears in relatively good condition. A section of theharbour runs along downtown Bathurst: This section is almost completely blocked off by a causeway/bridge that wasconstructed in the 1850s. One interviewee mentioned that a large amount of waste bark and sewage has accumulatedin that part of the harbour and that eel are no longer found there.

Listuguj:

Little information was received about eel populations around Listuguj. A questionnaire respondent from Listuguj volun-teered the information that there are hardly any eels left. One interviewee believed that something in the water is killingthe eel. People in Listuguj no longer fish or swim in the Restigouche because of fears about polluted waters. The sub-strate along the North shore of the Restigouche River was said to be quite muddy. No comments were given about howthe substrate has changed.

Figure 4. Best eel fishing sites near Listuguj First Nation. Boxed numbers are water

quality sample sites from Table 1.



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Water Quality

Although not the focus of this study, basic water quality information was collected to indicate any serious problems. Wa-ter quality assessments (temperature, pH, DO and salinity) were completed for all areas (Table 1). With the exception ofthe site at the mouth of the Pabineau River, all values for pH were slightly basic. All dissolved oxygen and pH values fellwithin the recommended ranges given in the Canadian Water Quality Guidelines for the Protection of Aquatic Life (pH =6.5-9.5; DO Fw=>6 Sw=.8; CCME 1999). Nonetheless, interview and questionnaire respondents expressed concern

over possible levels of aquatic pollutants from different sources in the Bay of Chaleur.

Migration Barriers

There do not appear to be many dams or other barriers that are affecting upstream or downstream migration of eels andelvers. Only three major barriers to up- and downstream eel migration were identified by respondents: (1) the dam onthe Eel River built in 1963, (2) a hydro-electric dam on the Nepisiguit River which was constructed in 1921 and (3) thecauseway in Bathurst that was constructed in the 1850s. The causeway may have little effect as it does have a smallbridge which allows passage of eels.

The Eel River dam does have a fish ladder, however the velocity and turbulence of the water is probably too high to allowelvers to swim up it (GMCME 2007). After the dam was built many adult eels could be found at the base of the dam. On

occasion, adult eels would cross the road section of the dam. The slime trails left behind were observed by the Eel Riverrespondent. This dam must be a significant barrier to migration.

Hydro-electric dams can cause fatal injuries to eels if caught in the turbines. The Nepisiguit dam was built to power thepulp mill in Bathurst. The mill closed in 2005 and the dam was sold to New Brunswick Power in 2007. The dam is stillfunctional producing 10.8 megawatts of electricity a year. The turbines likely present a risk to female eels migrating backto the Sargasso Sea.

Discussion

Among the six interviewees there did not seem to be general consensus as to whether eel populations were increasing,decreasing or constant. In fact, the perception of the health of the eel population seemed dependent on location. Al-though people that live or fished around more populated coastal areas (Bathurst, Listuguj and Eel River Bar) believe that

eel populations have declined, the perception of the more rural Pabineau area is that the eel population has remainedrelatively unchanged. However, the overarching conclusion shared by First Nations fishers is that there is little knowledgeabout the current status of eel. The demise of the eel fishery is directly responsible for at least some of the gaps inknowledge.

Why has Eel Fishing Declined?

Fifty years ago, eel fishing was a common activity in Eel River Bar, Listuguj and Pabineau. Eel was part of the diet duringthe fall, winter and late summer. Eel was not just a staple, but also a favorite food. Some individuals fished commercially,and for them eel also provided a way of life. Although many places in New Brunswick and Quebec still have an active


W1 Eel River west side of Road 17 24.6 8.0 8.5W2 Pabineau mouth Pabineau River 21 0.0 6.7 8.6W3 Pabineau Boucher Falls 21 0.0 7.3 9.1W4 Bathurst mouth Nepisiguit River 20 4.9 7.6 8.9W5 Bathurst south of Causeway 21 10.0 7.6 8.6W6 Bathurst Indian Island 20 18.1 8.3 9.6W7 Listuguj the Drum 16 2.3 8.0 9.4W8 Listuguj the Wharf 16 3.1 7.9 9.5


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commercial eel fishery (some First Nations groups in New Brunswick even have commercial eel fishing licenses), thereare no longer any commercial eel fishers in Eel River Bar, Listuguj, or Pabineau. None of these communities have com-mercial eel licenses. Despite the fact that fishing is permitted for subsistence and ceremonial purposes (DFO 2000,2007), there are few eel fishers at all in either of these three communities.

Eel fishing is rapidly becoming a thing of the past. According to five respondents eel fishing declined because dietschanged. Yet eel is currently desired as a protein source. With 88% of people saying they would eat eel if available, it

seems more likely that what happened is the converse: diets changed because people stopped fishing eel. Many of theyounger respondents believe that eel fishing has declined because the methods and traditions of eel fishing were notpassed on to them. The question that remains to be answered is Why werent these traditions passed on?

Dams and Pollution

In Eel River Bar, the dam constructed in 1963 caused dramatic change to the harbour within 3-4 years. The siltation andgravel build-up changed the substrate in the harbour making it less hospitable for soft shell clams (Medcof 1967). Re-spondents from Eel River Bar believe that changes in the harbour also caused a decrease in the number of eel. The dammay have contributed to the decline of eel fishing in Eel River Bar, but it does not explain the decline of eel fishing in theother communities.

Two elders that were active fishers stated that the last time they had fished for eel was around 30 years ago - sometime

during the 1970s. However, neither one could think of a particular reason why they stopped fishing for eel. When askedif they had concerns about the eel population both stated that they were worried about pollution. They mentioned con-cerns over multiple sources of pollutants: sewage and household waste, effluent from mills and large industry. Anotherrespondent mentioned concern about acid rain and other sources of pollution.

The Arrival of Industry and Acid Rain

There are a large number of industrial developments situated along the New Brunswick side of the Bay of Chaleur (Table2; Figure 5). Most of these industries opened, or were renovated between 1965 and 1975, northern New Brunswicksindustrialization period. During industrialization federal and provincial governments provided incentives to industries tolocate in northern New Brunswick (Beaudin 1999, The Canadian Encyclopedia). Mills, mines and factories produce quan-tities of inevitable waste products. In the 1970s environmental regulations were less strict; industrial effluents were often

released untreated, directly into

coastal waters. In addition, municipalwastewater was also released un-treated to inland waters. In 1983,only around 50% of municipalitieswere treating wastewater (EC 2003).People were beginning to wonderabout the safety of their water, andconsequently, the safety of the foodthat came from that water. Researchconducted in the 1960s and 70sshows that there was also rising con-cern among scientists over pollutionand development in the Bay ofChaleur (Schafer 1973; Sprague

1966). Generalized sources of pollu-tion also played a role in affectingpeoples perception of their environ-ment. During the late 1970s and into80s the hot topic was acid rain,caused by airborne pollutants, mainlysulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides (EC2003). The scare over acid rain onlyserved to further upset peoples faithin their environment.


A AV Cell Inc. - pulp mill Atholville 1920s 1981

B Irving Oil Campbellton

C PCI Chemicals Canada Co. Dalhousie 1963 1971

EAbitibi-Bowater Inc. - pulpmill

Dalhousie 1928 1980

F NB Power thermal gener-ating station

Dalhousie 1969

H NB Power - thermal gener-ating station

Belledune 1993

I Falconbridge Limited -smelter

Belledune 1960s 1971

J Acadie-Bathurst Health

Auth. - hospital

Bathurst 1973

K Smurfit-Stone Container mill

Bathurst 1914 196

(closed 2005)

Table 2. Industrial operations situated on the Bay of Chaleur. Construction and dates ofreselling or renovation included where known. Letters corresponds to maps in Figure 5.


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Between 1965 and 1980 the aquatic environment was receiving pollution from sewage, industrial effluent and acid rain.Although it was not stated by respondents, it seems likely that the slowing and eventual stopping of eel fishing was re-lated to the perception that the water was unsafe. Inhabitants of the area, especially First Nations, had a feeling that theirwater sources were being contaminated. This probably led to the logical conclusion that animals spending their entire

lives in coastal waters arealso contaminated. Most

fish do not spend theirentire lives in coastal wa-ters.

For example, fish such assalmon (Salmo salar),striped bass (Moronesaxatilis) and gaspereau(Aloso spp.) all migrateupstream to spawn, butspend most of their livesin the ocean (Chadwick1995). American eel growto maturity in inland wa-

ters, many of them inharbours and estuariesand thus are constantlyexposed to pollutants,mercury, heavy metalsand organic chemicalsduring their relatively longlives (Brusle 1991, Couil-lard et al. 1997). Organicpollutants are soluble andbioaccumulate in fats.Eels have a high percent-age of fat, compared tosome fish and for thisreason, can harbour highlevels of pollutants (Brusle1991). It seems then, that

First Nations people had good reason to be wary of fishing, and eating eel. Today, pollution still exists (Chou 1995), butenvironmental regulations have improved and pollution levels are likely lower. There is still not enough information aboutcontaminants levels in harbours and estuaries in the Bay of Chaleur. Nor is there enough knowledge of how pollutantsmight affect eel and the possible health risks of consuming that eel.

Conclusion

The Migmaq of Gespegewagi still retain much knowledge about American Eel. Fishing and eating eel was a centralpart of Migmaw culture. Eel fishing stopped almost completely in the 1970s. Over time, with population growth, largertowns and the arrival of big industry, coastal waters and harbours became polluted. Regardless of actual levels, the per-ceived pollution created a fear of the water and its resident aquatic life. It is our theory, that this fear caused a decline in

the traditional activity of eel fishing. Not only this, but fear may also have contributed to a loss of faith and changing rela-tionship with the natural world. Comments from respondents showed that the American Eel is a tasty and desirable food,even in the modern Migmaw diet. If eel fishing and related traditions are not resurrected, then it is likely that the traditionswill soon be lost, with the eventual loss of those remaining elders who carry the knowledge

Future Research

Although there remain significant gaps in knowledge regarding the status of the American Eel population in the threecommunities, this study identified a possible reason, pollution of the aquatic environment, for the decline of the eel fishery


Figure 5. Bay of Chaleur showing major towns and First Nations communities. Pollution pointsources () are identified with letters, ID chart on locator map. Data: Environment Canada: National

Pollutant Release Inventory (2005).


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in Migmaq communities along the Bay of Chaleur. The results of this study suggest that further research is needed in anumber of areas:

1) Status of the eel population Current population research focuses in Ontario and Quebec. Since the eel is now aSpecies of Concern it is vital that accurate information be collected on eel population in all areas of the countrywhere it is used and fished. Eel trapping studies and surveys should be completed in order to determine an estimatefor eel population in this region.

2) Monitoring program Eel population data is available for Ontario and Quebec because of counts and monitoringobtained at dams and other barriers. Efforts should be made to obtain this data for areas in the Maritimes. Monitor-ing projects for adult eels, or elvers could be established in partnership with conservation, community or othergroups.

3) Eel contaminant levels The American Eel spends almost its entire life in inland and estuarine waters. These watersoften have some of the highest pollution levels. Eel has importance to Migmaq cultures as a traditional food. Re-search should be done to determine effects of and contaminant levels in eels from areas in the Bay of Chaleur. Thisinformation should be provided to Migmaq groups so they can make an educated decision on the safety of includ-ing this traditional component in the current diet.

AcknowledgementsThe authors would like to thank the GMRC and its employees for the wonderful welcome they received. Gratitude is alsodue to Ian Bryson for all his hard work on the maps. The GMRC and authors would like to thank the communities ofListuguj, Eel River Bar, Pabineau and all people who participated in the study, especially the Elders. Also thanks to Mik-maw Ethics Watch for the timely approval of the ethics proposal.

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Aoyama, J., A. Shinoda, S. Sasai, M.J. Miller and K. Tsukamoto. 2005. First observations of the burrows of Anguilla ja-ponica. Journal of Fish Biology 67:1534-43.Beaudin, M. (ed) 1999. The State of the Regions: The Economic Region of Northeast New Brunswick. Canadian Institutefor Research on Regional Development. National Library of Canada; Canada.

Brusle, J. 1991. The Eel (Anguilla spp) and organic chemical pollutants. The Science of the Total Environment 102:1-19.CCME. 1999. Canadian environmental quality guidelines. Canadian Council of Ministers of the Environment, Winnipeg,Manitoba.CEWG (Canadian Eel Working Group). 2007. American Eel Management Plan. Draft January 15, 2007. Fisheries andOceans Canada, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Ministere des Ressources naturelles et de la Faune du Quebec.Chadwick, M. 1995. Index rivers: A key to managing anadromous fish. Reviews in Fish Biology and Fisheries5:38-51.Chou, C.L. and J.F. Uthe. 1995. Thallium, uranium and 235U/238U ratios in the digestive gland of American Lobster(Homarus americanus) from an industrialized harbour. Bulletin of Environmental Contaminants and Toxicology54:1-7.COSEWIC 2006. COSEWIC assessment and status report on the American eel Anguilla rostrata in Canada. Committeeon the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada. Ottawa. 71 pp. (www.sararegistry.gc.ca/status/status_e.cfm )Couillard, C.M., P.V. Hodson, and M. Castonguay. 1997. Correlations between pathological changes and chemical con-

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DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2000. Integrated Eel Fishery Management Plan: Eastern New Brunswick Area GulfRegion 2001-2006. www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/mgmt-plan/nb-nb/eel_anguille_2001_2006-e.html (Accessed June13, 2007)DFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada). 2006. Underwater World: American Eel Fisheries and Oceans, Science Branchwww.dfo-mpo.gc.caDFO (Fisheries and Oceans Canada. 2007. Integrated Eel Fishery Management Plan: Eastern New Brunswick Area GulfRegion 2007-2010. http://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fam-gpa/plans/nb/eel-anguille_2007_2010-e.pdf(Accessed Nov. 30,

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University. (http://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.html )NPRI (National Pollutant Release Inventory.) 2007. Bay of Chaleur Area 2005. Environment Canada.http://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_online_data_e.cfmNew Brunswick Power. 2007. Hydro Tour.http://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspx (Accessed Dec 6, 2007)Prosper, K. and M. J. Paulette. 2002. The Mikmaq Relationship with Kat (American Eel). Fact Sheet #7 Social Researchof Sustainable Fisheries and the Paqtnkek Fish and Wildlife Commission.http://www.stfx.ca/research/srsf/researchreports1/FactSheets/Factsheet7.pdf(Accessed June 23, 2007)Schafer, C.T. 1973. Distribution of Foraminifera near pollution sources in Chaleur Bay. Water, Air and Soil Pollution 2:219-233.Sprague, J.B. 1966. Dissolved oxygen in the Restigouche river estuary, October 1966. Manuscript Report Series No.903 Fisheries Research Board of Canada.

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Vicaire, J.M. 2007. Gat American Eel Gmtginaq Spring 2007. Newsletter of the Gespegewag Migmaq Re-source Council.Wiley, D.J., R.P. Morgran II and R.H. Hilderbrand. 2004. Relations between physical habitat and American Eel abun-dance in fiver river basins in Maryland. Transactions of the American Fisheries Society 133:515-526.Appendix:Lorem ipsum

http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC8921http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC8921http://www.stfx.ca/research/srsf/researchreports1/FactSheets/Factsheet7.pdfhttp://www.stfx.ca/research/srsf/researchreports1/FactSheets/Factsheet7.pdfhttp://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspxhttp://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspxhttp://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspxhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_online_data_e.cfmhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_online_data_e.cfmhttp://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.htmlhttp://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.htmlhttp://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.htmlhttp://www.indianclaims.ca/pdf/EelRiverEng.pdfhttp://www.indianclaims.ca/pdf/EelRiverEng.pdfhttp://www.indianclaims.ca/pdf/EelRiverEng.pdfhttp://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC8921http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC8921http://www.stfx.ca/research/srsf/researchreports1/FactSheets/Factsheet7.pdfhttp://www.stfx.ca/research/srsf/researchreports1/FactSheets/Factsheet7.pdfhttp://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspxhttp://www.nbpower.com/en/commitment/education/generating/hydro/reg.aspxhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_online_data_e.cfmhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/pdb/npri/npri_online_data_e.cfmhttp://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.htmlhttp://mrc.uccb.ns.ca/prinpro.htmlhttp://www.indianclaims.ca/pdf/EelRiverEng.pdfhttp://www.indianclaims.ca/pdf/EelRiverEng.pdfhttp://www.gulfofmaine.org/http://www.gulfofmaine.org/http://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/Indicator_series/esignals.pdfhttp://www.ec.gc.ca/soer-ree/English/Indicator_series/esignals.pdfhttp://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fam-gpa/plans/nb/eel-anguille_2007_2010-e.pdfhttp://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fam-gpa/plans/nb/eel-anguille_2007_2010-e.pdfhttp://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/http://www.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/http://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/mgmt-plan/nb-nb/eel_anguille_2001_2006-e.htmlhttp://www.glf.dfo-mpo.gc.ca/fm-gp/mgmt-plan/nb-nb/eel_anguille_2001_2006-e.html


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Appendix A Guideline Questions for In-

terviews

1. What/when was the best eel fishing trip you ever had?2. What method do you use to catch eel? Has it changed? How?3. Where are / were the best places to fish eel? Show on map?4. Are eel doing better/worse than in the past?5. Are there places where eel are no longer found? New places where they are found?6. Other species (food species) doing bad in this area?7. What are the best eel fishing spots today? Why do you think that the eel live in this area?8. Have you seen any new species other than eel in the area? Any ideas on what could be happening to the eel/ other species?9. Given the current state of the resource (eel), what do you think are some of the problems regarding the eels?

Appendix B Questionnaire

The Gespegewaq Migmaq Resource Council is currently conducting a research project on the American Eel. The pur-pose of this project is to gather background information on local eel habitats and current barriers to migration. The

American Eel has been designated a Species of Concern in April 2006 by the Committee on the Status of EndangeredWildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). This questionnaire will help us gather information on the historical significance of the

American Eel to Quebec Migmaq culture.

1. Have you ever went fishing for eels, or know anyone who has, in your lifetime? Yes: _____ No: _____

2. What method was used to catch the eels during these fishing trips? Past: Present:



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3. What were the best spots to go eel fishing? Location: Habitat description:

4. How often was eel a part of your meal?

Present - Days per week: __Past Days per week:__5. Are there currently still places to go eel fishing today? What have been some of the changes, if any, that you noticed?

6. Have you noticed an increase or decrease with the number of people fishing eel? Increase: __ Decrease: __

7. What are some of the reasons you feel have lead to this increase or decrease?

8. Is the American eel currently a party of your diet?

9. Would you include the American eel in your diet if they were available?

10. Do you currently have concerns about the state of the eel population and its habitat? Explain.

Name (optional): ____________________ Age: _____

Community: ________________________ Male: ___

Female: ____

Date: _____________________________


GMRC American eel technical report

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