Glossary - Methodics

8/13/2019 Glossary - Methodics

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GLOSSARY

ASSESSMENT: the process of documenting, usually in measurableterms, knowledge, skills, attitudes, and beliefs. Assessment can focus on theindividual learner, the learning community (class, workshop, or other organizedgroup of learners), the institution, or the educational system as a whole.

AUDIOLINGUAL APPROACH: An approach to second or foreign languageteaching that is based on the behaviorist theory of learning and on structurallinguistics, especially the contrastive analysis hypothesis. This instructionalapproach emphasizes the formation of habits through the repetition, practice, and

memorization of sentence patterns in isolation from each other and from contexts ofmeaningful use.

BEHAVIOURISM:A psychological theory that all learning, whether verbal or nonverbal, takes place through the establishment of habits. According to this view,when learners imitate and repeat the language they hear in their surroundingenvironment and are positively reinforced for doing so, habit formation (or learning)occurs.

BILINGUALISM:The ability to use more than one language. The word itself doesnot specify the degree of proficiency in either language.

BRAINSTORMING: a group or individual creativity techni!ueby which efforts are

made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a list of ideas

spontaneously contributed by its member(s). The term was popularized byAlex

"aickney #sbornin the $%&' book Applied magination*. #sborn claimed that

brainstorming was more effective than individuals working alone in generating

ideas, although more recent research has !uestioned this conclusion. Today, the

term is used as a catch all for all group ideationsessions.

COMPUTER-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING (CALL): The search for and

study of applications of the computer in language teaching and learning. +A

embraces a wide range of nformation and communications technologyapplications

and approaches to teaching and learning foreign languages, from the -traditional-

drillandpractice programs that characterized +A in the $%/s and $%0/s to

more recent manifestations of +A, e.g. as used in a virtual learning

environmentand 1ebbased distance learning.

CHILD - DIRECTED SPEECH:The language that caretakers address to children. nsome cases, this language is simpler than that which is addressed to adults. nsome cultures, it is also slower, higher pitched, more repetitive, and includes a largenumber of !uestions.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_techniquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Faickney_Osbornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Faickney_Osbornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_learninghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Documentinghttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledgehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skillhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beliefhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creativity_techniquehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Faickney_Osbornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alex_Faickney_Osbornhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ideationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICThttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_learning_environmenthttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distance_learning


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COGNITIVIST: A research approach that emphasizes how the human mindreceives, processes, stores, and retrieves information in learning and retrievinginformation. The focus is on internal learning mechanisms that are believed to beused for learning in general, not 2ust language learning alone .

COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE: The ability to use language in a variety ofsettings, taking into account relationships between speakers and differences insituations. The term has sometimes been interpreted as the ability to conveymessages in spite of a lack of grammatical accuracy.

COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING (CLT):+T is based on the premisethat successful language learning involves not only a knowledge of the structuresand forms of a language, but also the functions and purposes that a languageserves in different communicative settings. This approach to teaching emphasizesthe communication of meaning in interaction rather than the practice andmanipulation of grammatical forms in isolation.

COMPETENCE:inguist 3oam +homsky used this term to refer to knowledge oflanguage. This is contrasted with performance, which is the way a person actuallyuses languagewhether for speaking, listening, reading, or writing. 4ecause wecannot observe competence directly, we have to infer its nature from performance.

COMPREHENSIBLE INPUT:A term introduced by 5tephen 6rashen to refer tolanguage that a learner can understand. t may be comprehensible in part becauseof gestures, situations, or prior information.

CONTRASTIVE ANALYSIS HYPOTHESIS (CAH):The expectation that learnerswill have less difficulty ac!uiring target language patterns that are similar to those ofthe first language than those that are different.

CRITICAL PERIOD HYPOTHESIS (CPH): The proposal that there is a limitedperiod during which language ac!uisition can occur. The strong version of the +78is that there are biological mechanisms specifically designed for languageac!uisition and that these cease to be available at or even before puberty. Thus anolder learner has to use general learning mechanisms that are not designed forandthus not as effective for language ac!uisition. The weak version (sometimes called

the 9sensitive period hypothesis9) is that, even though the same learningmechanisms are involved, second language learning will be more difficult for olderlearners.

DIRECT METHOD:#ne of the teaching methods which receives its name from thefact that meaning is to be conveyed directly in the target language through the useof demonstration and visual aids, with no recourse to the students9 native language.

EMPATHY:The process of 9putting yourself in someone else9s shoes9, of reachingbeyond the self to understand what another person is feeling. t is probably thema2or factor in the harmonious coexistence of individuals in society. :mpathy is not

synonymous with sympathy. :mpathy implies more possibility of detachment;sympathy connotes an agreement or harmony between individuals.


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ENGLISH AS A SECOND LANGUAGE(ESL)< is the use or study of :nglishbyspeakers with different native languages. t is also known as :nglish for speakers ofother languages (:5#), :nglish as an additional language (:A), and :nglish as aforeign language (:").

ENGLISH for SPECIFIC PURPOSES (ESP): The term -specific- in :57 refers to

the specific purpose for learning :nglish. 5tudents approach the study of :nglish

through a field that is already known and relevant to them. This means that they are

able to use what they learn in the :57 classroom right away in their work and

studies. The :57 approach enhances the relevance of what the students are

learning and enables them to use the :nglish they know to learn even more

:nglish, since their interest in their field will motivate them to interact with speakers

and texts. The most important difference lies in the learners and their purposes for

learning :nglish. :57 students are usually adults who already have someac!uaintance with :nglish and are learning the language in order to communicate a

set of professional skills and to perform particular 2obrelated functions. An :57

program is therefore built on an assessment of purposes and needs and the

functions for which :nglish is re!uired.

FEEDBACK: "eedback is information a student receives after they have completed

a piece of work and can be provided in a range of formats. The piece of work

(assignment) can take a wide variety of forms, for example a lab or field report,

presentation for a debate, essay etc. "eedback is an essential part of effective

learning. t helps students understand the sub2ect being studied and gives themclear guidance on how to improve their learning.

FILL-IN-THE-BLANKS: 5tudents are given a series of sentences with wordsmissing. They fill in the blanks with new vocabulary items or with items of aparticular grammar type, such as prepositions or verbs with different senses.

FIRST LANGUAGE (MOTHER TONGUE, NATIVE LANGUAGE): The languagefirst learned. =any children learn more than one language from birth and may besaid to have more than one 9first9 language.

FOREIGNER TALK: The modified or simplified language that some nativespeakers address to second language learners. A special category of foreigner talkis teacher talk.

FOREIGN LANGUAGE LEARNING: This refers to the learning of a language,usually in a classroom setting, in a context where the target language is not widelyused in the community (for example, learning "rench in +hina). This is sometimescontrasted with 9second language learning9, where the language being learned isused in the community (for example, learning talian in "lorence).
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_language


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GRAMMAR TRANSLATION: An approach to second language teachingcharacterized by the explicit teaching of grammar rules and the use of translationexercises.

INNATISM:A theory that human beings are born with mental structures that are

designed specifically for the ac!uisition of language.

INPUT:The language that the learner is exposed to (either written or spoken) in theenvironment.

INTERACTIONIST HYPOTHESIS: The hypothesis that language ac!uisition isbased both on learners9 innate abilities and on opportunities to engage inconversations, often those in which other speakers modify their speech and theirinteraction patterns to match the learners9 communication re!uirements. The innateabilities are not seen as being specific to language or language ac!uisition.

INTERLOCUTOR:A participant in a conversation.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION:This term is most often used interchangeably withlanguage learning. 8owever, for some researchers, most notably 5tephen 6rashen,ac!uisition is contrasted with learning. According to 6rashen, ac!uisition represents9unconscious9 learning, which takes place when attention is focused on meaningrather than language form.

LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE (LAD):The innate knowledge, according to+homsky, is embodied in a 9little black box9 of sorts, a language ac!uisition device.

t is the set of language learning tools provided at birth.

LANGUAGE LEARNING:n this book, this term is a general one, referring simplyto an individual9s developing knowledge of the target language. n 5tephen6rashen9s terms, however, 9learning9 is contrasted with 9ac!uisition9, and isdescribed as a 9conscious9 process that occurs when the learner*s ob2ective is tolearn about the language itself, rather than to understand messages conveyedthrough the language.

MODIFIED INPUT:Adapted speech that adults use to address children and nativespeakers use to address language learners so that they will be able to understand.

:xamples of modified input include shorter, simpler sentences, and basicvocabulary.

NATIVE SPEAKER:A person who has learned a language from an early age andwho has full mastery of that language. 3ative speakers may differ in terms ofvocabulary and stylistic aspects of language use, but they tend to agree on thebasic grammar of the language. The notion 9native speaker9 must always beunderstood within a specific geographic region or socioeconomic group becausethere is wide variation among 9native speakers9 of most languages.

ORACY:s used to describe a person9s ability to efficiently communicate with others

via the spoken word as well as to fully understand oral communication.


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PERFORMANCE: The way we use language in listening, speaking, reading,writing. 7erformance is usually contrasted with competence, which is the knowledgethat underlies our ability to use language. 7erformance is sub2ect to variations dueto inattention or fatigue whereas competence, at least for the mature nativespeaker, is more stable.

RAPPORT:A relationship between the teacher and the students.

REALIA< n education, realia are ob2ects from real life used in classroom instructionby educators to improve students9 understanding of other cultures and real lifesituations. A teacher of a foreign language often employs realia to strengthenstudents9 associations between words for everyday ob2ects and the ob2ectsthemselves. n many cases, these ob2ects are part of an instructional kit whichincludes a manual and is thus considered as being part of a documentary whole bylibrarians.

RECEPTIVE SKILLS: istening and >eading are known as the 9receptive skills9

whereby the reader or listener receives information.

RELIABILITY: The consistency of a measure. n educational testing, reliability

refers to the confidence that the test score will be the same across repeated

administrations of the test. There is a close relation between the construct of

reliability and the construct of validity. =any sources discuss how a test can have

reliability without validity and that a test cannot have validity without reliability.

SCANNING:A techni!ue you often use when looking up a word in the telephonebook or dictionary. ?ou search for key words or ideas. n most cases, you know

what you9re looking for, so you9re concentrating on finding a particular answer.

5canning involves moving your eyes !uickly down the page seeking specific words

and phrases. 5canning is also used when you first find a resource to determine

whether it will answer your !uestions. #nce you9ve scanned the document, you

might go back and skim it.

SECOND LANGUAGE: The term refers to any language other than the first

language learned. Thus, it may actually refer to the third or fourth language.

SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION (SLA): is the process by which people learna second language. 5econdlanguage ac!uisition also refers to the scientificdiscipline devoted to studying that process. 5econd language refers to anylanguage learned in addition to a person9s first language; although the concept isnamed secondlanguage ac!uisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third,fourth, or subse!uent languages. 5econdlanguage ac!uisition refers to whatlearners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching.

SKIMMING:A techni!ue used to !uickly identify the main ideas of a text. 5kimming

is done at a speed three to four times faster than normal reading. 7eople often skim

when they have lots of material to read in a limited amount of time.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educationhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_acquisitionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_languagehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_education


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SUGGESTOPEDIA: A form of educational dynamics based on the insights of

suggestology. The process focuses on the whole person, and in so doing, it takes

into account the conscious@ unconscious duality of the student. 1hile creating a

state of psychological relaxation, it uses every possible suggestive interrelationship

to overcome psychological resistance and to develop new mental behavior.

TARGET LANGUAGE:The language being learned, whether it is the first languageor a second (or third or fourth) language.

TEACHER TALKING TIME (TTT):The time that teachers spend talking in class,rather than learners. t can be compared with studenttalking time. #ne key elementof many modern approaches is to reduce the amount of TTT as much as possible,to allow learners opportunities to speak, and learn from speaking.

UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR (UG): nnate linguistic knowledge which, it is

hypothesized, consists of a set of principles common to all languages. This term isassociated with +homsky9s theory of language ac!uisition.

VALIDITY:refers to how well a test measures what it is purported to measure.

ASHBACK or BACKASH:Also known as measurementdriven instruction, is acommon term in applied linguistics referring to the influence of testing on teachingand learning, which is a prevailing phenomena in education. t is a truism that -whatis assessed becomes what is valued, which becomes what is taught.-

!ONE OF PRO"IMAL DEVELOPMENT (!PD):The metaphorical 9place9 in which a

learner is capable of a higher level of performance because there is support frominteraction with an interlocutor. n ygotskyt theory, learning takes place throughand during interaction in the learner*s B7C.

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