Globalization in the Future

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Section B - Globalization in the future

Chapter 31Globalization and the transformation of the political community

-> Nationalism and political community

The nation state has been the dominant form of political community since theFrench Revolution.

Before, rights of political participation were restricted to adult male citizens.o Women were not full members of the community because they were

denied citizenship.

Most forms of political community in human history have been hostile topopular rule.

o Empires for example have been governed by military elites. Rulingelites did not believe that states should represent nations r think that

each nation should have its own state.

Territorial states that were governed by absolutist monarchs engaged in astruggle for economic and political powers (17thcentury).

Territorial states

As Max Weber argued, all states aim to monopolize control of the instrumentsof violence.

o But they differ greatly in what they can do with coercive power. Pre modern states had limited ability to direct the lives of their subjects

whereas modern states have the capacity to regulate (if not control) most

aspects of society, including the economy.

Michael Mann (1986) argues that modern states have acquired high levels ofintensive power: power that can be projected deep into society.

Pre modern states had poorly defined frontiers and limited ability to controlfrontier populations.

Viable modern states have clearly demarcated borders and the ability toproject power across and often beyond national territories.

Michael Mann argues that modern territorial states have acquired a high levelof extensive power: power that can be projected across space.

Global reach is crucial for the understanding of the history of globalization.o E.g. when Europe embarked on a second wave of imperial expansion

in the 19thcentury, it was states that created new levels and from of

global interconnectedness (Held et al. 1999).

From territorial states to nation states

States control of the instruments of violence led to the pacification of societywhere closer emotional ties between citizens developed.

This development occurred for two reasons:o The rise of capitalism.o The rise of endemic warfare.

The idea of print capitalism (Benedict Anderson 1991).o Strangers who would never meet could identify with the imagined

community if the nation.


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Ernest Gellner (1983) argued that industrialization was a primary reason forthe rise of national languages and culture.

o As a result of the sheer number of commercial exchanges. States played a central role in creating national identities not least by building

education systems that promoted shared values.

Warfare was crucial for the transition from territorial states to national states. Warring states promoted national solidarity to ensure that citizens would stay

loyal in times of military conflict.

Turning point in modern history was the French Revolution where it createdthe idea of the nation in arms along with national conscription. From that

period, nationalism has been the ideology that has had the great influence on

the evolution of political communities.

Warfare and industrialisation created modern people with a strong sense ofnational consciousness.

Nation state played has played a central role in the economic and politicalintegration of the human race whist intensifying national differences.

Nationalism was a European invention that spread across the world.o Third world nationalist movements used European ideas to replace

alien government with self-rule.

Ethnic rivalries meant that a sense of identification with the state did notdevelop.

o E.g. separation of India and Pakistan in 1947. Decolonization later became the principle form of political community across

the world.

-> Community and citizenship

People resisted the states power over their lives and organized politically toextract citizenship rights from the state.

These demands for human rights underline the global political culture that hasemerged due to the increased connectedness of people.

Citizenship and rights

During 18thand 19thcenturies, the rising commercial and industrial classeschallenged monarchical power; they argued for political rights due to their

increasing economic importance.

Middle classes demanded the rule of law and representation.o They succeeded in winning democratic rights but they refused to grant

the same rights to subordinate groups such as women and the working

class.

o This was a dominant feature in modern industrial societies. Labour movements and political parties on the Left argued that inequalities of

power and wealth had increased under capitalism.

Pressures mounted to deepen the meaning of citizenship by adding social orwelfare rights.

o By 20th, many Western states introduced national health services. Most influential account of the evolution of citizenship, at least in Britain was

found in the writings of T.H. Marshall who stated that political communitiesacquired great legitimacy by becoming more inclusive, and by giving all


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Feminist movements have influenced definitions of community. Many havechallenged gendered ideas of the national culture that has been shared by male

experience of war.

Global interconnections facilitate the spread of modern Western values.Cosmopolitan democracy and transitional citizenship

Internal differences of class. Increased connection between human groups will encourage a greater sense of

solidarity between the members of different communities or generate new

conflicts over how human beings are bound together.

Globalization questions the idea that political communities are responsible forpromoting the interests of their citizens.

Various global problems that states cannot handle have encouraged thedevelopment of NGOs.

Nationalpopulations are unwilling to sacrifice their lives for strangers.Cosmopolitan democracy

The idea of world citizenship is a concept that INGOs have used to promote astronger sense of responsibility for the global environment and for the human

species.

National democracies have little control over global markets, and limitedability to influence decisions taken by transnational corporations that

influences currency values and employment to name a few.

The role of international organizations such as the WTO. Democracy requires a level of trust and a commitment to the public good.

Neomedievalist approaches

Refers to an ideal political order in which individuals are governed by severaloverlapping authorities.

Forces of globalization and fragmentation have renewed the interest in neomedievalist world order in which states transfer some powers to international

institutions that will deal with global problems while other powers are

transferred to domestic regions where the sense of cultural difference remains

strong.

o National governments should remain loyal to the state and citizensshould remain loyal to the state.

Best example is the European Union where some erosion of sovereign powershas taken place and where traditional conceptions of national interests have

reduced importance.

o Supports a global civilising process through efforts to maintain respectfor global norms.

-> Beyond realism?

Globalization and fragmentation has weakened centralized nation states. The desire not to return to a major war was the main reason for the creation of

the European community after the Second World War and for thedevelopment of the universal human rights culture.


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Realist approach to international relations insists there is no warranty thatpeace between the great powers will survive indefinitely.

The level of public support that Bush and Blair commanded during the waragainst Iraq demonstrated that the state matters more than the United Nations

when fear for personal and national security run high.

The future of the political community is whether effective measures can betaken to protect the security of its citizens.

o Certain that they will look to the state for security. The transformation of politics by globalization and fragmentation that pose

new challenges to states will be influenced by realism and neo realism with

their focus on continuities rather than change.

Communitarianism

Believe that the cosmopolitans underestimate the role that separatecommunities play in the moral lives of human beings.

Communitarians do not deny that societies have obligations to one another,but they insist that it is appropriate that most human beings are moved more

by attachments to their community than by appeals to common humanity.

With this view, it is therefore wrong to suppose that globalization will weakenparticular communities that human beings will replace will national ties with

cosmopolitan loyalties.

Waltz 1994 argues that citizenship refers to a web of political rights and dutiesthat only exist where there is a strong sense of identification with the nation

state.

o E.g. the Maastricht Treaty, the citizens of member states of theEuropean Union are European citizens.

Communitarian realism argues that the struggle for power and security in thecontext of anarchy will ensure the survival of strong attachments to

independent political communities.

Post structuralism

All standpoints that claim to represent humanity contain the risk of domination. Foucault claims that all forms of knowledge are potentially dangerous, even

those promoting progress.

Marxism however sets out to liberate the human race but became aninstrument of totalitarian rule.

The uncovering of universal moral and political truths contains danger also. The idea of humanitarian intervention has been criticized because it elevates

civilized Western liberal societies and because it increases the danger of

force that may cause great suffering to those it is designed to assist.

o Iraq at present. Jaques Derrida (1992) argued that a Europe which reduces the monopoly

power of the nation state and gives the expression to new forms of citizenship.

o Not risk free as distinctions could be present between two culturessuch as Europe and Islam.

Women tend to be excluded. Danger will remain whether peoples remain loyal to sovereign states or try tobuild new forms of political community at regional and global levels.


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Cosmopolitanism

Globalization may seem to help to promote the cosmopolitan idea that allhuman beings are equal.

The greater interconnectedness of human beings has increased popularawareness of common threats.

Role of global institutions such as the International Criminal Court and reformglobal organizations such as the WTO.

Chapter 32Globalization and the post cold war order

-> Typology of order

Different ideas about order:o State centric and retain traditional concerns with the structure of thebalance of power, the polarity of the international system, and the

different forms of collective security.

o The relationship between economic and political dimensionsnewthinking about human security.

At the end of the cold war, President Bush spoke about his vision of a NewWorld Order to congress on 11 September 1990 outlining

o Freer from the threat of terror, stronger in pursuit of justice and moresecure in the quest for peacea world in which nations recognize the

shares responsibility for freedom and justice.

Competing frameworks of order produces problems. Realistconcentrates upon the structure of the post cold war system,

especially upon the number of great power actors and the distribution of

capabilities among them.

o Defines order largely in terms of the security structure. Broadly liberalfocuses upon regimes and institutions, and their associated

norms and values.

o Central claim is that patterns of integration and interdependence hadbecome so deeply embedded in the cold war period, although for

strategic and geopolitical reasons, they had by then created a self-

sustaining momentum.

Terms of achievement of individual human freedom.

o Governments are the main source of abuse of human rights (Ken Booth1999).

Globalizationan on-going process.-> The elements of contemporary order

The social state system

The state system is social.o States over the past century have performed a range of social

functions.

o The revival in the political viability of states from its lowest point ofthe Second World War.


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Responsibility for development, economic management and social planningwould be seen as essential tasks for the state.

Reinforce patterns of behavioursimilar forms of state international structure. Sovereignty and non-intervention are undergoing considerable adaption in

order to confront issues such as standards of human rights.

Identity and the nation state

Nationalism. State is challenged by new forms of political community driven by ethnic

separation, transnational projects, social movements and returns to religion.

Citizenshipwho is to count as a citizen? Revolution In Iran in 1979resurgence of religion.

Polarity and the collectivization of security

Concerns with the traditional security order.

o Addresses present distribution of power, and whether that distributionshould be described as unipolarity, bipolar or multipolar.

American hegemonydue to economic success in 1990.o Japans economy stagnated.o Russia became involved with economic and political transformation.o EU had difficulties in acting decisively on its own international crisis.o Chinas power remained a long-term prospect.

Key factor in determining order was the role that the US played.o Iraq 2003 and Sudan 2005-6contrasting roles.

The organization of production and exchange

Degree of stability within the international trading and financial systems. TriadsNorth America, Europe and Asia.

o Trading relationship with the developing world. Economic order managed by IMF, World Bank and WTO.

o Such bodies do not determine just the rules. Full effect of this internationalization of production includes many aspects that

determine the quality of human lives:

o Social rights, gender inequalities and labour to name a few.Multilateral management and governance

Network of contemporary forms of international governance.o Covers aspects of developments in legal, environment and political

regimes.

o Core peacekeeping activities of universal organizations such as the UN.Regionalism

Forms - Economic trading regionsEU; securityNATO and culturalactivities.

Same as the universal spread of the nationstate. Greater degree of autonomy enjoyed by regions in constituting new forms of

identity.


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The liberal rights order

Was highlighted with the collapse of the Soviet Bloc, since that eventportrayed a major step forward in extending the liberal order.

Future of democratization; the status of democracy as a universal norm andthe future of democracy as a source of inter-state peace and stability.

NorthSouth and the two world orders

The gap between the industrialized North and the marginalized South. Tensions may rise undermining prospects for longer-term stability. Significant inequalities exist.

o Living standards. Globalization is aggravating these inequalities. Supporters state that it remains the best available means of adjusting them in

the long term.

-> Globalization and the post Westphalian order

Globalization is a consequence of the end of the cold war. o Geographical extent.o Breaking down of barriers preventing globalization, particularly the

case with the socialist world.

o Intensification of financial integration. Areas of the world are now more integrated with global capitalism,

communication and cultural intrusions.

Global financial order is virtually universal as is the influence of principleinstitutions such as the World Bank and IMF.

Globalization is the difference between the cold war and the post cold war.o Problem with saying thisglobalization marks a point of continuity,

not discontinuity between the two periods.

o Neglects other dimensions of continuityliberal capitalist order. Principle element is the globalization developed out of the core of Western

Capitalist states that formed during the cold war.

o Weakened Soviet Unionwas not integrated into the technologicaland financial views of global capitalism.

Globalization is seen as a long-term historical trend. No common goal?

o A group of market, technological, ideological and culturaldevelopments that have nothing in common (Falk 1997).

o Does not constitute minimum order. Westphalian Orderdefined states with hard borders, each enjoying full

sovereignty and jurisdiction within its own territory.

o States would not intervene with the domestic affairs of each other. Human rights and humanitarian intervention has put increasing pressure on the

norms of the Westphalian order.

-> Globalization and legitimacy

Creates problems for political stability.


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o Central problem is understood to be the limited effectiveness ofdemocratic practices in present world conditions (World Bank, IMF

and UN).

Representation and accountability.o Citizens are represented in national electoral institution, but what voice

does this give them in controlling economic, social and political forces. o Pointless if they remain powerless to exercise influence over global

leaders/institutions.

Lack of agreement between geographical organizations of various politicalsystemsanxiety about legitimacy deficits at a regional level.

These concerns have led to the rise of a civil society.o Cross national social movements including anti-globalization and

INGOs such as Greenpeace.

o Only way to directly influence global policies.o Others believe civil society has no legitimate basis of representation

(Van Rooy 2003)simply represents interests.

Governments in the South believe civil society worsens the inequalitiesbetween rich and poor.

o Seen as an extension of power for the North as such movements have amuch more solid basis.

o Economic development objectives (South) vs. Environmentalmovements (North).

Contrasting global orders.o Northstrong governments and strong civil society movements.o Southweak governments and weak civil society movements.

May contribute to a perceived crisis of legitimacy for the statein the developing world.

-> An international order of globalized states?

Globalization is more of an element within state transformation rather than aprocess above states.

o A conception of a globalized state. Globalized international order. Globalization is a force wholly external to the individual state, and demands

an outside in perspective on the resulting outcomes.

o A claim about the degree of interconnectedness between states suchthat borders and the reality of separate state actors are called intoquestion.

Outside-in view and Inside-out view. The reconfiguration of the principles of international order to reflect the new

realities of globalized states.


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Globalization in the Future

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