Global talent and the knowledge economy: an exploration of the UK experience

Allan M FindlayAllan M Findlay

and Alistair Geddesand Alistair Geddes

Centre for Applied Population ResearchUniversity of DundeeDundee DD1 4HN, UKa.m.findlay@dundee.ac.uk

Thanks to A.Stam

« International Geographical Union »

Hong Kong International Population Conference,

Chinese University of HongKong, 10th-12th July 2007

Paper Outline

1. Introduction

2. Changing perspectives on ‘global talent’

3. UK – from brain exchange to brain gain

4. Student mobility: a special category of international knowledge worker

5. From empiricism back to theory

INTRODUCTION

Global talent: the new key to economic development?

Knowledge economies and knowledge migration – how is knowledge transferred?

UK policy tensions: DFID in relation to policies such as the ‘Fresh Talent Initiative’

2. Changing perspectives on skilled migration

a) neo-liberal views

Dumond et al 2005

Stalker 2000

Cornelius et al 2001 Knowledge as an

individual attribute Embrained, embodied,

encultured, embedded and encoded

2. Changing Perspectives on skilled migration

2b) Structuralist perspectives

Taylor, 2005: global cities as a key context for transnational talent flows

Sklair, 2001: the international capitalist class

Yeoh and Willis, 2005: gendered skill flows

2c Changing perspectives on skilled migration

2c) Knowledge and knowledge migration as relational concepts

Counihan and Miller: constructivist perspectives

MP Smith: 2001: transnational localism

Williams: 2007: migrant agency, knowledge and transnational practices

3: From brain exchange to brain gain: the case of the migration of knowledge workers to the UK

Over recent decades UK businesses have invested less in research and development than many other advanced nations

The UK demand for scientists and engineers has been rising but the domestic supply of new graduates in some areas of science and engineering has been falling or static

Result: Intervention of the UK government in two ways

Increase the proportion of young people in HE New immigration policy

3. UK Policies on Knowledge Migration and International Student Recruitment

Immigration Policy: ‘The market for skilled migration is a global market…The UK needs a policy that meets modern needs.’ Roche, 2000

International Student Policy: ‘People who are educated here have a lasting tie to the country. They promote Britain around the world, helping our trade…’ Blair 1999

International students ‘helps our goal to open up opportunities for more people (within the UK) to study’ Blair, 1999

------------------------------------------------------------Thus from a positive law to a utilitarian stance on

skilled labour and student immigration during the first Blair government (1997-2001).

3. Trends in skilled migration to the UK: from brain exchange to brain gain

Net International Migration to the UK of non-British Nationals (thousands)

Non British Citizens British nationals

1995 +127 -52

1997 +106 -60

2000 +220 -57

2001 +225 -53

2002 +244 -91

2003 +236 -85

2004 +342 -120

2005 +253 -85

3. Origins of work permit holders

(long and short term) 2005

Top nine origins, 2005: (Home Office 2006, 43)

India 21,360

USA 19,270

Australia 4,250

South Africa 3,980

Russia 3,270

Philippines 3,245

Bangladesh 2,780

Japan 2,535

China (exc HK) 2,475

TOTAL ACCEPTANCES FOR SETTLEMENT, 1960-2005 (Home Office 2006)

0

20000

40000

60000

80000

100000

120000

140000

160000

180000

200000

1960

1961

1962

1963

1964

1965

1966

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

1972

1973

1974

1975

1976

1977

1978

1979

1980

1981

1982

1983

1984

1985

1986

1987

1988

1989

1990

1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996

1997

1998

1999

2000

2001

2002

2003

2004

2005

Nu

mb

er o

f p

erso

ns

3. Student migration compared with other forms of managed mobility

Selected channels of migrant entry to the UK (source Home Office, 2006)

1999 2002 2005

Students

(excludes dependents)

272,000 369,000 299,000

Work Permits 53,500 86,000 91,000

Working Holiday Makers 46,000 42,000 62,000

Spouses and fiances 30,000 30,000 42,000

4: Student mobility: a special category

of international knowledge worker

What kind of ‘knowledge’ is transferred through international student mobility?

What role does participation in higher education in the UK play in shaping the ‘knowledge worker’?

In what ways can this form of global talent transfer be seen to be ‘structured’?

4. Student mobility

Student Migration Policya) Blair launches target of UK winning

25% of International Studentsb) 2000: student immigration

procedures streamlined to facilitate entry and marketing scheme launched by Blackstone

c) Following 9/11, by 2004 British Council able to claim UK has 24% of the market

d) Study linked to work in the UK (eg 2004 Science and Engineering Graduate Scheme)

e) 2005 Raising costs of student visas, and tightening-up on overstaying.

f) 2006 Five Tier Points System includes students

4. UK Policies on International Student Recruitment as an Economic Force in Higher Education

Income to UK HEIs from non-EU domiciled student fees

University fee bands for selected UK Universities, 2005/6 (£ sterling)

4. Students in UK Higher Education institutions

Overseas Students in UK HEIs, 1996-2005

Undergraduates Postgraduates

1996/7 77,729 120,335

2004/5 165,795 (31% of all UGs)

152,605 (8.7%)

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment

Decisions on applications for an extension of leave to remain in the UK and settlement (excluding EEA nationals), 2000-2005

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment

Analysis of international student mobility data shows

A switch to admissions in the sciencesA switch increasingly to sourcing from

China and India (China up 294% between 2001 and 2004; India up 200%)

5. Conclusions:

Policy developments :overview

Labour Migration

From Brain Circulation to Brain Gain

Student Migration

From Training

To Funding Higher Ed

and

Global Skill Recruitment

5. From empiricism back to theory

and policy evaluation

• UK student and labour immigration policies are linked by a shared utilitarian view of international mobility

• During the Blair years the increase in international student numbers has helped finance UK HEIs, but it has also increasingly become a tool for recruiting foreign-domiciled S&E students into the UK labour market

5. From empiricism back to theory

and policy evaluation

Many drivers of international student migration lie beyond government policy

– policies of competing economies- globalisation of higher education (uneven)- cultural influences shaping choice of

destinations (language, class reproduction, experience etc)

- changing links between higher education and global economic opportunities

5 From empiricism back to theory and evaluation

International Student Migration: panacea to the global brain drain or the most effective form of knowledge worker transfer?

1) Under-theorised in the literature > invisible and neutral mobility?

2) Part of the training of the international capitalist class? > location in the global cities at the core of the global hierarchy

3) Embrained before migration, but encultured and embedded knowledge workers after engagement in Higher Education in another country

4) Financed by sending countries to the double benefit of host societies?

5) Or ISM as a new kind of ‘empowered knowledge workers engaged in translocal networks‘ (Williams, 2007)

4. Trends in skilled migration to the UK: from brain exchange to brain gain

Selected origins of Admissions to the UK with Work Permits

4. Analysis of student immigration

Non-UK EU Higher Education students (undergraduate and postgraduate) in Higher Education Institutions, 1999/00-2003/04 by subject area

4. Analysis of student immigration

Full time HE qualifications per nationality, as a percentage of the total full time HE qualifications, 1995/6 – 2003/4

4. Analysis of student immigration

Non-UK domiciled students in 2000/01 and 2003/4 for selected origins (Top 10 origins in 2003/4)

Foreign labour inflows to UK by route of entry, 2005

  number %

WRS 194,953 48.6

WPs 86,191 21.5

EU&EFTA (2004) 35,200 8.8

WHM 20,135 5.0

HSMP 17,631 4.4

SAWS 15,455 3.9

Domestic Servants 10,100 2.5

UK Ancestry 8,260 2.1

SBS 7,401 1.8

Au Pairs 2,360 0.6

SEGS 2,699 0.7

Ministers of Religion 530 0.1

TOTAL 400,915 100.0

4.. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment

Student flows (all categories of study) to and from the UK by citizenship in thousands, 1975-2003

4. Trends in student migration to the UK: from training to skill recruitment

Admissions of students excluding EEA nationals by nationality, 1998-2004

4. Analysis of student immigration

Non-UK Non EU Higher Education students (undergraduate and postgraduate) in Higher Education Institutions, 1999/00-2003/04 by subject area