Global Scenarios of Metal Mining, Environmental Repercussions, Public Policies, and Sustainability:...

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Global Scenarios of Metal MiningEnvironmental Repercussions PublicPolicies and Sustainability A ReviewLok R Pokhrel a amp Brajesh Dubey ba Department of Environmental Health College of Public Health East Tennessee State University Johnson City Tennessee USAb Environmental Engineering School of Engineering University ofGuelph Guelph Ontario CanadaAccepted author version posted online 27 Nov 2012Publishedonline 15 Oct 2013

To cite this article Lok R Pokhrel amp Brajesh Dubey (2013) Global Scenarios of Metal MiningEnvironmental Repercussions Public Policies and Sustainability A Review Critical Reviews inEnvironmental Science and Technology 4321 2352-2388 DOI 101080106433892012672086

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Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology 432352ndash2388 2013Copyright copy Taylor amp Francis Group LLCISSN 1064-3389 print 1547-6537 onlineDOI 101080106433892012672086

Global Scenarios of Metal MiningEnvironmental Repercussions Public Policies

and Sustainability A Review

LOK R POKHREL1 and BRAJESH DUBEY2

1Department of Environmental Health College of Public Health East Tennessee StateUniversity Johnson City Tennessee USA

2Environmental Engineering School of Engineering University of Guelph GuelphOntario Canada

With rising valuation of mineral commodities mining has beenenvisioned as a profitable industry regardless of many challengesit entails This comprehensive review provides the state of knowl-edge about several aspects of the metal mining industry including(a) the basic mining processes with reasons for mine closure (b)the potential environmental and human health impacts associatedwith mining (c) the potential techniques for impact mitigation(d) the latest production statistics for the base and precious met-als with identification of currently operational major metal minesfor different countries and (e) how mining activities are regulatedin different nations Finally the authors provide critical appraisalon the debatable issue of mining and sustainability to stimulatethoughts on how metal mining can be made sustainable and sug-gest a path forward

KEY WORDS acid mine drainage environmental impacts fatali-ties phytoremediation sustainable mining

1 INTRODUCTION

Emerging from the dawn of the hunter-gatherer metallic minerals haveserved as the spine of urbanization and industrial prosperity Although sci-entific innovations and discoveries have dominated the 21st century human

Address correspondence to Brajesh Dubey Environmental Engineering School of En-gineering University of Guelph 50 Stone Road East Guelph Ontario Canada E-mailbdubeyuoguelphca

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Issues of Metal Mining A Review 2353

explorations for mining and subsequent use of the metalliferous minerals donot seem to cease down1 Because of their inherent characteristics such asmalleability ductility good conductivity of heat and electricity and dura-bility metals serve many purposes1 From bases of skyscrapers to ordinaryhomes from automobile body parts to robust engines from tailorsrsquo sewingneedles to surgeonsrsquo scalpels and from common household utensils to heavyduty machineries all use metals in one form or the other For alchemistsmany metals serve as catalysts to facilitate the chemical reactions Preciousmetals such as gold silver and platinum in bullion have great economicvalue To meet the global demand of materials and energy for ever-growinghuman populations and to maintain better living standards mining has beenenvisioned as a dependable source of many metallic minerals With the re-cent growing hype for sustainable society metal mining industrymdashthe onlysource for almost two thirds of the mostly used metallic elementsmdashis alsoanticipated to offer potential for sustainable development2ndash4

Basically metals are of two typesmdashbase metals and precious metalsBase metals are defined in many ways Mining and economics define basemetals as inexpensive non-ferrous metals but not the precious metals Itincludes copper lead zinc and nickel5 The US Customs and BoarderProtection defines base metals under Harmonized Tariff Schedule (HTS) asiron and steel copper nickel aluminum lead zinc tin tungsten (wol-fram) molybdenum tantalum magnesium cobalt bismuth cadmium tita-nium zirconium antimony manganese beryllium chromium germaniumvanadium gallium hafnium indium niobium (columbium) rhenium andthallium The Oxford dictionary on the other hand defines a base metal asa common metal that is not considered precious such as copper tin or zincUsually base metals are relatively reactive and form oxides In contrast pre-cious metals are relatively less reactive rarely available and highly expensivesuch as gold silver and platinum6 This review follows the HTS definitionfor base metals

Although peer-reviewed publications covering one or few specific as-pects of mining are abundant in the literature7ndash21 studies addressing the fullbreadth of issues pertaining metal mining industries are limited This reviewtherefore attempts to provide a holistic view of metal mining industry Itbegins with a brief overview of the mining processes including the issues ofmine closure followed by the state of the knowledge on the potential en-vironmental repercussions and human health impacts associated with metalmining activities and some commonly employed effective ways to mitigatesuch challenges An appraisal of the latest production statistics for the baseand precious metals along with identification of currently operational majormetal mines for the United States Australia China and New Zealand is pre-sented Better understanding of how mining industry is regulated in differentnations as outlined here for the United States the European Union Aus-tralia and New Zealand may allow international collaborations for efficient

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2354 L R Pokhrel and B Dubey

and sustainable resource exploitations Finally critical assessment of the de-batable issues of mining and sustainability may generate better thoughts onhow mining of metallic minerals can be made sustainable for the presentand future generations and suggest a path forward

2 MINING AND MINE CLOSURE

Mining is a challenging enterprise which involves an acquisition of mineralsfrom the earthrsquos crust Mining begins with the scientifictechnical explo-ration that involves surveying several parts of the earthrsquos geology identi-fying commercially viable ore deposits and culminating into excavation ordrillingmdashthe process being highly expensive in terms of dollars and time1

The second step in the mining cycle known as extraction comprises ofremoving metal laden ores from the crust This is followed by beneficiationa process that involves concentrating the metal-laden minerals as well assmelting and other processes which allow separation of metals from theirrespective ores Over time as metals are extracted their respective ores getdepleted and mines turn economically unviable for the mining industry Thiswould result into mine closuremdashan ultimate step in the mining cycle22

Mine closure has been a very sensitive undertaking in todayrsquos envi-ronmentally conscious society Activities which minimize and mitigate po-tential environmental social and human health effects post mine closureare generally mandated by laws to be in place1 Mine closure occurs forvarious reasons (a) resource depletion or exhaustion (b) economicmdashsharpdecline in mineral prices (c) geologic accessibility and mechanical prob-lems (d) government interventionsmdashchange in government and new policyimplementation (e) safety issuesmdashbreaching standard safety practices (f)environmental concerns of contaminations and (g) societal pressure amongothers22 Most often about 25 of the mines are closed due to exhaustionof the mineral reserves termed planned closure and some other importantcauses include a high cost of mining and low market prices for some mineralcommodities Mine closure in the last three decades primarily due to safetyand environmental concerns were however negligible2223 Even so minersrsquosafety and environmental concerns have been the main hurdles for the ex-pansion of currently operational mines and the development of the newlydiscovered mining sites24

3 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING ACTIVITIES

31 Impacts on Land

Ore concentration involves the processes such as cyanidation amalgama-tion and heap leaching which utilize severely harmful chemicals such asmercury cyanide and sulfuric acids among others Following ore concen-tration and beneficiation a significant amount of these harmful chemicals

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makes its way into the mine tailings25 Although tailings are either managedin impoundments or used as dams their effectiveness in locking-up harmfulchemicals and retaining them for longer period have remained less clearand often been debated26ndash28 Over time natural forces such as erosion rainand flood can transport metallic minerals in tailings to the vicinity of miningsites and even to the far-off places29 This results into soil contamination ofvarious trace and heavy metals3031 as studies have documented significantlyhigher concentrations of metals such as Cr Co Cu Mn Hg As Ag Zn NiAg Au and Pb in the soils sampled from the proximity of abandoned minesaround the world3233

As explained previously mining activities introduce various kinds ofmetals into an adjacent and even far off soil profile in potentially toxic quan-tities Soil contamination of diverse metal cations will render the soil highlyacidic thereby affecting the survival and propagation of the biotic commu-nities including the terrestrial vegetation Production of crops in the soilcontaminated with toxic heavy metals is of human health concern As cropscould bioconcentrate toxic metals such as Pb Hg and As among othersingestion of such crops by livestock and humans could be fatal Replace-ment or amendment of the contaminated soil profile is also considered lesseconomical34ndash36

Physical landscape disturbances due to innumerable open pits wasterock piles and mine tailings are also persistent problems associated withmining activities around the world Such aesthetically unpleasant geophysicalchanges are unfavorable for tourism industry Moreover land subsidence dueto deep underground pit mining is evidently disastrous to the infrastructuressuch as roadways and buildings in the surrounding area For exampleabandoned lead mines are linked to the several hundreds of land subsidencein Galena Kansas37

32 Impacts on Water Resources

Impacts of mining activities on water resources are as diverse as the mineralsthemselves A wide range of issues has been associated with water resourcesoriginating from increasing mining activities in many parts of the world Someof the predominant effects among others include (a) sedimentationsiltationof the water bodies next to the mining sites38 (b) depletion of the watertable from the excessive use of water for low grade ore processing coupledwith enhanced drainage39 (c) diversion of river system into a pit and itsconversion into the toxic lake (eg England)40 (d) contamination of thereceiving waters due to excessive protons and metallic minerals leachingfrom the mine water could result into increased acidity41 and (e) dewateringof the saline water from the deep mines and its subsequent surface releasecould cause surface water contamination39

One yardstick of sustainable development is to maintain healthy waterresources as water forms the basis of life Operation of mining industry

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emanates diversity of contaminants including the toxic metal ions acidprecursors cyanides sediments and many other chemicals into the lakesstreams and rivers42 Toxic chemicals could harm the aquatic biota or ex-tirpate the rare species therein43ndash45 Polluted water may not be suitable forirrigation Exposed land surfaces due to mining activities are vulnerable tosoil erosion38 Sedimentation and siltation of the receiving waters due toerosion could result into significantly higher turbidity and conductivity thusaffecting the physiology and behaviors (eg foraging and breeding) of vari-ous aquatic species including the fish4647 Furthermore depletion of watertable and metal leaching from mine tailings and impoundments could im-pact the underground wells4849 which are the sources of drinking water formillions of people around the globe

Recent increase in open-pit mining activities has largely contributed tothe high waste-to-product ratio (ca 1001) thus exacerbating already exist-ing problems of safe disposal of wastes including the mine tailings In placeswith excess annual precipitation and where soil is used for agriculture sub-marine tailings disposal (STD) has been envisioned as a safe option for minetailing disposal50 In STD mine tailings are injected into the abyss (deep seawater) where the presence of low oxygen hardly supports oxidation of thesulfide ores which likely curtails leaching of most metals50 Unfortunatelywhen less is known about the ecosystems which operate at the bottom ofthe sea and considering the importance of the sea floor ecosystems in thedemersal limnetic and littoral zones of the water column it is prudent toassume that disposition of millions of tons of mine tailings in the deep watersmay be damaging to sea life and to the fishery and shellfish industry unlessnew evidence indicates otherwise50

33 Acid Mine Drainage

Here we discuss the mechanism explaining the acid mine drainage (AMD)its impacts on the environment and present evidence-based practices thatcan be employed to effectively mitigate the potential risks associated withthe AMD

AMD is infamous as one of the most significant threats facing the aquaticresources which can stretch many miles downstream (eg about 20000 kmof water resources in the United States are affected by AMD) from the currentor past mining activities5152 Decreasing pH (ie increasing acidity) andsubsequent dissolution of minerals including many metal species are theprimary problems of AMD53 With millions of abandoned54 and operationalmines throughout the world and more than half a million abandoned sitesonly in the United States55 the problems of AMD are persistent and far-reaching as it not only affects the environment but also affects human healthand the economy8535657

The principal chemical mechanism governing the AMD has been gener-ally understood as follows when pyrite a sulfide ore of iron (FeS2) comes

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in contact with water and oxygen it is oxidized to form soluble Fe+2 ionswhich facilitates an excess release of sulfate and hydrogen ions (Eqs 1 and2) These latter two react to form sulfuric acid which is responsible forsubsequent dissolution of the metallic minerals5859 Ferric ion (Fe+2) can ei-ther form the yellowboy a red-orange precipitate of Fe(OH)3 (Eq 3) that isusually observed in streams receiving the AMDmdashor it may react with pyriteto form excess ferrous ions and sulfuric acid precursors such as SO4

minus2 andH+ (Eq 4) Whenif an excess of air reacts with an excess of ferrous ions asformed in equation 4 then the reactions shown in Eqs 2 and 3 will likelyrepeat However in the absence of oxygen ferrous ion concentration willsignificantly increase when the reaction shown in Eq 4 stops60 As waterturns acidic activity of certain microbial species such as Thiobacillus ferrox-idans T thiooxidans and Ferroplasma acidarmanus would support pyriteoxidation thereby repeating the cycle of reactions as shown below6162

2FeS2(s) + 7O2(aq) + 2H2O rarr 2Fe+2 + 4SOminus24 + 4H+ (1)

2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)

14Fe+3 + FeS2(s) + 8H2O rarr 2SOminus24 + 15Fe+2 + 16H+ (4)

Evidently mine water acidity results from the excess protons (H+) gen-erated due to the dissolution of metallic ions Weathering of mine rocks andtailings leads to the generation of anions such as OHminus CO3

minus2 and HCO3minus

which tend to neutralize the acidic mine water due to their alkaline natureHowever because of the rapid excavation and higher exposures of rockysurfaces in underground and open-pit mines the natural buffering capacityof water from the carbonate rich rocks (eg limestone) is surpassed by ex-cess protons and soluble metals thus rendering mine water more acidic63

Lack of management would result into AMD being carried away by therain or surface runoff and will subsequently enter into the adjacent riversreservoirs creeks or groundwater This event may continue hundreds ofyears thereby affecting the quality of receiving waters aquatic ecosystemssocioeconomics and human health6064

34 Potential Mitigation Techniques for AMD

Although many techniques for ameliorating the AMD have been suggested inliterature some are commonly employed in practice than others Discussionon several procedures is out of the scope of this paper so this reviewfocuses on three common yet relatively more effective and environmentallyfriendly techniques to mitigate acid contamination from the mining activitiesThese techniques include wetland construction anoxic limestone drains andphytoremediation

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341 WETLAND CONSTRUCTION

Constructed wetlands utilize the natural processes similar to that operating inthe natural wetlands to ameliorate the pollutants therein Wetlands containnatural organic matters (NOM eg humic and fulvic acids) in abundanceSediments which lie below the NOM layer in the wetlands render anaerobicandor chemically reducing environment facilitating the growth of anaerobicmicroorganisms Generally dissolved metals adsorb to NOMs and settle tothe bottom Reducing environment in the lower sediment layer supports theconversion of iron and sulfates into hydrogen and sulfides65 Some plants(eg Typha Sphagnum) that grow in the wetland environment are knownto significantly remove minerals (eg Mn Fe SO4)66ndash68 either by retainingthem in the roots69 and shoot or by providing conditions for the redoxreactions to occur58

However designing wetland to treat AMD necessitates considera-tion of multiple factors These include the loading rate retention timevegetation and substrate types plan for sediment removal slope of thetopography hydrology and other factors essential for optimal microbialactivities6570 Some of the optimal conditions identified for effective opera-tion of constructed wetland include the terrain slope less than 171 waterholding rate of 200 m3ha-day with seven daysrsquo retention time72 higherNOM concentration65 and locally available perennial plant species (egTypha Sphagnum)6573ndash75 Typha grows well in virtually most contaminatedenvironments but is known to be less efficient at places with low tem-peratures657374 In contrast Sphagnum tolerates low temperatures72 but isless adaptive in changeable water chemistry657374 More details on howwetlands should be constructed can be found in Skousen76 and US EPA(Vol 4)77

342 ANOXIC LIMESTONE DRAINS

Compared to the wetlands Anoxic limestone drains (ALDs) are cheaper toneutralize the acidity of AMDs Low oxygen content and high ferrous ionscontaining typical mine water is channeled through an ALD to increase alka-linity up to 400 mgL This would raise the pH to circumneutral76378 ALDsare underground structures designed in a way such that no oxygen couldenter the limestone layer because it is covered by a layer of plastic on topof which a thick layer of clay soil is also present However ALDsrsquo efficiencyis limited by the presence of ferric and aluminum ions in the mine watersBecause of the formation of respective hydroxides the former (ie Fe(OH)3)encapsulates the limestone thereby preventing its further dissolution Whilethe later (ie Al(OH)3) plugs the flow channels affecting the draining abilityof the limestone bed Originally proposed by the Tennessee Department ofHealth and Environment ALDs have been used in most parts of the UnitedStates to treat mine waters76378 Based on the chemical nature of the ALD

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effluent and the type and mass of the metals present the operator shoulddetermine if the effluent would require any further treatment8

343 PHYTOREMEDIATION

Phytoremediation is a biological approach that utilizes plants to remediatethe environment (eg soil water air) of the pollutants including the heavymetals9 As discussed previously living plants (eg cattails and mosses)accumulate various minerals including the metals in different parts of theirbody such as root rhizome and shoot7980 In addition diffusion of oxygenthrough the roots of plants to the substrate also provides suitable microcosmfor oxidation of metals (eg Fe and Mn) to occur Since decaying plant matteris rich in organic compounds it further allows efficient binding of metalsand subsequent precipitation and settling provided ample retention time inthe wetlands Moreover plants and their remains may supplement growthnutrients for the bacterial community which consumes oxygen and developsanoxic conditions suitable for sulfide precipitation8182 Evidently some algae(eg Oscillatoria Microspora) have also been identified to bioaccumulatebetween 30ndash90 g Mnkg dry weight (dw) of algae8384

Likewise recently a town in Macedonia had planned to remediate heavymetals especially lead and cadmium from the contaminated soil which hasbeen attributed to the abandoned lead and zinc smelter in the town byplanting roses in thousands85 Rose might have been considered due to itsaesthetic value and metal accumulating potential One study has shown thata shrub of rose (eg Rosa laevigata) can accumulate up to 70 mg Cukgdw in its root and ca 6 mg Cukg dw in its shoot80 which are significantlylower than being accumulated by other metal tolerant species such as Cyr-tomium fortune (root = 1410 mg Cukg dw shoot = 301 mg Cukg dw)Pteridium aquilium var latiusulum (root = 1390 mg Cukg dw shoot =679 mg Cukg dw) and Commelina communis (root = 851 mg Cukg dwshoot = 861 mg Cukg dw)80

4 HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS AND FATALITIES ASSOCIATEDWITH MINING

With technological advancements modern mining has been a complex un-dertaking involving diverse types of tools and machineries and contributingsignificantly to the speedy extraction of the mineral ores Activities involv-ing extraction beneficiation and transportation of minerals on the otherhand generate high decibel noise tremors and many kinds of pollutantsSignificant improvements in mining have occurred in the developed coun-tries However most developing nations and far-off isolated mining areaslax the standard practices thus resulting into workers health and safetyhazards

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Studies have shown noise-induced deafness as a common problemamong miners8687 Most of the mining processes involve the use of vi-brating tools (eg drills) which have often been linked with handndasharmvibration syndrome8889 Cumulative trauma disorders which can potentiallycause prolonged disability have long been recognized as one of the pre-dominant occupational diseases in the extraction industrymdashthe result beingattributed to an excessive manual handling Regular long shift hours mayresult into fatigue and sleeplessness in the minersmdashthe conditions often as-sociated with poor motor performance and cognition among the drivers90

Benign acute mountain sickness (AMS) is also prevalent among the high-altitude mine workers91 When it comes to deep underground gold miningactivities (eg South Africa) heat exhaustion and heat strokes are known asthe predominant causes of fatalities92ndash94

Skin irritation and dermatitis95 as well as respiratory diseases are ofcommon occurrence among mine workers96 Although mine ventilation sys-tem is generally effective in controlling underground radon species theirexposure is shown to potentiate the risk of lung cancer among the under-ground miners97ndash99 Long-term exposure to silica (crystals) can cause chronicobstructive pulmonary disease100101 which increases the risks of lung can-cer102 Up to 30 times higher rate of tuberculosis reported for silicosis patientsindicates an association between silica exposure and tuberculosis103104 Ex-posure to arsenic during copper processing is also known to increase therisks of lung cancer Sulfur dioxide exposure during smelting of sulfide oresmay result into an acute bronchospasm105106 Severe and fatal traumatic in-juries and posttraumatic stress disorders (PTSD) have also been noticedamong miners94 One Korean survey has shown that people in the vicinityof the abandoned copper mine had significantly higher cadmium levels intheir blood and urine than the control population or the general Koreanpopulation107 Higher blood Cd levels have the potential for kidney dys-function108109 Taken together the existing body of evidence suggests thatlow-dose long-term (chronic) exposures to the contaminants associated withmining may result into elevated health problems

According to the US Bureau of Labor Statisticsrsquo preliminary report for2009 there were 121 cases of work injury that resulted into fatality per100000 full-time equivalent workers in the extraction (including construc-tion) industry110 This was about 19 of the total fatalities recorded (818out of 4340 fatalities) among major civilian occupation group while un-der the category labeled ldquoNatural Resources and Miningrdquo there were 652fatalities accounting for 1502 of the total fatalities in 2009110 Consid-ering only the category labeled ldquoMiningrdquo category there were 176 fatali-ties in 2008 159 in 2005 and 141 in 2003 This indicates an increasingtrend in fatal injuries associated with mining107 Independent contractorsin the metalnonmetal industry had highest fatality rate for 1993ndash1997 pe-riod (663 cases per 100000 workers) compared to the period of 1998ndash2002

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FIGURE 1 Total estimated production of various metals for 2009 for all countries combinedData are adapted from reference 113

(541 cases per 100000 workers) while metal operators averaged al-most two-fold fatalities (20 cases per 100000 workers) than the nonmetaloperators (1015 cases per 100000 workers) for foregoing two periods com-bined111 For the underground mines the highest risk resulted from landfall(roof or back fall) inside the cave (433) while for the open mine thehighest risk was from the powered haulage (carrier 404) followed by ma-chinery related (208) and slipfall (132) during 1998ndash2002 period111 Forthe same period ignition or explosion caused 113 fatalities undergroundwhile it was associated with only 16 of the fatalities on the surface111

5 GLOBAL SCENARIOS OF MAJOR METAL MINES AN OVERVIEW

51 Global Perspectives on Metal Mining

Figure 1 provides global statistics of select metals production for the year2009 Bauxite was the most mined metal contributing to the total productionby almost 75 (ie 201 Mt) of all the metals considered followed by alu-minum copper zinc and lead in the descending order In 2009 China wasleading rest of the world for iron production with estimated 900 Mt whileAustralia was the top producer of bauxitealumina with estimated produc-tion of 63 Mt followed by China with total production estimated at 37 Mt(Figure 2)113

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FIGURE 2 Total estimated global production of bauxitealumina and iron ore for 2009 Dataare adapted from reference 110

Figure 3 illustrates country-wise distribution of the total estimated pro-duction of select base and precious metals for the year 2009 China wasranked the top producer of aluminum with an estimated production of13 Mt followed by Russia (33 Mt) Canada (3 Mt) Australia (197 Mt) theUnited States (171 Mt) India (16 Mt) and Brazil (155 Mt) Chile was thetop producer of copper with estimated production of 532 Mt followed byPeru (126 Mt) the United States (119 Mt) China (096 Mt) and Indonesia(095 Mt) China also remained the top producer of zinc lead and gold forthe same year It produced 28 Mt of zinc 169 Mt of lead and 300 tons ofgold Peru was the top producer of silver with an estimated total productionof 3900 tons followed by China (3000 tons) Mexico (2500 tons) and Chile(2000 tons) in 2009113

52 Mines of Australia

Mining has been an integral aspect of the Australian culture progress andthe standard of living since the arrival of Europeans to the continent As thegold rush began ca 1850s Australia was one of the worldrsquos top producersof gold maintaining about 40 of the global gold economy Today it is the

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FIGURE 3 Total estimated global production of the base (Pb Zn Cu and Al) and preciousmetals (Au and Ag) for 2009 Data are adapted from reference 113

third largest producer of gold manganese and iron ores stands fourth asthe nickel producer and fifth as the copper producer with 6 of the globalproduction following Chile (36) the United States (8) Peru (8) andChina (6) It is one of the top producers of lead and tantalum the largestrefiner of bauxite (an aluminum ore) the second largest producer of bauxiteand zinc and ranks fourth as the largest producer of primary aluminumthus making mining and metal industry the significant player of Australiarsquostrade and commerce112 Figure 4 shows the state-wise frequency distributionof currently operational major metal mines in Australia

Australian iron ore industry is primarily dominated by Western Australia(WA) totaling about 97 of the national annual production This represents17 of the global iron ore and economic demonstrated resources (EDR)About 80 of the identified iron resources are present in the Pilbara re-gion (WA) which contributed to 924 of the total iron production in 2008Some other iron ore mines currently under operations are located in SouthAustralia (SA) Queensland (QLD) New South Wales (NSW) Northern Terri-tory (NT) and Tasmania (TAS) For bauxite Weipa (QLD) Gove (NT) andthe Darling Range (WA) production areas are the primary mining areas cur-rently under operations while central New South Wales (NSW) Cape York(QLD) Mitchell Plateau (WA) and Cape Bougainville (WA) are identifiedas the potential future mining areas for aluminum ores112 Olympic Dam inSouth Australia (SA) and Mount Isa in QLD are the primary copper min-ing and smelting areas Some other prominent copper mining areas include

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Northparkes Cadia-Ridgeway and Tritton in NSW Ernest Henry and Osborne(QLD) Nifty and Golden Grove (WA) and Mount Lyell (TAS)112

The gold resources and mining operations are currently present through-out Australia including the NT WA and SA are the major areas for goldresources and mining operations accounting for 41 and 26 of the to-tal national gold resources respectively in 2008 Currently operational goldmines in Australia include Cadia Cowal Northparkes and Peak among oth-ers that are located in NSW Callie and Peko are the only two gold minesoperating in NT Charters Towers Ernest Henry Mount Rawdon MountWright and Vera-Nancy are some of the gold mines operating in QLD An-gas Challenger Olympic Dam and Prominent Hill are the mines operatingin SA Beconsfield Mt Lyell and Roseberry are three of the six mines oper-ating in TAS Augusta and Kangaroo Flat are two of the five mines operatingin VIC and Ballarat-Last Chance Frogs Leg Coyote Perseverance Sons ofGwalia and Super Pit are few of the dozens of gold mines operating inWA WA is the state where more than one third of the gold mines in thecontinent are situated About a dozen of zinc and lead mines are also underoperations in Australia with QLD being the prominent state Some of theminclude Broken Hill Endeavor McArthur River Century George Fisher andMt Isha among others112

53 Mines of the United States

Metal mining in the United States began as early as the first quarter of1800 with the opening of copper mine in Branby Connecticut With theCalifornia gold rush in 1848 discovery of more gold resources in Alaskafollowed In 2009 metal mining was worth more than $20 billion business inthe United States with gold copper molybdenum iron and zinc dominatingthe industry All minerals combined the total worth of the minerals in 2009was $57 billion which was 20 less than it was in 2008 Gold was thetop contributor with 30 of the total value of metal production while zinccontributed only 6 to the total metal production for the same year113

Figure 4 illustrates the total production of select base metals and two preciousmetals (ie gold and silver) in the United States for 2009113

Nearly all aluminum used in the United States in the last decade waseither imported or obtained through recycling the scraps However techni-cal grade clay and other potential reserves are known as the potential futuresources of bauxite alumina and aluminum113 With 069 Mt of zinc produc-tion in 2009 (Figure 5) the United States was the fifth largest producer ofzinc despite the closure of several mines in late 2008 and early 2009 whenmarket valuation declined Domestically produced zinc contributed to $118billion to the US economy in 2009 which was primarily contributed by13 mines in six states113

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FIGURE 4 State-wise frequency distribution of the currently operational metal mines inAustralia as of 2009 WA = Western Australia QLD = Queensland NSW = New South WalesTAS = Tasmania SA = South Australia NT = Northern Territory VIC = Victoria Data areadapted from reference 112

Most of the copper mines in the United States are operated in Ari-zona Utah New Mexico Nevada and Montana which accounted for $62billion in 2009 Copper was extracted from 29 mines while 20 minesoperating in the foregoing states accounted for 99 of the total nationalproduction for the same year The United States was ranked second (8) forglobal copper production in 2010110 In the second quarter (AprilndashJune) of2010 Arizonarsquos Morenci mine was the largest producer of copper (450000tonsday) and was expected to upscale the production to 635000 tonsdayby 2011113114 Other prominent copper mines operating in the United Statesinclude Kennecott Utah Copper Corporation in Utah115 Silver Bell Bagdadand Copper Queen in Arizona116 the Berkeley pit and Continental pit inMontana117 among others

The US Geological Survey113 estimated a total of 113 tons of goldproduction during the first half of 2010 Nevada led rest of the states forthe recoverable natural gold resources and mining with three quarters oftotal domestic gold production Other states combined contributed to littlemore than one quarter of the total national production which include Alaska(eg Fort Knox mine) Arizona California (eg Mother Lode mine Mesquitemine) Colorado (eg Cripple Creek Victor mine Golden Wonder mineCash and Rex mines) Idaho (eg Silver Strand and Bond mines) Montana(eg Montana Tunnels mine Golden Sunlight mine Browns Gulch placerLodestar mine) New Mexico South Dakota Utah (eg Bingham Canyonmine) and Washington113

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Silver added more than half a billion dollar to the US economy in2009 with estimated production of 1230 tons Alaska and Nevada are theleading states for silver production Silver has been mainly produced asa by-product of various metal mines Rochester silver gold mine NevadaPackard (Nevada) Greens Creek polymetallic mine (Alaska) Lucky Fridaysilver mine and the Galena and Coeur mines (northern Idaho) are some ofthe prominent operational mines in the United States Some of the top silver-producing mining companies in the United States include Coeur drsquoAleneMines Corporation Rio Tinta and Hecla Mining118

54 Mines of China

Among the global mineral resources China has maintained its dominancyfor the production and consumption of several metalliferous and nonmetal-lic mineral commodities for many years119 In 2008 it was the top producerof zinc rare earth metals iron aluminum gold and lead among othersand this accounted for $256 trillion worth of Chinarsquos trade However therehas also been a short supply of other major metals such as copper baux-ite nickel chromium and lead This necessitates China to rely on foreignimportations to meet its domestic demand With the global decline in alu-minum price in the year end of 2008 and early 2009 decrement in aluminumproduction was also evident in China akin to other major producers aroundthe world Nonetheless China as the top producer produced 13 Mt of alu-minum compared to 33 Mt by Russia and 171 Mt by the United States in2009 (Figure 2)113 China also owns more aluminum smelters than all othersmelters combined for rest of the world119 Qingtongxia Aluminum Co andLanzhou Aluminum are few of the many prominent aluminum companiesoperating in China and about a dozen producers contributed to about 50of the domestic annual production of aluminum in 2003120

In 2008 most of the bauxite resources in China were extracted fromthe following provinces Henan Shandong Guangxi Shanxi and GuizhouWith more bauxite resources being identified in the recent decade such asthe Chongzuoshi and the Fusui deposits in Guangxi Zhuangzu AutonomousRegion the Heitutian and Luobuchong deposits in Guizhou Province andthe Fudian-Minchi deposit in Henan Province Chinarsquos bauxite resources to-taled 2 gigatons in 2006 and has been viewed as a prominent contributor tothe global market121 In 2009 the domestic production of copper in Chinawas 096 Mt and was predicted to rise to 1 Mtyear in 2010 China wasthe second largest producer of copper following Chile at 532 Mt Peruat 126 Mt and the United States at 119 Mt in 2009113 The Chinese cop-per mines are situated in the Provinces of Qinghai Jiangxi Guangxi ands Xinjiang121

In 2009 China was the top producer of iron ore (Figure 2) But becauseof rising demand of domestic iron consumption importations were necessary

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FIGURE 5 Total estimated production of select metals from mining operations in the UnitedStates for 2009 Data are adapted from reference 113

to meet the domestic demand China produced an estimated 3000 tons ofgold in 2009 and was the second highest producer in the world followingPeru at 3900 tons In most cases silver was extracted in the form of byprod-uct during the extraction of metals such as gold lead copper and otherbase metals113

Global market of the rare earth metals (about 97) was almost com-pletely controlled by China in 2010122 It is because foreign investors are notallowed to mine rare earth metals such as dysprosium yttrium thulium andlutetium in China122 Rare earth metals have wide applications in cutting-edge technologies including electronics and wind turbines hybrid cars mil-itary weapons and superconductors among others123124

55 Mines of New Zealand

Gifted with diversified geology New Zealand owns several kinds of min-eral reserves However only a few dozens of mines are currently opera-tional which contribute significantly to the nationrsquos mining industry125 NewZealand only extracts three types of metallic minerals namely gold silverand ironsand The two largest gold mines in descending order are Macraesand Waihi Situated at Otago Macraes is located about 100 km from Dunedinand is owned and operated by OceanaGold (a publicly listed company) Itsgold reserves extend to about 40 km in length out of which only 50have been explored The reserve is expected to last until 2016 In 2009 it

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FIGURE 6 New Zealandrsquos total production of gold (A) silver (B) and ironsand (C) bydifferent mines for 2008 and 2009 Data are adapted from reference 128

produced a total of 68 tons of gold which was 14 higher than its produc-tion in 2008 (Figure 6) Waihi mine (also called Martha mine) is the secondlargest gold mine in New Zealand with total annual production of 34 tons in2009 which was about 33 lower than its production in 2008126 HistoricallyMartha mine began mining operations more than three centuries ago butwas closed in 1951 However later in 1987 it reopened due to the nationrsquosgrowing interest in the gold industry127 Total gold production was similarfor 2008 and 2009 which was about 134 tons (Figure 6A)128

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Regarding silver mining Waihirsquos contribution was 43 and 78 timesgreater than Macraesrsquo in 2008 and 2009 respectively In 2008 Waihirsquos sil-ver production was 17892 tons versus Macraesrsquo 0229 ton Waihi pro-duced a total of 13755 tons versus Macraesrsquo 0317 ton in 2009 Overallthe total silver produced in New Zealand was 14264 tons for 2009 thiswas about 4 tons less silver extracted compared to that of previous year(Figure 6B)128

Approximately 202 Mt of ironsand was produced by two mines operat-ing in New Zealand in 2008 The greatest contribution was made by WaikatoNorth Head (1347 Mt) followed by Taharoa mine with annual productionof 0672 tons Although individual mine data for 2009 were not available forthese two mines the total production of ironsand was however reported tobe 2092 Mt (Figure 6C)128

6 MINING LAWS AND REGULATIONS ACROSS NATIONS

Different countries have different statutes and regulations governing min-ing operations However some common premises include requirement ofmining permit prior to the commencement of mining operations guidelinesfor minimizing harm to the biodiversity and environment including the besttechnology-based waste management and specific finesfees for noncom-pliance of provisions among others The following sections provide conciseaccount of the major laws and regulations associated with metals and min-erals activityindustry especially for the United States the European UnionAustralia and New Zealand The highlights of the statutes provided hereinshould not be misconstrued as the only provisions in the corresponding Actsor regulations Although some terms used in the following paragraphs areexclusive and context-dependent they are publicly available and are notredefined here

61 Mining Laws and Regulations of the United States

In the United States the mining industry and its activities are governed bythe federal laws and regulations which have been in place as early as 1870Some of them include the Mining Law of 1872 the National Environmen-tal Policy Act (NEPA) enacted in 1970 the Clean Air Act (CAA) amendedin1970 the Endangered Species Act enacted in 1973 Federal Land Policyand Management Act enacted in 1976 and National Park System MiningRegulation Act enacted in 1976 the Resource Conservation and RecoveryAct (RCRA) enacted in 1976 the Clean Water Act (CWA) also called Fed-eral Water Pollution Control Act enacted in 1977 and the ComprehensiveEnvironmental Response Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA) alsocalled Superfund enacted in 1980 among others Brief insights into how

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these regulations apply to mining and mineral industry are presented in thisreview

The Mining Law of 1872 provides a basis for US citizens to explorepurchase the mineral deposits and the land and occupy such lands if min-erals are located Discovery of valuable mineral deposits gives the right forthe claimant to hold the patent and own the land The claimant can trade orsell the land as a private asset Furthermore this law also gives authority toUS citizens to locate the mineral deposits on those federal (public domain)lands that are not yet set aside for any specific purpose129

The NEPA necessitates federal agencies to develop Environmental Im-pact Statements (EIS) for major federal actions which may have significantimpacts to human health and the environment It also makes sure that envi-ronmental information is available to public officials as well as general pub-lic before any action is taken Any extraction operation which needs federalapproval is required to follow NEPA The US EPA bears the responsibilityto review and comment on the EISs130

The CAA (1970) was enacted with the sole motto to provide high-est quality air for the public to breathe131 It mandates the US EPA toset national ambient air quality standards (NAAQS) against the commonand hazardous air pollutants With regard to the metallic mineral process-ing plants EPA has developed New Source Performance Standards (NSPS)under sect111 of 40 CFR Part 60 Subpart LL However mineral processingfacilities located underground are exempt from the NSPSs Mining relatedfugitive dust emissions are regulated by the state programs that are equiva-lent to the Federal National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) Majorsources (ie the source which emits either 10 tonsyear of single hazardousair pollutant or more than 25 tonsyear of different hazardous air pollutantscombined) are mandated to implement the maximum available control tech-nology (MACT) to minimize emissions (CAA sect112) With regard to miningindustry ferrous and non-ferrous metals processing industries and mineralproducts processing industry are identified as the sources of hazardous airpollutants130

The Endangered Species Act (ESA 1973) mandates that the endangeredand threatened species be conserved along with the ecosystems on whichthey depend132 The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administrationrsquos(NOAA) National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) shares the responsibil-ity to manage marine and anadromous species (such as salmon which livesin ocean as an adult and moves to freshwater to reproduce) while the USFish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) is responsible for managing the terrestrialand fresh water species The ESA requires the federal agencies to ensure thatno any activity pertaining to the government has any adverse effects on thethreatened and endangered species or to their critical habitats Dependingon where the actions are undertaking (eg land or sea) as stated previouslyconsultations with the USFWS and NMFS are mandatory prior to conducting

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any such operations that may have potential adverse impacts to the speciesor their habitats132

The Federal Land Policy and Management Act (FLPMA 1976) givesthe authority to the Bureau of Land Management (BLM) for planning andmanagement of the public land such that it provides multiple use sustainedyield and also protects the qualities of the land for scientific ecologicalscenic historical and recreational values133 The statute requires that thefederal government retain the public lands in federal ownership until it isdetermined that providing such land to private parties will benefit the nationFurther the FLPMA requires that management of the public lands shouldrecognize the national interest for domestic minerals food timber and fiberfrom such lands (sect102)133

The National Park System Mining Regulation Act (or Mining in the ParksAct [MPA] 1976) was enacted by the Congress to prevent and reduce dam-age due to mining operations within the boundary of the National Park Sys-tem134 However based on the type of the mining rights whether patentedor unpatented the Secretary of the Interiorrsquos ability to regulate the extractionindustry varies as there appears more control of the federal government onunpatented mining claims than patented land owned by the private parties134

In addition the National Park Service also further regulates the mining rightsIt limits the use and access to water and mandates reclamation of the sitepost-closure Obtaining an access permit and gaining mining plan approvalare prerequisites for any mining activity to initiate its operation135

Under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA 1976) Sub-title C the EPA has established guidelines for the management of hazardouswastes from the time it is in the cradle to the time it ends up in the grave136

When the solid waste is determined to be hazardous it could be eitherldquoListedrdquo hazardous waste F- K- P- and U- listed or characteristic hazardouswaste Any solid waste that is listed in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)is predefined and categorized waste To be a characteristic waste any solidwaste should possess one or more of the following characteristics ignitable(flashpoint less than 140F) corrosive (aqueous pH lt 2 or gt 125) reactive(unstable and highly reactive in water) and toxic (if exceeds the Toxic-ity Characteristic Leaching Procedure [TCLP] limit)137 However the BevillAmendment of 1980 exempts the solid waste resulting from the extractionbeneficiation and processing of ores and minerals from the definition of haz-ardous waste under Subtitle C of RCRA138 Then followed the EPA July 1986decision that mining wastes shall not be regulated as hazardous wastes139

Moreover if any waste is not uniquely associated with mining activity itmust be managed as any other hazardous wastes as described in 40 CFRsect261ndash271 or as per the statersquos requirements139

The CWA (1977) was enacted by the Congress in order to maintain andrestore the physical chemical and biological integrity of the waters of theUnited States140 This objective is met through various programs conducted at

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the Federal and State levels States are required under sect303 to establish waterquality standards based on the EPA water quality criteria to meet the CWAgoal National technology-based effluent limitation guidelines establishedby the EPA requires ore mining and dressing plants to adhere to the BestAvailable Demonstrated Technology (BADT) to limit the effluents from minedrainage and mill discharges Moreover EPA mandates that all point sourcedischarges of storm water pertaining industrial activity including miningactivity be permitted under the National Pollutant Discharge EliminationSystem (NPDES) Section 404 of the CWA protects the wetland ecosystemsfrom the dredged or fill materials entering into US waters US EPA andthe Army Corps of Engineers are responsible for an issuance of permit toallow discharging dredged or fill materials at each disposal site140 The totalamounts of various chemicals that may be discharged in effluent are enlistedin 40 CFR Part 440 which is called ldquoOre Mining and Dressing Point SourceCategory Subpart Jrdquo141 The CWA also prohibits the use of STD procedurein the United States50

The CERCLA also called Superfund was enacted by Congress in 1980to clean up abandoned hazardous waste sites in the United States This lawrequires operators to report any release of hazardous substances to the en-vironment and mandates liability for operators to clean up the sites wherehazardous substances are released which may present an imminent risk tothe public health and safety142 The Superfund program involves US EPA toclean up mineral-related contaminated sites throughout the United States143

The US EPA can transfer the liability to the past owners or contributors ofthe contaminated site Wastes from mining smelter and milling activitiescan be hazardous despite exempted by the Bevill Amendment of RCRA ifthe ingredients that it constitutes fall within the definition including thoseregulated under the CAA and CWA (42 USC sect9601ndash9675)142 The CERCLAhas been subsequently amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reau-thorization Act (SARA) of 1986 and the Small Business Liability Relief andBrownfields Revitalization Act of 2002143

62 European Union Regulations for Extraction Industry

In order to regulate the mining industry and their activities to accomplishsustainable management of the waste associated with extraction of mineralsand to protect the environment and human health from the hazardous minetailings and contaminated rock piles the European Union has devised severalpieces of legislations including Directive 199931EC Directive 200435ECDirective 200621EC and the Amendment Acts such as Regulation (EC)5962009 of the European Parliament and of the Council of June 182009144

In accordance with Directive 200621EC the waste facility of any ex-traction industry cannot operate without a permit supplied by the competent

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authorities To obtain a permit the facility operator must comply with theprovisions in the directive It is mandatory of the competent authorities toinform the public that the applications for permits are submitted This wouldallow the public to comment and participate in assessment procedure forpermit authorization144

Regarding building a new waste facility or modifying an existing one thedirective mandates the competent authorities to ensure that (a) the facilityis located in the right place (b) it is physically stable and do not harmsoil water and air (c) monitoring and inspection by competent persons aredone in a regular basis and (d) proper arrangements for facility closure landrehabilitation and post-closure are in place To ensure that the waste facilityoperators adhere to the provisions in the directive a financial guarantee mustbe provided by the operators before the facility begins to operate in order toensure that funding is available for site restoration post-closure Post-closuremaintaining and monitoring of site is mandatory as long as the competentauthority deems necessary144

Those waste facilities emanating potential risk for public health and theenvironment (Category A) are required of the operators to present (a) apolicy for preventing major accidents (b) a safety management plan and(c) an emergency plan highlighting what measures will be taken on site inan event an accident occurs Furthermore the competent authority is alsorequired to have an external emergency plan in case an off-site accidentoccurs Public participation for commenting and addressing their opinionsare required of the competent authority144

With regard to the mining waste waste facility operators must presenta waste management plan subject to be reviewed every five years withthe following objectives (a) the plan should incorporate methods to pre-vent or reduce waste generation andor its hazardous behavior (b) itshould prioritize waste reductionrecovery via reuse recycling or reclaim-ing and (c) prioritize short- and long-term safe waste disposal techniques Inaddition the European Union member states require the operators to sig-nificantly reduce the concentrations of cyanide and its compounds in thetailing ponds utilizing the best available practices to significantly reducethe toxic effects of these chemicals144 Further up-to-date record keepingof all the waste management operations and allowing the competent au-thority for review is expected of the facility operators A report is manda-tory for every Member State to be sent to the European Commission ev-ery three years on the implementation of the Directive this is followedby the publication of a report by the Commission within a time frameof nine months of receiving the report from the member states Well-maintained and timely updated inventory of all closed and abandoned wastefacilities must be maintained by the operators and more importantly ofthose facilities which are deemed hazardous for human health and theenvironment144

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63 Minerals and Mining Regulations of Australia

Several pieces of legislative statutes govern the mineral and mining activitiesin Australia Some of the prominent ones include Mining Act 1978 Environ-mental Protection Act 1986 Land Administration Act (LAA) 1997 and NativeTitle Act 1993 among others A concise overview of the mining regulationsthat are applied in Australia is presented

The Mining Act 1978 and LAA 1997 define that all minerals (except fewpercentages of non-precious metals owned by those before the law was en-acted) belong to the Crown and remain so until the Crown land is transferredin fee simple under the LAA Section 24145146 A mining title is mandatory toobtain where minerals are the asset of the Crown even before explorationtakes place The act is administered by the Minister for Resources and pro-vides the basis for transfer and mortgage of mining tenements compliancewith environmental guidelines and settlements of disputes and compensa-tion145146

The Environmental Protection Act 1986 mandates an Environmental Pro-tection Authority to use every measure possible for the control preventionand mitigation of pollution and for promotion and management of the en-vironment147 To protect the environment form the potential harm the Actmandates to adhere to the following principlesmdashprinciple of waste minimiza-tion ldquopolluter paysrdquo principle principle of intergenerational equity principleof biodiversity and ecological integrity conservation and the precautionaryprinciple147

Generally in Australia the activities associated with mining minerals areadministered by the Department of Mines Minerals and Energy howeverall six states and the Northern Territory (NT) regulate mineral activities usingtheir own State laws which are for the most part analogous to the nationallaws In order to obtain mining approval one has to go through three dif-ferent steps (a) obtain an initial exploration license (b) obtain a retentionlicense and (c) obtain a mining lease However variation in each of theforegoing step occurs depending on the State where an application is madeFor example any application made should be notified to the public via pub-lication in the Government gazette or a local newspaper which howeveris not required in Tasmania A direct change from exploration license tomining lease is possible in some states (eg Tasmania Victoria and QLD)but not in others Victoria does not have a provision of retention licenseper se Usually exploration tenures are granted for a period of 2ndash6 yearsand any renewals will result in reduction in areas With exploration and re-tention licenses compensation should be paid for ldquodamaging land surfacerestrictions for right of way damage to improvements and reasonable ex-penses to control damagerdquo Moreover compensation is also required to payfor depriving the use of land earning cuts and social impacts in the statesof WA SA and NSW In most states (with the exception of NT and SA)

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the miner is required to purchase the land andor property on which themineral deposit is located especially if the plan is for surface or open-cutmining Prior to the commencement of any mining operation mining propos-als must include environmental assessment financial guarantee for reclama-tion and program for rehabilitation The mining lease periods vary amongthe states eg Victoria 20 years WA and NSW 21 years and SA 7ndash21years145146

64 Minerals and Mining Regulations of New Zealand

Under the Crown Minerals Act (CMA) 1991 mineral permits are issuedpertaining to prospecting exploring or extracting minerals owned by theCrown148 However a permit for land access is obtained from the landowner via negotiation Resource consent should also be obtained from theDistrict Council or the Regional Council before commencing any miningwork Resource consent generally includes limits on air and water qualitylimits on water use tailing dam standards and conditions for major landclearance and rehabilitation Additionally the CMA mandates the Ministerof Energy to prepare mineral programs The Crown Minerals (Minerals andCoal) Regulations 2007 has set out premises for the explorers and minerson how to (a) apply for a permit under the CMA (b) apply for permitchange (c) make payments and royalty returns (d) report to the Crownregarding prospecting and exploration and (e) lodge cores and sampleswith the Crown among others The Crown Minerals (Minerals Fees) Regula-tions 2006 basically deals with fees payable for the tasks specified under theCMA149 Crowned minerals comprise gold silver and substantial amounts ofcoal and other metallic and nonmetallic minerals including aggregates andpetroleum148

Environmental issues come under the Resource Management Act of1991 the objective of which is to manage the natural and physical re-sources in a sustainable manner and promote their wise use and de-velopment150 The Minister of Conservation together with local authoritiesenforce the conditions to prevent and minimize potential environmentalimpacts associated with mining operations Under the act the Ministerof Conservation is responsible for making any decision about mining onthe conservation land while majority of the negotiation and decisions aredelegated to the conservancy level150 Under the Conservation Act 1987mining companies have financial obligations similar to other users of theconservation estate Regarding exploration and mining of the continentalshelf (ie the seabed and subsoils of marine areas extending between12 and 200 nautical miles from New Zealand and in some areas to theouter edge of continental margin) the Minister of Energy possesses ab-solute authority for granting a license under the Continental Shelf Act of1964151

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7 MINING AND SUSTAINABILITY

Whether mining can be regarded a sustainable enterprise is an open andongoing debate Some believe that a long lasting mine can be a sustainablebusiness if its economic environmental and social implications are properlyaddressed152153 such as the surface coal mining in Appalachia154 Othersbelieve that mining cannot be sustainable155 because no any mine lasts forcenturies instead it lasts only from few years to 10ndash20 years before thenatural reserve at the site depletes Hence mining can be referred as anon-renewable asset156157 The concept that mining is unsustainable datesback to Georgius Agricolarsquos seminal book De Re Metallica (15561950)158 onwhich he presented the thoughts of the opponents of sustainable mining asfollows

that the fields are devastated by mining operations that the woodsand groves are cut down for there is need of an endless amount ofwood for timbers machines and the smelting of metals And whenthe woods and groves are felled then are exterminated the beasts andbirds when the ores are washed the water which has been usedpoisons the brooks and streams and either destroys the fish or drivesthem away Therefore the inhabitants of these regions find great dif-ficulty in procuring the necessaries of life Thus there is greaterdetriment from mining than the value of the metals which the miningproduces

Agricola himself was however a proponent of the concept of sustain-able mining An efficient operation of mines with careful planning whichincludes financial benefits mitigation of environmental concerns and directlocal public participation in the mining sector may support sustainabilityRecently Laurence and Scoble159 identified five areas that may guide themining industries toward sustainability These include (a) prioritizing min-ersrsquo safety (b) maintaining profitable economy (c) embracing environmentalprotection and conservation practices from the time of exploration until suc-cessful reclamation of the mining site (d) resource optimization (efficiency)and (e) community development159

According to the Brundtland Commission160 sustainable development isldquothe development that meets the needs of the present without compromisingthe ability of future generations to meet their own needsrdquo The concept ofsustainability should intricately be linked with mining from its conceptionto its post-closure each step in the life cycle of mining should incorpo-rate sustainability principles In 1992 the Earth Summit was perhaps theone that initiated discussions on mining associated pollution and sustainabil-ity161 Later the International Council on Mining and Metals developed 10principles on mining sustainability162 Briefly the principles are to establish

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ethical business practices and sound governance uphold and respect theemployeesrsquo rights and values practice sound risk management principlesmaintain better health safety and environmental practices encourage lifecycle assessment from product design to its disposal facilitate communityparticipation and development and build trust with stakeholders via trans-parency162

Recently the concept of triple bottom line has been defined to in-corporate environmental economic and social considerations to promotesustainability in the mining industry and business sector153163 However inthe hind side as mining industry relies on financial companies for capitalinvestment it is realized that only those industries with sound environmen-tal management practices and adequate societal responsibilitymdashthe conceptoften called Equator Principlesmdashwill more likely be funded164 Unless thispractice of funding is changed companies that are interested to initiate themining operations especially in the third world countries will not be ableto operate thus necessitating nonadherence to the Equator Principles161

A key report pertaining sustainability of mining in Australia by Mudd165

offers statistical analysis to investigate if mining enterprise in Australia is sus-tainable This study was based on a century-long production data especiallyfor energy commodities (eg uranium and coal) metals (eg copper goldzinc) and bulk commodities (eg sand bauxite) The report concludes that(a) there is no possibility for average ore grades to increase in the future(b) the production capacity of individual mines showed a general trend ofincrease over the last century (c) observation of increasing trend in solidwaste generation resulting from mining operation (d) increased productionscale has led to resource depletion and exerted more pressure to exploreviable resources and (e) as complex mineral ores are being exploited thesedays increasing concerns about potential release of contaminants use of en-ergy and water are only rising Further the report highlighted the problemsassociated with quantifying the environmental risk of incessant increase ofminerals extraction and processing in several parts of the world

Some formal rubrics which have often been employed to understandif mineral mining is sustainable include (a) quantifying the embodied water(ie the total water needed to generate a product or good) of the productobtained through mining166 (b) estimating total energy expensed to obtainthe final product166167 versus the energy that the final product can generategiven that it is used for energy generating purposes and (c) quantifyingtotal amount of greenhouse gases added into the atmosphere during theproduction process166167 As is relevant for any business organizations min-eral industries should also (a) take into account the best available ways tominimize the energy usage during the extraction beneficiation and refiningprocesses (b) adopt the best practices to lower the carbon footprint in theenvironment (c) minimize the use of water during mining and processing asit adds to the investment costs168169 and draining such waters comes with

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unexpected environmental consequences170ndash172 and (d) adopt the principleof triple-R (ie reduce reuse recycle) which could potentially maximizethe savings and minimize the resultant waste from mining activities

8 THE PATH FORWARD

Mining has grown as a multinational business adhering to better health andhygiene standards than ever before However sloppy applications of thestandard procedures and inadequate management policies have frequentedfatalities across the globe Well-planned and well-executed studies will fostera better understanding in establishing cause-effect relationships between thecontaminants of concern and toxic endpoints94 The need for metals is evergrowing and with this the environmental concerns of acid mine drainagesoil and water contamination and subsequent human health effects are onlyrising Maintaining proper balance between increasing need for mineralsand protection and promotion of the environment is however challeng-ing Far-sighted mining policies coupled with adequate guarantee for minereclamation and rehabilitation and timely inspections with stringent regula-tions at the local and national levels should serve adequate risk abatementand environmental conservation Implementation of the best available tech-nologies adequate trainings and standard working practices should rendermining safer occupation than ever before Embracing the measures as dis-cussed in this review may serve a basis for the mining industry to movetoward becoming a sustainable enterprise

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The authors would like to thank the anonymous reviewers for their thought-ful comments

REFERENCES

[1] Hudson T L Fox F D and Plumlee G S (1999) Metal mining and theenvironment AGI Environ Awareness Series 3 1ndash68

[2] Commission of the European Communities (2005) Thematic strategy on thesustainable use of natural resources Brussels Belgium Commission of theEuropean Communities

[3] Jordan G (2009) Sustainable mineral resources management from regionalmineral resources exploration to spatial contamination risk assessment of min-ing Environ Geol 58 153ndash169

[4] Miranda M Chambers D and Coumans C (2005) Framework for re-sponsible mining A guide to evolving standards 1ndash155 (httpwwwframeworkforresponsibleminingorgpubsFramework 20051018pdf)

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[5] World Bank Group (1998) Base metal and iron ore mining Pollutionprevention and abatement handbook Retrieved from httpwww-wdsworldbankorgservletWDSContentServerWDSPIB1999060300009494699040905052283RenderedPDFmulti0pagepdf

[6] Household articles of base metal US Customs and Border Protec-tion Jan 2010 Retrieved from httpwwwcbpgovlinkhandlercgovtradelegalinformed compliance pubsicp079ctticp079pdf

[7] Naim R W Hedin R S and Watzlaf G R (1991) A preliminary reviewof the use of anoxic limestone drains in the passive treatment of AMD Paperpresented at the West Virginia Surface Mine Drainage Task Force SymposiumMorgantown WV

[8] Gazea B Adam K and Kontopoulos A (1996) A review of passive systemsfor the treatment of acid mine drainage Min Eng 9 23ndash42

[9] Salt D E Smith R D and Raskin I (1998) Phytoremediation Ann RevPlant Biol 49 643ndash668

[10] Gulumian M Borm P J Vallyathan V Castranova V Donaldson K Nel-son G and Murray J (2006) Mechanistically identified suitable biomarkersof exposure effect and susceptibility for silicosis and coal-workerrsquos pneumo-coniosis a comprehensive review J Toxicol Environ Health B Crit Rev 9357ndash395

[11] Donato D B Nichols O Possingham H Moore M Ricci P F and NollerB N (2007) A critical review of the effects of gold cyanide-bearing tailingssolutions on wildlife Environ Int 33 974ndash984

[12] Luus K (2007) Asbestos mining exposure health effects and policy implica-tions Mcgill J Med 10 121ndash126

[13] Linge K L (2008) Methods for investigating trace element binding in sedi-ments Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol 38 165ndash196

[14] Miretzky P and Cirelli A F (2009) Hg(II) removal from water by chitosanand chitosan derivatives A review J Hazard Mater 167 10ndash23

[15] Rukavishnikov V S Pankov V A Kuleshova M V Lazarev A V Ru-sanova D V and Sudakova N G (2009) Results and prospects of scientificresearch on sensory conflict under exposure to noise and vibration at workMed Tr Prom Ekol 1 1ndash5

[16] Sheoran V Sheoran A S and Poonia P (2010) Soil reclamation of aban-doned mine land by revegetation A review Int J Soil Sediment Water 31ndash21

[17] Capasso R and De Martino A (2010) Polymerin and lignimerin as humicacid-like sorbents from vegetable waste for the potential remediation of waterscontaminated with heavy metals herbicides or polycyclic aromatic hydrocar-bons J Agric Food Chem 58 10283ndash10299

[18] Dhankhar R and Hooda A (2011) Fungal biosorptionndashan alternative tomeet the challenges of heavy metal pollution in aqueous solutions EnvironTechnol 32 467ndash491

[19] Lizama A K Fletcher T D and Sun G (2011) Removal processes forarsenic in constructed wetlands Chemosphere 84 1032ndash1043

[20] Jamrozik E de Klerk N and Musk A W (2011) Asbestos-related diseaseIntern Med J 41 372ndash380

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2014


[21] Vearrier D and Greenberg M I (2011) Occupational health of miners ataltitude adverse health effects toxic exposures pre-placement screening ac-climatization and worker surveillance Clin Toxicol 49 629ndash640

[22] Laurence D C (2006) Why do mines close In Proceedings First InternationalSeminar on Mine Closure (pp 83ndash94) Perth Australia Australian Centre forGeomechanics

[23] Laurence D C (2009) Premature mine closures and the global financialcrisis Have we learnt anything from the recent past Paper presented at theInternational Mine Closure Conference Perth Australia

[24] Beynon H Cox A and Hudson R (2000) Digging up trouble The envi-ronment protest and opencast coal mining London England Rivers OramPress

[25] Hoskin W Bird G and Stanley T (2000) Mining facts figures and environ-ment Industry Environ 23 4ndash8

[26] US Environmental Protection Agency (1994) Design and evaluation of tail-ings dams Technical Report EPA530-R-94-038 Washington DC USEPA Of-fice of Solid Waste Special Waste Branch

[27] Aucamp P and van Schalkwyk A (2003) Trace element-pollution of soils byabandoned gold-mine tailings near Potchefstroom S Africa Bull Eng GeolEnviron 62 123ndash134

[28] Antwi-Agyei P Hogarh J N and Foli G (2010) Trace elements contamina-tion of soils around gold mine tailings dams at Obuasi Ghana Afr J EnvironSci Technol 3 353ndash359

[29] Mendez M O and Maier R M (2008) Phytoremediation of mine tailings intemperate and arid environments Rev Environ Sci Biotechnol 7 47ndash59

[30] Casado M Anawar H M Garcia-Sanchez A and Santa Regina I (2007)Arsenic bioavailability in polluted mining soils and uptake by tolerant plants(El Cabaco Mine Spain) Bull Environ Contam Toxicol 79 29ndash35

[31] Garcia-Sanchez A Alastuey A and Querol X (1999) Heavy metal adsorp-tion by different minerals application to the remediation of polluted soils SciTotal Environ 242 179ndash188

[32] Kien C N Noi N V Son L T Ngoc H M Tanaka S Nishna T andIwasaki K (2010) Heavy metal contamination of agricultural soils around achromite mine in Vietnam Soil Sci Plant Nut 56 344ndash356

[33] Rashed M N (2010) Monitoring of contaminated toxic and heavy metalsfrom mine tailings through age accumulation in soil and some wild plants atSoutheast Egypt J Hazard Mater 178 739ndash746

[34] Giasson P and Jaouich A (1998) Phytorestoration of contaminated soils inQuebec Vecteur Environ 31 40ndash53

[35] Steinborn M and Breen J (1999) Heavy metals in soil and vegetation atShallee mine silvermines Co Tipparery Biol Environ Proc Royal IrishAcademy 99B 37ndash42

[36] Aslibekian O and Moles R (2003) Environmental risk assessment of metalscontaminated soils at silver mines abandoned mine site Tipperary IrelandEnviron Geochem Health 25 247ndash266

[37] Pollution issuesndashMining Retrieved from httpwwwpollutionissuescomLi-NaMininghtml

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[38] MiningWatch Canada Mines Aletre Mining and water pollution in CanadaNewsletter Number 7 Autumn 2001 pp 1ndash4 (httpwwwminingwatchcasiteswwwminingwatchcafilesMWC newsletter 07 0pdf)

[39] Environment Canada (2004) Threats to water availability in Canada Burling-ton Canada Environment Canada httpwwwecgccainre-nwridefaultasplang=Enampn=0CD66675-1ampoff

[40] Hughes D B and Clarke B G (2001) The river Aire slope failure at theSt Aidans extension opencast coal site Wet Yorkshire United Kingdom CanGeotechnol J 38 239ndash259

[41] Johnson R H Blowes D W Robertson W D and Jambor J L (2000) Thehydrogeochemistry of the Nickel Rim mine tailings impoundment SudburyOntario J Contam Hydrol 41 49ndash80

[42] Younger P L (1997) The longevity of mine water pollution a basis fordecision-making Sci Total Environ 194ndash195 457ndash466

[43] Gilbert N (2010) Mountain mining damages streams Nature 466 806[44] Palmer M A Bernhardt E S Schlesinger W H Eshleman K N Foufoula-

Georgiou E Hendryx M S Lemly A D Likens G E Loucks O LPower M E White P S and Wilcock P R (2010) Mountaintop miningconsequences Science 327 148ndash149

[45] Pond G J Passmore M E Borsuk F A Reynolds L and Rose C J (2008)Downstream effects of mountaintop coal mining comparing biological condi-tions using family- and genus-level macroinvertebrate bioassessment tools JN Am Benthol Soc 27 717ndash737

[46] Sedell J R Reeves G H Hauer F R Stanford J A and Hawkins C P(1990) Role of refugia in recovery from disturbance Modern fragmented anddisconnected river systems Environ Manag 14 711ndash724

[47] Reid L M (1998) Forest roads chronic turbidity and salmon EOS Trans79(45) F285

[48] Younger P L (1998) Coalfield abandonment Geochemical processes andhydrochemical products In K Nicholson (Ed) Energy and the environmentGeochemistry of fossil nuclear and renewable resources Society for Environ-mental Geochemistry and Health (pp 1ndash29) Aberdeenshire Scotland McGre-gor Science

[49] Cao X Wahbi A Ma L Li B and Yang Y (2009) Immobilization of ZnCu and Pb in contaminated soils using phosphate rock and phosphoric acidJ Hazard Mater 164 555ndash564

[50] MiningWatch Canada Submarine tailings disposal June 2002 (httpwwwminingwatchcasiteswwwminingwatchcafiles01STDtoolkitintr pdf)

[51] USDA Forest Service (2005) Wildland waters Newsletter Issue4 FS-812 (httpwwwfsfeduswildlandwatersnewsletterswildlandwaterswinter05txt)

[52] Skousen J Hilton T and Faulkner B (nd) Overview of acid minedrainage treatment with chemicals Retrieved from httpwwwwvuedusimagextenlandrecchemtrthtm

[53] Costello C (2003) Acid mine drainage Innovative treatment technologiesWashington DC US Environmental Protection Agency Office of Solid Wasteand Emergency Response Technology Innovation Office

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[54] UNEP Abandoned mines Problems issues and policy challenges for decisionmakers United Nations Environment Programme and Chilean Copper Com-mission Summary Report Santiago Chile 18 June 2001

[55] Buck S and Gerard D Cleaning up mining waste Political Economy Re-search Center Research Study 01-1 November 2001 pp 1ndash28 (httppercorgsitesdefaultfilesrs01 1pdf)

[56] Ustis J D and Foote B A (1991) Influence of strip-mining on the mortalityof wetland caddisfly Limnephilus indivisus Great-Lakes Entom 24 133ndash143

[57] McClure R (2001 June 13) The mining of the West Profit and pollution onpublic lands Seattle Post-Intelligencer

[58] Wildeman T Gusek J Dietz J and Morea S (1991) Handbook for con-structed wetlands receiving acid mine drainage Cincinnati OH US Environ-mental Protection Agency

[59] Durkin T V and Herrmann J G (1994) Focusing on the problem of miningwastes An introduction to acid mine drainage In Managing environmentalproblems at inactive and abandoned mine sites Washington DC US Envi-ronmental Protection Agency Seminar publication number EPA625R-95007pp 1ndash4

[60] Younger P L Banwart S A and Hedin R S (2002) Mine water Hydrologypollution remediation Dordrecht the Netherlands Kluwer Academic

[61] Fennessy S and Mitsch W J (1989) Design and use of wetlands for reno-vation of drainage from coal mines In W J Mitsch and S E Jorgensen (Eds)Ecological engineering An introduction to ecotechnology (pp 232ndash252) NewYork NY Wiley

[62] Acid-loving microbe maybe a key to mine pollution (httpwwwbiology-onlineorgarticlesacid-loving microbe may keyhtml)

[63] Gusek J J and Wildeman T R (1995) New developments in passive treat-ment of acid rock drainage Paper presented at the Engineering FoundationConference on Technological Solutions for Pollution Prevention in the Miningand Mineral Processing Industries Palm Coast Florida

[64] United Nations Environment Program (2010) New science and developmentsin our challenging environment In UNEP year book 2010 (pp 1ndash80) NairobiKenya UNEP Retrieved from httpwwwuneporgyearbook2010

[65] Fennessy M S and Mitsch W J (1989) Treating coal mine drainage with anartificial wetland J Water Pollut Control Feder 61 1691ndash1701

[66] Snyder C D and Aharrah E C (1985) The Typha community A positiveinfluence on mine drainage and mine restoration In Wetlands and water man-agement on mined lands (pp 187ndash188) University Park PA The PennsylvaniaState University

[67] Kleinmann R L (1985) Treatment of acid mine water by wetlands In Con-trol of acid mine drainage Proc of a technology transfer seminar Bureauof Mines circulator 9027 (pp 48ndash52) Washington DC US Department ofInterior

[68] Weider R K Lang G E and Whitehouse A E (1985) Metal removal inSphagnum dominated wetlands experience with a man-made wetland systemIn Wetlands and water management on mined lands (pp 187ndash188) UniversityPark PA The Pennsylvania State University

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[69] Sobolewski A (1997) Wetlands for treatment of mine drainage Retrievedfrom httpwwwenvirominecomwetlandsWelcomehtm

[70] Girts M and Kleinmann R (1986) Construction of wetlands for treatment ofmine water Paper presented at the Society of Mining Engineering St LouisMO

[71] US Environmental Protection Agency (1985) Freshwater wetlands for wastew-ater management handbook EPA Region 4 9049-85-135 Atlanta GA USEPA

[72] Wile I Miller G and Black S (1985) Design and use of artificial wetlands InE R Kaynor S Pelczarski and J Benforado (Eds) Ecological considerationsin wetlands treatment of municipal waters (pp 26ndash37) New York NY VanNostrand Reinhold

[73] Brooks R P (1984) Optimal designs for restored wetlands In Treatment ofmine drainage by wetlands (pp 19ndash29) University Park PA Department ofBiology Pennsylvania State University

[74] Perry A and Kleinmann R L P (1991) The use of constructed wetlands inthe treatment of acid mine drainage Nat Res Forum 15 178ndash184

[75] McHerron L E (1985) The seasonal effectiveness on a Sphagnum wetlandin removing iron and manganese from mine drainage In Wetlands and watermanagement on mined lands (pp 365ndash372) University Park PA The Penn-sylvania State University

[76] Skousen J (2001) Overview of passive systems for treating acid mine drainageMorgantown WV West Virginia University Extensive Service

[77] US Environmental Protection Agency A handbook of constructed wetlandsCoal mine drainage (Vol 4) Retrieved from httpnepisepagovExeZyNETexe200053ODPDFZyActionP=PDFampClient=EPAampIndex=200020Thru202005ampFile=D3AZYFILESINDEX20DATA00THRU05TXT00000001200053ODtxtampQuery=ampSearchMethod=1ampFuzzyDegree=0ampUser=ANONY-MOUSampPassword=anonymousampQField=pubnumberˆ22843F0000322ampUseQField=pubnumberampIntQFieldOp=1ampExtQFieldOp=1ampDocs=

[78] Turner D and McCoy D (1990) Anoxic alkaline drain treatment systema low cost acid mine drainage treatment alternative In D H Graves andR W DeVore (Eds) Proceedings of the Symposium on Mining (pp 73ndash76)Lexington KY OES

[79] Hedin R S and Hyman D M (1989) Treatment of coal mine drainage withconstructed wetlands In B J Scheiner F M Doyle and S K Kawatia (Eds)Biotechnology in minerals and metal processing Littleton CO AIME

[80] Ye M Li J T Tian S N Hu M Yi S and Liao B (2009) Biogeochemicalstudies of metallophytes from four copper-enriched sites along the YangtzeRiver China Environ Geol 56 1313ndash1322

[81] Sencidiver J C and Bhumbla D K (1988) Effects of cattails (Typha) onmetal removal from mine drainage Ibid Ref 19 359ndash366

[82] Ford K L (2003) Passive treatment options for acid mine drainage Bureau ofLand Management National Science and Technology Center Technical note409

[83] Kepler D A (1986) Manganese removal from mine drainage by artificialwetland construction Paper presented at the 8th Annual National AbandonedMined Lands Conference Billings MT

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2014


[84] Dionis K and Stevens S E Jr (1988) Manganese accumulation by thegreen alga Oedogonium spp in wetlands receiving acid mine drainage Pa-per presented at the International Conference on Constructed Wetlands forWastewater Treatment Chattanooga TN

[85] Pechkov P and Jovanovska S (2010) Five thousand roses to clean soilin polluted Macedonian city Oct 14 Retrieved from httpwazeuobservercom88731036

[86] Hessel P A and Sluis-Cremer G K (1987) Hearing loss in white SouthAfrican goldminers S African Med J 71 364ndash367

[87] Frank T Bise C J and Michael K (2003) A hearing conservation programfor coal miners Occup Health Safety 72 106ndash110

[88] Narini P P Novak C B Mackinnon S E and Coulson-Roos C (1993)Occupational exposure to hand vibration in Northern Ontario gold miners JHand Surg 18A 1051ndash1058

[89] Dasgupta A K and Harrison J (1996) Effects of vibration on the hand-armsystem of miners in India Occup Med 46 71ndash78

[90] Williamson A M and Feyer A M (2000) Moderate sleep deprivation pro-duces impairments in cognitive and motor performance equivalent to legallyprescribed levels of alcohol intoxication Occup Environ Med 57 649ndash655

[91] Richalet J P Donoso M V Jimenez D Antezana A M Hudson C CortesG Osorio J and Leon A (2002) Chilean miners commuting from sea levelto 4500 m a prospective study High Alt Med Biol 3 159ndash166

[92] Donoghue A M and Bates G P (2000) The risk of heat exhaustion ata deep underground metalliferous mine in relation to body mass index andpredicted VO2 max Occup Med 50 259ndash263

[93] Donoghue A M and Bates G P (2000) The risk of heat exhaustion ata deep underground metalliferous mine in relation to surface temperaturesOccup Med 50 334ndash336

[94] Donoghue A M (2004) Heat illness in the US mining industry Am J IndMed 45 351ndash356

[95] National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health (2000) Injuries illnessesand hazardous exposures in the mining industry 1986ndash1995 A surveillancereport Washington DC NIOSH

[96] US Department of Health Education and Welfare and Public HealthService (1965) Vital Statistics of the United States 1963 VolumeIImdashMortality Washington DC Government Printing Office (httpwwwcdcgovnchsdatavsusmort63 2apdf)

[97] Howe G R Nair R C Newcombe H B Miller A B and Abbatt J D(1986) Lung cancer mortality (1950ndash80) in relation to radon daughter exposurein a cohort of workers at the Eldorado Beaverlodge uranium mine J NatlCancer Inst 77 357ndash362

[98] Tirmarche M Raphalen A Allin F Chameaud J and Bredon P (1993)Mortality of a cohort of French uranium miners exposed to relatively low radonconcentrations Br J Cancer 67 1090ndash1097

[99] Morrison H I Villeneuve P J Lubin J H and Schaubel D E (1998)Radon-progeny exposure and lung cancer risk in a cohort of Newfoundlandfluorspar miners Rad Res 150 58ndash65

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2014


[100] Cowie R L and Mabena S K (1991) Silicosis chronic airflow limitationand chronic bronchitis in South African gold miners Am Rev Respir Dis 14380ndash84

[101] Holman C D J Psaila-Savona P Roberts M and McNulty J C (1987)Determinants of chronic bronchitis and lung dysfunction in Western Australiangold miners Br J Ind Med 44 810ndash818

[102] Steenland K Mannetje A Boffetta P Stayner L Attfield M Chen JDosemeci M DeKlerk N Hnizdo E Koskela R and Checkoway H (2001)Pooled exposurendashresponse analyses and risk assessment for lung cancer in 10cohorts of silica-exposed workers An IARC multicentre study Cancer CausesControl 12 773ndash784

[103] Cowie R L (1994) The epidemiology of tuberculosis in gold miners withsilicosis Am J Respir Crit Care Med 150 1460ndash1462

[104] Checkoway H Hughes J M Weill H Seixas N and Demers P (1999)Crystalline silica exposure radiological silicosis and lung cancer mortality indiatomaceous earth industry workers Thorax 54 56ndash59

[105] Enterline P E Day R and Marsh G M (1995) Cancers related to exposureto arsenic at a copper smelter Occup Environ Med 52 28ndash32

[106] Lee-Feldstein A (1986) Cumulative exposure to arsenic and its relationshipto respiratory cancer among copper smelter employees J Occup Med 28296ndash302

[107] Korean Ministry of Health and Welfare (2006) The Korean national healthand nutrition examination survey - KNHANES III 2005 Seoul Korea Ministryof Health and Welfare

[108] Buchet J P Lauwerys R Roels H Bernard A Bruaux P Claeys FDucoffre G de Plaen P Staessen J Amery A Lijnen P Thijs L RondiaD Sartor F Remy A S and Nick L (1990) Renal effects of cadmium bodyburden of the general population Lancet 336 699ndash702

[109] Staessen J A Roels H A Emelianov D Kuznetsova T Thijs L Van-gronsveld J and Fagard R (1999) Environmental exposure to cadmiumforearm bone density and risk of fractures prospective population study Pub-lic health and environmental exposure to cadmium (PheeCad) study groupLancet 353 1140ndash1144

[110] US Bureau of Labor Statistics (2010) 2009 Census of fatal occupationalinjuries (revised data) Retrieved from httpwwwblsgoviifoshcfoi1htm2009

[111] Mine Safety and Health Administration (2003) Mining fatalities Retrievedfrom httpwwwcdcgovnioshminingdatadefaulthtml

[112] Geoscience Australia (2009) Australiarsquos identified mineral resources Can-berra Australia Geoscience Australia

[113] US Geological Survey (2010) Mineral commodity summaries 2010Retrieved from httpmineralsusgsgovmineralspubscommoditystatisticalsummarymyb1-2010-statipdf

[114] Freeport-McMoRan Copper amp Gold (2010 July 21) Second-quarter and six-month 2010 results Press release

[115] Rio Tinto (2010 July 14) Second quarter 2010 operations review Pressrelease

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[116] Arizona Department of Mines and Mineral Resources (2008) Arizonarsquosmetallic resources trends and opportunities (httpwwwadmmrstateazusPublicationsofr08-26pdf)

[117] Atlas Obscure The Berkeley Pit (httpwwwatlasobscuracomplacesberkeley-pit)

[118] Silver mining in United StatesmdashOverview Retrieved from httpwwwmbendicomindymingsilvamusp0005htm

[119] For all the TNCs in China - A London calling special Mines and CommunitiesMarch 22 2004 Available at httpwwwminesandcommunitiesorgarticlephpa=43

[120] Johnston S R (2003) Aluminium Mining Annual Review 1ndash27(httpmincomtestmbendicompubssamplessample aluminiumpdf)

[121] United States Geological Survey (2010) Area Reports International Asia andthe Pacific United States Geological Survey Minerals Yearbook 2008 3 1ndash221(httpbooksgooglecombooksid=DGuvgMVYS0wCampprintsec=frontcoverampsource=gbs ge summary rampcad=0v=onepageampqampf=false)

[122] Coppel E (2011) Rare earth metals and US National security Amer-ican Security Project 1-7 (httpamericansecurityprojectorgwp-contentuploads201102Rare-Earth-Metals-and-US-Security-FINALpdf)

[123] US Geological Survey (2008) Minerals yearbook China Retrieved fromhttpmineralsusgsgovmineralspubscountry2008myb3-2008-chpdf

[124] Evans-Pritchard A (2009 August 24) World faces hi-tech crunch as Chinaeyes ban on rare metal exports The Telegraph Retrieved from httpwwwtelegraphcoukfinancecommentambroseevans pritchard6082464World-faces-hi-tech-crunch-as-China-eyes-ban-on-rare-metal-exportshtml

[125] Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment (2010) Making difficultdecisions Mining the conservation estate (httpwwwpceparliamentnzpublicationsall-publicationsmaking-difficult-decisions-mining-the-conservation-estate)

[126] Crown minerals annual report New Zealand Government (20092010) 1ndash39ISSN 1178ndash4512 (httpwwwnzpamgovtnzcmspdf-libraryaboutAnnual20Report20Web20Versionpdf)

[127] The Martha Gold Mine Retrieved from httpwwwwaihiorgnzabout-usmartha-gold-mine

[128] Ministry of Economic Development of New Zealand Retrieved fromhttpwwwnzpamgovtnzcmsmineralsfacts-and-figuresGoldndashSilver

[129] Mining Law of 1872 (1872) (30 USC sectsect22ndash54)[130] US Environmental Protection Agency (1994) Background for NEPA review-

ers Non-coal mining operations Technical Document EPA530R-95043NTISPB96109103

[131] Clean Air Act (1970) (42 USC sectsect7401ndash7626)[132] Endangered Species Act (1973) (16 USC sectsect1531ndash1544)[133] Federal Land Policy and Management Act (1976) (43 USC sectsect1701ndash1782)[134] National Park System Mining Regulation Act (1976) (16 USC sectsect1901ndash1912)[135] Mining and Mining Claims (36 CFR Part 9 Subpart A) (httpwwwgpo

govfdsyspkgCFR-2009-title36-vol1pdfCFR-2009-title36-vol1-part9pdf)[136] Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) (42 USC sectsect6901ndash6992k)

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[137] 40 CFR 2613(a) - Definition of hazardous waste Identification andlisting of hazardous waste (httpwwwgpogovfdsyspkgCFR-2011-title40-vol26pdfCFR-2011-title40-vol26-sec261-3pdf)

[138] 40 CFR sect2614(b) - Exclusions Solid wastes which are not hazardous wastes(httpwwwecfrgovcgi-bintext-idxc=ecframprgn=div5ampview=textampnode=40270112ampidno=4040270112114)

[139] 51 FR 24496 (1986) Mining wastes Retrieved from httpwwwepagovoswnonhazindustrialspecialmining

[140] Clean Water Act (1977) (33 USC sectsect1251ndash1387)[141] Ore Mining and Dressing Point Source Category Subpart J (40 CFR Part 440)

(httpwwwepagovradiationdocstenorm40cfr440 mining npdes 796pdf)[142] Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act

(1980) (httpwwwepagovagriculturelclahtml)[143] US Environmental Protection Agency (1980) Superfund Law policy and

guidance Retrieved from httpwwwepagovsuperfundpolicyindexhtm[144] Directive 200621EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15

March (2006) Official Journal of the European Union 11-4-2006 Retrievedfrom httpeuropaeulegislation summariesenvironmentwaste managementl28134 enhtm

[145] Mining Act (1978) Exploration and Mining Legislation-Onshore Re-trieved from httpwwwretgovauresourcesDocumentsMinerals20and20Petroleum20ExplorationGuide for 20Investors 9OnshoreLegislationpdf

[146] Land Administration Act (1997) (httpwwwaustliieduauaulegiswaconsol actlaa1997200)

[147] Environmental Protection Act (1986) Retrieved from httpwwwmelvillecitycomaucommunityhealthhealth-legislationenvironmental-protection-act-1986pdf

[148] Crown Minerals Act (1991) Retrieved from httpwwwlegislationgovtnzactpublic19910070160DLM242536html

[149] Crown Minerals (Minerals Fees) Regulations (2006) Retrieved fromhttpwwwlegislationgovtnzregulationpublic20060226latestDLM403149html

[150] Resource Management Act (1991) Retrieved from httpwwwmfegovtnzrmaindexhtml

[151] Conservation Act (1987) Retrieved from httpwwwlegislationgovtnzactpublic19870065latestDLM103610html

[152] Learmont D (1997) Mining must show that it is sustainable Min Eng Littleton49 11ndash12

[153] James P (1999) The miner and sustainable development Min Eng Littleton51(6) 89ndash92

[154] Gardner J S and Sainato P (2007) Mountaintop mining and sustainabledevelopment in Appalachia Min Eng 59 48ndash50

[155] Hansen L (2009) A plea to President Obama End mountaintop coal miningYale Environment 360 Retrieved from httpe360yaleeducontentfeaturemspid=2168

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[156] Mikesell R F (1994) Sustainable development and mineral resources Re-sources Policy 20 83ndash86

[157] Auty R M and Mikesell R F (1998) Sustainable development in mineraleconomies Oxford Clarendon Press

[158] Agricola G (1556) De Re Metallica New York NY Dover (Originally pub-lished 1556)

[159] Laurence D C and Scoble M (2009) Integration of sustainability into miningschools Counter-cycle strategies for the next boom Paper presented at the4th International Conference on Sustainable Development Indicators in theMinerals Industry Queensland Australia

[160] United Nations Secretary-General (1987) Our common future Reportof the World Commission on Environment and Development Annexto General Assembly document A42427 Development and Interna-tional Co-operation Environment 08-02-1987 Retrieved from httpwwwun-documentsneta42-427htm

[161] Laurence D C (2011) Establishing a sustainable mining operation Anoverview J Cleaner Prod 19 278ndash284

[162] International Council on Mining and Metals (2003) Sustainable developmentframeworkmdashFinal principles Document Ref C 020290503 (httpliveassetsiucngetuniknetdownloadsminicmmstatpdf)

[163] Rajaram V Dutta S and Parameswaran K (2005) Sustainable mining prac-tices A global perspective London England Taylor amp Francis

[164] Mason A (2008) Sustainable mining Equities 57 90ndash92[165] Mudd G M (2009) The sustainability of mining in Australia Key production

trends and their environmental implications for the future Research Report NoRR5 Department of Civil Engineering Monash University and Mineral PolicyInstitute

[166] Mudd G M (2008) Sustainability reporting and water resources A preliminaryassessment of embodied water and sustainable mining Mine Water Environ27 136ndash144

[167] Mudd G M and Diesendorf M (2008) Sustainability of uranium miningand milling Toward quantifying resources and eco-efficiency Environ SciTechnol 42 2624ndash2630

[168] Younger P L (2006) The water footprint of mining operations in space andtimemdasha new paradigm for sustainability assessments Proc Water in MiningConf 13ndash21

[169] International Federation of Accountants (IFAC) (2009) Sustainability frame-work 20 (httpviewerzmagscompublication052263e2052263e21)

[170] Cotter-Howells J and Thornton I (1991) Sources and pathways of environ-mental lead to children in a Derby-shire mining village Environ GeochemHealth 13 127ndash135

[171] Wong H K T Gauthier A and Nriagu J O (1999) Dispersion and toxicityof metals from abandoned gold mine tailings at Goldenville Nova ScotiaCanada Sci Total Environ 228 35ndash47

[172] Younger P L (2001) Mine water pollution in Scotland Nature extent andpreventative strategies Sci Total Environ 265 309ndash326

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MINING AND MINE CLOSURE

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF MINING ACTIVITIES

Impacts on Land

Impacts on Water Resources

Acid Mine Drainage

Potential Mitigation Techniques for AMD

HUMAN HEALTH IMPACTS AND FATALITIES ASSOCIATED WITH MINING

GLOBAL SCENARIOS OF MAJOR METAL MINES AN OVERVIEW

Global Perspectives on Metal Mining

Mines of Australia

Mines of the United States

Mines of China

Mines of New Zealand

MINING LAWS AND REGULATIONS ACROSS NATIONS

Mining Laws and Regulations of the United States

European Union Regulations for Extraction Industry

Minerals and Mining Regulations of Australia

Minerals and Mining Regulations of New Zealand

MINING AND SUSTAINABILITY

THE PATH FORWARD

Conditions of access and use can be found at httpwwwtandfonlinecompageterms-and-conditions

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1 INTRODUCTION



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31 Impacts on Land


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2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








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54 Mines of China




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8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





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Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD









1 INTRODUCTION



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31 Impacts on Land


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2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








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54 Mines of China




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8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





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Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD





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31 Impacts on Land


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2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








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54 Mines of China




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8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





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Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








31 Impacts on Land


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2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








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54 Mines of China




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8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





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Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








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2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD





2Fe+2 + 12O2 + 2H+ rarr 2Fe+3 + H2O (2)

2Fe+3 + 6H2O harr 2Fe(OH)3(s) + 6H+ (3)








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD



54 Mines of China




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD




Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD










Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD








Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD






Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD







Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD



8 THE PATH FORWARD


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS


REFERENCES





Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD

















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD


















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD





















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD



















Dow

nloa

ded

by [

UQ

Lib

rary

] at

14

21 0

1 N

ovem

ber

2014



Impacts on Land


Acid Mine Drainage





Mines of Australia


Mines of China








THE PATH FORWARD

Global Scenarios of Metal Mining, Environmental Repercussions, Public Policies, and Sustainability:...

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Transcript of Global Scenarios of Metal Mining, Environmental Repercussions, Public Policies, and Sustainability:...