GLOBAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF …1.2 Aims of the Global Programme of Action The...
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GLOBAL PROGRAMME OF ACTION FOR THE PROTECTION OF
THE MARINE ENVIRONMENT FROM LAND-BASED ACTIVITIES
Report of The Gambia
FOR THE CANARY CURRENT LARGE MARINE ECOSYSTEM
PROJECT (CCLME) AND THE ABIDJAN CONVENTION
By: ANNA MBENGA CHAM
PRINCIPAL FISHERIES OFFICER
THE GAMBIA
February 2014
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TABLE OF CONTENT PAGE
Abbreviations/Acronyms……………………………………………………………. 3
List of Table……………………………………………………………………………3
Acknowledgements…………………………………………………………………... 5
1.0 Introduction………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.1 Aim of the Global Program of Action…………………………………… 6
1.2 The Global Program of Action…………………………………………….7
1.3 Objective…………………………………………………………………… 7
1.4 Country Profile……………………………………………………………. 7
2.0 Identification and Assessment of Problems……………………………………… 8
2.1 Food Security………………………………………………………………. 8
2.1.2 Public Health……………………………………………………………11
2.1.3 Coastal and marine Resources and Ecosystem Health……………... 13
2.1.4 Economic and Social Benefits and Uses including Cultural Values.. 16
2. 2 Contaminants…………………………………………………………………. 16
2.2.1 Sewage…………………………………………………………………. 16
2.2.2 Banned pesticides and Other Chemical………………………………. . 16
2.2.3 Oils (Hydrocarbons)……………………………………………………. 17
2.2.4 Litter………………………………………………………………………17
2.3 Physical Alteration, including Habitat Modification and Destruction
in areas of Concern…………………………………………………………… 18
2.4 Coastal Mining…………………………………………………………… . …18
2.5 Source of Degradation (Point Sources)………………………… ……… ...18
Construction Work –Dam…………………………………………………….19
Mangrove die back ………………………………………………………........19
2.6 Sources of Degradation (Non-point)………………………………………….20
2.6.1 Urban Run-Off…………………………………………………………….20
2.6.2 Agriculture and Horticulture Run-off……………………………………20
2.6.3 Coastal Erosion…………………………………………………………......21
2.6.4 Landfills and hazardous Waste Sites Sanitation………………………….21
2. 7 Areas of Concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable)……………….21
Habitat Modification and Destruction…………………………………….22
Marine Protected Areas- Tanbi and Niumi Wetlands……………………22
3.0 Establishment of Priorities…………………………………………………………..23
3.1 Waste management…………………………………………………………..25
3.2 Sanitary ………………………………………………………………………25
3.3 Aquaculture ……………………………………………………………… ... 25
3.4. Oyster Culture………………………………………………………..……...26
3.5 Management Objectives for Priority Problems………………………….26
3.5.1 Objectives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems………27
3.5.2 Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystem…………………………….27
3.5.3 Health Objectives……………………………………………………………27
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3.5.4 Sanitation program……………………………………………………….. 28
3.5.5 Biological…………………………………………………………………... 28
3.5.6 Ecological……………………………………………………………………28
3.5.7 Social………………………………………………………………………...28
3.5.8 Economic………………………………………………………………........28
4.0 Identification, Evaluation and Selection of Strategies and Measures……………..29
4.1 Protective Areas as Adaptive Measure………………………………….......30
4.2 Village gardening……………………………………………………………..31
4.3 Village Banking……………………………………………………………….31
4.4 Erosion Control……………………………………………………………….32
5.0 Criteria for Evaluating Effectiveness of Strategies and Measures………………...32
6.0 Program Support Elements………………………………………………………......32
6.1 National Policies for Management of Environment…………………………….33
6.2 Integrated Coastal and Marine Conservation and Management………………33
6.3 Institutional Framework for Natural Resource Management………………….33
6.4 Instructional Acts ………………………………………………………………....33
7.0 Ramsar Convention on Wetlands…………………………………………………….36
8.0 Environmental Education……………………………………………………………..37
9.0 Conclusion……………………………………………………….……………………..37
10.0 References……………………………………………………………………………39
11.0 Appendix……………………………………………………………………………...41
12.0 Methodology…………………………………………………………………………..41
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List of Abbreviations
CCLME Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem
DOF Department of Fisheries
DPH Department of Public Health
DPWM Department of Parks and Wildlife Management
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
FC Fecal Coliform
GBA Greater Banjul Area
GEAP Gambia Environmental Action Plan
GNSSP Gambia National Shellfish Sanitary Program
ICAM II Integrated Coastal and Marine Management
IRD Institution for Research and Development
LGA Local Government Act
MPA Marine Protected Areas
NAWEC National Water and Electricity Cooperation
NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategic Action Plan
NEA National Environment Agency
NEMA National Environment Management Act
NGO Non Government Organization
PAGE Program for Accelerated Growth and Employment
PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper
URI University of Rhode Island
WWF World Wide Fund for Nature
List of Table
1. Funded project by UNDP
2. Fisheries Contribution to Gross Domestic Production (GDP)
3. Head Fisherman by Fisheries Administrative Area
List of Figures
1. Map of the Gambia
2. Fecal and total coliforms at Wenchu
3. Animals located close to the estuary
4. Local latrine by the estuary at Wenchu
5. The Gambia marine and estuarine ecosystem health
6. Litter thrown in the Wetlands
7. Settlement inside the Marine Protected Area (MPA)
8. A scenery of mangrove die-back along Bintang Bolong
9. Groundnut shell dumped at the Tanbi (Kamalo)
10. Deposits of tires and other rubbish in the mangroves
11. Women thought how to pick cockles
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12. Oysters attached on mangrove roots
13. Ropes deepen in water for oyster culture
14. Team collecting matured propagules
15. Storage method of propagules
16. Removing caps covering the shoots
17. Plating two meters between rows
18. Vegetable gardening
19. Women village banking
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Acknowledgements
I wish to express my gratitude to Khallahi Brahim and the entire CCLME Project team for having
confidence in me to conduct the national report on Global Program of Action for the Protection of the
Marine Environment from Land-Base Activities in The Gambia.
Thanks to the lead consultant Dr. Jacques ABE for his brilliant methodology and guidelines necessary for
conducting the study, especially his suggestions for the preparatory phase of the work and the important
comments.
Special thanks are directed to the Statistical Unit of the Fisheries Department, Staff of national
Environment Agency, Department of Water Resources, Department of Parks and Wildlife Management,
Forestry Department, Department of Tourism, Gambia Maritime, Coordinator Wash Project for the
valuable information provided and discussions shared
Special thanks to my family for their support.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
The major threats to the health, productivity and biodiversity of the marine environment result
from human activities on land -in coastal areas and further inland. Most of the pollution load of
the oceans, including municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as
atmospheric deposition, emanates from such land-based activities and affects the most
productive areas of the marine environment, including estuaries and near-shore coastal waters.
These areas are likewise threatened by physical alteration of the coastal environment, including
destruction of habitats of vital importance for ecosystem health. Moreover, contaminants which
pose risks to human health and living resources are transported long distances by watercourses,
ocean currents and atmospheric processes.
The bulk of the world's population lives in coastal areas, and there is a continuing trend towards
its concentration in these regions. The health, well-being and, in some cases, the very survival of
coastal populations depend upon the health and well-being of coastal systems -estuaries and
wetlands -as well as their associated watersheds and drainage basins and near-shore coastal
waters. Ultimately, sustainable patterns of human activity in coastal areas depend upon a healthy
marine environment, and vice versa.
1.2 Aims of the Global Programme of Action
The Global Programme of Action aims at preventing the degradation of the marine environment
from land-based activities by facilitating the realization of the duty of States to preserve and
protect the marine environment. It is designed to assist States in taking actions individually or
jointly within their respective policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the prevention,
reduction, control and/or elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to
its recovery from the impacts of land-based activities. Achievement of the aims of the
Programme of Action will contribute to maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the
productive capacity and biodiversity of the marine environment, ensuring the protection of
human health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine living
resources.
1.3 The global programme of action
The Programme of Action, therefore, is designed to be a source of conceptual and practical
guidance to be drawn upon by national and/or regional authorities in devising and implementing
sustained action to prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based
activities.
Effective implementation of this Programme of Action is a crucial and essential step forward in
the protection of the marine environment and will promote the objectives and goals of
sustainable development.
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The Global Programme of Action reflects the fact that States face a growing number of
commitments flowing from Agenda 21 and related conventions. Its implementation will require
new approaches by, and new forms of collaboration among, Governments, organizations and
institutions with responsibilities and expertise relevant to marine and coastal areas, at all levels -
national, regional and global. These include the promotion of innovative financial mechanisms to
generate needed resources.
1.4 Objectives
To develop comprehensive, continuing and adaptive programmes of action within the framework
of integrated coastal area management which should include provisions for:
(a) Identification and assessment of problems;
(b) Establishment of priorities;
(c) Setting management objectives for priority problems;
(d) Identification, evaluation and selection of strategies and measures, including
management approaches;
(e) Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of strategies and programmes;
(f) Programme support elements
1.4 Country Profile
The Gambia, located between 13o
N and 14o
W latitude on the west coast of Africa and is about
480km in length and 51km wide at its widest westerly end facing the Atlantic Ocean, and its
eastern width is 30km.
Fig. 1: Map of The Gambia,
Source: Fisheries Department
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The Gambia has a total land area of about 11,000 Km², with about one fifth of the surface area
occupied by the River Gambia, running almost 1600 km from the Futa Djallon highlands in the
Republic of Guinea to the Atlantic Ocean dividing the country into the North and South bank,
(figure 1) and is bordered on three sides by the Republic of Senegal and on the west by the
Atlantic Ocean.
The coastline is 80 km long open coastline, dissected into the North and south Bank by the River
Gambia. The continental shelf area is 4000Km², and comprises of Marine intertidal and oceanic
ecosystems that border the Atlantic Ocean and extends to the brackish water which is rich in
marine fish resources. It is one of the highly productive up-welling zone of the Atlantic Ocean
and the Canary Current Large Marine Ecosystem (CCLME) region (Douglas, 1998). The
productivity of the marine and estuarine waters is further enhanced by the huge annual influxes
of nutrients from the river, fringed with mangroves on both sides up to Kaur150 kilometers up
river. The Gambia has a Sudano - Sahelian climate characterized by a long dry season from
November to May and a short rainy season from June to October.
According to the 2013 census, The Gambia has a population of 1,840,681 with an annual growth
rate of 2.7% with a density of more than 97 persons per km²; The Gambia is ranked amongst the
four most densely populated countries in Africa. The urban growth rate is estimated to be more
than 8% annually, with the Greater Banjul Area (GBA) attaining the greatest rate. The
Municipality of Kanifing, with an estimated population of 300,000 to 400,000 people is
considered the most densely populated region in the Gambia. At present about 27% of the
population live in the GBA while 52% inhabits the strip of coastal land which is less than 18% of
the total surface area of the country (Gambia Bureau of Statistics, 2013).
2.0 Identification and Assessment of Problems
The Gambia is characterized by land degradation, coastal degradation, loss of biodiversity linked
to habitat loss, improper disposal of solid waste and increasingly coastal erosion due effects of
environmental vulnerabilities range from the fragility of the land, high population densities
coupled with adverse impacts of natural hazards such as climate change, further elaborated
below
2.1 Food Security and Poverty Alleviation
The country depends on agriculture, the backbone of the country‟s economy. Major export
earning is from groundnuts, followed by tourism, fisheries then livestock. Agriculture accounts
for roughly 30% of gross domestic product and employs about 70% of the labor force. The
fisheries sector accounts for 3% of gross domestic product, but this has been fluctuating over the
years. In 2003, contribution to GDP dropped significantly and has until now not picked up to the
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2004/05 levels (see table 2). Although this is merely small, yet great importance is attached to
the development of the sector to increase production and fish protein intake.
Table 2: Fisheries Contribution to GDP
Year Fish & Fishery Products
(metric tons)
GDP
(metric tons)
% of GDP
1998 81,005.00 3,261,207 2.5%
1999 89,646.00 3,352,678 2.7%
2000 95,130.00 3,198,601 3.0%
2001 102,739.00 3,443,300 3.0%
2002 88,355.00 3,261,207 2.5%
2003 48,495.00 3,352,678 2.7%
2004 79,788.00 3,198,601 3.0%
2005 82,046.00 3,443,300 3.0%
2006 96,814.00 3,517,846 2.5%
Source: Central Statistics Department report, 2008
Two types of fisheries operate in the Gambia; small scale (artisanal) and industrial fisheries.
These fisheries are distinguished by their mode of operation. The artisanal is presently the single
most important entity in seafood production for local consumption and export. Majority of
Gambians cheapest protein intake is from fish. Communities along the coast and along the River
Gambia both North and South of the Country are engage in fishing activities for their livelihood.
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The sector provides direct employment to 1,410 head fishermen and 4,694 assistant fishermen
(see table 3). It is estimated that over 200,000 people are directly or indirectly dependent on
artisanal fisheries for their livelihoods (DOF, 2006).
Table 3: Head Fisherman by Fisheries Administrative Area
Fisheries Administrative Area
Number of
Fishermen
Number Percentage
Atlantic coast
416
29.5
Lower River- North Bank
204
14.5
Upper River - North Bank
96
6.8
Lower River - South Bank
309
21.9
Upper River - South Bank
385
27.3
TOTAL
1,410
100.0
Source: Department of Fisheries, 2006
The coastal fishery is still dominated by non nationals, mainly Senegalese; 805 are Gambian
nationals and 605 foreign but in the coastal area foreign nationals, mainly Senegalese form the
majority with 249 head fishermen compared to 167 Gambians (Gambia DOF, 2006).
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These foreign nationals are the key players in the highly productive coastal fisheries and they
form the vast majority of artisanal shrimp fishermen along the estuary and brackish waters of the
River Gambia (Gambia DOF, 2006).
The industrial fishery is characterized by high capital investment and limited to the marine areas
while the artisanal fishery is dispersed and characterized by low capital investment and labor
intensive activities.
The ichthyofauna in both riverine and marine systems consist more than 800 fish species which
provide a significant part of the protein supply to the countries population. The estimated total
fish harvest potential is over 80,000 metric tons and the estimated annual fish production in 2002
was 46,496 metric tons and per capita fish consumption is more than 20 kg. Fish is an important
source of cheap protein to the population and is believed to have potential for greater
contribution to addressing the country's food security policy objective. Besides the fisheries
sectoral development objective is to improve the nutritional status of the population, employment
generation, and revenue and foreign exchange earnings. The role of the sector in the socio-
economic development of the country cannot be over-emphasized, but fisheries by virtue of its
particulars, are highly susceptible to over-exploitation, leading to biological, social and economic
wastage of scarce resources. The spawning and nursery grounds are not well managed to secure
sustainable availability and supply of fish for the nation.
Poverty is one of the biggest indirect threats to biodiversity in The Gambia. The majority of the
population depends entirely on natural resources for their basic requirements which are often
exploited irrationally. Such high demands, coupled with unsustainable practices of exploitation
and utilization has placed undue pressure on natural resources. The Gambia has an overall poverty rate
estimated at 58 percent (in 2003). Rural and urban poverty rates are similar, except in Banjul where the
rate is much lower at 10.6 percent (World Bank, 2007).
2. I.2 Public Health
Malnutrition continues to be a major public health problem in The Gambia. The 1998 national
anthropometrics study of children under five conducted in the dry season indicated 16.8%
stunting, 6.8% wasting and 17.1% underweight. Safe water is an essential pillar of sustainable
health for rural and urban population. Access to safe water is 69% of the overall households;
with 79.9% urban and 64.9% rural and accesses to proper sanitary facilities are encouraging
particularly at the coastal region.
In line with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), the Gambia has also formulated
“Vision 2020” which aims to ensure sustainable development through the provision of a “well-
balanced ecosystem and a decent standard of living for one and all by the year 2020".
Enforcement of environmental laws by the Agency (National Environment Agency, NEA),
provision of affordable healthcare by the Ministry of Health and the collection of domestic waste
by the Municipalities have lead to a reduction in disease outbreaks especially Malaria and
Cholera.
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However, people‟s attitude towards environmental sanitation has not improved much despite the
education. It is common to see people throwing litter from moving vehicles, throwing domestic
waste to illegal dumpsites etc. Consequently, misuse of public properties e.g. littering public
streets, dumping waste into gutters, littering of parks and recreational facilities is common.
Some live in places that are declared uninhabitable, such as insides the wetlands, waterways,
dumpsites, etc. The illegal dumpsites created blocked natural waterways leading to floods and
formation of water bodies that harbor disease agents such as malaria, skin diseases, among
others. Sectors such health has suffered huge setbacks due to disease outbreaks caused by
pollution.
The Department of Water Resources on quarterly bases monitored strategic point for Public
Health hazard. Selected parameters, which are specifically health related, are done to ensure
clean drinking water is obtained, as well as for the environment such as: -
i. Bacteriological (Thermotolerant Fecal Coliform (F.C.) test)
ii. Physico-chemical (pH, Electrical Conductivity and Total Dissolved Solids)
iii. Part-chemicals (Nitrate and Total iron).
During the 2012 rainy season, Fecal Coliform counts increased during the months of August and
September. The increase in the counts was attributed to runoffs, direct human waste and latrines
constructed, discharge into estuary.
The Coliform data provided by the Department of Water Resources indicates that measured
Fecal Coliform counts peak during the rainy season, especially around Wencho (figure 3 and 4)
and Old Jeshwang sites where latrine and animals are located next to the estuary, fig 1 and 2. At
the sites located next to urban settlements, Ebo Town and Faji Kunda, measured Fecal Coliforms
increased significantly during the rainy season. The water quality data show that the oyster
harvesting and processing sites near urban settlements have higher counts of Fecal and Total
Coliforms (figure 2), than the sites that are located further from the villages.
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Indiscriminate waste dumping and inadequate waste management programs are major problems
particularly near urban settlements.
Fig 2: Fecal and Total Coliforms at Wencho, (Report, Water and Sanitation Study, 2006)
It has been also observed that Fecal Coliform levels in dry season water samples correlate to the
results of the sanitary surveys: Poor Fecal Coliform results correspond to inadequate conditions
at landing sites observed during the sanitary survey.
The Total Coliform water quality results might be underestimating the potential risk. It is
suggested that, if GNSSP is established, the Fecal Coliform parameter is better suited to be the
standard for use in the classification of shellfish waters in The Gambia.
Figure 3: Animals located close to estuary Figure 4: Pig pen by the estuary at Wencho
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2.1.3 Coastal and Marine Resources and Ecosystem health, including Biological Diversity
The Gambia has an 80 km long coastline and an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) extending 200
Nautical miles from the low water mark. The coastal and marine zone of The Gambia provides
an important breeding, nesting, feeding refuge for endangered and threatened species such as
migratory birds, dolphins, sharks, marine turtles, the West African Manatee and other species of
regional and national significance. Like any other coastal state, the population density is high and
increasing along the coastal zone. This has its implications as human activities exert increasing
pressure on the coast; in particular, the exploitation of coastal and marine resources for both
subsistence and other economic purposes.
The coastal ecosystem includes several habitat types such as mangrove forest, seasonal marshes
and wetlands, salt flats, sand dune and gallery forests and open woodlands. In these habitats
diverse flora and fauna with mostly littoral species are common, meiofauna includes high
amount of microorganisms like bacteria and protista; nematodes, annelids, larvae of
oligochaetes, dense patches of copepods, coelenterates and different species of shellfish. The
mangrove forest are important habitats serving the needs of migratory near shore and oceanic
species which require shallow, protected habitats for breeding and /or sanctuary for their young
ones..
The wetlands cover almost 20% of the total land area. This includes 6.4% of mangrove forest,
7.8% of uncultured swamps and 3.2% of cultivated swamps. These wetlands are classified in to
three categories; coastal and marine, inland and artificial. The coastal and marine are shallow
marine waters, sub tidal beds, rocky shores, sandy beaches, estuarine waters, intertidal mud flats,
salt marshes, mangrove forests, brackish lagoons and fresh water lagoons etc. The inland waters
are permanent rivers, seasonal riverine floodplains, freshwater marshes, seasonal fresh water
lakes, fresh water swamps forest/gallery etc. besides are artificial wetlands for irrigated land, rice
fields etc. Similarly, coastal beaches provide important habitats for sea and water bird breeding
colonies and provides nesting habitat for three species of marine turtles.
In 2004, the French Institute for Research and Development (IRD) in collaboration with the
Fisheries Department concluded study of fish populations in the Gambia River which revealed
that the brackish and estuarine portions of the river are very rich in terms of species diversity and
abundance. It identified about 70 fish species within the river system and several of them,
especially those belonging to Carangidae, Drepaneidae, Clupidae, Haemulidae, Polynemidae,
Cichlidae, Scianidae, Cynoglossidae, etc, are of commercial significance.
There are over 500 marine fish species which are usually classed as demersals and pelagics. The
demersals include groupers, sea breams, grunts, croakers and snappers etc. The small pelagics
group consists of the two sardinellas (Saridnella aurita and Sardinella maderensis), bonga/shad
(Ethmalosa fimbriata), horse mackerels (Trachurus trecae, Trachurus trachurus and Caranx
rhoncus) and mackerel (Scomber japonicus). Biomass estimates of the demersal fish resources in
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1986 conducted by the Spanish Institute of Oceanography were 43,645 tones. The 1986 survey
was the most comprehensive survey of demersal fish resources. Estimates provided in 1995 were
obtained from a partial survey of demersal stocks conducted during a survey that focused on
pelagic fish species.
Mangrove of the Gambian are among the most beautiful, (figure 5) especially those of the River
Gambia which hosts one of the tallest mangroves in the sub-region (+20m) at a distance of about
100 km upriver (Forestry Department Report, 2009). However, at the level of Bintang bolong,
the degradation of the mangrove is estimated to be more than 90%. At the level of the other
formations, the degradation can be estimated at 3.3%. Besides mangroves, for example, are
integral to the health and functioning of local fisheries (Diouf et al., 1996). They may slow or
prevent coastal erosion and serve to buffer or mitigate water pollution and flooding. They are
important source of fuel and construction wood. Globally, mangrove forests have high potential
for carbon sequestration.
Fig. 5: The Gambia Marine and Estuarine ecosystems health
Source: Fisheries frame survey report, 2006
The biodiversity are faced with several direct threats including the loss and fragmentation of the
natural habitats due to deforestation, wetland drainage, infrastructural development, overgrazing,
poor farming practices as well as indirect causes such as population pressure, poverty, illiteracy,
lack of resources, limited trained human power and inadequate implementation of policies and
institutional regimes.
The coastal and marine biodiversity is seriously threatened by pollution. Prior to 1980, The
Gambia had a total of about 68,000 ha of mangrove forest. It declined to about 56,900 ha by
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1983 (Forster), representing a total loss of 11,100 ha. The main area of the mangrove die-back
was along the Bintang Bolong area, extending into the Cassamance Region of Senegal. However,
this trend is not linear. Such areas are used illegally as dumping sites of household and industrial
waste.
2.1.4 Economic and Social Benefits and Uses Including Cultural Values
Ccommunities get many benefits from the costal and wetland areas; including oyster collection,
fishing, fire wood and poles collection, palm wine tapping, vegetable gardening, rice cultivation,
etc.. Many of them make their living from these activities. Unfortunately, a decreasing yield
trend is noticed in each and every activity.
2.2 Contaminants
2.2.1 Sewage
Sewage infrastructures are constructed in greater Banjul area, in numerous diffuse sources,
linked to the main central channel that carries the waste water and discharge 200 m off the coast
line to the ocean. The rapid growth of urban populations is beyond the capacity of the relevant
authorities and municipalities to provide adequate basic services to the entire country. In almost
all factories waste water treatments are done before their waste is discharged to the ocean.
There are hotspots particularly at the Ports Authority due oil splits splash from ships and waste
oil from National Water Electricity (NAWEC). Ships discharge (SEWAGE) even though
Maritime Regulation prohibit discharge of sewage within specified distance nearest to land
unless they have an approved treatment plant, due Pathogens, oxygen-demanding substances,
suspending solids, nutrients, toxics, oil and grease and other particulate elements are commonly
found in marine sewage discharges, which can lead to eutrophication, though it is not much that
it is considered as major problem.
The Kotu Sewage Plant is not able to cope with the dramatic rise in volume of waste water and
has malfunctioning problem, as such untreated and partially some untreated has been released
into the Kotu Stream and empties in the sea (NBSAP, 1997).
2.2.2 Banned Pesticides and Other Chemical
Harmful chemicals listed below are banned in the country. It is illegal in The Gambia to import,
manufacture, formulate, offer, hold on stock, sell, and use or advertise these following. All these
chemicals are banned: 2, 4, 5-T, Aldicarb, Aldrin, Aphox, Benzene Hexachloride (BHC/HCH),
Camphechlor, Captafol (Believed to be carcinogenic present in “Granox WP” from Senegal),
Chlorbenzilate, Chlordane, Chlordimeform, Crocidolite, Cyhexatin, DDT (Persistent Organic
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Pollutant (POP) found in Cock Brand Coil from PRC), Dibrimochlord Propane, Dieldrin,
Dinoseb+Salts, Endrin, Ethylene Dibromide, Fluoroacetamide, Heptachlor, Hexachlorobenzene,
Lindane (present in “Thiodal” from Senegal), Mercury Compounds, Paraquat, Parathiom-Methyl
(toxic organo-phosphorus pesticide present in „spiridur‟), PBBs (Polybrominated Biphenyls),
PCBs (Polychlorinated Biphenyls), PCTs, Pentachlorophenol (mostly used as a wood
preservative) and TRIS - 2,3-Dibromopropyl. (Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides Control and
Management Board, National Environment Agency, 2014)
2.2.3 Oils (hydrocarbons)
Oil spills has negative ecological and socio-economic impacts. The Kotu power station releases
its waste oil (sludge) from the generators into the Kotu stream and the surrounding swamps.
2.2.4 Litter
Solid waste management in the Greater Banjul Area including the coastal areas is handled by
municipalities (Banjul City Council and Kanifing Municipal Council and the Brikama Area
Council).The municipal landfills are the only method of disposal practiced by all the Councils.
However, Medical Research Council has an incinerator for the disposal of their clinical wastes.
The Municipal landfill disposal sites do not have any facilities, environmental controls, or
development and operations plan for mitigating environmental impacts, and yet a wide range of
wastes are deposited in them, which include domestic/household wastes, commercial waste,
industrial waste and construction waste. Waste disposals are open system, hazardous to human
and biodiversity, especially during the rainy season.
Litter is also often observed all along the coast line. Some appears to be the result of
irresponsible waste dumping, scattered waste that are carried by erosion to the river or to the
coastal sites (figure 6); discarded by individuals or factory waste as well as deposits at low tides.
These dumped wastes obstruct water ways or carried along by water run-offs to the estuary, as a
result pollutes the environment.
Fig.6a: Litter thrown in the wetlands Fig. 6b: Litter thrown in the wetlands
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2.3 Physical Alteration, including habitat modification and destruction in areas of concern
The main concerned here is land clearing for agriculture, linked to population growth and more
settlement in these areas combined with the effect of climate change. Overharvesting wetland
products, overgrazing, natural factors such as mangrove die-back, etc. contributes to destruction
of habitats. This has led to the decline or disruption of the ecological values provided by these
ecosystems particularly fish breeding grounds, resulting in the loss of some species (NBSAP,
1997).
2.4 Coastal Mining
Sand mining is the biggest catalyst of erosion and associated environmental impacts in the
coastal area. Sand mining has been going on from 1985 – 1995, which has aggravated causing
coastal erosion and destruction of habitats. In 1996, sand mining is prohibited at the coastal
areas. The ADB funded intervention has been successful in reclaiming significant portion of the
beach (UNEP, 1998).
2.5 Sources of degradation
Communities around these tributaries (Bolongs) depend on subsistence agriculture for household
food production and cash crop production. Due to decrease in farm production and the
groundnut price, most of the residents shifted to commercial fishing and sales of mangrove poles
for roofing and firewood for domestic energy. This resulted to high level of pressure on the
mangrove ecosystem and the consequent degradation of the mangrove cover and its primary
productivity.
Fig. 7: Settlements near the intertidal zone
Settlement inside the MPAs (figure 7) have as well negative impact in the wetlands, due
destruction, waste from households and use of the surrounding as sanitary purposes.
19
Dam Construction
It is suspected that the damming of Bintang Bolong on the Senegalese side reduced the flushing
effect of the tributary inducing hypersalinity and therefore weakening of the trees. The trees then
became susceptible to fungal attacks resulting in rampant dying along the bolongs as indicated
below. The Avicenna is regenerating where the Rhizophora used to colonize. This is definitely
due to depositions and the consequent raising of the ground to a level too high for adequate
flushing required by the Rhizophora.
Mangrove Degradation
As mangroves are facultative halophytes, their growth can also be depressed by sodium chloride
deficiency in the external environment. They need limited amount of salt in the external medium,
and therefore any modification of the hydrological flow, like retreat of the salt front, will affect
the mangroves in that zone. High salinity can result to mangrove die-back as shown below.
Fig 8: A Scenery of Mangrove Die-Back along Bintang bolong
The salinity data recorded by the Department of Water Resources at Bintang Bolong in 1974
and 2000 appears to validate this claim. Based on these data and the aforesaid observations from
previous studies, the following cause effect and hypothesis of death of mangroves can be
deduced:
The salinity level increased from 14.4 µS/m (micro Siemens per meter) in 1976 to 54.5
µS/m in year 2000. Although the mangrove species present in the Gambia and along the
Bintang Bolong in particular require a saline environment, hyper salinity can adversely
affect them (a given site is considered to be hyper saline when the surface or interstitial
soil level exceeds that prevailing in the sea, which averages about 35 µS/m, (Lugo A.E,
1980) in most areas. Thus the 54.5 µS/m recorded at the Bintang Bolong (figure 8) far
exceeded the medium required for mangrove growth.
20
Since the local climatic and edaphic factors have a definite effect on the mangrove die-
back, the drought of the seventies also contributed to the phenomenon. In fact the die
back occurred during the period from early 1970s through to the second half of the 1980s
which was also the drought period in The Gambia
Patches of dead Rhizophora mangroves mainly along the small bolongs between
Sambang Tenda and Kaur on the North Bank can be attributed to rising topography
through deposition. The mangroves situated on the highest parts of the bolongs do not get
the required daily tidal flooding, therefore they start dying from the top.
2.6 None Point Sources
2.6.1 Urban Run-Off
Within the Tanbi Wetland National Park (a Marine Protected Area), close to the capital city is a
dumping place for groundnut shell. During the rainy season these shells are carried by running
water to the river, (figure 9). The other problem is the settlement of about 10 to 15 huts
established next to the estuary for temporal and permanent stays during the working times,
besides it is an evident to find tires (figure 10) and other rubbish thrown within wetland areas
that are carried by run-offs and deposited in the mangrove areas.
Fig. 9: Groundnut shells dumped at the Tanbi Fig:10 Deposits of Tires and rubbish in the
mangroves
2.6.2 Agriculture and Horticultural Run-Off
Agricultural empiétement has also played an important role in habitat loss and fragmentation.
Coupled with the high population pressure and as a result increasing demand on the available
land. The extension of agricultural land area has significantly reduced the size of natural habitats.
The farming systems have diverged from subsistence family food production to extensive cash
Crop production which have led to deforestation and shortening of fallow periods. These
processes have eroded the country's biological diversity without any significant increase in farm
yield. For example, over 22% of original forest area was destroyed between 1982-1989 (Ridder,
1991) with a corresponding increase in agricultural land.
21
2.6.3 Coastal erosion
The Gambian coastal and marine biodiversity is seriously threatened by coastal erosion and sand
mining. The rate of erosion of The Gambian coastline has been estimated to be 1-2 metres per
year amounting to a land loss averaging 2.5 -3.0 ha of land per year or 200,000 - 300,000 m3 per
year (Delft hydraulics, 1992).
2.6.4 Landfills and hazardous Waste sites Sanitation
Infrastructures for solid waste management are inadequate. Through the Poverty Alleviation &
Capacity Building Project implemented by GAMWORKS; Bakoteh Dumpsite will be re-
engineered into a more environmentally friendly landfill site. However, there is need for
investment in the heavy equipment necessary for the management of the dumpsite. Furthermore,
Bakoteh is a short-term solution, as it is supposed to be closed in 3 years time. Work on a new
landfill site need to be started as soon as possible. In this regard, the Louis Berger Report on
Waste Management in the Greater Banjul Area, includes the feasibility studies for other landfill
site suggested at Tambana, is relevant.
2.7 Areas of Concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable)
The Coastal strip has been subjected to considerable pressure from human activity for many
decades. Tourism development has contributed in the degradation of the natural habitat and the
ecosystem in the processes of infrastructural development, besides light from hotels and noise
from activities taking place at the beach forbid turtle nesting along the beaches among others.
Fishing activities taking place close to the spawning areas are as well contributing to destruction
of the ecosystem, mangrove cutting for fish smoking, land clearing for agricultural development
and timber harvesting has had considerable impacts. The original primary habitat of the coastal
strip was closed woodland dominated by Rhum Palm (Borassus aethiopium), which has been
gradually disappearing and only remnants remain.
Forest clearance on a massive scale for agricultural development, urban growth and general
pressures from increasing population have reduced the extent, diversity and stability of the
coastal and marine ecosystem of Tujereng and Sanyang Forests.
The coastal zone, like the entire country, is generally low-lying barely a meter above sea level at
some points. The study, (Jallow et al., 1996), had indicated that a one-meter rise in sea level
would lead to the inundation of a total of 92,320,000sq km of land along the immediate coast
line. Apparently, low lying areas affected by this prediction are the critical ecosystems of the
Tanbi Wetland National Park, which amount to 6000ha of mangroves and also the Bijol Islands
that are identified as turtle and birds nesting grounds.
22
The estuarine zone of the River Gambia sea level rise may initially favor the mobilization and
export of materials from the wetland sediments, the same process could equally release
pollutants into aquatic system. The loose of estuarine mangrove are results of sea level rise,
among others, and are likely to have serious negative impacts on the fisheries as it provide
refuge, spawning, nursery grounds, feeding areas for crustaceans, shellfish, ocean nekton marine
and marine mammals
Wetlands of The Gambia are continually undergoing natural change due to subsidence, drought,
sea-level rise, or filling with sediment or organic material. Losses of wetlands in this country are
specifically due to intensive agriculture, industrial development, or residential uses.
Climatological change, eutrophication and bad fishing practices have degraded much of the
wetlands. The view that wetlands are wastelands, a view which results from ignorance or
misunderstanding of the value of the goods and services they provide, has also resulted in the
degradation of this valuable resource.
The Gambia possesses three distinct fish habitats: fresh, brackish water (Riverine) and marine
habitats. The country is not endowed with lacustrine habitats of significant size and importance.
The riverine system consists of numerous tributaries locally called bolongs, adjacent flood plains
and seasonal flood pools.
The Gambia possess both major fish habitats (Marine and Riverine fish habitats), with more than
800 freshwater and marine species. The marine waters contains more diverse fish species with
about 500 species while riverine system with the estuary included about 70 fish species (Albaret
et., al 2002)
Mangroves and other wetland ecosystems throughout The Gambia are threatened by
anthropogenic factors such as conversion to other land uses, overharvesting wetland products, etc
as well as natural factors such as mangrove die-back. This has led to the decline or disruption of
the ecological values provided by these ecosystems such fish breeding grounds, resulting in the
loss of some species.
Maine Protected Areas in the comprise more than 4.9% with the latest policy aiming at more
than 10% with a proportional regional distribution. The parks ( Niumi National Park, Tanji Bird
Reserve, Abuko Nature Reserve, Bao Bolon Wetland Reserve, Kiang West National Park. Tanbi
Wetland National Park and Bolong Fenyo Community Wildlife Reserve)and reserves of the
Gambia have been specially chosen for the endangered natured of the habitat type and/or species
found within them. The intention is to provide a safe haven for flora and fauna to flourish
without undue interference from man. A limited range of resource utilization by local
communities is permitted provided that, this is compatible with the aims and objectives of the
protected areas concerned. MPAs are face with numerous difficulties (technical and financial
capacities) and challenges, particularly Tanbi, which is located at capital city.
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3.0. Establishment of Priorities
General priorities established by government geared towards five pillars for national
development. This is highlighted in the Program for Accelerated Growth and Employment
(PAGE, 2012-2015), which replaces the Poverty Reduction Strategic Plan (PRSP). The pillars
are as following:
1. Accelarating and Sustainable Economic growth; fisheries, agriculture, trade, forestry
and tourism
2. Improving and Modernizing Infrastructure: Energy, Information, Communication and
Infrastructure.
3. Strengthening Human Capital Stock to Enhance Employment Opportunities; Health,
Education Water and Sanitation.
4. Improving Governance and Fighting Corruption; Civil service Reform, Public
procurement, Public Financial Management, Decentralized land Use Planning and
Community Development.
5. Reinforcing Social Cohesion and Crosscutting Interventions; gender, population, data
and Statistics, disability and social protection, nutrition, disaster management, HIV/AID
Embedded is a three years project titled; Enhance resilience for the coastal areas and
communities to climate change, lunched February 2014 (table 1) to be implemented by National
Environment Agency, Fisheries Department and other relevant institution. This project intends to
solve some of problems of coastal and marine degradation emanating from land base pollution. It
further attempts introduce alternatives to livelihood for resilience from the coastal and marine
ecosystem.
24
Table: 1 Funded Project by UNDP, Lunch February 2014 to be implemented
PRIORITY
LISTING
TITLE OF THE PROJECT COVERAGE COST
ESTIMATES
1 Restoration/Protection of coastal
environments
Banjul and Kanifing
Municipalities 2,300,000
2 Rehabilitation of Early Warning
Systems on Climate-Related Natural
Hazards
All Regions 450,000
3 Improvement of Fresh Water
Availability
All Regions 910,000.00
4 Diversification and Intensification of
Agricultural Production, Processing
and Marketing
Nationwide 2,710,000
5 Expansion of Community
Participation in the Management of
Forests and Protected Areas
All Regions 1,412,000
6 Expansion and Intensification of
Agro-forestry and Re-forestation
Activities
All Regions 2,753,000
7 Briquetting and Carbonization of
Groundnut Shells
Western Region, Banjul
Municipality 230,000
8 Reduction of climate change related
diseases
Kanifing Municipality,
Central River and Upper
River Regions
1,217,000
9 Improved livestock and rangeland
management for food security and
environmental sustainability
North Bank, Lower
River, and Upper River
Regions
2,800,000
10 Increasing fish production through
aquaculture and conservation of post
harvest fishery products
Coastal and inland zones 300,000
TOTAL 15,082,000
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3.1 Waste Management
Among these priorities is waste management study for the protection of the marine environment
among others; the study is to identify technically and economically sound waste collection,
treatment or disposal. In addition it will provide a solid waste management master plan
(SWMMP) for over 25 years planning period (National Water and Electricity Company, 2006).
3.2 Sanitation
Sanitary will be used as one of the most effective tools in measuring the health of the nation,
Operation Clean the Nation (OCN) which is conducted monthly (last Saturday of every month
from 9 am – 1 pm) is a national initiative and is meant to enhance the retention of public health
by removing garbage from households and public views. It is an effective tool in measuring the
health of the nation coordinated by, National Environmental Agency (NEA), partnered with all
relevant stakeholders.
Coastal sanitary control has been conducted for shellfish because of the direct relationship
between pollution of shellfish habitat areas and the transmission of diseases to humans. Shellfish
borne infectious diseases generally are transmitted via a faecal-oral route. The cycle usually
begins with faecal contamination of the shellfish growing waters. Sources of such contamination
are many and varied.
Contamination by human activities carried via runoff, dumping and direct discharges are due
cause for shellfish pollutions, particularly Clams, oysters and mussels. During feeding large
quantities of water are pumped through their bodies during normal feeding process. The shellfish
also concentrate microorganisms, which may include pathogenic microbes, and synthetic organic
contaminants. To reduce the human health risk of consuming shellfish from contaminated areas,
it is imperative that shellfish growing areas are free from pollution and the hygienic and sanitary
conditions of the environments are improved.
Water quality assessment is on going for the suitability of water quality for its intended uses
(purposes). National Research Institute (NARI) under its Participatory Integrated Management of
Invasive Aquatic Weeds Project funded this assessment program. The staffs of Water Quality
Division, under the Department of Water Resources collaboratively carry out this program.
Samplings are done at strategic points along the streams (subsequently analyzed), bolongs
(streams), tributaries and the River Gambia from the coast to inland waters.
3.3 Aquaculture practices
As an alternative to capture fisheries, aquaculture contributes to alleviating poverty and
facilitating improvement of the nutritional standard of the population. Aquaculture development
has been established for both fin fisheries and shell fisheries, funded by UNDP to enhance
resilience on coastal areas and communities. Though it is new here, but considering its expansion
in future can result to pollutant, discharges from aquaculture contains lots of organic matter from
26
left over feed and also contains large quantity of chemicals such as anti-biotic use in shrimp
farming. These pollutants can as well increase the biological oxygen demand (BOD), which can
result to fish kills through suffocation. Escape of exotic species can result to biological pollution.
3.4 Oyster Culture as a Protective Measure
The shellfish fishery of The Gambia is characterized by oyster harvesting and cockle gathering,
processing are done along the river estuary, tributaries (“Bolongs”) of the river, lagoons and in
wetland areas. Oyster and cockle business is an important source of livelihood for many people
(Jola) resident in wetland areas (figure 11), the majority of who are women. Harvesting of oyster
from mangroves (figure12) was unsustainably done. The method of harvesting damages the
mangroves when chopped off the mangroves stems or sometimes harvests juvenile leading to
destructive fisheries. To reduce pressure on the natural resource sustainable method of harvesting
cockles are established through oyster culture (figure 13) and use of baskets with holes for
collecting cockles, letting the juveniles to drop back to the mud.
Fig 11: Women thought how to picking cockles Fig12: oysters on mangroves
Fig13: Ropes deep in water for culture
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3.5 Management Objectives for Priority Problems
Government in partnership with FAO/DFID/SFLP in W/A focus on how to reducing poverty and
improving livelihood of the fisheries dependent communities. As part of planning, formulation of
proposed SFLP and its profiling study in the coastal and inlands fisheries communities
formulated objectives such as:
To Identify who are poor in fishing communities
To find their located
To find out how many are they and why
To establish a baseline information on livelihood of project beneficiaries.
Back to the Land is another initiative undertaken by government. For all wherever possible to be
engage in agricultural activities. Initiated for cultivating what we eat and eat what are cultivated
as means of securing food for all.
3.5.1 Objectives for the Protection of Marine and Coastal Ecosystems
Promote integrated coastal and marine management
Control coastal erosion, sand mining and marine pollution
Control the introduction of alien species into the marine environment
Protect the mangrove habitats along the shores of the River Gambia.
Rehabilitate the degraded mangrove areas and wetlands
Develop a wetlands policy
Create awareness about the importance of wetlands and methods for their wise use.
Carry out a survey of wetlands to assess their size and distribution, composition
3.5.2 Health Objectives:
To measure health of the nation
To ensure that household waste are in bins
Coastal and marine environment are free from waste
3.5.3 The objectives of National Shellfish Sanitation Programme are based on:
Evaluation of the pollution sources of the shoreline for accurate assessment at the Tanbi estuary
(at the coast opening to the ocean) detecting the effect of water quality for shellfish growing and
harvesting, with the intention of recommending to competent authorities on closures of polluted
28
areas for shellfish harvesting and growing. These objectives are based on biological, ecological,
social and economic issues.
3.5.4 Biological Objective:
Sustainable harvesting of the cockle and oyster resources that prevents small sized
juveniles from being harvested and allows larger more valuable oysters and cockles to be
harvested.
3.5.5 Ecological Objective:
Maintain the health and functioning of the mangrove ecology, thereby protecting
important habitats of oysters and other shellfish, finfish, and marine mammals including
the West African manatee.
3.5.6 Social Objective:
Strengthen Community Participation in planning, implementation and decision making in
the rational and sustainable use and management of the oyster and cockle resources.
3.5.7 Economic Objective:
Access to improved markets, financing, and poverty reduction among oyster harvesters.
Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (ICAM II) Project funded by the
PRCM. And World Wide Fund for nature (WWF) in collaboration with the Department of Parks
and Wildlife (DPWM) implemented the Project. The objective is to conserve and sustainably
manage globally significant biodiversity in coastal, marine and wetland ecosystems in The
Gambia and to transfer those lessons to Senegal and Guinea Bissau. They iintervened in four key
areas of Conservation in Gambia to:
Improve the surrounding communities Livelihood
Habitats and species conservation
Build institutions capacity for conservation
Conduct Research to improve knowledge and understanding.
29
4.0 Identification, Evaluation and Selection of Strategies and Measures
Back to the Land is an initiative for all in the country to be engaged in agricultural activities.
Besides sanitation provision is another effective tools the government is using to obtain a healthy
nation, Operation Clean the Nation (OCN) which is conducted monthly (last Saturday of every
month) is one national initiative to enhance the retention of public health by removing garbage
from households and public views. In response to this national initiative, National Environmental
Agency (NEA) being the coordinating agency in collaboration with relevant stakeholders;
Household, streets, wetland sites, beaches, etc. are cleaned on selected last Saturdays of each
month. Transport provided for waste collection and dumped at the Bakoteh dump site, a legal
dump site recommended by the state for dumping of refuse within KMC by both public and
private waste collectors.
The communities around the Bolongs were selected based on the intensity of the die back, the
suitability of the site for mangrove reforestation and the level of the impact on the livelihood of
the communities were taken into consideration. This was initiated by World Wide Fund for
Nature (WWF), with full participation of the affected communities. This was done to develop
their skills and knowhow to ensure sustainability through taking ownership of the initiative.
The project preceding encouraged and promoted partnership with community Base
Organizations, Village Development Committees (VDCs), involved in environmental oriented
activities as entry points to penetrate the communities and to acquire local confidence and
commitment.
Memorandum of Understanding signed with Community and Youth Development Association.
The project supported the association with funds to conduct sensitization on mangrove planting
prior to the planting dates, collection of propagules (figure 14), simple tools or materials required
for the planting exercise, food for the communities during planting and T-shirts to publicize the
initiative. The association was responsible for the restoration of the degraded sites.
Fig.14: Team collecting matured propagules Fig. 15 Strorage method of propagules
30
Participants involved were trained on identifying of matured propagules and the methods of
collection and storage (figure 15). This was done to ensure that immature propagules are not
harvested which may not subsequently sprout when planted. The project supported the
communities by hiring a pirogue to take the teams to the collection sites and as well as other
necessary logistics for the collectors during the days of collection. Planting is done in two meter
rows as indicated in (figure 17).
Fig. 16: Removing the caps covering the shoots fig.17: planting 2meters between rows
Natural resource mandatory institutions have developed strategic action plans driven from the
sector policies to manage the countries natural resources. Strategic dump sites have been
identified (Bakoteh), hazardous chemical band, Marine protected areas created, penalties for
illegal dumping, discharge of household waste in the open environment forbidden, fishing with
wrong mesh sizes and landing of juvenile fish forbidden , cutting of mangroves, etc.
A participatory approach, formulated to build consensus and mutual understanding, involving all
elements of the sectors. The strategies developed focused on two approaches; macro-economic
and sectoral policies, aimed at alleviating poverty and improving social services and people
centre participatory process which involved local communities in managing their development.
4.1 Protected Areas as Adaptive Measures
West Africa sub-region has developed strong policy for protected areas and marine protected
areas to provide refuge to significant biodiversity. Management Plans for PAs and species are
being implementing in this regard.
Co-management and seasonal closure of fisheries is another adaptive measure taken by
governments and fisher folks. Artisanal Fisheries Associations have taken the initiative to set
aside 1 nautical mile no fish zone starting from the beach to protect the juveniles.
Regular monitoring of species and habitats, recognized as a tool to take relevant measures to
changing features is being implemented (ecological surveys, dolphin, marine turtle surveys, PA
rapid assessment, etc.) for many species including the fisheries such as Department of Parks and
Wildlife, Fisheries Department, National Environment Agency, etc.
31
4.2 Village gardening as an alternative
Village gardening is used to conservation and improved livelihood of the MPA‟s surrounding
communities. Sustainable activities such as modern beekeeping, ecotourism, organized
horticultural system using organic products, credit and saving system for women all combined
with adult literacy programs were all implemented by the same project.
Fig 18: Vegetable gardening
The process of implementing the biological gardening a consultant was hired to support the
implementation of the program for sustainable use and identify with local stakeholders to locate
four areas for the project funded gardens for the women, well digging, seed management, and
biological pesticide production. Well digging was identified as the second step to establish
sustainable biological gardening. Through Water Resources Department qualified contractor‟s
services digging of the wells.
4.3 Village Banking
For each village bank (figure 19), the ICAM II project initially invested €1, 300.00 as loan to
fifty women, each receiving €26.00. At the end of each month a woman saves in the bank a
minimum of €1.00. At the end six-month period (or cycle) each of the fifty women in a bank
saves a minimum of €6.00. At the end of a cycle, the fifty women saved a minimum of €300.00.
At the end of 2011 the total savings for the ten banks amounted to € 11, 325.00 representing 31%
of the savings.
To reducing pressure on natural resources and alleviating poverty by supporting income
generating activities, social cohesion were strengthened. This will in turn protect the natural
resources in line with assisting them develop sustainable livelihood activities as an alternative.
32
Fig 19: Women village banking
4.4 Erosion Control
Series of actions have been taken by our government to protect our coast and the biodiversity,
such as the rhun palm (stem of a palm tree) groynes, beach nourishment, construction of sea
wall, etc. to contain coastal erosion.
5.0 Criteria for Evaluating the Effectiveness Strategies and Measures
The Program for Accelerating Growth and Employment 2012 – 2015 (PAGE) development
program commits itself to conserve and promote the rational use of the nation's natural resources
and environment for the benefit of present and future generations in a manner that is consistent
with the overall goal of sustainable development at all levels. The PAGE is in harmony with the
Gambia Environment Action Plan (GEAP).
Reports of different studies conducted nationwide on environmental protection and improvement
of the wellbeing of the people, waste management and landfill strategic locations, sureline
sanitation, poverty reduction, national biodiversity strategic action plans, Gambia environmental
action plan, among others has indicated achievement to some degree of the outcomes, practically
water quality, sanitation, environmental management (mangrove planting, marine protected
areas, use of organic for horticulture production, aquaculture, community involvement in
management issues, etc.). Though there‟s need for enhance capacity building, sensitization on
contaminates management and more research to be conducted to enhance management efforts.
6.0 Program Support Elements
Various legal, policy and institution measures were taken by government to promote the
conservation and sustainable use of her biodiversity. The earlier approach was to develop sector
specific laws and policies. However, the most recent policy initiatives have adopted new
strategies focusing on institutional strengthening of administrative and legislative capacities,
public education to create greater awareness, community conservation and research. Several
cross-sectoral policies, legislation and action plans, such as the GEAP have been developed.
Specific commitment biodiversity conservation stretches from 1977, when the President made a
33
declaration on conservation of wild flora and fauna, which is popularly known as The Banjul
Declaration.
In the wildlife sector, the initial policy strategy was to set up a system of protected areas and a
total of six national parks were established. The new policy objective is to increase national
parks to 5% of total land area and putting emphasis on community conservation. In the fisheries
sector, the broad policy objectives are to encourage rational exploitation of coastal and inland
fisheries, to increase employment, maximize foreign exchange earnings and to improve the
nutritional standard of the population. This is based on the strategy of expanding extension
efforts and facilities by strengthening the operational capacity of the department of fisheries,
undertaking basic research on fishery resources and detailed surveys to establish sustainable
yields, and the protection of the territorial water. Recently, the Government has also adopted the
policy of involvement of the local communities in the management of aquatic and fisheries
resources.
6.1 Relevant National Policies for the Management of the Environment
Presently, legislation and controls are the major means to protect the environment from the
negative impacts of human activities. The concept of shared responsibility is being increasingly
advocated. This approach involves all economic players including government, public and
private enterprise and above all the general public, both as citizens and consumers.
6.2 Integrated Coastal and Marine Conservation and Management (ICAM)
The DPWM secured funding from Global Environment facility for integrated coastal and marine
management. This project collected national baseline information on marine turtles and
cetaceans for the elaboration of a national conservation plan, as well as promoting public
education and awareness. The DPWM collaborated with the Department of Fisheries, fishing
communities and a local NGO, the Gunjur Environmental Protection and Development Group
(GEPADG), to conduct marine mammals monitoring activities along the coast.
6.3 Institutional Framework for Natural Resources Management
The following are legal instruments for environmental protection and natural resources
management that have implications for the coastal environment and marine environment
activities:
34
Institutional Acts:
National Environmental Management Act, 1994
In 1994, the National Environmental Management Act (NEMA) establishing a National
Environment Management Council (NEMC) and a National Environmental Management
Agency was enacted.
Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides Control Management Act, 1994
The purpose of the Act is the control and management of the manufacture, distribution and use
of hazardous chemicals and pesticides. The Act establishes a Hazardous Chemicals And
Pesticides Control Management Board responsible for the registration, control, and management
of all hazardous chemicals and pesticides in the country.
Environmental Protection (Prevention of Dumping) Act, 1988
The Act makes provision for the prevention of the dumping of industrial wastes and for the
protection of the environment. This Act defines dumping as "any disposal of wastes into land
within The Gambia or into any waters under the jurisdiction of The Gambia".
environment initiatives, appears to be the involvement of user groups and local communities,
mechanisms for cooperation between administrations, legal provisions needs to provide a strong
structure, including local, and national elements to reflect the needs of different areas, and
clearly stated objectives.
National Water Resources Council Act
The Act establishes National Water Resources Council, which is vested with the responsibility,
inter alia, of formulating the policy of the Government on water resources development, water
utilization and conservation, and of anything incidental to the development and utilization of
water resources. The Council is also required to approve plans submitted by the National Water
Resources Committee, which is also established under the Act.
Local Government Act, 2002
The Banjul City Council, the Kanifing Municipal Council (KMC) and the Brikama area council
are the three urban councils of the Gambia. KMC was part of the Brikama District Council until
1963 when the Government established the Kanifing Urban District Council (KUDC). In 1990
the KUDC was upgraded to a municipality by the KMC Act 1990. This Act was repealed in
April 2002 and replaced by the Local Government Act 2002 (LGA 2002), which establishes and
35
regulates a decentralized local Government system and specifies the functions, powers and duties
of established local authorities.
The Local Government Act provides for setting standards and guidelines in liaison with NEA at
the national level. The Councils, under the LGA has the authority to enter, examine any land or
premises within its jurisdiction, for the purpose of carrying out any inspection, inquiry under the
act or by-laws of the Council. The Act also confers to the Councils authority to arrest without
warrant any person it reasonably believes has committed an offence against the provisions of the
Act or any order, by law or regulation made under it. Thus the councils have the powers to
prevent illegal dumping of solid waste within their jurisdiction.
Public Health Act, 1990
The Public Health Act was enacted to make provision for public and environmental health and
connected matters. The Act empowers the Minister to make regulations relating to the collection,
removal and sanitary disposal of rubbish, night soil and other offending matter. The Act also
mandates the Director of Health Services, who heads the Department of Public Health (DPH),
inter alia, to abate nuisances and to remove or correct any condition that may be injurious to
public health.
Ports Act (1972)
The Authority established under the Act is required among other things to prevent pollution in
Gambian waters. The Port (Wharves) Regulations, 1972 made pursuant to the Act prohibits the
dumping of dirt, ashes, bottles, stones, ballast, cargo or anything of a like nature into the water
from any wharf.
Factories Regulations
Regulation 20 of the Factories Regulations made pursuant to The Factories Act, 1941 makes
provision for the disposal of waste by requiring the occupier to remove all refuse and waste
products from the factory at daily intervals on any day that the factory is used, and disposed of in
a manner that satisfies the Factories Board.
Physical Planning and Development Control Act, 1990
The Planning Board established under the Act is mandated to prepare development plans
generally indicating, among others things, the different land-use zones and utilities services.
Development Control Regulations, 1995
These Regulations were made pursuant to the Physical Planning and Development Control Act,
1991. The Regulations lays down certain guidelines in relation to development structures. The
36
thrust of the regulations in relation to waste management is contained in regulations 79 to 98. In
a nutshell, these provisions lay down the requirements for sanitation, drainage and disposal of
waste from premises and public utilities.
National Water and Electricity Corporation (NAWEC)
NAWEC is a private limited liability company providing a public service. It is also considered to
be a governmental parastatal subject to the Public Enterprises Act for supply of water; and the
provision, operation and maintenance of sewerage facilities and services.
It should be noted that there is no specific legislation dealing with electrical power in the country
and the manner by which waste oil from generators of NAWEC or similar institutions are to be
disposed of. The only legislation that deals specifically with the prevention of the discharge of
oil on land is section 38(1) of NEMA.
There are considerable legislative and policy frameworks for the protection of the biological
resources. Key elements for the success of marine and coastal environment initiatives, appears to
be the involvement of user groups and local communities, mechanisms for cooperation between
administrations, legal provisions needs to provide a strong structure, including local, and national
elements to reflect the needs of different areas, and clearly stated objectives.
Marine protected areas (MPA) may help maintain relatively healthy fish stocks, but need Law
enforcement due to illegal human activities such as; waste dumping, fishing, agricultural
activities, etc.
All proposed developments within the limits of the wetland complex are subjected to a full
Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) by the National Environment Agency to:
Ensure that environmental issues are taken into consideration in a projects life, from
consideration to implementation.
Ensure that development projects are environmentally appropriate among other things.
Consequently The Gambia has become a signatory and a party to various regional and
international treaties and agreements, which are related to or affect biodiversity, including the
sustainable management of wetlands. The international conventions include the Convention on
Biological Diversity (CBD), Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild
Fauna and Flora (CITES) Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance,
Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) and The International Conservation Union (IUCN).
The regional agreements to which The Gambia is a party include the Convention for Cooperation
in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and
Central African region (WACAF), the Algiers Convention on the Conservation of Nature and
37
Natural Resources. Recently, the country signed a Memorandum of Understanding (MOU) with
the Republic of Senegal for the transboundary management of the protected area of Nuimi and
Delta du Saloum National Parks located in The Gambia and Senegal respectively. This MOU
could form the basis for the transboundary management of the Delta by the two countries.
7.0 The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands
As a party to the Ramsar convention certain wetlands have been declared as Ramsar sites and
have therefore been given a protected status by The Gambia Government and are recognized for
the value of their wildlife. They are among the most productive of the world‟s ecosystems and
have vital importance for biodiversity.
The Gambia ratified the Ramsar Convention on the 26th of March 1996. Following this, the Bao-
Bolong Wetland Reserve was designated as Ramsar site, and later the Tan- Bi wetland was also
declared as a Ramsar Site. It is proposed that Niumi National Park be also designated as another
Ramsar Site in the near future.
These sites have been selected by the Government of The Gambia for their importance and value
as habitats for a variety of wildlife including birds and mammals, and their functions in the
maintenance of a healthy environment.
8.0 Environmental Education
Environmental education has been introduced in the educational policy programs which have
been integrated into school‟s curricula. Training institutions, universities and other educational
institutions to sensitize and build awareness in basic and higher educational institutions. In
building environmental awareness on wetlands different forms of educational systems has been
applied such as formal, non-formal and informal.
9.0 Conclusion
The protection of coastal and marine environment from land base pollution is a priority for the
government and is in line with development issues undertaken for conservation of the
biodiversity and habitat. It is in the policy objectives mandatory departments to protect and
conserve the country‟s biodiversity and habitat, but there is an inadequate technical and financial
resource to conduct some of the activities.
Liter is at large quantity particularly in wetland areas and at street corners despite the regular
monthly nationwide cleaning and anti littering law. Another problem is illegal dumping and open
landfills which hazardoze particularly during the rainy seasons, hazardoze materials are carried
by run-offs to the main river.
38
Agricultural activities close to the wetland should be in line with environmentally friendly
organics without degradation of the marine ecosystem. The previous beach nourishment is not
successful, which should be further research on for protection of the coastal area.
Natural resource law enforcement remains to be enhancing for conservation and protection of the
marine and coastal environment, coupled with, awareness on the effects of pollution on human
health and biodiversity.
39
REFRENCES
Albaret J.J et. al., 2002 Fish communities of the Gambia Estuary
Bakurin, N.S, 2010: Etude Suividu Trait de Cote et Mise en Place d‟Un Schema Directeur du
Littoral Ouest Africain. Dianostic en Gambie
Cham. A.M & Touray.O, 2008: Oyster and Cockles Study in The Gambia
DIOUF, (2012) Integrated coastal area and marine biodiversity management project phase II:
Component 1: conservation, MPA‟s, Species and Habitats. Between 2008 and 2012. 23pp.
Ellison.J, et el., 2012: Climate Change Vulnebility Assessment and Adaptation Planning for
Mangrove Systems
FAO. 1994. Integrated Coastal Area Management Project for The Gambia. Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations.
Gambia- Senegal Sustainable Fisheries project 2012: United States Agency for International
Development. Coastal Resource Centre, University of Rhode Island and The Gambia
National Environment Agency. 2010. State of the Environment Report, The Gambia. Kanifing,
The Gambia Republic of The Gambia, WWF, and PRCM, 2012.
Programme for Accelerated Growth and Employment (PAGE) 2012-2015. Ministry of Finance
and Economic Affairs. 154pp.
Report Department of State for Finance and Economic Affairs Banjul, November 2006: Poverty
Strategy 2007-2011. Banjul. The Gambia
Report, Wetlands National Park Sanitary Shoreline Survey, 2012: Shellfish Harvesting
Communities, Gambia-Senegal Sustainable Fisheries Project (USAID/Ba Nafaa).
Report on Fisheries Frame Survey, 2006: Gambia Artisanal Fisheries Development Project.
Banjul. The Gambia
Report of The Gambia. 2006. Water Supply and Sanitation Study, Banjul. The Gambia
Report on Operation Clean the Nation, 2014: National Environment Agency, Banjul The Gambia
Republic of The Gambia. 1992. The Gambia Environmental Action Plan, First Phase (GEAP I)
1992‐2001.
Republic of The Gambia. 2003. Biodiversity/Wildlife Act 2003. Banjul, The Gambia.
40
Republic of The Gambia. 1994. National Environment Management Act 1994. Banjul, The
Gambia.
Republic of The Gambia. 1996. The Gambia Incorporated: Vision 2020. Banjul, The Gambia.
Republic of The Gambia. 1999. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan.
Terminal Evaluation Report – Integrated Coastal and Marine Biodiversity Management (ICAM)
II Project. 19pp.
The Louis Bergtyer Group, Inc., 2003: Pover Alleviation and Capacity Building Project – Solid
Waste Management Study for the Greater Banjul Area and Brikama. Gambia. 31pp
United Nations Development Program, 2012-2016: Enhance Resilience of Vulnerable Coastal
Areas and Communities to Climate Change, Banjul. The Gambia
Vandaele. M & Wynckel D. V, 2010 – 2011: Implementation of a Sustainable Project in the
Tanbi Wetland National Park, Banjul. The Gambia. 198pp
Vulnerability Assessment of Central Coastal Senegal (Saloum)and the Gambia Marine Coast and
Estuary to Climate Change Induced Effects, 2012: Consolidated Report Gambia- Senegal
Sustainable Fisheries Project. USAID/BA NAFAA Banjul, The Gambia
41
APPENDIX
METHODOLOGY FOR THE REPORT
The major threats to the health and productivity and biodiversity of the marine environment
result from human activities on land -in coastal areas and further inland. Most of the pollution
load of the oceans, including municipal, industrial and agricultural wastes and run-off, as well as
atmospheric deposition, emanates from such land-based activities and affects the most
productive areas of the marine environment, including estuaries and near-shore coastal waters.
These areas are likewise threatened by physical alteration of the coastal environment, including
destruction of habitats of vital importance for ecosystem health. Moreover, contaminants which
pose risks to human health and living resources are transported long distances by watercourses,
ocean currents and atmospheric processes.
The bulk of the world's population lives in coastal areas, and there is a continuing trend towards
its concentration in these regions. The health, well-being and, in some cases, the very survival of
coastal populations depend upon the health and well-being of coastal systems -estuaries and
wetlands -as well as their associated watersheds and drainage basins and near-shore coastal
waters. Ultimately, sustainable patterns of human activity in coastal areas depend upon a healthy
marine environment, and vice versa.
Aims of the Global Programme of Action
The Global Programme of Action aims at preventing the degradation of the marine environment
from land-based activities by facilitating the realization of the duty of States to preserve and
protect the marine environment. It is designed to assist States in taking actions individually or
jointly within their respective policies, priorities and resources, which will lead to the prevention,
reduction, control and/or elimination of the degradation of the marine environment, as well as to
its recovery from the impacts of land-based activities. Achievement of the aims of the
Programme of Action will contribute to maintaining and, where appropriate, restoring the
42
productive capacity and biodiversity of the marine environment, ensuring the protection of
human health, as well as promoting the conservation and sustainable use of marine living
resources.
The global programme of action
The Programme of Action, therefore, is designed to be a source of conceptual and practical
guidance to be drawn upon by national and/or regional authorities in devising and implementing
sustained action to prevent, reduce, control and/or eliminate marine degradation from land-based
activities.
Effective implementation of this Programme of Action is a crucial and essential step forward in
the protection of the marine environment and will promote the objectives and goals of
sustainable development.
The Global Programme of Action reflects the fact that States face a growing number of
commitments flowing from Agenda 21 and related conventions. Its implementation will require
new approaches by, and new forms of collaboration among, Governments, organizations and
institutions with responsibilities and expertise relevant to marine and coastal areas, at all levels -
national, regional and global. These include the promotion of innovative financial mechanisms to
generate needed resources.
Objectives
To develop comprehensive, continuing and adaptive programmes of action within the framework
of integrated coastal area management which should include provisions for:
(a) Identification and assessment of problems;
(b) Establishment of priorities;
(c) Setting management objectives for priority problems;
43
(d) Identification, evaluation and selection of strategies and measures, including
management approaches;
(e) Criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of strategies and programmes;
(f) Programme support elements.
Actions
States should, in accordance with their policies, priorities and resources, develop or review
national programmes of action within a few years and take forward action to implement these
programmes with the assistance of the international cooperation identified in chapter IV, in
particular to developing countries, especially the least developed countries, countries with
economies in transition and small island developing States (hereinafter referred to as "countries
in need of assistance"). The effective development and implementation of national programmes
of action should focus on sustainable, pragmatic and integrated environmental management
approaches and processes, such as integrated coastal area management, harmonized, as
appropriate, with river basin management and land-use plans.
Recommended actions to give effect to the objectives in the development of national
programmes of action by States are summarized in sections A, B, C, D, E and F below. They are
illustrated in more detail in the actions and targets identified in chapter V below.
A. IDENTIFICATION AND ASSESSMENT OF PROBLEMS
The identification and assessment of problems is a process of combining five elements:
(a) Identification of the nature and severity of problems in relation to:
(i) Food security and poverty alleviation;
(ii) Public health;
(iii) Coastal and marine resources and ecosystem health, including biological diversity;
44
(iv) Economic and social benefits and uses, including cultural values;
(b) Contaminants:
(i) Sewage;
(ii) Persistent organic pollutants;
(iii) Radioactive substances;
(iv) Heavy metals;
(v) Oils (hydrocarbons);
(vi) Nutrients;
(vii) Sediment mobilization;
(viii) Litter;
(c) Physical alteration, including habitat modification and destruction in areas of concern;
(d) Sources of degradation:
(i) Point sources (coastal and upstream), such as:
a. Waste-water treatment facilities;
b. Industrial facilities;
c. Power plants;
d. Military installations;
e. Recreational/tourism facilities;
f. Construction works (e.g., dams, coastal structures, harbour works and urban
expansion);
g. Coastal mining (e.g., sand and gravel);
h. Research centres;
i. Aquaculture;
45
j. Habitat modification (e.g., dredging, filling of wetlands or clearing of mangrove
areas);
k. Introduction of invasive species;
(ii) Non-point (diffuse) sources (coastal and upstream), such as:
a. Urban run-off;
b. Agricultural and horticultural run-off;
c. Forestry run-off;
d. Mining waste run-off;
e. Construction run-off;
f. Landfills and hazardous waste sites;
g. Erosion as a result of physical modification of coastal features;
(iii) Atmospheric deposition caused by:
a. Transportation (e.g., vehicle emissions);
b. Power plants and industrial facilities;
c. Incinerators;
d. Agricultural operations;
(e) Areas of concern (what areas are affected or vulnerable):
(i) Critical habitats, including coral reefs, wetlands, seagrass beds, coastal lagoons and
mangrove forests;
(ii) Habitats of endangered species;
(iii) Ecosystem components, including spawning areas, nursery areas, feeding grounds
and adult areas;
(iv) Shorelines;
(v) Coastal watersheds;
(vi) Estuaries and their drainage basins;
46
(vii) Specially protected marine and coastal areas; and (viii) Small islands.
B. ESTABLISHMENT OF PRIORITIES
Priorities for action should be established by assessing the five factors described above and
should specifically reflect:
(a) The relative importance of impacts upon food security, public health, coastal and marine
resources, ecosystem health, and socio-economic benefits, including cultural values, in relation
to:
(i) Source-categories (contaminants, physical alteration, and other forms of degradation
and the source or practice from which they emanate);
(ii) The area affected (including its uses and the importance of its ecological
characteristics);
(b) The costs, benefits and feasibility of options for action, including the long-term cost of no
action. In the process of establishing priorities for action and throughout all stages of developing
and implementing national programmes of action, States should:
(i) Apply integrated coastal area management approaches, including provision to involve
stakeholders, in particular local authorities and communities and relevant social and
economic sectors, including non-governmental organizations, women, indigenous people
and other major groups;
(ii) Recognize the basic linkages between the freshwater and marine environments
through, inter alia, application of watershed management approaches;
(iii) Recognize the basic linkages between sustainable management of coastal and marine
resources, poverty alleviation and protection of the marine environment;
(iv) Apply environmental impact assessment procedures in assessing options;
(v) Take into account the need to view such programmes as an integrated part of existing
or future comprehensive environmental programmes;
47
(vi) Take steps to protect: (i) critical habitats, using community-based participatory
approaches that are consistent with current approaches to conservation and uses
compatible with sustainable development; and (ii) endangered species;
(vii) Integrate national action with any relevant regional and global priorities,
programmes and strategies;
(viii) Establish focal points to facilitate regional and international cooperation;
(ix) Apply the precautionary approach and the principle of intergenerational equity.
The precautionary approach should be applied through preventive and corrective measures based
on existing knowledge, impact assessments, resources and capacities at national level, drawing
on pertinent information and analyses at the subregional, regional and global levels.
Where there are threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of full scientific certainty should
not be used as a reason for postponing cost-effective measures to prevent the degradation of the
marine environment.
C. SETTING MANAGEMENT OBJECTIVES FOR PRIORITY PROBLEMS
On the basis of the priorities established, States should define specific management objectives,
both with respect to source categories and areas affected. Such objectives should be set forth in
terms of overall goals, targets and timetables, as well as specific targets and timetables for areas
affected and for individual industrial, agricultural, urban and other sectors. Wherever possible,
States should take immediate preventive and remedial action using existing knowledge,
resources, plans and processes.
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D. IDENTIFICATION, EVALUATION AND SELECTION OF STRATEGIES AND
MEASURES
Strategies and programmes to achieve these management objectives should include a
combination of:
(a) Specific measures, including, as appropriate:
(i) Measures to promote sustainable use of coastal and marine resources and to
prevent/reduce degradation of the marine environment, such as:
a. Best available techniques (*) and best environmental practices, including
substitution of substances or processes entailing significant adverse effects;
b. Introduction of clean production practices, including efficient use of energy and
water in all economic and social sectors;
c. Application of best management practices;
d. Use of appropriate, environmentally sound and efficient technologies;
e. Product substitution;
(ii) Measures to modify contaminants or other forms of degradation after generation, such
as:
a. Waste recovery;
b. Recycling, including effluent reuse;
c. Waste treatment;
(iii) Measures to prevent, reduce or ameliorate degradation of affected areas, such as:
a. Environmental quality criteria, with biological, physical and/or chemical criteria
for measuring progress;
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b. Land-use planning requirements, including criteria for setting of major
facilities;
c. Rehabilitation of degraded habitats;
(b) Requirements and incentives to induce action to comply with measures, such as:
(i) Economic instruments and incentives, taking into account the "polluter pays" principle
and the internalization of environmental costs;
(ii) Regulatory measures;
(iii) Technical assistance/cooperation, including training of personnel;
* For the purposes of this Programme, "best available techniques" is understood to include
socioeconomic factors.
(iv) Education and public awareness;
(c) Identification/designation of the institutional arrangement with the authority and resources to
carry out management tasks associated with the strategies and programmes, including
implementation of compliance provisions;
(d) Identification of short-term and long-term data-collection and research needs;
(e) Development of a monitoring and environmental-quality reporting system to review and, if
necessary, help adapt the strategies and programmes;
(f) Identification of sources of finance and mechanisms available to cover the costs of
administering and managing the strategies and programmes.
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E. CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF STRATEGIES AND
MEASURES
A key element in successful strategies and programmes is to develop ongoing means of
determining whether they are meeting their management objectives. States should develop
specific criteria to evaluate the effectiveness of such strategies and programmes. While such
criteria must be tailored to the particular mix of elements (illustrated in section C above) in each
strategy or programme, they should address:
(a) Environmental effectiveness;
(b) Economic costs and benefits;
(c) Equity (costs and benefits of the strategy or programme are being shared fairly);
(d) Flexibility in administration (the strategy or programme can adapt to changes in
circumstances);
(e) Effectiveness in administration (management of the strategy or programme is
costeffective and accountable);
(f) Timing (the timetable needed to put the strategy or programme in place and to begin
producing results);
(g) Inter-media effects (the achievement of the objectives of the strategy or programme
creates a net environmental benefit).
F. PROGRAMME SUPPORT ELEMENTS
The long-term objective of national programmes of action should be to develop integrated
strategies and programmes to address all action priorities in relation to impacts upon the marine
environment from land-based activities. In addition, the programmes of action must themselves
be integrated with overall national objectives and other relevant programmes in relation to
sustainable development. States therefore should seek to ensure that there are administrative and
management structures necessary to support the national programmes of action. These include,
as appropriate:
51
(a) Organizational arrangements to coordinate among sectors and sectoral institutions;
(b) Legal and enforcement mechanisms (e.g., need for new legislation);
(c) Financial mechanisms (including innovative approaches to provide continuing and
predictable programme funding);
(d) Means of identifying and pursuing research and monitoring requirements in support of
the programme;
(e) Contingency planning;
(f) Human resources development and education;
(g) Public participation and awareness (e.g., based on integrated coastal area management
principles).