Pragmatics

Pragmatic analysis of a film scene (Scene 1) Natalia Arias - Gabriela Pereira

Pragmatics The study of language as it is used in a social context, including its effect on the interlocutors. (Intended meaning)Regularity1. Members of a social group follow general patterns of behavior, pragmatically appropriate, expected within the group. They also have similar basic knowledge of the world as well as non-linguistic knowledge, so some things are taken for granted.Deixis

Pointing via language by means of Deictic Expressions (also called Indexicals): Referring expressions which indicate the location of referents along certain dimensions, using the speaker (and time and place of speaking) as a reference point or deictic centre. They can be used to indicate: People 1) Person deixis Me, you, etc Location

2) Spatial deixis Here, there, etc.

Time 3) Temporal deixis Now, then, etc.

Notice: Interpretation depends on the hearer and speaker sharing the same context.

According to the context: Proximal terms (near speakers) This, here, now, etc. Distal terms (away from speaker) 1) Person deixis

Each person in a conversation shifts from being I to being you constantly Choice of pronouns for first person I, second person you, and third person He/She/It is described as Social deixis (relationship between speaker and addressee)

T/V distinction

T / Usted Use of 3rd person form where a second form would be possible

To express distance and non familiarity

Eg. For ironic or humorous purpose:

A person who is very busy in the kitchen addresses another who is being very lazy:

Would his highness like some coffee?

Inclusive / Exclusive distinction Exclusive We (speaker plus others), excluding addressee Inclusive We (speaker and addressee included)

Eg. Lets go (to some friends )

Lets go (to sb. Who has captured the speaker and friends)

2) Spatial deixis

Deictic projection Speakers ability to project themselves into other locations prior to actually being in those locations

Eg. Ill come later (movement to addressees location)

3) Temporal deixis

Eg. Yesterday, tomorrow, today, tonight, next week, last week, this week, in an hour, the coming week, the approaching year, in days gone by, the past week Proximal form Present tense Eg. I could be in Hawaii (If I had a lot of money) Distal form Past tense Eg. I could swim when I was a childDeixis and Grammar Person, spatial and temporal deixis can be seen at work in:

Direct speech

= near speaker meaning Indirect speech

= Away from speaker meaningDeictic expressions

Express relative distance Communicate much more than it is said

Reference

An act in which a speaker /writer uses linguistic forms to enable a listener /reader to identify something Linguistic forms

Referring expression

Proper nouns Eg. Shakespeare, Hawaii Noun Phrases Definite

The author, the island

Indefinite

A man, a woman, a beautiful place

Based on what the speaker assumes the listener already knows, or in shared visual contexts

Eg. Take this

Look at him Inference Listeners task: To infer what or who exactly the speaker is making reference to Speaker:

Use of vague expressions Eg. The blue thing

Invention of names

Eg. Miss know all Referential and attributive uses(Things that exist or not) Indefinite noun phrases

May identify:

A physically present entity

Eg. Theres a man waiting for you Entities assumed to exist but which are unknown

Eg. He wants to marry a woman with lots of money

Entities that dont exist Eg. I wish they had a handless goalkeeper so that we could win the match Attributive use

Whoever or whatever fits the description (speakers assumption that referent must exist)

Referential use

When you have a person in mind but you dont name it

Definite noun phrases Attributive use Eg. The killer (Whoever did the killing) Referential use

Eg. There was no sign of the killer (Speakers knowledge that a referent does exist)Names and referents

Conventions between all members of a community who share a common language and culture

Theres a pragmatic connection between proper names and objects that will be conventionally associated within a socio culturally defined community, with those names

Eg. Cristina = The President (In Argentina)

Shakespeare = The writer

The Rolling Stones (The band)

The donkey (the animal)

Yet, there are cases in which sense is made through which is being communicated rather than said Eg. Where is the donkey sitting? (a boy/girl who is not so intelligent) My Rolling Stones is missing (A CD)Co-text The linguistic material accompanying the referring expression Its part of the context (environment) in which a referring expression is used

Related to local context and shared knowledge of the participants

The vocabulary used in certain places

Eg. The heart attack mustnt be moved (hospital)c Your ten thirty just cancelled (bus terminal)

A couple of rooms have complained about the heat (hotel) The role of co-text It provides a range of reference Examples Brazil wins World Cup

Referring expression Co-text The cheese sandwich is made with white bread The cheese sandwich left without payingAnaphoric reference Reference to sth. Mentioned before

Eg. I saw a cat crossing the street. It was black Antecedent anaphor

Cataphoric reference| Reference to sth. Mentioned later

Eg.I turned the corner and saw it. It was a strange flying object. Zero anaphora or ellipsis When no linguistic expression is present but the listener is able to infer who or what the speaker is making reference to Eg. Wash the vegetables. Cut them. Cook for half an hour How do you feel now?

Awful

Presupposition and EntailmentPresupposition Something the speaker assumes before making an utterance (speakers-not sentences-have presuppositions Existential presupposition

Eg. The American woman found the cat PP. There is an American woman PP. There is a cat Factive presupposition PP that sth is true Eg. Bob does not regret that he beat his dog

P.P. Bob beat his dog Lexical presupposition PP of an unstated concept Eg. He stopped smoking (He used to smoke) They started complaining (They werent complaining before)

You are late again (You were late before) Structural presupposition

Use of structures that treat information as presupposed (assumed to be true), thus, accepted as true by the listener

Eg. Wh structures

When did he leave? (He left)

Where did you buy the car? (You bought the car) Non-factive presupposition

One that is assumed not to be true Eg. Verbs: Dream, imagine, pretend

I dreamt that I was rich (I was not rich)

We imagined we were in Paris (We were not in Paris)

She pretended to be a lawyer (She was not a lawyer) Counter-factual presupposition

What is presupposed is contrary to fact

If you were my friend, you would have helped me (You are not my friend)Entailment

Something that logically follows from what is asserted in the utterance (sentences not speakers-have entailments) = Under certain conditions the truth of one statement ensures the truth of a second statement. An entailment can be thought of as a relation between one sentence or set of sentences, the entailing expressions, and another sentence, what is entailed

Eg. The English sentence (14) is normally interpreted so that it entails the sentences in (15) but does not entail those in (16).

(14) Lee kissed Kim passionately.

(15)

a. Lee kissed Kim.b. Kim was kissed by Lee.c. Kim was kissed.d. Lee touched Kim with her lips.

(16)a. Lee married Kim.b. Kim kissed Lee.c. Lee kissed Kim many times.d. Lee did not kiss Kim.

Cooperation and Implicature

Implicature

An additional conveyed meaning Eg. Business is businessThe Cooperative Principle

In normal interaction, we assume that people are going to: Provide an appropriate amount of information Tell the truth Be relevant Be as clear as they can Paul Grice fleshed out the cooperative principle in four conversational maxims, which are commandments that people tacitly follow (or should follow) to further the conversation efficiently: Maxim of Quality : Be Truthful

Only say what you believe to be true.

Only say what you have evidence for.

Example:A: Should I buy my son this new sports car?B: I don't know if that's such a good idea. His record isn't so great.vs.B: No, for he has totaled two cars since he got his license last year.

Maxim of Quantity: Quantity of Information

Make your contribution as informative as is required for the current purposes of the exchange.

Do not make your contribution more informative than is required.

Example:A: Where is the post office?B: Down the road, about 50 metres past the second left.vs.B: Not far.

Maxim of Relation: Relevance

Make your contribution relevant to the interaction.

Indicate any way that it is not.

Example 1:A: How are you doing in school?B: Not too well, actually. I'm failing two of my classes.vs.B: What fine weather we're having lately!

Example 2:A:(Waving at B, who is driving a taxi) Taxi!B:(Waving at A, who is walking along the side of the road) Pedestrian!

Maxim of Manner: Be Clear

Avoid unnecessary prolixity Avoid ambiguity.

Be brief.

Be orderly.

Example:A: What did you think of that movie?B: I liked the creative storyline. The ending was really a surprise!vs.B: It was interestingly done, sir .

Hedges

= Cautious notes To show that the speaker is conscious of the quantity maxim:

Eg. As far as I know, I may be mistaken, but

Im not sure if this is right, but

I guess

As you probably know

So, to cut a long story short

Markers tied to the expectation of relevance (maximum of relation) E.g. Oh, by the way Anyway

Well, anyway

I dont know if this is important, but

This may sound like a dumb question, but

Not to change the subject, but

Awareness of the expectation of manner This may be a bit confused, but Im not sure if this makes sense, but I dont know if this is clear at all, butConversational implicatures Parts of the meanings of utterances which, although intended, are not strictly part of what is said Generalized It is a default reading: I.e. understood by anyone. It arises unless it explicitly cancelled and is to that extent, independent of context Eg. Some of the parents came to the meeting (=not all of them did) Some of the parents, if not all of them, came to the meeting (not all is cancelled)

Scalar Implicatures

Certain information is always communicated by choosing a word which expresses one value from a scale of values Eg. All, most, many, some, few, always,often, sometimes Particularized

It depends on specific contexts and it is not a default message component Eg. Jane is in the shower does not convey a default message component She cannot come to the telephone This requires a particular context Can I speak to Jane?

Shes in the shower

Speech Act and Speech EventsSpeech Acts Acts which crucially involve the production of language (Actions performed via utterances)

Types

Locutionary Act

Basic act of utterance (producing a meaningful linguistic expression)

Illocutionary Act

Act performed by a speaker in saying something (with an appropriate intention and in an appropriate context) Illocutionary force

=for some communicative purpose

Eg. To make a statement, an offer, an explanation, promise, etc IFIDS (Illocutionary Force Indicating Device) Performative Verb (Vp) Promise, warn, tell, say, ask, etc) Word stress and intonation

You are going! (I tell you)

You are going? (I request confirmation)

Are you going? (I ask you)

Felicity Conditions

Conditions that must be satisfied for a speech act to be properly performed (happiness conditions). They can be grouped under three headings: Preparatory conditions Define an appropriate setting for the act, including the speakers intentions and qualifications. For instance, someone uttering the words I pronounce you man and wife has not sealed the union of a man and a woman unless he or she is properly qualified, and does so in the course of an official marriage ceremony; the issuer of a command must have authority over the addressee, and the act must be both possible and not already carried out. If the preparatory conditions are not satisfied, the speech act has not been validly performed (it is said to have misfired).

Sincerity conditions Someone who promises to do something must genuinely intend to do it; someone congratulating someone must feel pleasure at that persons good luck or success; someone making a statement must believe it to be true, and so on. An insincere speech act has nonetheless been performed, but the speaker is guilty of an abuse.

Essential conditions Define the essential nature of the speech act. For instance, if someone makes a promise, they must intend their utterance to count as putting them under an obligation to carry out what is promised; in the case of I name this ship the speaker must intend the utterance to count as conferring a name on the ship; in making a state- ment, a speaker must intend it to be taken as true, and so on. If the essential conditions for a particular speech act are not met, then merely producing the right form of utterance does not result in the speech act being performed. For instance, producing The King of France is bald in a logic class would not normally count as a statement committing the speaker to its truth. Notice that this is different from sincerity: someone telling a lie intends their statement to be taken as the truth. Perlocutionary Act

Intended effect

Speech Acts classification

According to the function performed Declaratives (causes..)

(You must have arole in society) Speech acts that change the world via their utterance

Eg: I now pronounce you husband and wife (priest) You are out (referee)

We find the defendant guilty (Jury foreman) Representatives (believes)

State what the speaker believes to be the case or not (facts, assertions, conclusions, descriptions) Expressives (feels)

Express the speakers feelings or attitude: thank, congratulate, forgive.

Directives (wants)

Directives: these are aimed at getting someone to act in a certain way: beg, implore, request, warn (to), recommend (to), ask (to).

Commissives (intends)

They have the effect of committing the speaker to some action in the future: promise, undertake, offer, threaten. According to the structure

Declarative

You wear a seat belt Interrogative

Do you wear a seat belt? Imperative

Wear a seat belt According to the relationship between a structure and a function

Direct Speech

Indirect Speech

Speech Events

Circumstances surrounding the utterances, including other utterances

Participants

Speaker: the person producing an utterance.

Addressee: the person to whom an utterance is directed in a speech event.

Ratified participant: a member of a conversational group not directly addressed, who is expected to attend to what is said.

Overhearer: this may be a bystander (who may understand and join in conversation without causing offence) or an eavesdropper (who is not supposed to hear).Politeness and Interaction

Much of what we say and communicate is determined by our social relationships

Internal and external factors influence what we say and how it is interpreted

Politeness

The means employed to show awareness of another persons face

= the public self image of a person. The emotional and social sense of self that everyone has and expects everyone else to recognize

Associated with social distance or closeness

Someone socially distant

Shows respect or deference Someone socially close

Shows friendliness, camaraderie or solidarity

Face wants Within everyday social interaction, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self image (face wants) will be respected

Threatening act

A threat to another persons face

Eg.Im going to teel him to stop that awful noise right now! Face saving act

To say something that lessens the possible threat

Eg. Perhaps you could just ask him if he is going to stop the music soon, because its getting late and people need to get to sleep Negative face The need to: Be independent

Have freedom of action

Not to be imposed on by others

Positive face

The need to be:

Accepted, liked by others

Treated as a member of the same group

Connected

Self and others

Say nothing To have ones needs recognized by others without having to express those needs in language

Eg.

Self: (Looks in bag)

Other: (Offers pen) Here you are

Say something off the record

=Hints. To say something but not directly addressed to the other

Eg.

Self: Uh, I forgot my pen Other: Hmm Say something on record To directly address other as a means of expressing your needs

Associated with speech events in which somebody has power over the other (Eg. Military) to control others behavior with words

In every day interaction between social equals = threat to the other

Hold on record

The most direct approach, using imperative forms, followed by mitigating devices like please, would you, etc.

Eg. Give me a pen, lend me your pen Emergency situations

Use of direct commands regardless who is being addressed

Eg. Dont touch that!

Get out of there!Strategies Positive politeness Greater risk for the speaker of suffering a refusal. It may be preceeded by some getting to knowou talk Eg. How is it going? Okay if I sit here?

Negative politeness In most English-speaking contexts, a face saving act is more commonly performed via a negative politeness strategy

Eg. Could you

Im sorry to bother you, but I know you are busy, but

Must I ask

Solidarity

The tendency to use positive politeness forms, emphasizing closeness between speaker/hearer

Linguistically, it will include:

Personal information

Use of nicknames

Abusive terms

Shared dialect or slang expressions

Use of we/lets

Eg. Lets go to the party Well have fun Deference The tendency to use negative politeness forms, emphasizing the hearers right to freedom (absence of personal claims) Eg. Theres going to be a party, if you can make it. It will be funConversation analysis

Turn-taking Turn-taking is one of the fundamental organizations of conversation. Participants in conversation talk one at a time, while managing to minimize gaps between turns at talk, and overlapping turns Pauses

Transitions from one speaker to the next Smooth

Valued

With a long silence between turns

Theres no flow

Much more is being communicated than is said

= sense of distance, absence of ease or familiarity in the interaction

Overlaps

Both speakers trying to speak at the same time Attributable silence

When somebody does not speak, it becomes significant

To indicate that the listener is following, and not objecting, to what the speaker is saying (message being received): Examples:

Head nods

Smiles

Facial expressions

Backchannels

Vocal indicators (backchannel signals)

Eg. Uh.uh, yeah, mmm

Conversational style

High involvement style (A) Active participation Speaking rate: relatively fast Almost no pausing between turns Some overlaps High considerateness style (B) Slower rate Expectation of longer pauses

Do not overlap

Avoid interruption

Notice:

Features of conversational style will often be interpreted as personality traits (A) = Noisy, pushy, domineering, selfish, tiresome

(B) doesnt have much to say , shy, boring or stupid

Adjacency pairs =Natural pairs

Question/answer

What time is it?

About 8 oclock

Greeting/response greeting

Hello

Hi

Invitation/acceptance/refusal Would you like to come?

Yes, I love to

Apology/acceptance/rejection

Im sorry

Its ok

Preference structure Social acts

Preferred (structurally expected next act)

Dispreferred (structurally unexpected next act

FIRST PARTSECOND PART

PREFERREDDISPREFERRED

ASSESSMENTAGREEDISAGREE

INVITATIONACCEPTREFUSE

OFFERACCEPTDECLINE

PROPOSALAGREEDISAGREE

REQUESTACCEPTREFUSE

DIALOGUE (Scene 1)

Marcus: Are you ready to do your duty for Rome? 00:32:17,249 --> 00:32:20,412Commodus: (pause)Yes,father. 00:32:23,221 --> 00:32:24,381Marcus: You will not be Emperor. 00:32:25,757 --> 00:32:27,691Commodus: (pause)Which wiser, older man is to take my place? 00:32:31,029 --> 00:32:33,463Marcus: My powers will pass to Maximus, to hold in trust until the Senate is ready to rule, once more. Rome is to be a Republic again. 00:32:33,531--> 00:32:48,642Commodus: (pause)Maximus 00:32:49,948 --> 00:32:52,075 Marcus: (pause)Yes (he tries to touch his sons face) Commodus: (head nod) Marcus: (pause) My decision disappoints you? 00:32:58,523 --> 00:33:00,582Commodus: (pause)You wrote to me once, listing the four chief virtueswisdom, justice, fortitude, and temperance. (pause)As I read the list I knew I had none of them. (pause)But I have other virtues, Father -- ambition, that can be a virtue when it drives us to excel; resourcefulness; courage, perhaps not on the battle field but there are many forms of courage; devotion, to my family, to you. But none of my virtues were on your list. Even then it was as if you didn't want me for your son. 00:33:04,429 -->00:34:01,118Marcus: Oh, Commodus, you go too far. Commodus: (starts crying) I searched the faces of the gods for ways to please you, to make you proud.... One kind word, one full hug while you pressed me to your chest and held me tight, would have been like the sun on my heart for a thousand years.... What is it in me you hate so much? (Marcus makes a gesture to make Commodus stop talking) All I ever wanted was to live up to you, Caesar, Father. 00:34:01,186 -->--> 00:34:46,522Marcus: Commodus, (pause) (he kneels down)your fault as a son, is my failure as a father. (pause) (he opens his arms so as to embrace his son) Come 00:34:50,869 --> 00:35:09,452Commodus: (pause) (embracing his father tightly) ) Father, (pause) (kissing his father on the head and crying)(He looks fixedly at his fathers eyes and holds his head) I would butcher the whole world (he holds his fathers head close to his chest) if you would only love me!!! (He cries and kills his father) 00:35:13,191--> 00:35:35,874

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