GINZBURG, Carlo. Wooden Eyes - Nine Reflections on Distance

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R T R T R T R T R

CARLO G I N Z B U R G

WDEN YESN I N E R E F L E C I O N S O N D I S A N C E



Wooden Eyes

EUROPEAN PERSPECTIVES



EUOPEAN PESPETVES

A Sr n Socal hough an Culual Ccm

awrene D Kritzman Edto

Europan Prpciv pesents outstanding books by eadng uro

pean tinkers. With both ass and ontemporar works, the

seres ams to shape the maor ntelletal ontroverses of our day

and to tate the tasks of istoral undestandng

For a ompete st o books n the seres see pages 23-24.



ooden yesNN N N N

Carlo Ginzburg

Translated by Martin Ryle and Kate Soper

COMB NVRSY R SS

N



Columbia Universit Press

be Se

New York Cchester, West Sussex

Translation copyright ©2

Coumba nversit Press

Oa d Leo ©998

Giangiacomo Feltrne Ediore Mlano

gs eserved

Lbrary of Congress Cataogng-in-Pubicaton D ata

Giburg Calo.

[Occhiacci d egno. Engish]

Wooden eyes : ne reecons on dstance

Carlo Ginzburg.

p. cm (open perspecves)

Includes bbliograpical references and nde

SN o3160 7

Perspecie Posophy 2 CulturePosophy.

. Aestheti dstance. . Ryle Martn H. II. Soper Kate.

. Tile. IV Seies.

BD4856 200

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are printed on permanent and durable acidee paper.

Prnted n the nited States o America

eged Aud m

c0 862



Wden eyes, why re yu lkng me?

-Coo, inoccio



To Amos Fnkentein



CONTENT

Lit of late

reface x

AKNG IT STANGE The Preistory of a

Ltear Devce

2 TH: Distance and Deceit 25

3 EPESENTATON The Word, the Idea the Thng 3

4 On the Scpural Roots of ChrstanDevotona magey 79

5. DOS AND KENESSES A Passage Orgen and

Its Vicsstudes 95

6 STE Inclusion and Excusion 9

7.

DSTANE AND PESPETVE Two Metaphors 39



8. TO K A HINESE ANDAIN The Moa

mlcaos of Dstace 57

x9. POPE WOJTA

'S S 173

NENT

Note 181

ndex 247



PLATS

oowing age

Diego Rodriguez de Slva y Velzquez, Jacob Receiing

te Boodtained Garment of Joep (Madri Escorial)

2 Dego Rorguez e Sva y Vezquez Te orge of

Vucan (Madrid Prao)

3 ntonio Tempesa, Te rge of Vucan (om Ovid

Metamooeon . . pubshed n twerp 1606)

4 Caravaggio, Caing of Saint Mattew (Rome San Luig

de Fraces)

5. Domenchno Deat of Saint Ceciia (Rome San Luigei Francesi)

6. Royal gure (London Westmster Ab bey)

7 Sant Foy Conques

8 Hans Hobe the Younger ego of te Od and New

Tetament (Edburgh, National Gaery of Scoad)



xPAT

9Latin sarcophags (no 19 (Vatican Museums

r Sacophags with tees (Arles, Muse Rat

u Fagmen of sarcophags depictingJesus and he

woman cued of bleeding (Rome Catacomb of

San Caso

12Te Von o Ezeke (Saloika church of Hosos Dav id

3Madonna and Cd (Rome Santa Mara Antiqua

sxh-sevenh century

Ecce Homo (Isael von Meckenem lateeenh cenuy

15 Crucon (Ohrid ear uteenth centuy

6Pal depicting Anubis (Mosco uskin Museum

17Capita depicing a spx (church of Sain Fo

Conques, coistes

18Capial depicting a sien (chuch of Sain Foy

Conques, cloisters

19Ren Magrite La traon de mage (os Angeles

County Museum of A copyigh SIAE 998

20The Tempe of Solomon omJohann Benhad

Fscher von Each Entwu ener torcen

rctectur 172

2Stonehenge om Fische von Erlach Entwu

22 Chnese Bidges om Fischer von Erlach Entwu

23Pesepolis omJon Flxman Lecture on

Scupture, 829

24 Stae in the Tempe of Egna om Flaxman

Lecture on Scupture

25 Vishnu om Flaxman Lecture on Scupture

26Transguraion ofJesus om Faxman Lecture

on Scupture



PREFACE

The eae w n hee ne essays hee of em pei

osy npbshe ha I hae wen ng he as

ecae The "sance eee o in he boo's sbie s

boh iea an meaphoca Snce 998 I hae been each

ing os ngees. Conesaion wi sens sch as

hose who aen UCA whose neec a backgon s

qe ke my own an who ae ehnicay an cay

iese has obge me o ook aesh a eseach hemes

an opics on which I hae ong been wokngy sense of

he mpoance has no essene b ha mpoance has

become ess seeenI hae come o nesan bee

someng ha I hogh I aeay new: ha miai

wch s n he as anayss bon p wh ca beong

ng cano be a ceon o wha s eean To say ha

eey pace n he wo is ke o pace oes no mean ha

eeyhng s he same; means ha we a osees

asa o o pace isis some hings an some peope



now that I am sayng nothing ne but perhaps it s worth pausing

to reect on the nteecual fecundt of ths condtion. Ths s what

v I hae tred to do n the essay hat opens the coecton Een the rst

REACE wrtten, howeer, on representaon (chapter 3) was anated by a

wsh to awaken the reader (and rst of a, n the ter) is senseof beg astra by compressng a ast topc nto a few pages and by

setg Europe and Italy n a ery wde chronoogcal and spaal

amework In t, I engaged wth a doube ambguiy: the abig

of mages, wch are simuaneousy presences and surrogates r

what s not present; and the ambgi of he reatonship beeen

Jews and Chrstians, n whch coseness and dstance hae een nter

aced, oen ith ta consequences, r o mea These abgutes come togeher n the thee of dolatr whch s aluded to n

the tle of the book and discussed n the essay on dos and mages

This ends abrupt a jxtapositon of the rst to command

ments "You sha not make a cared mage r yoursef nor the ke

ness of anyng and "u sha not ake wrong use of the name of

the Lord I rern to the coniguit of the word and the mage n my

nqury nto my The Greeks both depcted ther gods and spoke

ther naes and they reasoned on the naure of mages and of

words Howeer, s apparent contrast beteen the Greeks and e

Jews ehaps conceas a hdden smmet both he Greek reecton

on myh and the Jewsh prohbtion of doatry are struments of

dstantaton Grees and Jews, n ther derent ways, sought to

deelop tools that would aow hem to cast a critcal gaze on reai

wthout becong submerged in t Chrsa set tsef aganst

the boh, and earned om the boh

am a Jew who was orn and grew up n a Caoc country; I

neer receied any regous educaon my Jesh dentit s to a arge

degree the result of persecuon It was amost unawares that I began

to reect on the mupe tradon to whch eong, seekng to cast

a distanced and possbe crtca gaze upon it I was, and a, oy too

aware that I am ess we prepared than I ght be r such a task Fol

long the chan of scptral quotaons n the Gospes, I reached a

poston o whch was abe to read em, and ndeed to terpret

he gre of Jesus, om a epont that I m ysef had not ancpated

Here agan I encountered e opposon beeen shong and

teng, morphoogy and hstor-an exhaustbe theme and one

hat has ong scnated me It s the theme on whch I reason, om



vaous ags, i th scod, uh, h, ad sxh ssays. A pacc

of rlco augatd by th ks has alowd us to dscovr

what mag, am, ad myh, dspt hr dvrsit hav commo:

h c that hy all byod ruh ad shood I our cutur w FAC

aibu ths characr o art i gral. Yt astc ctos, k hctos of th la spak of a Ths is wha I show h ssay o

diaraio h rs, ad aso i a somwhat vrtd way

h rlcos of ighh, o h Chs madari o pac

ght disac, ohr too much; hr absc of mpah

ladg to cical disac, hr ack of mpahy adg to dhu

maato. d ow distac whch had pomptd my rctos,

bcam th hmsac tslf hsorca prspctv sv-h ssay: ad I rd I had wi hs book.

May pop hav hpd m. Apar om hos miod

cocio wh h dvidua ssays wh I tust I hav omitd

o o, I mus thak ovana Fari, whos pofssioalism co

tibud gay o h prparato of th mauscpt H I am

hos wh whom I hav had spcaly ts ad rwardig co

vrsaos: Pry dso, P Csar Boi, Sau Fddr,

lbo ajao, So Lv Da Tor, ad Faco Mortt

I woud vr hav wit hs book had I ot m Amos

Fuksi ad bcom h d. It with gat actio ad

gad ha I mio him h.

As I bd ths pags rwl, my houghs ur o Adriao So,

closst ad dista id ad to Ovdo Bompssi ad iorgio Pt

ros, wih th hop tha hir iocc w soo b ally

acowldgd.

BOLOGNA,DECEMBERl997

I shd wrig his book Brli, a h Wssschaskog,

dug a yar of ts, pacl work I thak vryo who mad

hs possib.

The rst essay appeaed n Representatio, ; the second n I Gre vol Noi e i

grec ed S Sets (urn, the thrd n Annale, he h n Sght and Inght:

Esay .n At and Cultue n Honou of E H Gombrch ed J Onans London the

eighth in Hstorcal Change and Human Rght The Amnesty Lectue ed Huon

(New York the nnth i La Repubbca (Ocober . A-especly he

thrdwee revsed fr the pbicaton n book fm as Occhacci di lego (Mlan,

and the presen tanslaton n based on that text



Wooden Eyes



aking It StrangeTHE PREHISTORY O A ITERARY DEVICE

I

I. In 1922 h Russan t Vko Shklos, n a ltto Roman Jakobson, xlamd hly W no ho

f s mad and ho Don Quote and th a a mad

oo1 Th haatst no of ay Russan malsm s

y audbl n ths-ts onpton of lay tsm as

a goous m of nodg, and of at as an assmbag

o d Th ndshp bn th to mn, both of

hm n h tnts hn th t as tn, as noo ast but th nams oud man ndssouby lkd

h h malst momnt2 Skos's Teo of roe,

pubshd a f yas a (n 97), nudd haps

ttd Th Makng of Don Quxo and t as D

Shklos mbaks b long, on a dsusson of human

psyhology



2

MAN SANGE

Te Pety f aLtea eve

f we examine the general aws of percepton, we see hat as t

becomes habiua, t also becomes auomac. So eventuay a

ou sks an eeences ncton unconscousy-auoma

cay. If someone were o compae the sensaion of holng a pen

n hs han or speakng a reign one the very st time with he sensation of perming ts same operaon he ten

thousanh me hen he wou no oubt agree wth us I s ths

process of automatzaon ha explans the laws of our prose

speech wih is agmenay pases an hafarculate wos.

So heavly o unconscous habis wegh on us, Shklovsky goes on

to we, ha fe es nto nothingness. Auomataon eats awayat tings a cohes, at rntre, a our wves an at ou fea of

war"

At this pon a eon of art n genera is ntrouce:

n so, n oer to retun sensaton o ou mbs in oer to

make us fee objecs, to make a stone feel ston man has been

gven the too of at The purpose of ar then, s to lea us to anowlege of a tng tough he ogan of sght insea of

recoton. By estrangng" or emarzng" obects an

compcaing rm the evce of ar makes perception long an

laborous" The percepual pocess n art has a pupose al ts

own an ough to be extene o he es rt a mean of

eeencng te proce of creatty Te artfact te qute unm

portant. 3

Sovs's noon that at is an nsrument r revitalizng ou

perceptons, wch habt has mae u, at once emns us of the

ole playe by nvoluntay memoy n Mace ousts work n 1917,

only he s voume of a recerce du temp perdu Du ct de cez

Swann, ha appeare roust's name, moreove, is nowhee men·

tone n Shklovsk's analysis of art as evce. For examples of-emiliaraon" or makng strange"-he turns

above al to Tolso In Tostoy's shot story Kholsomer"

Skovsky points ou that as the sory is o om the pont of view

of a hose," s emlazaon s meate no by our percep

ton but by that of the hose."

Ts is how the horse sees the ights of propert



Man of the peope . . who ca me heir horse did not rde me

Othes dd. These same people neve fed me. Othes did Once

agan I was shown man kindnesses, bt not b hose who caled 3

me ther hose No b coachmen, veternarans and stangers of MAN 1T STANE

a sors As m obsevatons gew thogh became ncreasng The Pehoy of a

convnced that hs concept of mine was nvalid not on s Lea Deve

horses bt also r hman k, .e, ha i repesens nothng

more than mans base and beast insnct to caim proper r

msef A andod, r stance, sas m hose" b neve lives

in t, concenng hmself onl wth the stce and maine

nance of the hose A mechant sas m shop," m cothing

shop" et he hself does not wear an clohes made om he e mateal dsplaed n it

I am now convnced hat wha dsngshes s om

hman beings and gves s he rght o cam a hgher place on the

ladder of lving creates s simpl this: tha he hman speces s

gded above a, b wor whe os is gded b deed

As we as anazng a nmber of passages om ostoSklovsk consdes eaples of a competel dierent terar

genre, namel ddes with eotc ndertones. In one eampe the

wfe of the hero of he lina Savyor appeas bere m ds

gise He does not recognize her She sets him this rdde

Dont o remembe Stavor, dont o recal

How we learned or alphabet togethe

Mine was he sver nkwe, and or pen was golden?

I mostened o pen hen and thee,

Yes, I mosened t al rght, hen and here"

However, Shkovsk obseves, demazaion s not a device

mted to the eotc rdle-a ephemsm of sors s also he

ndaton of al rdes ever dde"-ecept those based on a

kd of adtor mmcr-dees and lstrates s obec in

wods which seem inappropriate drng the teing of it."5

Here Shkovsk s echoing he genera pont ha he has made

earer n reference to the wa n which he emoval of [obecs]

om the sphere of aomatzed pecepton s accompished in

ar."6



2 Skovky' eay eain a i cination, and a i yout

aogance. Aar om one brie reeence at I wi dicu

4 ater i ow a deberate ack o ioica erective To ignore

MAKNG T STRAN itoy in i way i tyica o e Ruian rmait, and i ati

The ehs a tude engtened ei view tat ar can be een a a dvice." ILe Dee a i an aembage, we need to know ow i work, not ow it

came nto being. Te idea o demiarizaion otranenie) a

de eonance in tentietcenury iterary eo o coue

Brect aienaion" i a weknown intance.7 Tei very ucce,

owever, a eed ied Skovky idea om cutin We

migt ak wy (beyond te obviou racica reaon) e aced

uc emai on Ruian ext. We mig ak, oo, wat kind oconneion exit beeen idde, a a iteay gene, and e

oiicated ue to wic Totoy ut otranienie Finay and

above a, i demiarization o be conideed a coermnou

wi ariic ractice in genera, a Skovky uggeted, or oud

we undetand it a a rocedure bound u wi a articua iter

ay adition? In eeking to anwe ee quetion I a be ed to

conider te notion o making it trange" om a erecive at

i, une I am miaken, raer dieren om a uuay adoed

nowaday.

. Te at ta I a ow i omewa tortuou I begn

wit te reection tat e emeror Marcu Aueiu wrote in

Geek in e econd centry Bc Vaiou name- Mye Memoir

Tougt and o rtave been given o tee reection8 Te

book i a kind o autobiogra comoed in te m o a cat

aog o te eoe, weer reaive, teacer or iend, o wom

Marcu Aueiu e moay or nteecay indebed Te oter

eeven book conit o a eie o agmentary aage, o varying

eng, and n an aareny aazad order. Some wee witten

durng Marcu Aureu mitary camaign a a mean o moa

eeducation, drawing on e vocabuay o e Stoic ooy in

wic e ad been ained. Te wok wa no intended ubca

tion, a c a inuenced not oy i rm but ao, a I a o

i te ae e auor deat

Macu Aueiu wa ntereted in eeducation raer an

intoection. Te imerave wa i reerred mode Wie away

te ime o imagination" e wote eve more equent



mpoying a rm- pantaia -om th tchnica trmnology of

h Socs. Epicus th philosophrsla whos as prouny

nunc Marcus Aurus mantan that his strkng ou or

rasur of imaginary rprsntaions was a ncssary stp in th MAN SANE

qus r an xac prcpion of hngs an thus n th atanmnt The eho of a

of rtu9 This is how Marcus Aurus scribs h succssi La Dee

stags

Wp away h mprss of imagnation. Say h mpuls wch is

rawing you ik a pupp th m wch s prsn Rc

og wha s happning o yourslf or anohr. i an sp

ara h n no s causal an maria aspcts. w inhought upon your last hour. 7.

Each of ths nuncons rqur h aopon of a spcc

moral tcnqu am a acquing mastry or th passions wch

ruc us to puppts (ts was a ori sm of Marcus Aurus

Frst of a w must paus an ak stock. Tha which is ar to us

mus b brokn own nto ts componn parts For xamp h

unful phras" of a song mus subi no ry on of s

nots: ask yoursf abou ach whhr you ar ts sran.

hngs r xcp must b subc to his ratmn

Gnray thn xcpng rt an ts cts rmmbr to ha

rcours to h sral parts an by anayss o go on o spis

hm an o apply h sam procss o f as a whol .

Howr t s not sucn ust o brak hings own ino hr

smplst mns W must also arn o w thm as om a s

tanc:

a an Europ ar cornrs in th Urs ry sa a rop

th Unirs Moun Athos a clo of arh in h Unirs; ry

insant of tim a pnprck of trnit l hgs ar p asly

chang ashng away. 63

If w appras i across tis immnsy of tim ami this muti

plicity of iuals w com o unrsan hat our own xisnc

has no mporanc whatr



MAKNG STAN

The Pehsor of aLeay Deve

Ponder .. the lie ed by others long ago the e tha wbe led

aer you, he e beng led in barbarian races how many do not

even ow your name, how many wll very soon rge it and

how many who praise you perhaps now w very soon bame

you and ha neher memoral nor me nor anything else at as worth a hough. .0

This cosmic perspectve cares the meanng o the inunction

quoted above: Dwel n thought upon your last hour Everythng

our deah ncuded must be seen as part o a general process o

transrmaion and change:

Dwe upon everythng that exists and reect tha t s already n

process o dissoluton and cong no beng by change and a

knd o decay or dispersion, or in what way it s born o de, a

manner o speakng 0.

The search r the rst cause is itsel part o the Stoc echnique

whose am is to attain an exac percepon o hngs:

Surely t is an exceent plan when you are seaed bere del

cac and choc od to mpres upon your imagnation

pantaa]that hs is the dead body o a sh, ha he dead

body o a bird or a pig and again that the Falernan wne is

grape juce and hat robe o purple a amb's eece dipped n a

shesh's blood and in matters o sex ntercourse, tha it isatriion o an entrai and a convusve expulson o mere

mucus Surey these are exceen imaginatons pantaiai]

gong to the heart o acua cts and penerang them so as to

see wha kind o thngs hey reay are. You shoud adopt his

practce al through your ie and where thngs make an

impression which s very plausbe, uncover ther nakednes,

see no ther cheapnss srp othe proession on whch hey

vaunt hemselves .°

4. To a twenehcenury reader,hs extraordnary passage must

neviaby seem ke an anticpaion o the tecque o "makng it

srange. There are some grounds r using the erm. Tosoy deeply

adred Marcus Aureus, and more than exracs om the



empeo's wings were inluded n he end nhology of

univesl wisdom th the noveist ompiled n his old ge1 Moe

over Tolstoys rd ttudes towd mbiton, w, nd love

wee poundly nuened by Mus Aurelius's eletons To MAKNG SANGE

stoy regrded humn onventons nd insttutons with he eyes of e re ahose or hild: s strnge, opue phenomen, devod of he sig erar ee

ni ne geney ttibuted o them To his gze, one mps

soned nd dehed,hngs reveled themselves "s hey rely e,

o use Mrus Aueuss wods

This reding of Mus Auelius, whh is idebted to two mem

obe essys by Piee Hdot,dds esh dmenson to Shkovsks

disussion of rt s devie. Moreover, t oms he pelbetween he teiue oestngement nd ht of riddles we n

mgne Mrus Auelius sking hmsef, r stne, W ht s

lmb's eee dipped sheshs blood? In oder o gve thei

pope wegh to humn honoi insgn suh s those h denote

membeship of he Sente, we mus ke our disne om the

ob jet nd seek ts use sking uesion suh s iddes pose.

Mo sefeduion reues of us bove th we ese mistkenepesenttions, ee seemingy obvous postes, nd ese he

mir reogntions ht hve beome tite tough epetition

hks o ou hbits of perepton In ode to sthings, we must

s of l ook t them s they hd no mening s they wee

rddle.

I ddes e und in the most dverse ultues-perhps n l

uures1 The possbliy h Mus Aurelius dew inspion

om popur gene suh s the ddle ords with heshed

vew of ne th u eltion is oen und beeen lened

utue nd popur ulue. Ths knd of ruit s so nvolved,

wy tht believe hs not previousy been noted,n the sngulte tht befe Mus Aureluss eletons e he uhos

deh To mke hs pont lerl I shl hve to mke onsdebe

deoun oder to show ow Tolsoy ed Mrus Aueius. We shl

see th he und n he Romn wres thoughts the onmon

of n tude uied eie in hs ineetl nd mo deveop

men, whih s why they eted him so deepl



Macus Aueus's eecons wee nown o exis in lae aniq

u because hey ae eeed o and quoed n wings by vaious

leaned Gees and Byzanines. The ex has coe down o us by

MA 1T STRAE way o us o oe o ess copee anuscps. One o hese,

he eh a on which he edto pncepwas based, is now os. This scac oe Dee anuscps undoubedly e ecs he unusual naue o Macus

Aueuss wos, wien as hese wee as a seies o scaeed e ec

ions, vvidly phased, leeng and agena 3 Soe yeas be e

he edto pncepappeaed (n 155)howeve, he ie and ees o

Macus Auelius becae la o he leaned public o Euope n

he o a cious aves Tis e was he wo o a Fan

cscan a, noio de Guevaa, bshop o Mondoedo and coupeache o Chaes Guevaa's wo was pubshed n Valadolid,

n 59,and boe he ile Lbro de emperador Marco ureo con reox de

pncpe ( The Boo o he Epeo Macus Aueius, wh he Dia

o nces) n he pece o he s pnig, Guevaa caed ha

he had bough bac o Foence a Gee anuscp by Macs

Aueus and ha soe o his iends had subsequenly ansaed

h The boo Guevaa caed o have anslaed, howeve,boe no elaion o he ex o Macus Aueuss e ecions, wch

was s o appea in pn soe y yeas lae. Guevaa xes a

odcu o isoy wih a deal o iagnaion,nvenng ees by

Macus Aueus, dalogues beeen im and his wie,and so h.

This adxe enjoyed a eaable success Oen nown as he

Goden Book of Marcu ureu i was ansaed ino any lan

guages, aong he Aenian (Vece, 73,and wen on beng

epned decades In 64, he Engsh piloogis Mec

Casaubon eaed dsdainu i he noducon o s own edi

on o Macus Aueuss e econs, ha he success o Guevaas

gey could be copaed oy o ha en joyed by he Bbe.14 How

eve Guevaas epuaon was aleady se on a swi downwad

couse Bayles cung eny n he Dctonnare toque et ctque

poays has a ge.15 Oy a vey sa pa o Guevaas boo

was desined o suvive. Ths is a eech s upposely addessed o

Macus Aueus and he Roan Senae by one Milenus, a peasan

o he Danube egon. Moe han a ceny lae, hese pages

wee o nspe a ous poe by La Fonane, Le paysan du

Danbe. A be excep o his speech s enouo show ha i

s an eoquen denuncaon o Roan peais



o greedy hae you beer the goods o others,ad so great has

bee your arrogace i seekig to rue oer reig ads, that

the sea with al ts deeps has ot suced you ad the ad wth its

broad elds has ot satised you r you Romas pay o heed MAN SAN

to others, except to trouble peace k ad rob the uits o he Pehto of aother peopes to.16 Ltea Dee

To a sxteethcetury reader such as Vasco de Quroga, we ow

t woud hae beecear that the true target o ts speech was the

paish couest o the New World. The Goden Book of Marcu

ureiu ca be read as a eghy sermo addressed to Emperor

Charles V by the court preacher too de Gueara i order tomake some sharp crtcsms o the paish couest ad its horrors.

hs apples especialy to the group o chapters that became l

ar court crcles,bere their cusothe book,as the separate

work titled Te eaant of te Danube.7 Mileus's speech made a

power cotrbutioto the myth o the obe saage,gg t cur

recy across Europe:

I you say that we desere to be saes, because we hae o

rices to commad us, or eators to goerus, or army to

ded us, the I epy that as we hae o eees we hae o

eed o aarmy; ad as each o us was happy wth his ot, we

eeded o proud eators to goerus, ad beg a eual we

were uwig to hae ay rices amog us, whose oce is to

put dowtyrats ad to presere the people peace. I you sathat iour ad we hae either a Repubic or a cil order, ad

that we e ike brute beasts the moutas, you are wrog

both pots, r we alow to lie iour coutry either iars, ot

dsturbers o the peace,or mewho mght brig to us om r

eigparts such thigs as ght corrupt us or eeebe us as

much as ust as our dress was decet, so too our diet was pai 1

Ths dylic descripto, it has og bee recoged, was argely

isped by the Germaniao Tacitus The attack othe msdeeds o

Romaperiaism also draws oa we owpassage Tacitus,

the power speech the grcoa whch the Caedoia che

Calgacus accuses the Romas o makg a desert ad calig it

peace atque ubi oitudinem faciunt pacem appeant) . Cagacus s



MA SAN

he Pehty of aLteay Dee

no more han a name however whereas Menus he peasant o the

Danube s a thorougy concree ndvdua. Ts s how Antonio de

Guevara descrbes hm

Tis peasan was smaeaured but largepped hs eyes weredeepse s coor was sere hs hair brsled up he was bare

headed and wore shoes o porcupines de and carred a

goaskn bag s bet was made o seaweed hs beard was ong

and tc s eyeashes covered his eyes is breas and his neck

were as hairy as bearskn and s hand he bore a spear9

Marcus Aureus (n other words Guevara) comments When Isaw im ener he Senate I hough he was some anmal n human

rm" Who hough s ts peasant bod enough to denounce he

crimes o the Roman emperor A premary dra o Guevaras

ext never prnted portrays the Danube peasan as beardless and t

has been thought ha tis detail marks hm out as a Nave Amer

can.20 However s monstrous anmallke physognomy also sug

gess a dierent orign e s a cose reaive o he peasant Marcol-phus or Marco or Morol who n the mous medeval text speaks

so body o Kng Solomon

Marcolphus was a smallbut man bu a heght; he had a

large head a broad rehead ruddy and wrnked s ears were

hairy and hung halay down s aws he had large squntng

eyes hs lower p hung down lke a horse's is beard was thyand adorned wh hideous thck hairs lke a goats s hands were

shor and wth shor thck ngers s ee were round and

swoen hs nose was ck and crooked his ips bg and thck he

had he aspec o an ass and s hair was ke a hegoats Hs shoes

were o the most rusc son and hs esh was spoted wth

dvers stans and heay wth mud and mire.

A tny deail conrms that these two texs are cosely con-

nected Guevaras odd reerence to shoes o porcupnes hide

zapato de un cuero de puerco epn" in he Spansh) s due o s

having absentmindedly run ogeher wo phrases n the an ver

sion o the Diaoe of Soomon and Marcopu, where Marcol

phuss shoes are menioned mmedately aer a comparison



bwn his hair and h quis of a porcupin capio euti pin-

ue eciorum caciamenta pedum Guvaras vild criicism of

Spanish policy n h Nw World was hus basd on a curious mx

uron Tacius bu also on wha h lhcnury hsorian MAKN T SNG

Wiam of Tyr had cad bulous popular narravs soris Pehsoy of

in which Marcolphus "alrnaly solvd h rddls which Ley Dee

Solomon s hm and s nw ons of his own.23 Boh radions,

classical and mdival, could b drawn on r h purpos of d

ng h sablishd powrs.

Th popularzng radiion of h Middl Ags dpicd h kng

as chalngd by a pasan whos grosqu physcal apparanc

wn along wh an unpcd sharpnss and wisdom In h mosmous rworking of h Diaoue of Soomon and Marcopu, Giulo

Csar Crocs Sottiiime atuzie di Bertodo Kng bonus proudy

xclams "S how many Lords and Barons sand abou m o oby

m and do m honor Broldo promply rplis: "Jus as big ans

sand abou a rowanr and gnaw away a s bark.2 mal sm-

ls of s kind rss a ndncy o mak of h kng's

auhoria hm of whch Bahn gvs a pround analyss n hs gra work on h popular culr of h Rnaissanc.25 From a

subcv pon of vi h innocnc of h animal srips h vl

om h ddn a of socal laons as n h cas o Tolsoy's

sory of h hors Kholsomr, wch Sklovsk anayzd Th

Danub pasan, an amal n human rm, undos h prnss

of Roman (and Spanish mprial idolog comparng h conqur

ng powrs o brigands who rob and k nocn popls Marcus

Aurus (h hisorcal arcus Aurus) who was h mos powr

l man n h world had rachd a smilar conclusion ar consid-

rng himsf in h gh of a srs of blng and dgradng par

alls:

A spidr is proud whn h raps a l a man whn h snars a lv

r anohr whn h ns a spra, anohr boars, anohr bars,

anohr Sarmaian prisonrs If you s hir snmns ar

hy no bandis? .26

. Guvara was probably no lng h ruh whn h clamd o

hav had accss o a ranslaon of Marcus Aurluss rcions

Nonhlss h undably succdd, in h rgry ha h co



ped apurig a eho of he meahoy oe Marus

ureiuss he upubished ex. I do o ed by his o aim

2 ha Gueara a be eumeraed amog he preursors of ierary

MAKN SAN demiarzaio Whe he Daube peasa oudes his speeh

The Peho of a by aoug ha empire is ohg bu robber" his s pretea Dee seed as somehig eide i does o emerge ou of a

aeede mome of opay or msudersadg. Howeer

Guearas ex ef a debe mark o he subseque deeop

me of demarizao as a iera ehique Eer se is pub-

iao he saage he peasa ad he aima ogeher or sig

hae oered a iepo om whh s possibe o ur upo so-

e a disaed esraged ad riia gazeI sha ie jus a few exampes begig wh a mous ex by

Moage. Moage udoubedy kew Guearas Marcu ure

u sie i was amog hs hers ore books2 his essay

O he Cabas Moage wries wh ireduous amaze

me abou he aes od of he aes of Brazi whose peae

ad oe ife seemed o eoke he assia myhs of he

gode age. The essays ousio howeer reurs he reader

abrupy o Europe ere Moaige es he sory of hree

Braza aes brough o Frae. sked wha had mos

su hem hee hey meioed wo higs is of a he

were amazed o see grow me arms (he Swiss guards) obey-

g he orders of a hid (he kig of Frae sead of hoosig

a proper eader Seodhere Moaige expas ha hey use

a diom by whh me are aed he haes" of oe aoher

hey had

oied ha here were me amog us fuy boaed wih a sors

of omrs we heir haes were beggg a her doors ema

iaed wh poer ad huger hey ud odd ha hose des-

iue haes shoud pu up wih suh usie ad dd o ak

hem by he hroa or se e o heir houses.28

The Brazia aes iapabe of pereg he obous had

see somehg ormay oeaed by hab ad oeo. Mo

aige deighed i s abi o ake reay r graed e was

ready o quesio msef abou eeryhg om he udaos of

our soa fe o he smaes deais of day exsee. The surprse



f e naves f azl swed e dsance a Eurean scie

maked as i was by liical and ecnmc nequalt ad aveled

m wa Mnagne caled naet ornelle rigna nave)29 13

Na natis" Mnagnes ve f s em, and is crresn MANG T STANGE

ding disgus w e aical, akes us e ear f e nin f he ehso of ademliarzan. T undersand ess, be ngenuus, reman Leay Dee

sueed: ese ae reacns a may ead us see me, and

ake accun f wa lies deee, wa s cse nae

Te Fenc mass f e seveneen century ansrmed

e essa as i ad been deveed by Mnaigne, in ndeenden

and seaae agmens asms One f ese agmens,incuded in e 689 edn f a uyres Caractres llusaes

w e crrsve wer f demazain was emegng

A numbe f wd anmals ae be seen, b mae and femae,

scaered ver e cun Tey are blackened, livd, al buned

by e sun, and xed e ea, wic ey ummage and wk

away a w nvincibe bsinacy: ey ave, as i wee, arcuae vices, and wen ey sand u n er fee ey ave uman

ces, and ndeed ey are uman bengs ey ee a ng n

dens wee ey live un back bead, wae and s ey

sare er men e ab f swing lugng, and avesing

in rder live, and us ey deseve n g sr f e bead

a ey ave swn3

Tis assage s exrardinary b is cnen, wc dears

makedy m La uyes usual su r e dminan idel-

g and n e way s cnsuced. inial msundersandng a

number f wld aimals) is lwed by an bsevain a cn-

adcs s, and a as a ne f erlext: ey ave, as i were,

aricuae vces. Ten cmes a sudden engenmen, like e

mmen n wc a rddle is slved: wen ey sand u n eifee ey ave uman ces, and indeed-n ey ae uman

bengs

Te eressin ndeed inrduces a ctal descin ey

eie a ng n dens, and s , wc leads in e iric

bservain us ey deseve n g s f e bead a ey

ave swn Te aaen scal and mal equ f is cncusn



is ipicity denounced as hpocis given what has been said ea

ie They" deseve to suvive and no oe than that They" ae

14 neve naed

MAKN STA In the eaie exapes analyzed hee, those copaed with ai

The Pehso of a als wee peope at the top of the huan social scale. ee, thee isLtea Dee a siila copaison, but with efeence to those at the botto, and

with equay degading iplications The eade ight have

expected a diect aation: peasants live ke anials" o peas

ants live n ihuan conditions." La Buye chooses athe to put

a nube of obstacles n ou way the initial isundestandng the

unnaed subject the ionic conclusion. The eade is dawn nto a

cogve stuggle that tanss the ipicit concusion into aknd of ewad The eect is incopaably oe powel, n both

atistic and hetoical tes.

4. In 65 Votaie witing unde the easly ecogzabe pseudo

ny of abb Bazn" published a shot iloy of Hito. It

incuded a chapte titled Des sauvages" Of savages), wich began

with a lengthy hetoical question

By the te savages do you undestand peasants living n

huts with thei woen and a few aials exposed at all tes to

the igos of the season, knowng nothing beyond the land on

wich they ive and the aketplace to which they occasionally

tave to se thei poduce and buy ude gaents speaking a

jagon neve head n towns shot of ideas and consequently ofexpessions in subection without nowing why, to soe ack n

oce, to who they ust give each yea half what they have

poduced in the sweat of thei bows gatheing togethe on ce-

tain established days in a banlike buding to celebate cee-

onies of wich they undestand noting and to isten to a an

dessed in clothes uike theis, saying wods that ean notig

to the soeties leaving thei cottages at the sound of thedu and undetakng to go and get theselves klled n a

eign and, and to kll people le theselves, a quate of

what they could ean by staying at hoe and woking

Tis splendid passage was cleay ispied by the agent by La

Buye that I have just anayzed. In both cases, the peipastic sle



sets p a ogitive tesio the reader as the spisgy trange

feates of a mliar ot ae gadaly eveaed Thee is, how

eve, a dieree. La Bye does ot ame the o jet of his dis

orseVoltaie,i a stoke of geis, egs y givg it a mstake MAKN SAN

ame, ad the gadaly reveas tis to e the ight ame Hee is he Pehitoy of a

how Voltaie repes to his ow rhetoria qestio: e Dee

Savages ike this a e d evey whee Erope. Let s e

qite ea that the peope of Caada ad the Kas, whom we

are pleased to term savages, are iitely speior to o ow.

The Hro, the Algoq, the I ois, the Kar ad the Hot

tetot ow how to make themseves everytg that theyeed we o peasats lak that at. The peopes of Ameia

ad ia are ee, we or savages do ot eve have the idea of

eedom.

The savages as they are aled) of Ameia ..ow hoor,of

wih o Eropea savages have ever heard a word. They have

a thelad tha they ove ad w defed; they make treaties;

they ght rave ad oe speak with heroi eeg31

The Jesits alled the elds of Erope-the theater of their mis

sioary eterpise-the Idies de por ac: the Idies ts

wod.3 It is wel ow that the esits had a makedy ope

mided attitde towad xtaEropea tres Voltare had had

a Jesit edatio; whe he idet es the ea savages as those who

ihait or otiet, he ehoes the attitde of his masters, pshg it to the pot of paradox.33 He looks at the lives of Eropea

peasats om a i ite distae,like the giat om the sta Syis

who is oe of the protagosts of his tae Mcromega His ite

tioay opaqe ad astoished gaze tras ms taxes war, the

Mass ito so may seseless pe maes, asrd ad lakg

legitima

5 a hapte of Te Teory of roetited The Strte of Fi

tio, Sovsky retrs to the otio of de miazatio,emark

g tat Tostoy had pesmaly eoteed it i " Freh itera

te, pehaps i Voltaies Hro amed ' Ig, or perhaps

i the desriptio of th Freh ot made y Chateaiads

Savage 3 The texts I have ited the ose of this digressio



beong to a onger tradition and one wich Tostoy greaty

admired.3 Tostoys work recas n particuar the chapter Des

16 sauvages taken om the iosopy of History wich Votare had

MAN rT AN origi nay dedicated to Catherine I, empress of Russia and subse

The ehto of a ueny repubished as the ntroduction "Discours priminare) toLea Dee the Esa su es moeus36 Wen the horse Kostomer denounces the

aimake ways of human bengs we seem to hear an echo of

Votares denunciation of European peasants as the rea savages

Shkovs's genera reference to French iterature as providing

precedents r Tostoyan demiarizaion needs to be made more

specc; it is the iterature of the FrenchEngtenment and rst of a

Votaire, that we must note.37 Above a, a purey rmastic assessment cannot grasp what Tostoy earned om Votaire, namey the

use of demiiarizaton as a deegtmzing device at every eve

potica soca, reigious Votare had wrtten of peasants "gather

ng together on certain estabshed days i a barnke buidng to

ceebrate ceremoes of which they understand notng and to is

ten to a man dressed n cothes unke theirs saying words that mean

notng to them. Tostoy deveoped this passage when he came to write about the Mass n Resurection in a passage that the Russian

Syod took as proof of the author's basphemous attitude, expeng

m om the Orthodox Church

The service began

t consisted of the owng The priest, havng dressed him

sef up in a strange and very nconveient garb of god coth, cutand arranged tte bits of bread on a saucer and then put them

nto a cup of wne repeatng at the same time dierent names

and prayers.38

His eary mersion n the tradition of the Eightenment deepy

iuenced the way Tostoy ater came to read Marcus Aureus Ths

doube inuence eais why Tostoy never used demarizationmerey as a terary techue For hm it was a means as Marcus

Aures had written) r "gong to the heart of actua cts and pen

etratg them so as to see what knd of thngs they reay are, a way

to uncover their nakedness see ito the cheapness, strip o the

prosion on wch they vaunt themseves. For Marcus Aureus

and euay r Tosto to see things as they reay are meant to



ee oesel om lse deas ad images; meat the last aayss

to aept tasee ad death A eveaig aedote s told y oe

o Tolstoy's daughtes lexada vova. Oe da she told a old 17

peasat woma who used to help he i the house that she was a MAN r SAN

ad humo. I you ead Maus Aueius" the old woma epled he Pehry f aa you sadess would disappea." Who s this Maus Aueus?" Ley Dee

asked exada Lvova ad why shoud I ead im" To e sue

the Cot gave me is ook" explaed the od woma. It s wt

te thee that we shal al die d death es ee us the al ou

soows ae othg. Just thk o death ad you heat w gow

lghte Wheeve some ge toules me I say Come o oys

ead Maus Auelius to me!'39Ths stoy deghted Tosto No dout t omed s deep

ovto that peasats eause o the dstae om mode

e ad ts ate wee ose to the tuth Motage (aothe

wte whom Tostoy geaty admed ased hs atttude towad

the atves o Bazl o sma gouds. Thee was othg pate-

alst aout Tostoys populsm: he saw the old peasat woma

as peetly apale o udestadg Maus Aueus. I ths he was poaly ghtpaty eause some o Maus Aueus's

eetos dew spato om the popua lteay m o the

dde

II

r At ths pot the e mght seem to e losed. oweve theeostuto I have oeed so s ompete As I oted

Shkovss hapte t as Deve" makes o meto o Mael

Poust. Poust though does develop a athe dieet oto o

demaizato aayzg t exptly (though de aothe

ame ad la recerce du temp perdu ts plays a mpotat

ad agaly a ua ole

The aatos muhloved gadmothe s amog the mostmpotat haates l'ombre de jeune lle en eur, the seod

ove the sequee Evey eade o Poust wl ememe that

she has a passo the lettes o Madame de Svg

But my gadmothe . had taught me to adme the tue

eautes . Bee log I was to e st moe ly stuk y



18

MAN STANE

he Pehst f aLtea Dece

hem sne Madame de Svgn belongs o he same aisi m

ly as a pane Els whom I was o mee a Balbe and who was

o have suh a deep nuene on he way I saw ings I ealized

a Balbe ha she, ke him had a way of pesening hings n he

ode of ou peepion of hem, ahe han explaining hem byhe ause. Bu aleady ha aenoon, n ha aage, as I ead

agan ha ee whee he moogh appeas ould no

ess he empaon, I pu on al my unneessay aps and ak-

es I wen ou no ha aley whee he a was as genle as he a

n my oom I ame aoss a housand hmeas wite monk and

black monk linen town ee and tee men bued upgt againt

teetunk, and so on"I was deighed by wha I would havealed, a ile ae he Dosoevskyan sde of he Lette o

Madame de Sign ( does she no depi landsapes n jus he

same way as he deps haaes?) 0

Madame de Svign Elsi Dosoesv wha do hey have n

ommon? Ths queson omes o he sue impy o expli

n u deen passages n la ecece passages ha (uless I ammsaken) have no been analyzed ogehe.4 n he s, whh I

have jus quoed Madame de Svign is pased beause she [pes-

ens] ngs in he ode of ou peepon of hem, ahe han

eaning hem by he ause." This a one bngs o mnd he def-

non of Tosoys otanienie ha Sklovs had given a few yeas

ae he pubiaion of Du ct de cez Swann: desibng hings as f

one wee seeng hem he s me 42 Close analysis, howeve,shows ha Pous poeeds somewha deenl

have sough o demonsae ha he ineleua adiion

bend Tolsoys wok an be ideay onneed wh Maus Aue

uss ques ue ausa pinipes as an anidoe o lse mages

Thus o desbe peasans as f hey wee animas o savages as La

Buye and Voae espeivey dd s no so deen om seeng

hoe dshes as f hey wee o use Maus Aueus's wods) hedead body of a sh . he dead body of a bd o a pig." De

aizaion, n hs adon s he means by whh we oveome

appeaanes and aive a a deepe undesandng of eai Pous

seems in some ways o have he opposie end viewo be ying

o peseve he eshness of appeaanes agains he inuson of

deas by pesenng hings n he ode of peepion" and si



unnmned by us epnns. Tsyn demlz

n n be exempled by L Buye's un f he pesns;

Pusn demlzn by Mdme de Sgn's lee bu

e mng, wen few yes ee In bh ses ee s n MANG AN

emp pesen gs s f hey wee beng seen he s e re ame. The esuls, hwee, e que deen: n he s se, erar ee

sl nd m que nd n e send n mpesss

mmed

Suh nlusn wud seem be supped by he send f

he pssges I nend exmne n wh Pus ges ey

deed despn f Els' s pnngs Els s usuy egded s

knd f del p, efeng smulneusly us ss wh ped wee lse mpessnsm: Mne be l, pe

hps Mne, nd een Degs43 Hee, Pus mply hs gh

n he pe wh Mdme de Sgn he pssge ed be

d suggesed

Nw Ess ques shw hngs n s he new hey wee, bu

n dne wh he p usns h deene w wes see em d ndeed led m en f ese

ws f pespee w wee e me skng me

beuse ws wh s eeed hem A e, beuse f

bend n s use, by, beuse f he wy he s ppeed

dw se gehe, wud seem hw u, n he mds

f he pn he munns ke mpeely sed n a

sdes In pnng f Blbe mde n summe d sehne shu beween wls f pnk ge seemed n be p

f e se w begn e wy The nnu f he

en ws suggesed y by sme gls, heng be w

lked he ewe e sne bu ly behng he dmp

ness f he wes.4

Ths, el s n expemen n he dn f ekpi gngbk nqu n wh wes he mde exemely ebe

emps pdue ebl nspns f nnesen bu pu

sbe pues. Pus's wng ls hs hee mpn,

ee wh Mue MeeuPn dew u mny yes e

n hs essy n Cznne.5 Es P us es us, es sw ngs

"n s he new ey wee nd tl s emk s nked s usu



j

tendeny o pay down he imporane of he ntegene and to

nss on he pimay of ied experene as agains peonstitted

2 rmlae, igid habt, and nowedge"46

MANG SANG odern rban ng bings with it a hge nensation of sen

he Pehto of sory ife, and his phenomenon was a entra onern of he eee Dee mentalsm of the tentethenty lieary and atsi aan

garde.47 It was aso, as has oen been stressed, the ase of a qa-

ae mpoerishmen of o eerene. Tis proess by whih

thngs are rendered atomat was depoed by Slos and pro-

des he storal ontex r his appaenty teless denion of

at as demilarzaton. A few yeas earer, Pros, whose pon of

ew was sma, hogh independenty arred a, had sggestedthat he tas of new artisi expermens was to resist and oner-

at preonstted mae of epresentation.

Post dd no see sh eermens as oed to he doman of

pang Three noes and hndeds of pages ae s srpisng ef-

erene o he Dostoeskan sde of adame de Sign, Prost

makes lear what he means. The naraor eains o berne that

adame de Sgn, e Estr, e Dostoes nstead of pre

senng thngs n ogal ode, that is o sa by satng wth the

ase, shows s s the ee, he son wh stres s Ths

s how Dostoesy presens hs haaters. Their aions seem as

deepe to s as hose eets of Estrs n whh he sea appears

to be p n the s8

Post, of ose, s anoher who presens s harates n hs

way. We h mmedatey of one of hs most extraordina e

aons, Baon de hals o a long tme the reader s ononed

wh harlss inompehensibe wods and aons wtho beng

oeed any le (let aone any asal elanaon) that mgh thow

igh on hs demeanor. In a sense, howeer, the narator hmsef

las any sh le he, e s, sies o dephe harswho s,ike a hman beings, a mysteros enttyon he bass of wha he

nows (and does no now) abo him I has oen been ponted ot

hat he haraer who says n la ecece both is and s no

arel Prost.49 Sometimes t s eity sggesed tha these two

oes may be dented wth one another, as n the dobe asion

to he Dosoesan sde of adame de Sgn, made rst in the



netra voie o the narrator and then as a omment oered by the

I" n a onversation wh Aberine. Ts knd o idenaion is

de epve however By pttng imse as a haraer into his own 1

n ove Pros sggests thatike he omnsen God o whom MA 1T STAG

m os nneteenthenry novests an be omparedhe ike s s he Pehso of ain he dark regardng the hidden moves o s own haraers tea Dee

Here s he major derene beween neeenhenr Tostoyan

demiarzaion and ts twentiethenry Prosian anaoge.

Prosts soton whih endows the narratve voie wh a eran

ambgy may be regarded as a strtra deveopment o the

sraegy sed by Dosoevsky in Te Del a story tod by a shadowy

harater inapabe o y graspng its meaing ndeed here arestrong sartes between the way Savrogin (the prinpa hara

er n Te Del) s presened o the reader and the way Chars s

presented we enonter a series o onraditory agmens whh

m ake p a pzze a ridde

Wh hoghit may be askedshod a hs be o nterest

to historians o hose whose shoary researh brngs them to gripswth arhiva evidene ega ontrats and he ke? Why shod

they wase their tme on demiarzaton and other sh onepts

deveoped by terary theorsts?

One answer o ths eston may perhaps be sggesed by a pas

sage taken om Le temp retrou, the nove hat ondes la

recerce The narrator s ang abot s end Robert de Sant

Lop reeny ked n he Grea War Speakng to hs wdoGberte he says

I beeve he was begnnng to appreiae one side o war I said to

her whh s that war is hmanwe ive hrogh ke ove or

hae we mgh te its sory ike a noveand ha it ows tha

someone goes abo saying tha sraegy s a sene hs w

n no way hep hm o ndersand war r war s not sraegT he enemy no more nows or pans han we now the ends

prsed by the woman we ove Perhaps we orseves do not

now or pans In heir oensive o Marh 118 dd the Ger

mans intend o take Amens? We now nothng o heir inen

tions Perhaps hey dd no now themseves perhaps their

ame to be deermned by the way hings wen by the hat



MA SAE

he Pehsoy of Ley Dece

they hd mde groud westrd towrd Amies If we were to

suppose tht wr s scetc we would stl hve to pt t s

Estr pted the se i reverse d to beg om lusios

beefs whch re gr duly rectied s Dostoevs would

recout i.0

Oce g Proust ssocites Elstr wth Dostoevsk s wel s

mpcity-by wy of her Dostoevsky sde" -wth Mdme de

Svig. Here however Proust s cosderig hum motvtos,

d so ddg ew dimeso to the usul opposto betee

medite impressos d cust As his ttetio shis om

ptigs d oves to the best wy of lyzg gret istoricevet Proust revels the epstemoogc mplictios of the obser

vtios we hve bee exmig up til o

We c we mgie how ethussticly the uthor of Wa and

eace woud hve welcomed Proust's vigorously expressed rejeco

of try strtegy isor s the tter embodies the bsurd ide

tht hum existece c be resee tht wr, love hte d rt

c be pproched o the bss of redymde prescrptios; tht toow mes ot to grsp hod of rety but to impose scheme

upo t. Proust hs Tolstoy sde" eressed by the word naturel,

tur of whch the rrtors grdmother s especiy d

word whose impctios re t oce mor d esthetc. But he

hs lso Dostoevsk side'' coected with the wy he presets

his chrcters through seres of correctos d djustmets d

so wth the sctio tht crme held r him 1To expore ths lst pot would tke me r om my preset

pth. I prefer to ed with reectio more pertet to my ow

trde It seems to me tht demirztio my be use t

dote to the risk we ru of tkg relit (ourseves icuded) r

grted. The tipostvist mpctios of ths remrk re obvious

I stressg the cogtve mplictios of demirztio how

ever so wt to tke the rmest possibe std gist thoseshoble theores tht blur the boudries betwee ctio d

hstory wth the m of mkg the two idstigishble Proust

himsef woud hve rejected ths cosio W he he sid tht wr

mght be rrted lke ovel he certy hd o teto of

prsg the hstorcl ovel o the cotrry he wted to suggest

tht historis ike ovelsts (or piters) come together pur



sui o a ogiiv goa I agr iry wh ths po o vi To

hararz th historiographial pro o whh I s mys as

otribig I woud s a phrasslghtly ardtha I hav 23

s quod om Prous w wr to suppos hat hstory is s MA AGE

t w woud hav o pa it as Estr paitd th sa i The ehto of r e v er se." Lty Dece



MythDSTNCE ND DCI

Contnut o words does no necessarly mean connu o

meangs What we cal "posophy s st despte every

hng he "posophy o he Geeks whereas ou "eco-

nomcs and "econom both he dscpne and ts object

have e or nothg n coon wth what e Greeks

mean by he em. We oen speak o "myh genera

and speccay: "he myths o he new generaon "the

myths o the peopes o he Amazon. We have no hesta

on n applyg the em "myth to phenomena vey dsan

om each oer n bo space and me. Is ts a maesta

ion o ethnocenc arogance?

Ths queson has been more o ess expcly posed n

e course o an ntensve dscusson o Geek myhs and

he Greek dea o myth wo conected but not dentcal

hemes) that began some twent years ago1 Doubts have

ben rased as to whehe t s possble to den a specc

class o naatves hat can be caled myths It has been



aged that myths dd t exist; what existed was mythg a

aggessive dscse caied t the ame eas ad aimed a

a ldeed tadiial wledge e this cclsi is t say

MH the least pe debate it des have e meit tha i bigs s

ne n ece back t the cdeai f myh expessed by Pa It is wthexamig his ce aga

I

r he secd bk he Republic, Pla descibes the edca

i that shld be pvided he gadias he state This

cmpises "tw baches the ctivai the mid ad thebd ame msic ad gymasics Bt msic is accmpaed by

sties [logou]," wch may be "e "ctitis Fasehd is

be extipated m ealiest ac The myhs mytou)

ected t clde "take as a whle ae ci thgh hey

ctai sme h It is theee ptat t spevise thse

wh make bles ad legeds epitateteon toi mytopoioi); sme

these may be appved as accepable bt thse that ae satisct y mst be eeced (76c7d) The Pla pbaids Hesid

Hme ad the the pes i simia tems hey have "cmpsed

citis ales [mytou peudei ad tld them makid By

atibtig imma actis t he gds he pes have ecaged

the atieligis sacasm f Xephaes Plat eects he epe

seai sch acis becase they ae icmpatible wih he

idea f diviity membe he cmmwealh shd be "sffeed t speak the dive which is gd beig espsible

e v (9) Ths ccise ciicism f lse myths ces Plats c

deai pesThey ca be alwed pactice i the idea

sate

Plat des t cdem myhs as sch he did he cld t

expess the wish that a deet kd myh ped ad ppely

ceced gh becme cet He cdes myths s asthey ae seeve if (as he bseves) they have sme tth

hemI he Timaeu sace he Egpia pies es Sl

ha he sty f Phah "is a mytica vesi the tth touto

mytou men kema ekon legetai to dalete eti that the mve

mes f the heavey bdes peidicay ccas desci

(22c22d) I geeal hweve the distici bewee fase ad



rue eeents wi n a yt s anyt ng but sipe as we see n a

ous passage in t e aedru 229c 2a

P aedrus and Socates are walking near At ens. " Te e, 7

Socrates, says P aedrus, "wasn't it o soew ee jus ee a MTH

is sad egeta] at oeas sezed Oret ua o t e Ilissus? So tne n eets sad, agees Socates; t s aso said, e entions a tle ater, ha

s e was sezed o t e Areopags "r t s account ogos gven

too P aedus reaks a t e pue and clea wates of t e srea

woud be " just rig t young grs to play beside. Socrates en

pons ou t at t ee s an atar to oeas no awa ve no ealy

notced t, replies P aedrus T en e asks Socraes: "Do you ealy

beieve s y mytoogema]to be tue aete"P aedrus uses t e ters ogo and mytoogema" (ranslated

ee as "account and "yt ,espectivey as ey wee equiva

lent. Even oug t refe s o a particular insance, t e queston e

poses beas on t e poble broac ed n t e second book of t e

Repuc: e rut of yt s Socrates epy 229c 229e alost a

once aises e discusson to a ore geneal eve

If I dsbe ieved ke e expers, I would not be exraordnay; I

ig t t en cevely say t a a bast of oeas pus ed er down

the neaby rocks w e s e was playng wi P aracea, and

t a w en s e e er deat n tis way s e was said o ave been

seized by oreas-o ese o t e reopags;r tis ac ount s

given toot at it was o ere and no o ere t at s e was

sezed u, P aedrus w e I tink suc explanaions atractivein o e respects, t ey belong in y vew o an overcever and

aboious person w o s not atoget er nae just because

ae a e us set e s ape of e Centaus o rg ts and

agan at of t e Ciaera, and a ob of suc tngs- orgons

and Pegasuses-and strange ordes of ot e ntracable and por

tentous creares lock n on ; f soeone is scepica abou

t ese, and ies o reduce eac o w a s kel wt is booris kind of e erise, el need a good dea of eisure 5

Socates s uninteested n nerpreatons of is kind: " I a

not ye capabe, n accordance wt e Dep ic inscrpion, of

knowng ysef';i t eree sees absurd to e at w ile I a

stl ignorant of s sub ec s ould inque nto things wc do



not belong to me. In matters le ths, he says, he wll go along

with what is generaly believed to nomzomeno) or, as we would

8 say today, wth tradton

MYTH Here we have a very cear resal to nterpret myths by reducng

tne an et em, as the Sophsts proposed they should be reduced, to a seres onatua and eveyday ccumstances When Phaedrus asks im

whether the myth o Boreas and Orethua s true" Socrates repies

that the laborious" elanaton o the alegory can at the best lead

us to a probable concuson kata to eko) owever, even ths degree

o probabty s hard to attan when we come to nterpret the Cen

taurs, e Cmaera and the mob o Gorgons and Pegasuses" By

sting these one aer another, Socrates emphaszes hs own ironicand almost dsdanu istance: they are worth as ltte as each other.

Socrates has by now dsmssed the narratve ogo? mytologema?) that

turns upon the abduction o Oreithuia by Boreas and oers some

thoughts about the sphere to wch ths tae beongs. His words te

us that centaurs, gorgons, and so rth are eected ngredients in

stores o ts knd What such gures have common is their

hybrid character ther beng simultaneously human and anmalke,or else derved om the combaton o varous aa species.

Amost ur centries ater, Dionysus o Haicarnassus dened n

these hybrd gures the mythc eement mytode) om wch

Thucydides 22. proudy decared that he had eed msel

Thucydides . claimed that he was to be dstingshed om

those istorans who preceded hm . because he had addednotg mythcal to meden mytode to his hstor and

because he dd not use his wrtngs to impose trcks and mpos

tures on the multtude, as al writers bere hm had done, when

they tod o certan Laas n the woods and groves who had

come up om the earth, and o amphibous Naads makg ther

way om Tartarus and swming trough the sea and whose

bodies are hawld yet they enter into relations with men, [ortod o haldvne progeny born o the couplngs o mortals and

gods, and other stores too, wch to us today seem unworthy o

credt and l o the greatest 6

2 To speak o a mytc element" to mytode), as do both

Thucyddes and Donysus o acarnassus aer hm, mplies that



one kes myh to e homogeneos ctegory (here negive

one s we hve seen Plos pproch ws derent. On one hnd,

he did not consstenly ssoce he erm mytho wth specc 29

ctegory of dscorse; on the other he soght o dstngish wht MH

ws tre om wht ws se wihin the es hnded down y r nce n ecedion (rst of l those told y the poets It ers repeing here

tht Pos trget ws not myh self myth insor s ws he

erer of lse sements

The exs of Pto ht we hve dscssed so r the second ook

of the Republic nd the Phaedru were in l proly composed

drng more or less he sme perod (. 390-385 Bc)8 However

Po returned to he eston of flse dscorse in the Sophit sprt of hs closely rged enggement wih the pilosophy of he

Eleic school In the rdcly most perspectve defended y Pr

meides nd hs ppils negtion implied nonexistence "Wht s

not, is not n the Sophit he visior om le, who speks r

Plo rets ths position drwing disncion eween sole

negton nd determinte negton etween "not eing nd not

eng somehing This rgument s rther deveoped towrd theend of the dilogue nd it is here tht the theme of lse discorse

s nrodced 59e-64

ELEAIC: We dscovered tht notbeing is one knd of eng

mong the res nd s disrited over the whole domn of

eng.

THEAETEUS We ddELEATC Then he nex estion is whether t cn comne

wihut nd dicoure.

EAEEUS: Why so?

E LE A I c If i wil not comne with them it lows y conse

ence th all i true f it w there s the possiilty ofale

jdgment nd ale dscorse In ct flsty s chrcter of

hoght or lnguge s precisey the thinking or aying o whati not.

THEAEEUS s so

The Eletic goes on o introdce nother dstincon h eween

vers remata) nd nmes or nons onomata). He ilstres tis s l

ows



30

MY

ne n e

Eleaic Now a continuous string of nouns by temselves wil

never constitute iscourse, nor yet a series of verbs without

accompanying nouns . . . Take, r instance, walks sleeps

an te rest of the verbs by wc actions are enote even f

ey are all enunciate, one aer another, tey are no nearer con-stitting a iscourse . An so, once more, one utters the

wors lion dee horse or any of the wors which enote the

agents perrmng actions, neter oes tat succession amount

to iscourse In neiter case o the vocables enote te action,

naction, or being of anythng that s or is not, unt verbs ave

been mngle wit nouns

It is oly (te Eleatic conclues) wen we take a minimaly

propositiona statement, such as "man earns which brings

together a verb an a noun, tat we can speak of true or false is-

course: the rmer rers to what s, the atter to what s not 1

In is treatise On ntereaion Aristoe reworks the concu-

sions reache in e Sophist First of a, he soens the istinconbetween verbs remata) an names onomata) "When uttere just by

itsef a verb is a name an sigies sometng . but it oes not yet

signi whether it is or not (16b.0 ) Secon, e observes that 'Not

man is not a name . . It is neier a prase nor a negation Let us

c t an inete name (onoma aorton (6a0). Te same goes r

verbs (even though Aistote gives no examples of inete verbs):

For a negation must always be true or se; but one wo says

"notmanwthout aing anytng elsehas no more sai

something true or fase (inee rather less so) tan one who says

"man. a.)

Te ponts mae here ha been ntrouce in the lowing pas

sage, om the begining of the treatse On Inerpreation (16a91)

Just as some thoughts n the sou are neiter true nor false wile

some are necessarly one or the oer so aso wit spoken souns.

For fsit an trut have to o with combnaton an separation

Thus names an verbs by temsevesr nstance man or

"wte when noing rer is aeare ke thoughts that are



with ut c mbna n and sepaat n s hey ae nethe

tue n se A sgn f this is tha even "g asag sg es s me

tng kai ga ho tageapho emainei men tibu n , as yet, any 3

tng ue se-uless "s "is n is added (eihe smpy MYTH

with efeence t ie) [he haplo he kata konon].1

ne n ee

a s hesis, mulated n the Sophit acc ding whch a

name ( example, "sag, elapho)aken n ts wn s nethe se

n ue, s taken up and stenghened by s e by way f he

nstance f the g astag tagelapho)a n nex sent animal13 hs

las chaacteistic, n nexistence, n m e han impici hee, s

epeatedy emphas ed elsewhee n is tle. In he Phyic( 28a.29), i s saed hat he g asag, ke he sp ,d es n

exis and is hus be und n whee In the Second Analytic

( 92b 8), we ead

H w can ne p ve he essence? Any ne wh n ws what "man

any the hing s must as kn w thati s; because n ne

ws whata n nex sen t g s ( He may kn w he meaningf a phase, f a name, f, eg I speak f a astag bu i s

mp ssible n w whata g astag s) 4

A few pages eaie ( 89b2), st e nt duces the same

agment n a d eent mae, by way f the quest n-whch he

may have aken m the S phiss- "whehe a cenau a g d

exiss. H weve, Aist e g es n, "the ques n f exsence efest simpe exsence, and t whethe he sub jec is (say) whe

n W hen we w that he subect exss, we ask wha i s eg

wha, hen, is a g d? a man?1

We have seen tha he Geeks, hybid ceaes wee c sey

ass ciated wh the naave gene ha came t be n wn as

m yhs. In he passages weve jus qu ted, he g astag, the cen

tau,and the spx have the stas f mee l gcal peat s,n hatthey ae (as we w ud pu it t day) enties with u efeentia

vaue .16 n he ng un h weve, hese w sands- gic and

e leci n up n myth-wee bec me inetwned

cenes, in the medieva Wes Aist tes wt gs n

gic wee accessibe ly by way f he tansa ns and c



mentaes of Boeths. These nlded his vesion of the teatse

erpretaon aompanied by a ommentay the late exiss

32 in wo exts, one longe than the ohe. When he omes to he

MY example of the goasag, Boethis annot onol hs enthsiasm.

ne n ece To demonsate tha a sngle name is neithe te no lse bymeans of a ompond name, and moeove one ha names a non

exsen being: s exampe, he exlaims s mos el,"

bease of s novely and exqsite sbtlety" (maximam ero im

habet exempli noita et exquiita ubtilita).7 Boeths then goes on

to omment on the satement hat we annot detemne whehe

anyhing is] te o lsenless s o is no s added (either

imply or with rerence to time)" (emphass added). Ths lae opposion is elated by Boehis to hat between statements aodng

to the sbsane" and saemens tha add somehing that may

sgn a eain pesene" raeentiam quandam iicet) . He on-

nes

Fo ndeed when we say God s" we do not say tha he s no

b athe ha he s n sbstane, so hat what we say efes tthe mmabilty of he sbstane ahe than to any paila

ime. Bt f we say tha s da we do not efe to any sbstane

of day bt athe o s onsiton n me o this s what we

mean when we say is," when we mean is now." . . Ths s

one elanaton Anothe s as ows. To be somehng" may

be sad two ways ethe absolely (impliciter) o aodng to

me. Absolely means aoding to the pesent tme, as whensomeone says the goatstag s" B what we al he pesent s

no a ime bt he dvision of imes the end of the past s the

begning of the e . . . Now thee ae as it has been sad)

wo mes, the past and he te. Whoeve speaks wth efe

ene to he pesen, speaks absolely; bt if he wee o speak of

the pas o he e, hs wods wold be aodg o tme.

Thee s also a d explanaton, whh is tha sometmes wemke se of tme so that we may speak ndetely f anyone

wee to sa The goastag s, he goastag was, and he goa-

stag wil be, then hs wold be said indenitely and absoley

(indenite et impliciter). B if he wee to add s now, was yes

eda" wl be tomoow, then to wha was sad absoltely he

wold be addng me.1 8



Boethus, hen stas by taking Arsoes epical expession

"eher simpy or wh reference to time and ntepeng t relave

to he ambguty by whch we may say "is in a tempora o an atem 33

pora sense.19 In his second elanaton h eliminates is ambiguit M

sayng that the present is may be dened wth the sphere of he te eeatempoal, and he past and the tre "was, "w be) wh he

sphere of the emporal. Then comes the tird explanation no jus

the presen bu aso the pas and he ure may be consdered

"ndeely and absouely indenite et simpliciter)" "the goasag

is, was wi be These three explanaons, among wich Boehus

decnes to choose,20 pogessvely emove al he empoa determi-

natons by which the veb "to be is subjec to he consdeaon"accodng to time The sphere of the atempoal, absolute, and

indeneas disclosed in Arstotle's demonsraion of he power of

the mere name simplicis nominis) meanwhie grows core-

spondngly boade The "goatsag, the exempar of an empty

categor ndeed shows sef to be a most poten ogca too. is

ke beng present a the inventon of zeo.

Boeus's commentaries on Arisotle have oen, and pehaps toosual been dsissed as lagely or completey unognal It s

nowadays genealy beieved that Boethius had access to a series of

gosses in Greek, oginatng perhaps n he school of Poclus, which

accompaed an edion of he Organon n his possesson.2 It seems

unkel howeve, that glosses of tis knd would have ncuded he

commentary quoted above. When he decaes ha there are oly

"two tmes, the pas and he tue, s certainly sounds ke a deant rephrasng of Sant Austines mous decaraton, n the

eleventh book of he Conssio tha there are "hree tmes, the pres

en of ngs past, the pesen of hings pesen, and he pesent of

ure ngs2 Agans he presen of Augusne, wch we igh

ca an existential presen, Boeus sets an aempoal and logica pes

en The same polemcal noe s sounded n varous keys elsewhere

n s woks God, he writes n s Quomodo Trnitas unus Deus awayss; but no n the sense tha he "always was always is, and always w

be r we mght say as much of the heavens and of ohe orta

bodies God "s, because he s n an etenal present, which des

om our own presen as the eernal ders om the sempternal

Although Boetus professes s ndebtedness o the De Trnitate

nowhere n hat wok does Augstne draw such a dsnction. 4



5. God " t goattag i" t mot ral of a Bng and t

nonxtnt ing oxit n t atmporal and aolut dmnion

34 of t tnal prnt. 5 T paradoxal rappromnt uggt

MYH tat it wot analyzing wt om ar t rfn mad y

ne n ee Botiu, a fw pag arr to t imra and ntau tat tpoterunt And w may gn y ang ow w ould tan

lat t word erunt" ratd"? dvid"? ontrvd"?26

T altrnav ai au t xat manng of u trm

a ctione" or gmenta" ly ud y ot pagan and Critan

wit n lat antiuity wn ty k to d t ignian of

wat w migt a myt, m anyting ut unamigou. Ti,

tn, i t tion of t pot ctio poetarum" ay Augtn nThe City o God (97 n rfrn to Apulu On the Daemon o

Socrate a god to wo a not god" Howvr Marou

ad writtn in i ommntary on t Dream o Scipio tat om-

tm ad tng a mad nown . und t at vl of

nvnton [acrarum rem notio ub pio gentorum elamine . . enun

atur: a rmark frrng n t rt ntan to lato' own myt

o u t andalou tori aout t god, ut wi Maroun appi o to Hom, t unt and ogn of al ivn w

dom, wo mad t tut intgl to t w, wratd n t

ton of potry ub poetici nube genti erum apientibu intelle

dedit].7 W al otly tat t oppoition twn Aug

tn lyng ctio and Maoiu trutnwappng gentum

mor apparnt tan al. W, owvr, dd Botu tand?

H ntuiati rpon to Atotl' xampl of t goattagould pap n a a rtion of t xitmnt ft y any-

on wo a itrto unatd tain opning up xplo

raton. Immdatly a 515516, t yar in wi proaly

ompod ond ommntary on t De Interpretaone

Botiu wa to gn wok on i trat On Hypothetical Syllogm

5165)28 In t om, markd proudly tat t wa a top

on w Artotl ad wrttn notng and Topatu only u-orl and onnng w Eudamu ad don no mo tan ow

om d.29 o Botu, t wa an oppotnity to dvlop t

ntrt n oratoy tat ad ld m to wit ommntay on

Cro Topici a wok ad ddiatd to on atiu, uato

t Holy ala wo may o t ddat of t wok On

Hothetical Syllogim. Som of t yogim tat Botiu ana



lyzes r exampe hose made up o two hypotheca propositions

("I s he case that a is then s the case that c s d) remnd one

irresisy o the oica amework o he Roman aws.31 Let us 3

take an exampe om Gaus's niuione (. I t appears that MY

wh the aid and a the sueson o Dons son o Hermetis a od tne n eepaera has been stoen on whch rounds he ouht o be condened

as a hie were he a Roman czen [i cii romanu ee" etc. u e

it e supposed that the accused (or ndeed the vctim o he robery)

is a rener in tha case Gaus commens he is o be endowed

insor as the law permis i modo iuum i) wih a ctitous

Roman ctzensp ciia romana peregrno ngur).

These sorts o ea ctionscionewere iar to heRoman urss33 oehius as a senator o Rome saw Aristoles

oat-sa no as a poeticoreouscio but as a oicourdcalc

io a construcion hat wihn a wedened sphere made opera

ve a nonexstent reat

6. A currenly shionale vew sees the sory o Western

thouh as domnated by the conras between "meess sprs and"practcal sous ; between auhortaran metaphyscans tracin ther

descen ack o Pato and democrac pramatss who are the heirs

o ocay demarcaed knowedes such as sopstr rhetoric and

casus The exampe o oehus is enouh o show that such an

opposon cannot be susaned The mporance o lea and rhetor

cacione was acnoweded n the contex o hs more or less Pla

tonc onoloyi ndeed t was no hs Paonism that ed o heacnowedment; and hs many cenuries ere Hans Vahner

redscovered he value o such cions n that semna ext o pra

masm Die Philoophie der 35

oetus' s work is mporan r is nrnsc worth and stil more

importan r the enormous inluence i exercised. n he elh

cenur Arstotes wrtns on loic in oehuss ransation and

accompanied by hs commentares were redscovered and incudedn he Scholastic curricuum thus ecomn an nera element n

the inlectual rmaon o eneraions o sudens.36 Aeard was

amon he movn spris n ts rediscover In hs losses on De

erpreaione he remarked approviny on oethius's enhusasm

r the example o the oat-sta: Arsoe he noted "chose a sn

catve word [ocem igncaiam] thouh one [reerrin o] a non



exstent thng becase had he chosen a word lacking signication

then the matter o trth and lsehood wold have seemed relatve

36 to the words lack o sgcation rather than to ts absolteness

MY implicit].7 hs passage does not stand alone. Abelard relects

tne n eet insistenty on terms denoting cttos sbstances ctae ubtantiae) goatstag" chimera" phoenx"n order to raise he

q eston o the problematc relationship beween langage and real

it he realm o sgncaton no more than a margnal concern n

Arstotle became a central theme in the investgatons o the

choastc phosophers.9

Moreover ths knd o relecton on langage also had prond

r epercssions on a less abstract plane In hs De ulga eloquentia(22, ante dened poetry as ctio rhetoca muicaque poita not

as nventon" in general bt rather as a cton made wth the help

o rhetorc and msic"0 Poetry sctio and ths word is lked et-

mologicall to the Latn gl a potter and n the same ven

ante n the Purgatoro (267 hals the poet Arnat ael as

miglor abbro del parlar mateo best smth" o the mother

tonge. angage to ante s a physcal realt somethng to twstand hammer However poetry s ctio also n another sense n that

like legal ctio t constittes a reaty that is tre to all intents and

prposes bt not tre in the lteral sense. ant Agstne had

nsisted n a passage that Aqnas qotes and that ante mst cer

tainly have known on the necesst o distingisng beteenctio

that is a le and ctio that s aliqua gra etat trth nder

another aspect" otherwse everytng that has been sad in gra-

tive rm grate by wse men and sants or even by Or Lord Hm

se wold be regarded as a lie jst becase accordng to the sal

nderstandg these expressions are ncompatble wth the trth."41

What s said by wse men apientibu) is kened as gratve

speeh to what s said by the sants and n the Bible and this relects

the convicton that when od spoke to men he had to accomo-

date hmsel to ther mited nderstanding42 ns cots Er

gena again echong Agstine compared the moral and materal

lessons taght by the epic poet by way o cttios myths abul

ct] and alegorcal sitdes to e cttos maginngs ct

imaginationibu] o criptre adapted to or immatre nder-

standng egorical readngs o Homer lcensed allegorcal read

ngs o the Bible cots observed that theology s n a certan sense



poety [theoloa elu quaedam poetra] Peach taes up the

same idea, a amost idetica phase, i a weow ete

amiliare D "Theoog I am ced to say, is the poety o God 37

[parum abet quin dicam theologam oeticam ee de De].4 I hs Trat MY

tatello in laude di Dante Boccaccio tasated, ad expaded o, ane an eePeach's eectos He eecs he tadioa opposito beee

theog "wich supposes othg but what is tue ad poe

which "peteds some thigs o be ue, whch ae mos se ad

eoeous ad agans the Chistia ego "Theoogy ad poet

Boccaccio ouy decaes

may be sad amost to be oe tng, whee they have oe theme;ad so I say moehat theoogy s othg but a poem o God

Ad what nd of tg is it, if o a poeica cio oetica

zione], whe i he Sciptues Chist is sad ow to be a o ad

ow a amb ad ow a wom ad the a dago ad he a oc,

ad so dves othe manes tha woud ae much me o te

shoud we wish to eate hem a?4

Ts way of thnig eads us to Vcos betioni those eaves o

the st peope n the eaes age, who, wies Boccacco "sice

they wee so ude ad ucouth, wee most adet o now the tuh

by sud46 I we cosde s oto o a vey aciet poetca

owedge that ud expessio myths, we ca see that it pe-

supposed a beef hat the uth ay coceaed beeath he id, ve,

o integmentum o poe47 To is eecio, we may add aothe,ess obvious: ame tha i ou iteeca tadito, a coscous

ess o the medacous aue o myhs, ad by exteso o poey,

has accompaied, ie a shadow, the covictio that they coa a

hidde tuh. The oto octio tae a positve ad costuc

ive sese, has opeed a way out of he mpasse which we d

ouseves we y o susa o the tea pae, he two com

patbe beie that poety is tuth ad tha is medacious8 Assidoe o Seve oe, the se' is what is ot ue; the cious'

is wha s ey [Falum' et ergo qud eum non est ctum qud

eimile et Hoace, howeve, might be ivoed as a authoiy

the docne that the eam of poey o patg citesp

coud be caimed eve by such hybid ad mpobabe ceaues as

the sie o he goatstag50



7 here can be no doub ha as human bengs we have he

poenia o move back and rh beeen ciious and rea words,

38 beeen one ciious word and anoher, and beween he domain

MY of rues and he doman of mearues In one paricuar cure,

ne n ee howeverour ownhe disncion beeen hese eves has beenheorized wih someimes exreme sube under he successive

and convergen impuses of Greek phosoph Roman a and

hrisian heoog he eaboraion of such conceps as mytho

tio inum is smpy one aspec of he search r ever more ecien

ways of mapuaing reai We encouner is resus every da

maeriazed in he objecs ha we use among hem he compuer

on which I wrie hese words he echnoogica inheriance haaowed Europeans o conquer he word ncuded he capaci,

deveoped n he course of cenries, o check and conro he rea

ons beeen he visibe and e invisibe, beween reai and c

ion

One shoud of course speak no of Europeans" bu of some

Europeans, since wha we describe was mied o ceran spheres

Noneheess, hs echnoogica nheriance makes presence fen unexpeced paces, hanks o he combed acon of he schoo

sysem and he prnng press In he ae sxeenh cenry

Domenico Scandea, a mer om Friu nown as Menocco, was

red by he Inquisiion because of his heerodox beefs In hs

defense of reigious oeraion, he nvoked a ex (he ae of he

ree rngs ha he had read in an uneurgaed ediion of Boccac

cio' s Decameron and wen he Inquisior asked him Do you beevehen . . ha we do no now which is he righ aw? he repied

Yes, sir, I do beeve ha every person beeves his faih o be righ,

and we do no now which is he righ one."2 Is here anyng

specicay European abou hs diaoge, a hs dae? eray no,

we have regard o he narraive device used by Boccaccio, in wch

he ae of he hree rngs is se wihin he meanove of he Suan

and Mechisedek he Jew 3 eran if we have regard o he eccesiasica nsiions ha conro boos and ndividuas erhaps, we have regard o how he mer defends himsef by cimbng

adroiy om he eve of eef" o ha of eef abou beie

om he eve of discourse o ha of meadiscourse ura

Menocco was coser o he Inquisior who condemned hm o

deah an o a naive of he New Word



What alowed a handl o Spash soldes to conque the

empe o the Aztecs was (t has been aged as much the hege

mony the sphee o communcatons as the possesson o gns 39

and hoses.5 Ths hegemon moeoe was the consequence o MYH

wde and olde hstocal pocesses. One s tempted to ead the st ane n eegeat moden noe wtten by a Spaniad as an onca alegoy

deang with a decse aspect o uopean expanson the contest

beween dese cultes the powe to detemne eat The

chaacte who contols the elatons between ealty and cton s

Sancho Panza the peasant The chaacte who poudly concudes

the tae by announcng the dentty o the ceato wth hs ceatue

(Fo me alone Don Qute was bon and I s Ceantescttous doube the ab Cde Hamete enenge.55 A peasant and

a Moo n a tue asman spt hee Ceantes pems a mag

ncent neson n whch the cental pace s taen by epesenta

tes o the magna the eected the deeated. Oy n cton

howeea cton that coses oncaly n a condemnaton o abuous and absud stoes o nght eant"56

8. So mmedate and emaable was the success enoyed by Don

Quixote hat we may be y sue Vezquez was among ts eades

Hs pobable nowedge o the boo may be ndecty eected n

to pctes pated dung hs st st to Rome n 6963Jacob

Receing the Bloodtaned Garment o Joeph now n the scoal and

The Forge o Vulcan n the Pado (pates and ).57 The two pctues

wee at st shown togethe n the wadobe o e uen Retopalace and een though the ogna measuements wee not den-

cal they pobaby med a pa.58 They both pesent us wth a na

ate sequence that uolds om e to ght and that hnges on a

ge dawn om the same mode (the thd peson om the t

n e Jacob the uth om the ght n the Forge) hs head tted

bac loong towad the pantng's le.59 Howee despte these

ma paales the content o he to pantngs s dspaate We would eect to d an Od Testament naate le that o Jacob

Receing the Bloodtained Garment o Joeph paed wth an epsode

om the New Testamet not wth a mythologcal scene e The

ForgeoVulcan Attempts hae been made to elan the anomay by

notng that both pantngs ee to a betaya unmased n the ey

acton o the Vulcan (whee Apoo s announcng to Vulcan that the



I

lattes wfe, Venus, has just been caught in agrante wth Mas,

awatng tue eveaton n the Jacob whee hs bothes, havng

sod im nto save ae announcng that Joseph s dead holdng

MYTH out his cothes, which they have staned wth the blood o a goat0

ne n ee Ths s somewhat specuatve, and we ae on me gound when we note that the Vulcan s ndebed to a pn by Antonio Tempesta

that was among the ilustatons to an edton o Ovd wth a mo

aizing commentay pubshed at ntwep n 606 plate 3). The

vese accompanyng the pint dew an mplct paalel beteen

Apolo and hst On ne s<auot tompe la divne Pudence Ele vot de nos coeus les pus cachs econs I ne u ut amas

enqueste ny temons Ayant de nos secets l entee cognossance.61 Should we then concude that the Apollo in the Vulcan ep-

esents the gue o hst? A the compason suggests that

tngs ae moe compex. When Vezquez went to Rome, he was

abe to see ognal wos by aavaggo, whose exampedect,

o tansmtted though echoes n othes wohad been the m

atve nuence on hs youth. The orge o Vulcan s an extaodnay

pctoa commentay on aavaggos Calling o Saint Matthew n SLug de Fances, wch we can glimpse, wth a evesed compos

ton, beind the moe tea and supeca eeence to Tempestas

pnt6 The way the scene s stuctued the spae eveyday settng,

so unusua n a mythologca scene the vaying degees of ew

deed supise, so subtly evoedal is exacty echoes the Calling

o Saint Matthew plate ). Moeove, Vezquez evdenty cossed

the nave of the chuch of S Lug and studied the esco thee of TheDeat o St Cecilia by Domenicino, to of the ges n the sec

ond pane o theJacob echo Domenchnos wo plate .6

It woud be dcuous to suppose that Vezquez, n taing the

Calling o Saint Matthew as an mpict model tended to equate the

ospe wth a myth. Ths misses the pont, as does the hypothetca

and unpoven denticaton between hst and the Apoo o he

orge o Vulcan The efeence to aavaggo wch of ts natue can

oy have been addessed to the ew who would pc t up, s a e

eence toctio pcta autem dicta quas ctua pantng too may

be sad to be a nd o cton, in the wods o Isdoe of Seviea

wte wel nown to Velzquezs theinla Fancsco Pacheco

who quotes him n is Arte de la Pintura. Luca Godanos ema

about menina whch he caed the theoogy o pantng, may



legitimaely be appled aso to a metapicorial pcture such as The

Forge o Vulcan I may be tha Velzquez' s ideas here owe somethng

to the meta-novel of Cevanes, whch he is likey to have ead.66 41

t is st sometmes thought hat ytology s jus a repetoy of MYTH

outworn ms and naave rmulas, the reso of pates and ane an eetpoets n hei stae oods. Velzquezs crosseferencng of The

rge o Vulcan with The Calling o Saint Mathew shows hat the

encounter between derent cultual traditonswhich eed

above al in the ruhcams ha they madewas capabe of open

ing up a pround and unexpected vewpoint on reali Moreover,

Velzquezs act n putng Caravaggios Crst n quotaion marks

and using m the depcton of his own Apoo has a wide symbolc value The capaciy o put nto quotaton maks both ones

own taditons and those of othes was a most poweful weapon.

Among ts eecs we may ncude the exenson (thas to the eth

nocentric aogance mentioned above) of the caegoy "myth to

cues who had never nown such a catego But myh in s urn

could throw back a shap and unexpected gh on Chrstan reigion

II

We must urn o Plato once more to examine a theme we have

hitherto negleced, namely the potical use of myh. n the hd

book of he Republic Socaes examnes the coruptng eects of

poetr drawng his examples may om Home He hen reaks

that gods have no use r sehood, and it s usel o maknd oyas a medcine [ho en pharmakou eidei" 389b). He draws a genera

amaton om ths estrictve clause: f anyone, hen, s o pac

ise decepton [proekei peudethai either on he countrys enees

o on ts cizens, t must be he Rules of the commonwealth, act

ng r its benet [ep'ophelia te poleo."7 Prvae cizens ae ec

ity denied any such right o le: indeed, o le o the guardians of the

cit s worse than o le o a doctor, a gynascs teacher, or a shipspotha is, those to whom we enus our bodies and our lves

These ies told r the pubic good ae yths. Plato recounts

one, which may be of Phoencian orign (b ) men ae bon

of earh, but with an admue of more or ess precious meal

god, slver, ron, bonze), whch desgnates heir pace in the hier

rchy of he deal ct guardians, auiaes, peasans, and othe



manua workers). A passage n Arstotes Metaphysics (74b.1)

takes up the same theme of socia contro throug myth, pacing t

n hstorca perspective

MYTH

ne n ee Our rehers in the most remote ages have handed down topostert a tradition [concerng the existence of the snge pri

mum mobe and the snge Heaven], n the rm of a myth en

myhtou skhemati] that these bodies are gods and that the dvne

encoses the whoe of nare. The rest of the tradition has been

added ater n mytica rm mythikos] wth a vew to the per

suason of the mutitude and to ts ega and uttaran expedi-

ency [pros ten peitho ton poon kai pros ten eis tous nomous kai tosumpheron kresin]; they say these gods are n the rm of men or

ke some of the other amas, and ey say other tngs conse

quent on and simar to these which we have mentioned 9

Aristoe sees ts use of myth to hod the mutitude n check as

the transrmaton of truth nto anthropomorphic terms, rather

than as tru's negaton. He beieves that a truy divne ogina content" has been mantaned, despte evetng, wth the ad of ater

addons n mytca rm Patos account is more uncompromis

ng, eaordna mythmaker and extraordinary demythoogier

though Pato was. Takng the two passages together and readng

them wh ndsght, we can see that they appear to set out the prem

ises r an interpretaon aready suggested by e Sophst Critas

(who was Pato's unce) which woud enoy endurng uence: theinterpretation of region as a potica imposture

Chstian Europe between te begg of the thrteenth cen-

tr and the begg of the urteenth, Moses, Cst, and

Mahoed were basphemousy charactezed as the three mpos

tors." The heterogenous group hed accountabe r ts basphemy

ncuded an emperor (Frederck of Swabia), a theoogan (Smo of

Tournai), and an obscure ar, the twiceapostate Thomas ScotusThere was nohing new n the cam. n the second ceny a poso-

pher caed Cesus had decared (as we now om Orgens work

against that Moses had beoed goatherds and shepherds wth

s crude trcks, and that Chrst had sary beoed s owers 7

n ater centes remars of knd, which proaby became part of

ora tradton, were made about Mahommed aso, as the under of



the rd reat mootheitc reio o he Mederraea. O

coure to deouce reiio a a decepo or a cheat i ot e ame

a o poi out (whether a codematory or a merely decrptve 43

pirit hat reio pay a ociay ue role ecuri obedece to MYTH

he la Noethee eve where the deucaio o reou ace an eceimpoture o accompaed by ay over poitca arumet we ca

ee hat it doe have ik wh he oeia raiio or o be pre

cie wih Averroe ierpretao o rtotle The apoate ar

Thoma Scou r tace chared by a court o e Iquiio

wth hav poke he uua term o he "three mpotor had

the olece to declare hat he world wa etera ad tha rtole

wa etter tha Chrit ad "wier ad more uble tha Moe.73Wa there a coecto beee thee taemet I probabe ha

there wa but the iquior it eem had o eret elo it

2 The poical pcato o thee theme become mae

oce more he work o Machave who trea hem with extraor

diary bolde epeciay i the chapter o The Dicoue devoted

o he reo o he Roma (.). The ba o Roma power wre Machavel wa eabhed by Numa who "preteded he had

lived tmaey with a ymph eve more ha by hi precuror

Romulu. Reiio eceary both r the roducio o ew law

uch a Numa eacted ad r the coodato o old oe

d o the eader o a repubic or a kidom mu maia he

udatio o the reio ha the people hold ad hey dohi wl be eay r hem to keep their republic reliiou ad

coequely ood ad uited Ad whatever vor h

hey houd promote ad ecourae eve i hey jude hem to

be e ad hey houd do o al the more the more powerul

hey are ad he more coat o the ature o hi. 7

"Eve hey jude them to be e here we eem to cach aecho o he juicato that Plato put rward o ly r the com

mo ood Ideed Machiaveli may have read he Republic

Fcio tralatio houh i e kely that he ever came to rp

wih Ariote Metaphyc There i however a coer ad more

likely parale amely he xh book o Polybiu wich wa bei

dicued at he tme poheleic crcle Florece. Polybiu



egded ego s he rc cuse of Romes oc owe

d ibued he oic weess of hs ive Geece o he lck

4 here of y e cvc egio (6 5 65 He we o o oe

MYTH

tne an eet I seems o me h he Roms isied hese rcices whhe e of he crowd md. io eoled exclusvey

by he wise would deed be eedless o hve recourse o such

mes s hese bu sce he mulide s of is e ckle d

subjec o ssios of every kd uchecked is geed d vo-

e is ger hee is og r i bu o hod bouds

wih hese sos of covces d myserious fers I seems

h hs ws why he ces roduced o he muiude regous h d suesos cocerg Hdes d o wihou

reso; d deed he ruy olish oes would be hose who

mgh hk we coud ge rd of such hgs our ow mes 7

Ths judgme beseks he vieo of mrgl obsever

Gree.78 Poybius my hve red Plos Rubc; he cerly did o

ow Arsoes Metaphyscs Howeve he c h we codemose y ec ex rssso oly hghs he sg

icce of he smres we hve bee cg O he oe hd

we low is e b om ose who e og of he

ure of gs" (Mchveli) bywy of Polybiuss he wise o he

osohes" of Po d Asoe o e oher om Mchves

eoe" by wy of he muide" letho of Poybius ho pollo of

Asoe d Plo's he res of he c" Oosos of hs d

mued ove eod of wo housd yers o he bsis of widely

diverge d ee ky oosed osios re bsed o remse

s somemes oey d somemes less oey declred mey

h he mor of mkd r o sso d gorce c

be held bouds oy hks o eigio or o he myhs ioduced

by e wse moi wh ve" s Arsoe us i o he er-

susio of e mude d o . . . legl d u eeiec"

I ws is de s i hd bee develoed he do of he

Grees h lowed Mchiveli o ur uo e regio of hs

ow ime ee oce kee d dsssoe. Num dg

vey svge eole" hd subjeced hem o hs ow ws eed

g h ey hd bee ughh by he ymh Eger; he eole

of Forece do o ke hemselves o be gor o ucouh; ye



hey wee pesuaded y he Glam Sanala hat he cn

esed wh Gd.8 The anagy eween he Chsan Gd and the

nymph Egea etween Sanaa and Numa, s egsteed cl 4

as a matte f ct: human naue s aways the same, "a men ae MYTH

n, e, and wll de n the same wa Regn s a necessay ne n eempstue hwee, Chsant s expsed, when cmpaed t the

egn f the Rmans, as a tmd and halheaed aa8

3. The sptng apa f Eupean Chstany cnsequent upn

the Ptestant Reman eenualy als undemned e legt

matn that he Chuch had adtnaly gen t he exstng sca

de It ecame psse nt nly pacce egcde u t defendts egmacy m a elgus and mal standpn as he Jesu

Maana musy dd pnt. Dssensn eween he chuches

seemed t shake the undans f cecte cl fe n Fance,

amng the geneatn n n he wake f he was f egn, the

scaled eaned enes pted pudence and caun One f

the est-nwn f them Gae Naud, ecds n hs accun f

the uney he made t Italy n 1661627what he was td y CesaeCemnn a pss f phsphy a he Unest f Padua

He has admted a few cse ends hat he eees nehe n

Gd n the De n n the mmal f the su u I

take gd cae (he sad) ha my alet s a gd C ahc, f he

eleed n nhng I fea ha ne ne day he wuld cme and

cut my hat whle I lay n ed. 82

A ltle eale, a few mles away (at Vence n 1617), the Inqusn

ugh tal a cetan Cstantn Saccadn, a cneted Jew f

ey humle ank wh had spen sme yeas payng he jese n the

cu f he Medc ee deng hmsef t the dsles at. Sac

cadn was accused, amng he thngs, f hang declaed

Thse wh eee n hel ae du-ws . . . . Pnces want t

make t eeed then hey can hae thngs the wa ut . nw

the whe dece has pened s eyes.83

Hee s a cmmn ecgntn, m ppste epnts and

cntay eect, tha the pans f he heeae ae a mae f pt



a myholog rmng wha we would nowadays al he las deo

loga uwark o he deense o he exsn order Polyuss warn

46 ngs agans dong away wi e my o ades had neer sounded

MYH more mel Mselieers used her own angageryp ron

ne n ee a ause and ended r he hosen w. Ths s how he wrer

whose pseudonym was Orasus Tuero expressed hmse n he

Cinq dialoes aits 'imitation des anciens pushed Pars n 1632

or 633:

To wre les as hey were ruhs, o and soes down o

posery as hey were hisores is s o a ke an mposor,

or a gh auor wory o no regard o se down ghs o nyas dne reelaons, and dreams as laws ordaned n eaen s

he way o Mnos Numa, Mahommed, and her ke, seng up

r grea Propes and ery sons o oe.84

The auhor (La Moe Le Vayer) deends mse agans poenal

rs y eang n s nroduon a he as se msel e

goa o researng no he rus or seemng rus o nare" ylowng is own nes and apres expressng msel ,

ke an anque and pagan pilosopher in puis natualib" eo

o Plaos Rublic an indeed e heard n he onras he makes

eeen les" <ables) and rus (eritez) sores" (contes) and

hisores" (histoies) oweer, whereas Pao ad oneded

rough s mouhpee, Soraesha he gardians o he Cy

had he rg o e, La Moe Le Vayer unnngy akes s asgrounds r ausing he soaed Prophes o seing down her

ghs o any" (caprces as dne reelaons" e onudes au

sely s s e way o Mnos, oNuma o Maommed and thei

likes seng up r grea Prophes, and ery sons o Joe." The perep

e reader he erne" (ha s, one who had lieraed imsel

om supersion)85 s herey ned o read eeen he nes ·and

o reognze he rea arge amed a ehnd e sora paraesand myhologal rumouons, namely he Csan relgon

and s under who had daed o proam hie he son o God

In a laer essay (De la er des payens"), La Mhe e Vayer drew

on he work o pagan polemss and Chrsan eoogans o llus

rae he smares eeen he urnng o Sodom and Gomorrah

and he my o Phaeon eeen aos g w he ange and



the srugge beteen Jove and Hercues and so on. To be sure" he

commented great was the ignorance of the pagans and oundess

the maice of the Del to have gone about (had they been ae to do 47

it) to lessen he mport of sacred stor by setng up n place of its MYH

divne truth such agreeale bles [de able agrable "6 n ts way ne an eette truths of region were impicity compared to myths and the

relationsp suggested by Saint Augstnepagan cto as alqua

gura vetatwas ued upside down. The crtical dstance that

myth lowed made it possible to set rth in roncal and polemica

tones the premises r a comparative history of reigions.87

As we have seen to the ibertnes religion was a cton but anecessary one without i Cremonn woud have been at the mercy

of his valet and sociey woud have succumed to he bellum

omnium contra omne. At tis point we are bound to urn to Hobbes

and not ony ecause the act of the man who when going to seep

ocks is doors is cited in the eathan among the everyday proofs

that we are hat condiion wch is caled war" Religions

whether revealed and thus part of Divine potics" or ordered . accordng to nvention" and thus part of human potcs" have the

end of making the men who beleve them the more apt to obe-

dence aws peace chariy and cv societ" Here Hobes takes is

pace in the tradition of poltca reection upon religion that runs

with vayng emphases om rstote to Poybius and Macave

The passage on ancient Rome n parcuar seems to be inspired by

olyus here Hobes descries how those n authority opelyderided notions of the other world wle at he same tme the

more ignorant sort (that is to sa the most part or generaty of the

people)" were nduced by regious ceremonies so much the more

to stand in fear of their governors 89 However Hobes taes s dis

tance om his tradition the moment he comes to analyze the ques

tiona very pressing one when he was writingof the causes of

changes n regious bee These he attriutes rst to the discredt-ng of the wisdom scerit and charity of priests and secondly to

their incapacy to procure the operaon of miracles Reasons of

the rst kd appertan particulary to the Church of Rome those of

the second have a wider scope Hobes concudes chapter 2 of

eiathan Of Region" y declaring I may attrbute al the

changes of region n the world to one and he same cause and that



:

is, unpeasing piests; and those not only among Catholics, bu even

in that Chuch that hath pesumed mos of Remaon.90 his

s sweeping udgment is owed imedatey by he hieenh chap

MYH e, with its mous dscussion "Of the Natual Condition of

sne n ee Maknd as concening hei ect and Mise ee obbesses ou s vew of mnds naua euaty bee the eme-

gence of societ and laws and e wa of each against al tha

esulted om his hough he desie powe and the opeation of

fea. Ts sae, he agues, dsposed each indvdual o lay aside his

own pesonal ights n vo of an ulmted soveeign powe. The

tansition beteen he chaptes is abup, bu uie undestandabe

boh ogicaly and histoical Reigion, mely an nstumen ofconto has become a co of social dsode. Hobbes esponds by

eaboaing a adcal hesis abou he natue of powe, dawn "om

he pncples of Natue onl91 s the the od myths weaken

Hobbes ses out to legiime the absoute stae by way of a deduc

tive pocess, seeking to suppot hs agument by eci efeence to

the expeience of Naive ecan peoples 92

absolue state cannot, by deion admi the exsence ofany authoit hghe than itsel Wih ion ogic, obbes wites

The mainenance of civl socie dependng on justice and jus

tice on he powe of fe and death and ohe less ewads and

punishments, esidng in them that have the soveeign of e

comonwealth it is impossible tha a commonweath should

stand whee any ohe han he soveeign hath a powe of givng geate ewads han e and of nlcng geate punsh

ments than death. Now seeing eternal le is a geae ewad,

han the le present; and eteal torment a geate punsmen than

the death o Nature. I is a ng wothy to be we consideed, of

al men ha desie y obeying auhoit) to avoid he calamties

of consion and civ wa, what is mean n Holy Sciptue, by

l eternal and torment eternal; and wha oences, and aganst whom comited, men ae o be eternally tormented; and what

acions they ae to oban eternal le.

By way of a lenghy exegesis obbes concludes hat he Scip-

tues speak of genea salv ation, ahe than of le eternal as a

ewad paticula ndividuas; of eena deah epobates at



he Day of Judgmen raher an of etenal toments" and of eer-

na re and of salaon meaporia raher han wih referene

o physal paes. Sl more mporan an hese answers how 49

eer is Hoes's queson whh eary expresses e desre o MYTH

esas he sae e moral God" eiahan as a religon sui tne n eegeners.9

5. Lier of onsene was o e exended in Hoes's e

ony o hose who aeped he essenia pon of Crisian dorne

namey e eef n Jesus as Chrs Hoes wres:

Again e oe of Criss mnsers n is world s o makemen eee and ae i n Chris Bu fa ha no relaon

o nor dependene a al upon ompulson or ommandmen

u ony upon erain or proaili of argumens drawn om

reason or om someng men eliee aread9

n Bayle's ew ier of onsene was a rig ha al sould

enjo nsaging an imagnar soie of aeiss he arges auman engs an ie ogeher een wou he onsrans mposed

y reigion; and he nokes e example of Cna in suppor of is

ha a ounry a nows nong of relgous dissenson has far

more sod undaons han e naions of urope. n Bayle's e

e sal of i soe was eaened no y unlmed oera-

ion u y Crisian poal heolog n is aous opposed rms96

One of Baye's readers pulised a ook iled espit de MBenoitde Spinosa (he Hage 79, susequenly repushed as Tait

des Tois Imposteus). Here s arged ha Chrisiani ke regon

general was in n self an nsrumen of poia oppression

and as su sould e desroyed97 Te ex leery weaes ogeer

passages om Spnoa Hoes and arious lierne auors

(Charron La Mohe Le Vayer Naud. Te emendaions and add-

ons made y he auor endow hs oleion of dsgsed quoaons w a new signiane Here ere s no rae of e auion

w whih La Mohe Le Vayer ad suggesed analoges eween

pagan myhs and epsodes in he Bile98 Hoes had inrodued s

my onerning he undaon of asoue power y ypohes

ing e nara equali of men n espit de M Benoit de Spinosa

e hpohesis s noked o deny a e prophes and aposles



�

were men of uncommon parts, created especialy hat they mght

pronounce Gods oracularwsdom"99 This is one more staement o

he od theme tha reigon s a le. However, whereas r he

MYTH ertnes he posre was a necessary one, desgned to hod the

nce n ece ignoran multiude in chec, he author of Leprt de M Benoit de

Spinoa oo the view ha t was hgh tme tha he muttude rea

ized that t was a decet practced upon it y potca men" o eep

them n ind oedence"00

If the people were ale to undersand the depths in whch ts

gnorance sins it, t would soon enough shae o the yoe

placed on ts shoulders y those meansprted ones who eep

n gnorance ecause i is in her nteres to do so. And such

understandg it might reach simply y usng ts own reason

ndeed i s mpossile i should no dscover the ruh t once

alowed reason to operate.

The anonymous author concedes tha he peope s much

nclned to mae itse nd," ut he srenuously reects the asurdmaxm" hat hods hat truth is not made r he populace who is

capae of recogizng . 0

In the decades hat owed, a good part of Europe was ooded

with oos and pampets that reiterated the nvitaon impciy

extended y he author of Leprt de M Benoit de Spinoa he peo

pe" had oy to use ts own reason," and it would dscover he

ruh Ths urgent wsh to communcae mpaien of arrers,deant of censors, pes the character o the Eghenment So

aso does the conference anounced in 1777 y the Royal Prussian

Academy of Scence and eters, on he heme Is t use o

deceive he Peope? I was dAemer who suggested he topc o

Frederic II That such a queson coud e openy rased, aeit

wn the reatvey narrow ounds of the repuc o learning, is

surely signcant Our age s the age of criticsm," and if thesacredness of relgon, and the authorty o legisaion" are

exempted om crtcal examnaion, they ecome he sujects of

jus suspcion" so Kant put it not ong afterward n the prece o

the Crtique o Pure Reaon (781)od words, aer suppressed in

he second editon (1787), whch came out aer he deah o Fred-

erc .



Among hose who eeged vicorious om he debae hed in

Bern was a pofessor of mahemaics caed dic de Cason,

an mg om Savoy Cason answered dAembers quesion in

he amaive hough s epy was heged abou wih iscaimers MYTH

and ce disncions. e noed ha d Aember was echong aos te n eetcai, in he Repubc ha he guardians of he sae had a rgh o

ie r he common good 0 "I ay be he peopes good ha i

is deceived n maers boh of egion and of poiics, woe Cas

on "and ha i is eihe ed no new eror or comed n is eis-

ng errors, so ong (be i undersood as is is done, as we have

aready said, r he greae good of he peope ise e wen on

o wan ha "if his principe is o hod good, i is absouey necessary ha he peope shod no now of i or i w ose a is e-

cac Tuh is "r he eyes of he eage o a ohers, if i is no o

bind he, i mus appear suounded by ves ha soen is eces

sive spendou. In Casios opon, he cause of he "dsorders,

cimes and assacres whch have been aid so grauiousy a he

door of he Chrisian reigion was no "he eros spead amongs

he peope by he preachers of vaious ages, bu raher he indisceion and imprudence of hose who have unmasked hem. I was

beer o poceed sow sep by sep eading he peope om

greaer o esse eros, as had happened in he case of heahen re-

gions and even in udaism A s poin Cason oeed an eam

pe of a "new error, which was aso a "esse ero, namey pai

oism. This (he eaned) was a haay sage beeen "he ue

and grea ndamena prncipe of he broherhood of enwidey hed in aniqui and s domnan "among ess civied

peopes, and he subsequen beef in pesona ineres, accoding

o wch ndividuas were o have regard ony o hemseves and

heir mies. Paiosm had imposed isef hrough he combned

inervenion of "wise and dsneesed egisaos and of "heads of

sae acing ou of inees and moivaed ecusivey by greed sef-

ineres, and irs r domnaion a combinaion of euhemerismand imposure n his "esse erro, his "e ended he peo-

pes of he modern age Cason diy perceives he ineamens of

a egion, he region ha woud bee ong begn o ceebrae is

somees boody res across much of urope.104 The age of he

"peachers of parios, whose adven Novais had reod, was

begng1



6. Does Vuln ount r nythng, e to e with Robers nd

Co, o ove, n the ge o he lightnng onduor, o Hemes om

ped o he Cd Mobilier? mythology onques, ontrols nd

MYH shpes he res o nture n mgnion nd by wy o the img

ne n ee inton it therere vshes one we ruly hve ontro ove thosees Cn Fme keep is enown, now we hve Prining House

Sque?"10 Posng these questions n 857 Mrx ssumes ht they

e to be nsweed n he negive he symbo ms o he ps,

beginnng with he outded myhologes o ntquit wil soon be

swep w We know now ht his ws no o be, nd h Greek

nd Romn myhology n ve on he best o erms wth ptist

merhndise, sne n he sphee o dversng (o whh wesh un shoty) Ms quesions spg, however, om wider

nd deepe onvon o whh he gve eession in the onrs he

drew beween he soi [i.e, polerin] revolution o he nine-

teenth entuy" nd a erer evouons n hose elier revou

tons, here ws more phrse thn substne in the revoution tht

is o ome, here be more subsne hn phrse 107 Fo now we

re n he ge o bourgeos soiet wys synonymous r Mxwth old el elity sans phrase substntiy immune om

the deoogil vpors by wh ps soeties hd been ed.08

The enduing viy o the od religions on the one hnd nd the

se nd sped o ntionlisms nd isms on the ohe hve rgey

ontrdied Ms prognosis (not ht he ws one n hodng

suh views) hs been obvious some me tht the hisoy o

he weneh enury nnot be undersood without n nysis ohe polil uses o myh Mrx himsel, moreover mde sign

n onributon o suh proje, s pround in its nyss s is

petnen n s sube, when he wote The Eigheenh Brumaire o

ouis Bonapare om whih he pssge ust quoted s tken. Wrt

ng he he o the moment, imedey er the evens th he

deribes hd ken pe (the work originly ook the rm o

seies o ries, subsequeny prned s pmpet), Mx hereses out o demonstre how he irumsnes rising out o the

lss suggle hd enbled grotesque medoy o stu round

n heros gb nd hd brought bout he eurn o trgedy s

re109 The erey demystioy one in whih Mrx wes my

be red s n mpi trbue o the eeveness o the popgnd

mpign by whih Louis Npoeon sough o over hmsel wh



s ncles manle. A ther propagandstic analo sggested by

the term Caesaism" was ejected as acios and spercia in

the prece ax wrote when The Eighteenth Brumaire was pblished 3

n Geman on the ee o the al o the Second Empe. 0 n the text MYTH

o the essa arx speas, athe, o a cossac repblic," a paadox ne n eeica esotion to the dichotomy enisaged by Napoleon who had

said, Within y years Erope w be repblcan or cossac")

ax righty resaw that tis cossac repbic wold tansm

itse nto an empire; he can hardly hae magined that it wod

conine in that rm r wenty yeas Shortly bere the batle o

Sedan he wote to Enges that the Second Empire was abot to con

clde, as it has commenced, n a paody: I t o my Bonaparte aeral! . . I beee we wo are the ony peope who gasped the whole

mediocriy o Bostapa i.e Lois Napoeon]om the beginning

egaded him as a mere showman and nee alowed osees to

be misled by his momentary sccesses. 2 n point o ct Engels,

wie his own jdgment o the phenomenon was st as scathing

as arx's, had gone so r as to dene Bonapatism as the real

eigion o the modern bogeoisie. With the exception o England he wrote to ax on the ee o e Astossian wa),

whee an oligarchy goerned on beha o the borgeoisie, a

Bonapatist semidctatorship is the normal rm. The big mateia

inteests o the bogeoisie cay this thogh, een against the

opposition o the borgeoisie, bt alow the dictatorsp no share

in the real powe.3

esonal mediocriy bt the talent o a showman an athoritarianism that maes se o pebiscites this adme, contadic-

tory ony in appearance, was destined a great tre.4 Enges

was not ane n s sighted assessment. In 186 arice Jo an

opponent o Bonapate, pblished anonymosy Bssels an

aticle eating a dialoge in hel beween ontesqie and

achiaeli ontesqies eeble agments, based on his ith in

the eitable pogess o liberalism, are swept aside by achi-aelli, whose pot eentum pophecies ete how in the mddle o

the nneteenth centy a eade wi tae hold o the eins o

power, sppress the opposition by means o iolence and atte

se mtay campaigns as a diesionary tactic; his goernment o

societ behind a ade o rma eedoms, wil be a gigantic des

potism. Despotism," concldes achiaei/Jol is the sole



m o goenment tuly adaped o e social condition of mod-

en peoples"15 Bee is ocqueile ad aleady dawn om

is aels in te Unied Saes te cilling popeic conclusion

MYH ta i a despotism soud e estaised among e democaic

ne n ee naions o ou da i woud poay ae a dieen caaceom e despoisms of te past. It would e moe widespead

and milde it would degade men ae tan tomen tem .

immense poectie [tutlaie powe . . poident and gentle

woud stand oe an inumeae mulitude of men, alike and

equa16

7 Today, te eign of caste is oe and one can goen only witte masses. was is coniction at led Napoleon III to is mas

estoke, e nention of pleiscites as a way of desing te

potenialy exposie cage o uesal suage117 Te goen-

ment of te masses in te weniet cenuy as taken te most

aied ms and tese ae not dieed ony n te cucial mate

o te alance eween ce and consent e maxm tat ce

may e necessay to seize powe u is nee sucien to eain itwas cuent in antiquiy (te pce, it was eld must make imse

at once a and a on) ut wining mass consen as equied

instuments of popaganda unknown in ode socieies Tese may

comine te latancy o adetising slogans wi idden ms o

manipuation, as indeed we see we coside te paadoxical

une of te Dialoe aux Ene ente Machiael et Montequieu olys

wok was among e souces dawn upon y an oeseas agen ote Tsais secet poicewo may een ae een e cie of

sa akoswen e came someime eeen 1896 and 898

o compe te wok nown as The Potocol o the Elde o Zon

Tanslaed and spead acoss e wold in undeds of tousands

o copies is ecame e most inuential gey of e last two

cenies. 18 oy ad intended o oe a uay ak descption

of te tecnques used y Napoeon III o seize and matainpowe ut in e ands of te auto o e Potocol (wose aim

was poay to discedit e pojecs of e ussian lieals led y

Coun Wite is ecame an ngedient in e imagay plans

wold domnaion supposedy aid y a noneisten oganzaion

caled te Eldes of Zion. Te gey is competey implausile its

conent is sikngly at odds wi its supposed status as te tex



a Jewis plo Te auorial oce is quie cearly a o an agent o

te Oana, wo epeaedy sngs e paises o auocracy (e

gentles only ealy m o goenmen" and o te naral

and eedtay" aistocrac beralism and indiduaism ae MYTH

described as souces o dsorde e dea o pogess excep n e ne n eesciences s rejected and we ae nied o loo rward o te uni

rsal supegoernment o a Jews empeo, wo wl resore

ode and true eligon (snce ere is ony one true doctne and

wo resemles noing so muc as a sa urned uler o e

wod.19 To be sure, woee paced e otoco togete inssts

a e ews, snce tes was e dden and eind te Frenc

reoluon and te rse o berasm, are to blame te downllo te ne old asocrac Bu e auor taes so ittle pans to ge

a ews one o is wods a n e mdst o explanng ow te

as o suesion are to be employed e maes e owng

amaing admission:

We now o oy one sociey a can compee wi ou own n

te use o ese ars namely e esuits. oweer, we ae successly discredied te Jesuits n te eyes o e os mo,

ecause ey opeae openy as a societ weeas we r our part

ema te wgs ad keep ou exsence secre e world w

cae le enoug, wen comes down to it, wee t s go-

ened y e ead o te Caolic cuc or y an autocat o e

blood o Zon. owee us, e cosen people," ts canot

be a mate o nderence20

Tese wods are as reeang as a se o ngerprns. Bakun,

tweny years earer, ad inoed e sysem o te Jesuts as a

model r is reolutionay organation, but ad ten gone on to

repoac s rme end and comadeinams Necae wi a-

ng adopted a ey model Bau ad in mind e erarcca

sucre o e Socety o Jesus, and te absolue oedience

expected o its memes, wic goes so as to negate te nd

idual wil. e recoed, owee, wen e came upon te passage

n e Catechim of a Revoutiona (1869) a too ts pncple to

its logca exeme, brngng ino e reolutonay ce modes o

beaio a ad e past een regarded as admssle oy r

e good o te cty or e sate



MYH

ne n ee

Te namena pan o ever u or action unertaken by

e section mus be nown oy to te section; as r e ini

viuas carge wit carrying an action out, tey sou no

now te nare o wa ey are enruste wi, but oy e

eas o wa is to be one. To stimuae eir energies, it isnecessary to give tem a se expanation o te nature o e

action.2

Woever put ogeer te revouionaryrotoco must ave been

very we acquainte wi e Necaev case an wit te Catechm

of a Revoutionary wic a even been e subec o an ocia

pubicaton. Tis unnown agen o te Tsaris secre poice sawrevoutionaries, Jews, an Jesuits as nercangeabe gres, a sar

ng e common beie tat te peope are spi, at poitics is te

ar o "governing e masses an te niviua by means o cevery

cosen prases, an tat espotism is te ony rationa rm o

government r e ure. Wat is more e, too sare tese

beies. t w be sai, e writes, econg o tat te kin o

absoute power am suggesting goes agains te grain o e presen progress o socie but sa prove at te exact opposite is

rue.22 Te rotoco emboies e reams o a uggis poice

man, cumsy poecng s own nosagia an s own ambions

onto an enemy wom e seeks o portray as repugnant an iabo

ica Tis ambivaence, wic on occasion amouns amost o an

ambgous proSemiism, aowe te azis to see e omnipoence

a e rotoco atributes to e ews bo as a ooming reat anas an obectve to emuae23

8. W toug, as my acquire suc imporance n te mo

ern wor? The Birth of Tragey 18) Nietzsce gives e ow-

ing pitess an uci eanation

Our woe moern wor is caug n e net o Aexanrian

cuture . . . One ting sou be remembere Aexanrian cu

ure requires a save cass r its contnue existence, but in is

opimism it enies e necessi r suc a cass; terere i

courts isaser once e eect o its nice sogans concerning te

gnity o man an e igt o abour as worn n. Not

ing can be more terribe an a barbaric save cass tat as



learned o vew s exsence as an nusce and prepares o

avenge no ony s own wrongs bu hose of all pas genera

ons. Under such condons who would dare appea con 7

deny o our weary and eolaed relgons whch have ong MYTH

snce become Brahmn regons? Myh he prerequse of al ne n eeregons has been parayzed everywhere and heoogy has

been nvaded by ha opmsc spr whch have us sgma

zed as he bane vrus of our soce124

These words wren us aer he Pars commune were o have

a asng mpac (Sores heory of myh nended o serve he pro-

earan cause amouns o a reworkng of hem wh he pocasgns reversed)125 Nezsche was sang he concuson he drew

om he hsorcal vcssdes we have been racng here Myh n

classcal Greece had conrbued o he manenance of soca con

rol on one hand jusng soca herarchy and on he oher bran

dshng he hrea of punshmen n he fe o come Ts dua roe

had been nhered by Chrsan. Aer he Rermaon however

hngs had gone o he bad Regon no longer suced o hod ncheck he proeara (he slave class of moder) new myhs were

needed. Nesche dreamed of a rebrh of German myhoog

hkng of Wagner (o whom The Bith of Tage s dedcaed). 26

However he rebrh of myh had already been under way r some

me�and no jus n German The masses who r years saugh

ered each oher on he baeeds of Europe were mobzed no by

relgon bu by parosm On 1 March 191, he mds of hegrea conc he London Economit breahed a sgh of reef a Eng-

and's narrow escape

Jus as n Jul 191, n he poca sphere he counry was dr

ng no cv war over he rsh conrovers so n he ndusra

sphere we were approachng genera srkes upon a scale whch

coud have been scarcely dsngshed om cv war. The ranspor workers of a knds had amalgamaed her rces r a ral

of srengh and he engneerng rades expeced he auumn of

191 o see he break up of he Agreemen of 189, wch had

been renewed n 190 We were upon he edge of serous ndus-

ral dsurbance when the wa ave u by eachng empoyers and

men he obgaon of a common parosm.



A ya a th adg Sttish idustiais . A ihmd

had gi a addss th Gasgw ivsty Egig S

8 ty f whh h was th psdt I th us f this h

MYTH bsd hat suh iads had b mad i th pws f

ne n e maagm i ts that ha the war not happene, hauum f 91 wud hav witssd h ms sus dusia

dsd

Th wa mad a ivsib hag n th gaizai f

siy i vy sph ad his udd th ganza f -

s Th f pa saw dmbizat f h ppagada

thqus that had b usd t dut th batt th hm

ad ay i amg h tps bh ald ad m Bdwas jid th s ad my mmutis f gn bga

b nd as s

I s th pssibly f utaizg th pss by mas f h

pss isf" Jys Maial had d Msquiu Sin u

alism is suh a ga my gvm w a jualism

I w b uasm naat"128 Ts pphy was t m tu

n h wtth Amg h maas Wat B-am's gad w ais wih was dstid ma u-

shd w d th wng passag

A pptiv bs said that ss Iay was u a

ga wspap ad uwhat is mby a ga uaist

ida p da mpts ssatia sts a ad

pas dawng f h ad's att t a ts fsa f wh hav add byd masu a systmat

ds f h ads udstadg in pusu f tai

paa gas. Tuh t sst gis a gims basd

pubt 2

Gustav L B had suggsd as ay as 1896 that mmia

advsig was a gd md pta ppagada Musslnwh gaty admd L B put s idas pai1° Hi

sp f ppagada in sma tms:

Is tas just that f mma adtisg s aptu

th ati f th masss . . Th masss a aways b a-

ad pimay thugh th mis ad y t a y s



ondary degree throgh the socaed intelect . . . Whoever

wishes to win over the great mass of the people must now the

key which unocks their heart ts name is not objectivi or in 9

other words weaness; but rather wil and energ 31 MYTH

Yet the triumph of the wi can coapse into weaness r whie

it is true at munu vul ecipi (e wod wishes to be deceived)

it is true aso that the deceiver is part o the word The Nuremberg

ra transrmed into a ompletey controed spectace reveals the

anipuatory wi equally o Leni ieensta who med the ray

as Triumph of the Wi and o the Nai pary that staged it Reaity

however is not a m; in the end obectiviy asserted its rights. 2The Nai regime lasted twelve years and the Soviet regime asted

seventyur The rmer was brought down by mitary defeat; the

atter dissolved and wased away of itse under the pressure of the

socaed Cod War and its concomitant tecnoogica chaenges.

The Soviet regime went through a process of delegitimation that

the Nais never experienced The process was sow: so powerfu was

the myth of Stan that n some cases even its vctims had persuadedtheselves o its truth. In the long decades owing Stan's deah

the angage o propaganda was worn down to the point o exhaus

tion Compulsory optimism exatation at the prospect of the radi

ant re toward which Soviet sociey was bound nobod nclud

ng the bureaucrac beeved in these riuay uttered rmuae.

nyone prepared (as Gorbachev was) to put the potentiaties of the

system to the test had to begn their potica campaign by denouncig the lies o ocial propaganda. The Soviet regime was an empy

she ong bere its nglorious demise t wielded tremendous pow

ers o coercion and wa totaly discredited. Nobod om the Red

my down ied a ger to deend it

The capitalist system that has emerged victorious om the Cold

War is charactered by a reduction of workg time and by he

consequent tendency r ee time to be brought under the controlof the aws of production. This has provided an objective basis r

the transrmation of poitics into spectacle . 1 The consions

between poitical propaganda and commercia advertisng between

poitics and the cuture ndustr are thus iherent in the nare o

tngswhether or not we reach the point where the wo domains

nd themseves emboded in a single ndividua. Technology has

ne n ee



0

MYT

ane an ee

changed bu he producon of myhs s more han ever on he

agenda

I

The "myhic undaton wroe Netsche is the mos poten

unwrten aw of he commonweath itsef.134 we have seen

since Plao's e his dea has been invoked n suppor of a com

mon good idented somemes wh a socal order yet o be

unded and sometmes with he acay existing order. However

behnd ths use of myh as a rm of lyng something deeper is con

ceaed. In order o legiimate itsef power necessarly has recourseo an exempary sory or hstor a prncple a unding myth 35

This becomes plan in tmes of cvl war when legimac no onger

regarded as a c of naure becomes r everyone a maer of

choce (acil a any rae Ths case lustraes a more general

phenomenon i he undaons of power are not subeced o the

scrutny of reason hen their nvocaton becomes a mater of ou

ward show rmuac uerance and roune But he undngmyh s nevitably reurned o.

The polical use of lying akes us back o the oher opic we

began with lse discourse. A he nersection of hese to we nd

myth a phenomenon wh deep roots in ora cutre. Pao was

able o anaye thanks o the crtca distance made avaable to

him by wring a phenomenon ha he ambigousy condemned36

I was he wrten word he word pured of he nonaions andgesures ha he angage of orait may ransrm a noun or a

verb ino an armaon or a negaon ha alowed Pato (and is

oe llowng n his osteps) to recognie ha a noun or verb

standng on s own s nether true nor se.

n he Timaeu (22a2b) we read tha an gptian priest having

sened to olon eng (mythologein) abou the lood abou eu

caon and Pyrrha and their descendans kai tou ex auton geneaogein) remarked ironcaly that hese sories of generaions old by

he reeks were stores t r chidren aion . mython).7 We

sll nd his dencaion between myhoogy and genealogy as

ae as Boccacco who gave o his colecion of classcal myhs he

te Genealoga eorum gentilium Arsotle seems to adopt a conrary

vew when he says that the auhor of a ragedy shoud add the



names o he damais esonae oy once he lo o he wo has

been comosed (oetic 55b). 38 This is contadiced, howeve by

anohe assage in the oetic (5a, whee he emaks that

tagedies now aways evove aound he same names and he same MY

miies Athenaeus, quoting he comedian Anihanes, wies: ne n ee

We need only say the name Oedius and we know al he es

his he Laius, his mohe Jocasta, he sons and daughes, what

wil haen o him, wha he has done The same goes

Acmaeon we need oly name him, and any cld w tel us ha

n a t o madness he ked his mohe139

ames, in tuh, wee micotales.10 They wee the eiomes o

myh, oeing a owe mechanism of idenication membes

of he gou who shaed hei meang and excluding al ou

sides-a nction siay led by nomyhica geneaogies.

he name sanding aone neihe tue no lse," which Aisto

te liened o he veb standing aone, is the nuceus o myth 1 Ma

ces iend Boch in Pous's a recherche u temp peu disayedhis aestheic snobbey by singing ou La e de Minos et de

Pasiha as he one decen ine in Racine, because i had the mei

o meag absouey nohng" but no e n hre has so dense

a mythic conen1 Myh is, by denition, a stoy aleady od, a

soy hat we aeady kno



RepresentatioTH WORD, TH IDA TH THG

Represenaton s a mucused term n te uman sc

ences, and as been r a long time. No doubt tis is

because o is ambgit On one and te representaion"

stands in r te reality tat s represened, and so evokesabsence on e oer, t makes at reaity vsible and us

suggess presence Moreover, is opposton can easily be

reversed te represenaon s present n te rmer case,

even i oly as a surrogae; n te laer case i ends up

recang, n conrast o se e absent realy tat it s

ended o represent1 do no pan o amuse mysel wit

suc edous mrror games my pon ere s smply to drawattenton to e reason wy e term represenaion" as

oen been atractive, in recen imes, to criics o posi

ivsm, postmodern skepics, and devotees o te mea

pyscs o absence

As Roger Carer as remarked, we aready d is

osclaon between representaon as substitute and as



mmei evoaton n he arle on epentation n Freres Dic

tionnaie univee of 690 Ths refers o he axen ooden, or

64 leaher ees tha ere laed on the roal aaqe drn he

REESENTATN nerals of Frenh and Enish soverens as e as o the nerar

he Wod he Idea bed, em and overed h a al, hih n earer mes rerehe hng sented he dead soveren The rst nsane beseaks a mme

inenon not nd n e seond, b n bo ases he term re

resentation as sed Let s make ths or sartn oint.

. r earlies evdene onernn he se of an emt

aaqe n a roa neral dates bak o 9 n hat ear, as e

learn om a doment reserved n the arhves a Barelona, heSaraen habtants of the Araonese t of Daroa assaled the

es ho ere srrondn a bier ha sood there o reresen in

epeentationem" he reent dead kn, Anso . Onl onsder

ab aer do e nd ees sed n he neras of soverens the

rae oes bak o 3 n Enand the deah of Edard ) and to

1 n Frane the death of Charles ). These rnes ere a

e obets, nended ol r brief se and aost a of the ver feha have srvived have been heavl restored. 5

Erns Kanoroz ared that the rnes exhbited at the

nerals of Ensh and Frenh sovereins ave aabe eresson

o he ea dotrne of the kn's doble bod The e as the

eterna bod of he n fsmh as he as assoaed a b

nstiion (iita) the orse as his ehemera bod nas

mh as he as an ndvida6 Kanoroiz makes hs ase onvinn even thoh e ms note ha n Frane at least the ra

tie of exhbin eies of the deeasedhe term r hih as,

rese epeentacion" not led o roal neras.7 o

thoh, did i ome abot tha boh orse and e ere exhb

ied toeher? Rah Gese takes he ie that ees ere sed as

sbstes r he bod r raal reasons: embamn teh

iqes ere so ite deveoed that f he exhbin of a halftreed bod as o be avoided, i as neessar to have reorse to a

ooden, leather, or ax rne8 Ths, hoever, s nonvnn as

an exanation. od have been ossble o disa thn the

aaqe he on overed ih a al an aternatve based on a

nonmeti evoation and santoned b radon nsead of

don ths, t as deided n London n 3 to a a rasman to



make quanam ymaginem e igno a imiituinem icti omini Reg

a image hat wold resembe he dead kig, Edward I Wy was

s doe? Why did it ake a cery r this ovaio o be

adoed i Frace ad why did he ractice the cote r so

og i both kgdoms10I have jst soke of novaio" b this term may ot be egit

imate . Js vo Scosser oted at here were srog simiarities

betwee the wax images sed i he eras of Roma emerors

drng the secod ad hird cetries ad he waxe, woode, ad

leather images exibited similar circmstaces a thosad years

aer.11 Shod we assme ha the to ractices are iked, or was

the laer a sotaeos rediscovery Scosser iclied oward hers hohesis, hogh here is very ile evidece r sch coi

i1 Other istorias icldig Giese have referred he secod

vie Giesey does ot dey hat here are resemblaces (o which we

shal shory rer) bewee he eras of Frech ad Eglish

kigs ad hose of Roma emerors However, he regards the exer

cise of comarig ries tha ook lace i cres remote om oe

aother, temig as i is o the hma sict o draw aaog" ascile om a hisorica ot of vie I erms of ctral athro

oogy," he decares hese ikeesses are rovocaive b he is

orical lik is weak." 1

Here I roceed o he basis of exacty the oosie hyothesis. I

shal seek to show a rasctral simiariies ca hel s o gras

wha is secic abo the heomea I am cosiderig here The

ask is laborios, ad reqires a costa shlig om oe sacead ime o aoher. The egies of he kigs of Frace ad Egad

wil serve as or referece oi.

3 Giesey himsef tes s hat his sarig o, dobtless sg

gesed o him by s meor, Kaorowicz was Eias ickerma s

aricle of 1929 o he aotheoses of the Roma emerors14 icker

ma's brilia essa wich gave rise to he iveies debae, aayzesthe rites of conecatio his ivolved a dobe cremaio rst of he

emerors body ad the a few days ater of his waxe image.

Thaks to this nu imagnaum tis eral of he image," he

emeror, havg aready shed o the mora co cod be

received amog he gods s we as otg he recise aaogies

beee hese ries ad ae medieva ceremoies i Frace ad

RERSENTATIN

e W e ee n



Egd, Bckerm referred brey ote) to the er re

ded by Frzer. He eem ot o hve bee wre of Rober

66 Hertz' rce A Cotrbuto o he Sudy of the Coecve Rep

RERSENTATIN reetto of Deh," h hd ppered i LAnne ocioogique i

The Word the Idea 1907 1 Be h m Bckerm ed h rt prgrph wth the Thing temet tht Herz woud hve ecoded Deh doe o co

te the ed of he body fe o erth o he bologc ct,

bu the oc deed-he er ceremoeth epre thoe

who deprt om thoe who rem behd.16 The ly

Herz pedd ey coder the rul of doube bur d

cued by Bckerm he Rom coet wthi very brod per

pecve He how h deth, y deh, trumtc hppegr the commu true cr ht eed to be overcome by wy of

rit tht trrm the boogcl evet o oc proce, co

trog the pge by whchhe putreg body-h mo ut

ble d hreteg of obect-become keleto. Such rt

iclude temporry burl, or i other culre mummco d

cremo omeme combied) i Herz ve thee re prtc

ur oluto o very geer probem7 The er celebrtedover the bode of emperor oe Rome d of overeg

eeth d teethceury Egd d Frce perrmed

cto logou o th of he rovol bur ht Hertz

yze eher ce they were lowed by the er of he

imge whch to y by ru ht w ot u deve bu

eerzg The emperor w coecrted god he kg ce

w decred tht the morc cto w everg wouldever de. We mper mge d royl ege hrough whch

he ruer deth oc proce cme o cocuo, were

equvlet o other eve o mume or keleo Th he

me cocuo w recey reched by Florece Dupo

hrough deret reerch err18

By pcg them wthi th wde rculrl horzo we re

beter be o evlue wht pecc bout the ouo rrved both by he Rom of he toie perod d by the Eglh d

Frech of the eeh d eeh cere. hee lter ce

we kow tht the egy howed the kig f ive d Rome oo

the mge bece cught up wh h bee ced cto of the

pot mortem vehood" of he ruer.19 A welkow decrpto

Do Cu' Roman Hitore quoed by Geey) decrbe the



waxen state of te emperor Pertinax, who e in 9 a ou in

riumphal garb," an tes how a young save was statione bere i

eeping te es away om i wih peacoc featers as though i 67

were reay a person seeping"20 Heroan gves us an even more RERESENTATIN

etae account of te ceremones hat owe te eat of Sep T Wd Idamius Severs, wose waxen mage, recnng on a arge ivory be ing

with a gile counterpane, was visie r seven successive ays by

ocors who pronounce tat e sic man was geting worse an

worse21 Tese escriptions are very remiiscent of what happene

in France owing he ea of Francs I n 57, when banquets

were e r eleven ays, rs n te presence of te kngs corpse

an en of his egy peope ae an rank bese hm, an asinsof waer . [were] presente at te chair of he Segneur, as f e

ha been ivng an seae in ."22 Gesey remars ta Heroians

escription was alreay avalable n France by approxmaey 80,

an ha he eares known evence of neral banquets beng prac

ce here aes o he en of e eent cenur but as we ave

noe) e oes not regar he anaoges as atributabe o any con

scious miaon of Roman antiqui23Giesey's argmens are not aways enrely convincng. A er

�nce in eail, r insance e ct at te pracce of banqueting

bese he corpse was naugrae a te obseques of Francs I oes

not suce o prove hat Frenc usages were enrely inepenent of

Roman ones.2 Noneteess tere s no oubt ha auonomous re

creation s possible n ths spere, even beteen societes rher

remove in space an Sepmius Severus's Rome an Francis IsFrance were in me Francisco Pizarro he conqueror of Peru, tes

us an his evence on his point is conrme by ohr accounts)

ha on te mos solemn occasions te Incas woul exhib te care

fuly preserve mummies of ther ings feasng wth hem an

ring oass o hem. Ts is a ruy asoishing anaog bu we

may be abe o oer at least a ypoetica elanaon r t In Peru,

the roya paace of Cuzco was he property of the ea soveregns,togeter wih is anmals an saves Te management of tese

goos was in te ans of a group hat ncue a e male hers

wih te excepion of he kng te ater nerie nohng maeria

om his preecessor2 In heor hen, he ea soveregns reaine

power an te Incas ept up a reciproca relaionship expresse by

way of riua banquets, wh ter mummies n France, oo, a legal



cton atrbtd powr to h dad sovrgn, vn hogh ths was

ony r h lmd prod (wch Gsy cas a crmona nr

68 rgnm) mmday prcdng h coronaton of h nw kng.2

RERESENTAIN In ohr words smar constrants prodcd convrgn rslts n

The Word the Idea q htrognos crcmsancsthe Thing ths hlps s to rrmlat h problm ha has on bn

satd n conncton wth rnch royal nras of th sxnth cn

r To st mtaon of Rom" aganst ndpndn nvnton" s

to ngag wh oy on aspc of s probm As Marc Bloch and

Clad vSrass dscssng altogthr drnt qsons, hav

strongy nsstd, contacf ndd hr s conact somhng of

whch n th prsn cas w cano b srdos not xplan thprsstnc of a gvn pracc.2

. Wh hn n Rom and swhr, wr mags mad of dad

mprors and kngs? ornc pont has argd ha th sarch r

an answr shold bgn wh th practc of Roman arstocrac m

s who wod hav wax masks (magne) mad of thr ancsors

Th imago was rgardd as qvan o h bons, snc boh wrconsdrd to b a par of th who consd by h bod29 I s

worh nong that n hs anayss of th noon of h prson er

sona), M Mass had arlr mphasd th cos rlaton that

xstd n th Rom of antqy btwn h mago and th cog-

nomen, whch s th mos prsona lmnt n th hrnam sys-

tm. 3 owvr ts s of ancstral masks was no cond to ars

ocac ms. Bckrman cts a law dang om th prod33-36 n whch a can cog or assocaon of Lanvs

rsrvs h rght o clbra anus magnaum, nra of h

mag" shold an ldsposd proprtor rs o hand ovr h

body of a slav bongng o th cog2

In sch a cas as ts h nrary mago was a sbst r th

absn bod Ths ct s n accordanc wh th concsons rach

n h dscsson of a topcth mang of th Grk word kooowch dspt ts narrow cs has broadnd ot nt t bars on

h stats of th mag as sch. Ths dscsson bgan wth Prr

Chantran's artc of 1931 n wch dscssng th ymology of

th word kooo" h argd that ts orgns had o b sogh o

sd h ndoEropan sphr. Whn h was corrcng h proo

of hs artcl h addd hat h sacrd laws of Cyrn (whch had



recenty been publshe) showe that the tem koossos i not org

inaly have he meanng of lage statue wih whch we have

become ma thanks to the Colossus of hoes but sge sm 69

py sate wo years aer researc was gven a new irecon ERESENTATN

haks to an aicle by Emle Benveiste. I was la own in he e Wd te Idesace laws of Cyene (atng om e secon half of he urh te ng

cenry) ha anyone who welcome nto the house supplcans

who wee reignes o stranges shoul r hee successve ays

nvoke the name of the peson who proece thei guess. Shoul

hs peson be ea or unnown whoeve ponounce he invoca

ton must make koossoi os o layges of woo o ca of boh

male an femae sex an must late plant hem n an uncu woo.his explanaton ha seeme strange even ownrgh logical o

some scholas. Howeve age Benveste o concee ha a v

ng peson who is unnown is as f he realy no exst mght pe

haps be sai to obey a eepe logc An he theere conclue

Here hen s the authentic meanng of the wor [koosso wee]

neay satues ritual substitutes oubles who took e place of

absent ones an perpeate thei earthly exsence.We a they wee represenations terms of both rm an

uncon here are skng smlaies between ese Greek kolosso

an te neral egies o Fench an Engsh soveeigns ha wee

mae n wax eae o woo. he sace aws of Cyene ncue

eici povision a ual banquet to be hel wth he neay stat

uettesike those at wee hel n e sxeenth centur n Pas o

in Czco n Spara so Heoots (6.58) ifoms us when a kng e battle a smuacrum (eoon) was mae an then exbe on a

welecorate be a pactce compare byP Venan o ose po

ve n the sace laws of Cyrene. A ths pot references are

usuay mae to magic but it is bes o avo these snce they eain

no.5 Rathe le us take these observations conceng he ks

beween nea images an mages genea as the basis r a

eeaing om a new perspecve of two essays Erns GombrchsMetatons on a Hob Hose an Kyszof Poans equaly impor

tan wok on colectng an coectons. Gombch too mae epe

senation his starng pon His eecions on he hobby hose as sub

sttte r a horse le hm o emphasze he role playe by substton

n the rnishng of ombs he clay horse or servan bure the

tomb of e mi akes the place of he vng. s remak exem



ped by reeree o aie Egp proided Gombrih wh e

dao r a more geeral hypohess sbsiio may preede

70 porayal ad reao omao." Oly era parilar

RSNTATIN soeiesGreee, Ca, Reassae Erope-did a hage

Te Wd e Idea io ead o he emergee o he idea o he mage as a repree Tng seao or moder sese o he word." These briay

skehedideas were deeoped by Gombrih whe he ame o wre

s seal workAt an uion, e years aer.3 Poa, r s par,

seeg o dersad wha here is omo bewee he ds

parae objes d oeos, makes eral oergs his sar

g po hem-as res, os mages-he dees erme

daries" bewee s word ad he ex, he sear ad he sared . symbos o he disa, he hdde, e abse . . ermedares

beee hose who a see hem ad a sbe word" Oe wih

draw om e sphere o se obes ad soaed he separae

spae o he omb or he oleio, hese objes beome seio

phores" bearers o sigs.37

Sbsiio, Gombrih assmed, ame bere iiaio. I boh

koooi ad erary epeentatione he eleme o sbsioleay predomaes oer ha o maio. Bee ommeg

rher o is, I wish o emphasze ha o oy hae a hese

esigaos bee sed o qe dere hemes, hey hae al

bee idepedely oded This makes he oergees ha

we hae oed a he more siga. Ho hogh, are hey o be

erpreed? Shold hey be aoed r erms o he iersa

haraerss o he sig ad he image? Or are hey reaed o aspei lra mie-ad i so, whih mie?

The aeraie Iskeh here s a eral oer o J. Ver

as essay o he kooo ad he doble, whih Vera akes

p ad deeops he work o Beese He emphaszes ha koo

o was oe o a grop o ermspsue" dreamimage"

shade, sperara appario-whh, ake ogeher, eie

s o speak o a re psyhooga aegory . he aegory o hedoble whih prespposes a dere oepal amework

om or ow" Toward he ed o he essa howeer, Veras

oe sddely hages

Here perhaps, we are ohg po a problem ha goes r

beyod he ase o he oossos, ad oers oe o he esse



tia characeriic of a reigiu ig. The regiou ig i ot

mply a piece of meta equipmet. I purpoe i o ied o

eokg me mid the acred power to whch it refer I

itetio i away alo o etabh a true mea of commuca

o with hi power ad o realy iroduce it preece to thehuma wod. Bu whe it hu am, o o peak, o eabih a

brdge wth the die it mu at the ame me emphaze the

gap, he immeaurabe derece betwee th acred power ad

ayhig tha atempt o mafe i, perrce adequatel o

the eye of me. I t ee, the coloo i a good exampe of

he teio whch i to be ud at the ery heart of the reigiou

ig, ad wch gie i i peculiar characer I eect the coo-o ctio i to etabh a real coact with the beyod ad to

brg abou i preece th earthy wold. Ye o dog it

a the ame ime emphaize al the eleme of the iacceibe,

the myteriou, ad the dameay reig that he wod

beyod death hold r he ig3

O oe had, there i the cocepa amework of the Greek, which wa deret om our o the other, here are the teio

here he regiou ig, wch we may deec i Greek time

a i our ow Th oclatio bewee a horical ad a uiera-

iic pepectie, whch ha pired Verat exremely fere

reearch, i more tha udertadable amuch a our ow cutre

ha a quite pecia relatiop, compouded of boh ditace ad

deriaio, with the cuture of he Greek39 I he maer of theimage, howeer a i other maer, a deep acre eparate u

om the Greek, wich deere cloer examiatio.

5. Le u rer to he ce of the Roma emperor Thi

rite, a Forece Dupot ha emphazed, ioe a paradox

Rome order to coecate a dead pero,

i wa eceary o pu m out of the tomb order o pace him

i the acred pace i wich temple woud be ocaed Thi i

utkabe, both om the po of iew of he dead pero

(who would hu be depied of burial place ad repect of

he acred pace, wich would be horribly }amiaed by he

preece of a cadaer Tomb were excluded om the ciy . .

71

RERESENTATIN

The Word the Ideathe g



7

RERESENTATIN

he Wor the Ieathe hg

as protd o rc a tom po pc ad, os

cos mps r ddcatd.

W av s o osac as ovrcom

o ods aod t dad prso o prst o ds

c spacs o tom ad tmp, t to compa

tms o t ra ct ad t c o plc orsp. Ar s

dat, t mpror rmad prs amog m to dr

t ays. 40

s sa o gs as drmd y vcory o Crstay. Cmrs, cs o dad, stasd tmsvs t

cts o t vg. Ja Gyo as rcogzd ta s mla

aoto o t rgos a o ra ntra mur marks a r s

torca trg pot. 4 No amog t dad, r r som

marrso ad a spca sas t ys o . Pr

Bro as argd rclly ta t rcs o marrs, ad o sats

gra, ar t sgs o r prsc. r s vry scator grag s rcs moymc sas a as somtms

atrd o mago o t Roma mprors. Mars so,

dcard scrpo o s om a ors, s God (uu

anma n manu De et) ad y Mart h totu et praeen mane-

tu omn grata vrtutum s try r, as mracs o a sors

ar ss]

co attrtd t Crsa ord to rcs ot sats mst av d to dp cags or atd oard

mags. s poss s o mor a a corolary to o

av arady rmatd, c proposd a cos k

mag ad orld yod rcs tmsvs, ovr,

og to a ram o c or kodg s adqa43 Aov

a, r s pomo tat Crsta pomcsts cad do-

atr It s tm ook ts srosy, ad tm ackodgdo gs: at ko vry t ao t ad at a do

ko s dct o trpr aks o ork o scoars

sc as Frtz Saxl, Er Paosk ad Ja Szc, assocatd at

rst t Warrg rary ad ssqty t Warrg

Istt, av og ad a drsadg o t arsc sr-

vvas ad mtamorposs o gods o acs Wat



sti largey ack is an exploraon of he range of esponses

(absopon metamorphosis ejection) tha resuted om the

encoune on the reigous pane beween such images including 73

those in popuar use and the anconc if no expicily aniconic ERESENTAN

tendencies rooted nudeoChisan radtion he Word the IdeaA sucent indicaion of he compexty of s encounter is pro the Thng

vided by the case of Sant Foy of Conques (Saint Faith) Accodng o

the egend she was arted a the age of elve eay in he urth

cent He image preseved among he treasures of the church a

Conques (pate 7, has ong been regaded as a centraly impotant

exampe of Caroingian scuptue and godsmith's wok The age

pays a scant roe in the Lber mrculm snce dThe rst two boos of s hagogapica ex wee comped

between 3 and 20 by Bernard dnges a clec sdyng at he

schoo of Chares Benard a vent devotee of Sant Fo had se o

wth a iend ced Berner a stdent to vst Conques whee the

sant's recs had been kep a centy and a haf since he the

om he basca a Agen bt especay o house hem.6 As he our-

neyed through Toouse and the Auvegne n he course of is p-gmage Benad was struck by the numbe of statues he came

across made of god sve and oher meas and housng reics of

various saints. Culvated pesons such as se and his copaion

coud ony regad these as wos of superstiion cayng a w of

pagansm no of ough dev wosp. On one alar he saw a

stae of Sain Geard encusted wth god and jewels and seeng

to gaze wth gtterng eyes a the peasants who nelt n paye beei. Tung to s iend and speakng in Lan (ln sermne

Benard said n mockg tones "Wel my broher and what do you

thk of tis ido? Do you suppose tha Jove or Mars would have

hough such a state unwothy of hem? The cucx he emaked

was the oly adssbe state It was petted also o depc he

sants on a mnes umbrse clrs pes depce. Bu o

veneate states of the sants struck him as an abuse rooed in inve-eae gnorance he wee o declae what he ough of tis sae

of Saint Gerard heeabouts the people woud ea as a cinal.

Three days late Bernard and Bener arived in Conques The

sains iage nown as "he ajesty of Saint Fah (Mjess snce

Fds was kep in a naow oom cramed wh peope on the

nees. Benard und mself incapable of owng her exampe.



"Snt Foy he exlmed, gment of whose body is reserved

n this stte, ome to my id in the hor when m dged. As he

7 soke, he glned smingly t is end. Hs words showed is ds

BRESNTATN rgement of this sntly sttereqry: it seemed to him om

he Wd the Ide rble to likeness of Vens or Dn, n idol to wih srieshe hng were oered

However, thngs hd hnged by the tme Bernrd set down hs

ont. There, he elns tht he hs ome to see the error of his

wys thnks to the mrles errmed by Snt Fo wih he

desrbes He tels the story of one Hlderi, who soke dersively

bot the stte of Snt Fo Next nght, the sint ered to hm,

holdng sti nd how is it tht yo hve dred to nslt mystte, yo roge? Bernrd onldes tht the stte n do no

hrm to the Christn th nd need se no rehensons lest we

fll bk nto the errors of the nients t hd been mde in honor

of God, nd to reserve the memory of the snt 7

Peter Brown hs remrked tht the sints vengel nger is,

so to sek, the orreltive of the ommnty's sense of stie:

"She ws the hevy voie of the gro48 This is ndenible Atthe sme tme we mst note tht the mrles of Snt Fo hnded

down om n orl ltre, were bond withn wrtten text

tht nldes ssges lke those we hve st qoted whh hinge

on seres of symmetril oostons lrned ersons /es

nts, Ltin/ the vernlr, intng/ sltre, Chrst/ the sints,

relgon/ serstton (not to mention mslne/ femnnetit,

bt llervsive) These n be tred bk to doble ooston, both ltrl nd sol: on the one hnd, between wrtten

ltre (n tin) nd orl ltre (in the vernlr) on the other,

between written ltre nd mges49 n reltion to mges, we

beome wre of new hierrhy whih hrks bk to Hebrew

trditon in ters of their tendeny to inte idoltry, sttes re

r more dngeros thn itres.0 t is tre tht when he omes

to the end of the hter, Bernrd nowledges hs mistke:there s noting sersttios n the esnts devoon to the stt

es of Sint Gerrd nd Sint Fo nd ther religos ttitdes

shold be tolerted emittantur). Nonetheless, hs oint of view

remins indlgently hierrhil: he looks t ll tis wth the eyes

of lerned mn om the very derent ltre of northern

Fne.



6. he sae of Sain Gerard, which propted Bernard to

draw halfroc hafshoced comparisons wih the dols of Jove

and Mars, has no survved. However, n the process of restorg he 7

statue of San oy (which Bernard aso compared o pagan dos, RERESENAN

those of Venus and Diana), it has been dscovered tha the body was he Wod he Idea

oned, toward the end of the enth cenur to a much older head, h Thing

whch dates bac to the urh or eary h cenury. his head,

made of god and crowned wth aurels, was that of a Roman

emperor who had been made a god Bernard's inia reacion was

not atogether wde of the mar.52

here has been much debate abou he chronology of the

sae at Conques and of is remodeling Jean aralon, who restored

t, has argued r an ealy date, toward he end of the nth cenr

Among he wors made n he preRomanesque rebrth of scupre

n the round, he state of Sain oy may wel be "he earies west-

ern example hat has come down to us53 Bernard of ngers tells us

that stauereiquares of mae and female saints were widespread in

southern rance. Representaions of he Madona and Chid in

Maesy may be considered a varation of this genre.5 heir use asrelquares is by no means cdenta it was probaby this hat pro

vded an excuse r the retrn of scupture in the round.55 he ag-

ment of San ys bod whch Bernard refers to somewha cyi-

cay in is prayer, alowed he peasants of Conques to possess the

case that enclosed the ecthe gold do wth he wdeopen eyes

andeweencrused coa that represened the martyred chd.

n the mracuous taes hat Bernard of Angers reaes, heimage of Sain oy is regarded in a characteristcay ambivaent

maner On the one hand, it aroused hosity and sarcasm among

its detracors; on he oher, it appeared n he vsions of he faih-

. 56 he mos carried it in processon so that, n accordance wh

esablshed pracice, it migh ae possesson of a piece of and le

o he monastery of whch hey had been ulay deprved.57 he

peope of Conques made no disncon beween he age of Sanoy and the sa herse Bernards suggestion hat he mage was an

aid to memoryan argment ha he put rward to ward o he

suspcion of idolatrywoud have been accepabe o oly a tiny

mnor of belevers.

he perplexty that Bernard o Angers fel when he ooed at

the mage of San oy disappeared when he turned to consider he



crcied Chrs. The Chrch Bernard remarked spread crcies

n scpre or basrelef as a wa of keepng ave he memor of

76 he Passon.5 Noneheless even Chis's mage mgh be ooked

RRSNTATIN pon dolarosl Throgho Erope om Venice o Iceand and

he Wor he ea Norwa images of Chrs crcied and Chris gor are o beth hing nd ogeher wih an verses along he nes of his exampe

(om he welh cenr or earer)

Ho Des es od imago doce sed non Des ipse

Han recolas sed mene coas qod cernis n ia.

Ths s God as he mage eaches b he mage iself is no God.Think pon his b n spir worship wha o see in i5

The whole of he Eropean Mddle Ages shows his ambigos

ade fear of mages deprecaion of images. B he erm

mago (lke he erm ga) has man meanngs60 One more

exampe om he be macuom Sance ds w sce o sg-

ges a range of hemes ha we can on och on here Bernard hasbeen scssng he case of a nigh who is pnshed r his pride.

Addressng himsef he exclaims:

nd so o shold con orself rnae o earned one in

ha o have seen Pride no n mage [magnae] as o read

n Pdenis Pschomacha b in s ahenic and corporea

presence pesenae copoaeque pope].61

There can be no dob ha he sacramena connoaions of is

passage are invonarand he more reveaing r being so

The word mago had long been associaed wih he Gospe Umba

n ege mago n Evangeo veas n caeesbus, as San mbrose had

wrenhe shadow n he a he mage n he gospe he rh

heave ings62 In he passage s qoed however mago connoes he cios perhaps he absrac; a evens a ded and

mpoverished real Pesena, b conras a erm ong assocaed

wh he recs of he sans w be more and more oen conneced')

o he Echars. 63

The opposion beween he Echaris and he reics of he sans

is eonded n Gber de Nogen's reaise on relics De pgnobus



sanctoum completed n2564 Guibert ot oly dismissed such se

elics as te supposed milk tooth of e ifat Jesus a the moks

of Sa Medado had pu o show; e isisted tat the Euchaist was 77

e soe memorial le by Christ This led him to deprecate boh the RERESENTATIN

use of ecs as substitues (epaesentata pigno) ad as a coolar The Wod the Ideathe ge of syecdoce sce the atter was a tope beoved of he the hg

igoa6 Hee we see te emegg outes of the way of tk-

ig ha was o lead i 215 o the poclamatio of the dogma of tra

subsatiatio

oher schoas have empased tis was a decisivey mpotat

evet te istory of how images have bee perceived 66 Howeve

is impcatios are ot etirey clear I shal aempt to stae some oftem o te basis of my dscusso thus It is mmediaey obvous

a tee is a poud discotiuity bewee te ideas we ca

gmpse beid he Geek koossos ad the oio of the eal pesece

To be sure bot cases we are deaig wth eigious sis Howeve

o oe coud appy to the Eucarist wha Verat says of e koossos,

amely tat its cio is to "esabish a ea cotac wt the beyod

ad to big about its presece ts earty word The way iwc he doctrie of asubsaiatio is rmlaed makes i

impossible to speak smpy of cotact pesence i te strogest sese

of he em is ivolved Te pesece of Chist i he Host is eec

a superpresece other evocaios or maifestaios of e

sacredsuch as reics ad imagesare ad feebe by comparso

a leas teo (I pracce ts was ot how i ued ou)

Let me coclude by puttig rwad some potheses moe orless ash whic may simulate rter tou o e subject of s

essa er 1215 he fea of idolatry begs to lesse Ways ae ud

of domesicaig images icludg those hat have come dow

om paga atiqut Amog the uits of ts istoica chage is

te re o lusiosm i sculpture ad paig: oy the dise

chatmet of e image made possibe the wok of Ao d Cam

bio Nicoa Pisao Gioto The idea of e image as a 'epeseatio ou mode sese of the word o wich Gombich refes

was bor at tis mome

The process had boody cosequeces Te miraces of the

Euchaist wee ked we ko o e pesecutio of he Jews 6 It

has bee though that the accusatios of ita sacrce brought

agaist he ews om the midwel cety owad may have



costt ed proeco oo exerzed other of deep

gush boud up wth the de of he rel presece coected o

78 he Euchrs6 Trdtol hemes of t ewsh polem c, such s

RERESENTATN he chrge of doltry cetered o the worshp of the Golde Clf,

The Wd he Ide or of excessve lerdedess erpretg he word of God,

he Thn were gveew megs. The dogm of rsubsto, s

much s deed sese d he me of pro ud d vsbe

retmy be terpreed- y rte, by ousde observer-s

extrordry v cory of bstrcto.

I s sme perod, bstrco ws lso trumphg he

spheres of theoogy d of po c urg I Ktorowczs gre

book o he kgs to bodes, refereces to the Euchrst re

strgey mrg. I c, he dogm of rsubsttoprob

y hd decsve uece he relev storc process. I shl

refer o jus oe exmpe, drw om the descrpo of he cere

moes th took plce t S Des o mrk the obseques of he

Cosble Berrd du Guesc , 1389. The mok who wrote the

chroc e of StDes descrbes scee th he sw wth hs ow

eyes The bshop of Aut , who ws celebrtg he mss, he

mome of e oertory e e r, together wth the kg, d

we over o where ur ghs stood he etrce of he chor,

dsplyg he rms of the ded m s iwh he m of showg

so o spek,hs body presece (ut qua ejus cooaem esencam

demonstaent)7 The Euchrstc mplctos of s exrordry

herdc d ghty commu o, ormy reserved r bros

d prces,re redy exp ed he ght of the hpothess I hvejus dvced It s the re,cocree,corpore presece of Chrs

the scrme th mkes possble he crys zo, beweethe

te weh d ey teeh ceures, of th exrordry

obec om whch I sred d wch becme cocree symbol of

the bstrcoof the stte the egy of the kg, ows ee

sentaton

(_J



EcceON THE SCRIPTURA ROOTS OF

CHRSTIAN DEVOTIONA IMAGERY

In th lowng ags, I shal sk to connct to shrs

of rsarchNw Tstamnt suds and studs of Chrs

tan conograhybtwn whch thr has bn no com

muncaon. Gvn th s of my comtnc I havmad much us of h work of ohr schoars I rman

rsonsb r h concusons, as wl as r th rrors I

mus vably hav mad.

I

L us bgn w atthw 21-23. angl aars oth slng osh and ls m ha hs wf, ar has

concvd a son, bu not by m

"Sh wl bar a son and you sha gv hm th nam

Jsus Savour), r h wl sav s o om hr

sns ts hand n ordr to wha h Lord



decaed though he pophe: "EHOD THE VRGI wl conceive

and bea a son and he sha e caed Emmanue," a name wich

means God is with us.

ECCE

On the Scptul a e Lod declaed ough the pophe" Mathew hee eesRoots of Chstn to Isaiah 71; and Luke too, ndiectly evokes he same passage

Devoton Img EHOD you sha conceive and ea a son" uke 3) To be moe

pecise Mathews eeence is o te Geek o the Sepuagint

whee saiahs wod amah, gi" is endeedparhenos, vig. As

we o to mleia have one witness to the consequences

that owed om ths ansation, o distotion wch in the passage

om Hebew nto Geek ansmed a pedicion ha ahoughmade in a discouse with possie messiaic implicaions was in

isel entiely noma Behold the gil w conceive and bea a

son, ino a petenaual pophecy: Behod, the vigin wil con

ceive and bea a son" I sha no e concened with hese conse-

quences hee I must simply noe hat he dvegences beeen the

evangeists on the quesion o Jesus thplace may e aced back

to e eeence to Isaiah 7:1, wch is expicit n Matthew andimpici in Luke Matthew and uke te us tha Jesus was bon a

Bethlehem, because Isaiah 71 n tun nvolves a eeence to he

ci o David caed Betheehem Luke John 7) he ih-

pace o esse o Belehem" (1 Samue 16:) the o David, om

whose stock" so Isaiah (:1) had pphesieda shoot woud

gow. Mak and Jon now notng o Betehem, jus as they now

notng o Josephs descen om David, whch is emphasized byoth Mathew and uke Mak 19 says simply hat Jesus came

om azaeth n Galee" to have mse bapzed in he Jodan

We now om Jon hat some people esed to acnowedge tha

he Messiah mgh be a Gaiean as Jesus was, ecause acodng o

Scipue the Messiah was supposed o be om David's vage o

Betheehem" John 7:2). I is Jon, too, who epots that hiip

eeed to Jesus as he son o Joseph, om Nazaeh" (:5 epy o wch Nahaniel asks scouy Can anything good come

om Nazaeh?"

Snce the end o he nineteenh cen vaious scholas have

conjectued tha ausions he Gospels to iblca passages may

depend on and mply chans o eeence and quoaon, o esmo

na, ogazed themacaly o n tems o key wods. Ts hypohe



sis s been srongy resised. Some scoars ve rmulaed it new

by argung t we may need to poste testimonia conected to

precing wic came nto exisence immedey aer e compo 8

sion of te ospels. Oters agin ave arged at testimonia date ECCE

back oy o e era of te curc ers wic saw e composi O th Spualion of e besnown example Cprians Ad Quirnum Testimonio Roots of Chta

rum ibr tres Te possbiliy a tese cns of reference may ve Dvotoa mag

been ntended to pay a par in ntiJews polemc s lso been

muc debaed Some tme go te poesis at testimonia exised

wen e ospes wee wrten was conrmed n te eyes of some

scoars by e dscovery n e ur cave Qumrn of a agment

at ncluded quoatons om Deuteronom Numbers Josu ndAmos.. A. Ftzmayer remrked a we g nfer suc cns

of ciion constued a preCsin terary procedure wc

may wel ve been ited te ely stge of te rmaion of

te New Tesment I resembles so strongy e composie citons

of e New Tesment wrters t i is dicu not o admi tat tes

timonia iluenced cerain pars of e New Tesmen" Tis s n

importn staemen especly given ts uors sndng bu i isperaps a ttle evsve s ppers we exe te quoions

tken om e propes prcurly Isaia and serted nto e

ospes o prove o te Jews a esus ws te Messi.6 In regard o

s group of quotatonsn many ways signicn om metod

ologicl pon of iewto speak of miaion" nd inuence" is

eupemisic.

Tis is n c sown by e exmpe we began wi. Te readerl ve noced I took r grned tat Matew 122 nd

Luke 126 t is te passges referrng o Jesus being conceived

by virginre te esut of messanc reading of si 1

wc is in trn inluenced by e (probably deberate) distortion n

te Sepugnts reek. I m wel wre a e reionsp

beeen te wo seres of texs cn be red dierent indeed

nversey Jesus concepon n te vrgns womb can be seen s erelizaion of Iss propecy (Isa :4), nd more genery e

events of Jesus life nd deat can be seen s e lment of bb

c propec However suc a pon of ve toug quie legii-

me n regious erms cno gude scenic resrc.7 e beteen e reference (open or acit) o Isai :4 and te nmng

of Beteem s Jesus birpce seems o mply te exstence of a



testmonum ha ao incuded l Samue 61 and Iaiah 1 I he

inerence corec, hen one o more rng o ciaion, ogaed

8 hemaica woud no impy have nluenced he narraive e

ECCE would have generaed . Krer Senda arrve by a dieren oue

On he Stura a he ame concluion n he naviy or "he whoe conexoos of Chrtian eem o be conruced wh he quoaon a nuceuand a

Deotiona Image i germ om he pon o view o go

I hep o go on ung he em testmna o degnae

hee ciaon rng? Sendahl, on he bai o an anayi o Od

Teamen ciaion n he Gopel accoding o San Mahe

anwer h queion mly n he negaive: mo o he eaue

ha nde arr ough o expain by pouang he exience oa book o testmona can be accouned r n em o mehod o

eadng he Bible mdrash pesher ked o lgical or nrucional

eemen n ebew radion.9 The conequence o be drawn om

concuon are uch a o mod conideraby he acceped

image o he Gopel and o Jeu e Senda who i quie aware

o hi preer, however no o make hee conequence expc.10

I ha aemp o do o, bringng ogeher he reu o reearche and hoe aaned by oher cholar

I

e u urn o uke 22632. The youngeu to padon ken

o he empe. Simeon, an uprigh and devou man, ha been aured

ha bere dyng, he wl e eye on he Meiah e goe o heemple, ake he chid n arm, and give hak o God, ayng:

"Thi da Mae, hou give hy evan i dicharge n peace

now hy pome i led.

For I have een wih my own eye

he delverance which hou ha made ready n vew o al he

naiona gh ha w be a evelaion o he heahen,

and glory o y peope Irae.

Simeon hymn i baed on a moaic o paage aen om he

vere in Iaiah (5213 49:6, 421) concening he uerng ervan

or ervan o he ord ebed Yahweh The chd Jeu, reered o



n h Gospls b h m paidion" s acil assima o h

svan of Go" mnon b saiah (nowaas int as Sc

on saah) who s na alwas f to in th Spuagin b h 83

m pais (svan) but aso o" Such an assmaion was p ECCE

haps ncouag b th mssiac ton that th Gk tansatos O the Spturalntouc nto saiah 532 b ning th bw tm joneq Roots of Chrta

(suckng) as paidion (bo)ts a wo bng on hat migh Devotoal Image

cal th pophc of saiah 96 (Fo a bo has bn bon us")

just as th tm hiza (oot) wch mmial ows n saiah

532 migh ca h oth pophc of saah (a shoot sha

gow om h sock of Jss an a banch sha sping om hs

oots") 11 Such a hpothtcal stng of ctations (saiah 532, 96, )wou alow a bo tul o suppos scn om Davi to b

compa wih th svant of Go" unsoo in a mssiaic

sns an wou aso alow hm o b compa o th shp [l]

to th saught" (saah 537) who wou vinca man mslf

bang h pna of hi gut" (saiah 532). Just as in h cas of

saiah 7 w ma tac h oigs of ts ctation stng to a is

to anslation nsp b a mssanic ang an pobabaccounab to a goous hmnutcs bas on h compaison of

simila passags.12 t is ha to scap h impsson hat h pm

ss of h Gospl naaiv w stablish in th Hnisc

Juaism of xania wh h tansaons that mak up h Sp

uagn w ca ou bging wth h oah an lat inclu

ng th hioical an pophtic books (saiah bing anslat

btwn 7 an 5 B.c

3

n Mathw 25-2, th compaison bwn Jsus an h s

van of th Lo" is ci an is bas on saiah 2-, n this cas

c in a vson in om h Sptuagn:

Bu th phass on laving h snagogu a a pot o o

awa with im.

Jsus was awa of t an wth Man ow an hcu a who w an thn gav sic nuncons tha th

w no to mak him nown. s was o saahs

pophc

"BEHOLD M SRVANT,whom hav chosn

m blov on who m vou sts



ECCE

On te SptuaRoots of Ctan

Devoona Imagey

I w put my Spt upon hm

nd he w polm judgement mong the ntons.

e w not stve he wl not shout

no wl s voe be hed n the steets.

e w not snp o the boen eedno snu out the smoudeng w

unt he leds juste on to vto

In hm the ntons shl pe the hope.1

ee too Mtthew sees the event he s eountng s the l-

ment o pophe5 Sne wht hppens hee s wtn the nge

of ntl possbtes (the thn petentl s n the se ofMys vgn onepton t woud be ovehsty to onude

unequvoy tht the pophey geneted oespondng n-

tve event the efeene to Ish 44 my hve been embel

shment. oweve suh hypothess ety not ply n the

se of he despton of Jesus Psson Jesus s nsued spt upon

nd beten (M 103 Mtthew 667, 76), n ust the sme wy

s the sevnt of the od:

I oeed my b to the sh

nd et my bed be pued om my h

I dd not hde my e om spttng nd sut (Iaa

hee e numeous ples of ths d. Sometmes the

wth Seond Ish s moe ndet but deepe s when Jesusppes bee the goveno:

Jesus me out weng the own of thons nd the pupe loBEHOLD HE MAi sd Pte. on 5)

The subme de of the messn ng subjeted to son nd

humton dws s Chstn tdton ws q to eognze(Ats 86 . 313) on the despton of the sueng sevnt n Is-

h 53-8

e hd no beut no mjest to dw ou eyes

no ge to me us deght n h e ws despsed he shn om the sght of men



ormened and humbed by suering

we despised him, we held him o no aoun

a hng om wih men trn away heir eyes .

He was aied, he submied o be sruk down

and dd no open his mouhhe was ed ike a sheep o he slaugher,

ike a ewe ha is dumb bere he shearer.

Wihou proeion, wihou jusie, he was aken away.16

Jesus, oo "did no open is mouh. His silene n he ourse o

s ria Mahew ; John ) muey ehoes he demeanor o

he servan o he Lord n Isaiah

He was ed like a sheep o he slaugher,

like a ewe ha is dumb bere he shearer17

I is absouey eran ha he image oJesusan image ha has

hanged he ourse o world hisoryis deeply oored by hs iden-

aion wih eond Isaiahs "servan o he Lord. I is equaly erain ha he auhors o he Gospes made and subsribed o ha

idenaion. Bu dd Jesus do so oo? JoaJeremias lowng a

rai poined ou by Harnak, has mananed ha he epihe pais

theou" ha is appied o Jesus originay mean "servan o God

raher han "son o God ha he preang o Jesus as the "servan

o God was nended om he rs o haraerize him as he ser

van o he Lord propheiay spoken o n Isaiah and ; and hahis soiay humiang ideniaion, inked o a very longsandng

radiion, me wih srong resisane n he earlies Chrisian

hurhes and eventuay dsappeared He onudes, on he basis o

some very suggesive evidene, ha Jesus mse aimed o be he

"servan o he Lord prophesied by eond Isaiah.8

This hesis, wh seeks o isolae era eemens o the Gospel

ex and deare hem immune om any inervenion by hose whoomped i, so as o rensae r us esus own houghs abou m-

sel, ineviaby runs no serious diulies. One suh dult

wihJereas does no explity onsider, is ha he ompers o

he Gospe may have begn om a series o iaions ha urned

upon he "servan o he Lord o eond Isaiah probably as hese

were ransmied by way o he eptuagn version, and may hen

ECCE

On h SptualRoots of Chsan

Dvoional Imay



have ncorpoaed hem no a narraive aogeher independen

especay n s descipion of he Passionof the peson and deeds

86 ofJesus. One example suces o show he exensive implicaons of

BCC his hpohess has been emphasized ha he Aamac wod

On he Scrpural taa servan aso means oy and lamb. Accodng o JeeRs f Chrs mias he ephe Lamb of God which John he Bapis appes o

Dena! Imager Jesus (John 36) and which pepaes he way r Jesus o be ecog

nzed as he Messah derves om a disorton tha ook pace when

he lngusicay ambgous Aramac expression meanng servan

of God was ransaed ino Greek.19 Bu of course hs anslaion

does no sand aone. The Evangelis is mplcy echong he epi

he n he phase "Behold he Lamb of God when he concudes hisdescripion of he crucixon (ohn 93-36)

Because i was he eve of Passove he Jews wee anxous ha he

bodes should no eman on he Cross r he comng Sabbah

snce ha Sabbah was a day of gea solemnity; so hey

equesed Pae o have he egs broken and he bodies aken

down The soders accodingly came o he s of hs feowvc-ms and o he second and broke hei legs bu when hey came

o Jesus hey und ha he was aeady dead so hey did no

break hs egs .

Ths happened n lmen of he ex of Scipue "No bone

of his sha be broken

Taken lea he passage is ncompehensbe hee is no ea-son o hnk tha hose condemned o be cucied had hei egs

broken o bng her suerings o a speedier end2 The expanaion

is o be sough elsewhere n he bbical passage whose llmen

s hee decared namely Exodus 12:6 Among he dvine prescrp-

ions concening he Passover meal we here d he owing

"Each lamb mus be eaen insde he one house and you mus no

ake any of he lesh ouside he house You mus no break a sngebone of i

As oseph Hennger has brlany demonsraed he prohib

on agans beaking he legs of sacca animas was nked boh

whn Semic cuture and acoss a much wde Eurasan geograph

ca and cultura egion o beefs conceng resurrecon. More

over anoher ciaton would have cliaed he appcaon o esus



o te etece i xodu 1246 amely vere 20 o Pam 34 He

gard every boe o i bod ad ot oe o em broe."

Te aalogy betwee e ervat o e ord" ad te lamb a 87

ia 53:7, reorced by te comparo betwee te acricia lamb

o xodu 246 ad te good ma woe troube are decribed On he SpurPam 3420 gave re to e dea o Jeu ubroe leg oos o Chrstn

Jo te vage te lowg paage goe o to tel ow Devoton Imge

te pear pierced Jeu' ide Te e reer o mel: Ti

vouced r by a eyewe, woe evidece i o be truted He

ow ta e pea te ru, o a you oo may believe"

a oe bee oed at t iitece o eyewite ev

dece a o parale elewere e Gope Wa te doube reerece to e met o Scrpre idcate (o boe o al

be broe" Tey al oo o m wom ey perced," wc

reer to Zecara 2) ta Jo dd o ee a evet-e o

dier o breag Jeu' eg, ad e piercig ide wit a

pear-at al probabty ever appeed rater, e aw a theo

ogoumenon a meiac idea at preeted a a evet A rig

o ctato ad geerated a arratve ituatio tat Sat Paul waaer to um up e rmula equatig Jeu wi a acrcia lamb:

Our Paover a begu e acrce oered-Crt mel" 1

Cora 57). t wa pobaby te vage meiaic perpec

tive tat ledo to pace e cruco o Paover, rater a o

te lowig day (a e yopc Gopel do). 4 Factua rut, a we

udertad , wa ot te r cocer o woever compled e

Gope. Bu te, wat i rut" (Jo 838)

I

Te word rue" a may meaig. We ca diigu rut"

accordg o t om rut" accordg to itor Hiorica ru

a deret, ditict level. Te torca exece o Jeu a

rut tat cao reaoby be cled ito doub. However, dicu o ay wo Jeu reay wa, becaue e accou we poe

o i e ad epecaly o dea are eagled i ad obcured

by e dere to prove tat e wa deed te Mea reod by e

prope Wt ti perpectve we ca mae ou a gre a wa

probaby muc e ditored te doer o race ad aer o

wdom, or i oter word e Jeu o e oga



In a recen book, ohn D. Crossan has trd o conjecre how he

accoun of esus asson came to be constructed He arges that al

88 that he dscipes closest o the assion knew abou the een was

GG that Jesus had been crucied. The nense nteres wih which he

On th Sptual assion was hen suded deeloped, Crossan emphases, in aRoot o Chta learned and sophisticaed mleu. Here, erses and mages were dis

Deotoal Image coered that were appicabe o the asson as a wholethough

obously not to specc detals, snce of these no memory had been

presered Eenal Crossan argues i was possbe o consruct a

coheren narrae based on hese scrpral connections and on the

men of partcuar deaed prophecies. Of one thing, how

eer, Crossan is certain (though it does not amount o much) esuswas indeed cruced under ontius ate

Howeer, he crucon too has is scrptural connecons and

suggestions of prophecy led. Snce the earles centures of the

Chrsan era, erse 6b of salm 22and they hae hacked o my

hands and feet"has been undersood as a prophecy of Chrsts cru

con. Gregory Val has atey reconstructed he hstory of ths

nterpretaton, whch was based on ye another stranslaton n theSepagt. The erse probably orgnaly ran They bound my

hands and feet We may hypothesze he existence of a preChris

tan ctation stng, wch bough togethe the seran of he

ord" of Second saiah and he ust man persecued n sam 22

(But I am a worm, not a man, abused by al men, scorned by the

peope") and saw both as messianc gres. The sharing out of

Jesus cothes between the soders who hae payed at dice r them

ark 524; uke 2324Jon 1:2324) takes a erse om salm 22

ey share out my garmens among hem and cas lots r my

clothes" and ransrms i no a narrate sequence. The rst

erse of sam 22y God, my God, why hast thou rsaken

me" became esus na nocaon on the cross atthew 2:46;

ark 1534).

riser Sendah has put hus:

The relaton between hstorca cts and 0 T quoation s oen

regarded as an nuence of he 0 T on he cts recorded, par

culary in the accounts of the assion. Ths is surey true n such

a case as s 22 whch n ts eniret has become a iturgica text

on he assion. ncreasing number of detais creep nto the



stry and it is hard t distingush beeen the ts whih related

the Psalm t the Passin and the detas in the stry evked by the

Psalm

ECCE

Details f this kind may have geneated rthe develpments f On he Spulthe narrative, as when the sldiers, msunderstanding Jesus itatn Rt f Chsn

f Psam 22 n the ss (El, El lem sabati, ae led t make Denl Imge

the gibe He s aing Eah" (Matthew 27:4649; Mak 153436.

Even the misegnitin f the Messiah takes its plae in the lgi f

ppheti lment in the spirit f Send saiah1

The messani element, based n tatins f the pphets (abve

a, saiah, may thus be taken as the prime impulsebend the na

ative develpment in the annal Gspels, whh n his regard

die greaty m letns f Jesus sayings suh as the Gspel f

Sant Thmas.32 Frm this kenel f prphe we have seen the l

lwng series graduay emerge ehld the virgin," ehld myservant," ehld he lamb f Gd," ehld the man" n the Vul

gate, the series runs Ecce vgo ecce pue meus ecce agnus de ecce

homo Aund 535 Hans Hlben the unge tk the rst element

(and, me disreet the tird and used them t express vivdly the

that ins the Old and the New Testaments (plate 8)

Ecce tanslates the Hebew wd hnn. n the versin f he

Sepuagnt, hnn s rendeed dou "-adverbal eressins,lluia n harater, gnate with the veb t see," and used muh

ke lk!" n mdern Engsh t ath the ea f a istene3 The

terms dou and de ur vey rreglarly as beween the deent

Gspels, beng used respevely 62 and 4 mes in Matthe 59 and n

times n Luke, 12 and tmes in Mark, and 6 and 6 nJn.4 dou is

abundant n Revelan 30 urenes tis has been ntepeted as

an mitan f he style f he prphets, n wih nmnal phrasesae en used. The vey euent emplyment f dou n saiah

88 usages, Jeemiah 132, and Eekiel ) etaiy rms that

the translatrs f the Sepuagnt assated the tem abve a with

pphei deams and vsns6 Tis," Sant Jeme was t write,

was why e prphets were aed sees vdentesbeause they saw

the ne whm thes uld nt see" that is, esus 3



As I shal atempt o sho the references to the prophets that

were contaned n he ospels opened up a qute uneected range

90 of iconic possbilies. It was a ong tme, however, bere hese were

ECCE reazed. To begn wh, Christan art ook an alogether deren

On the Siptal direcionRoots of Chtian One of our earliest pieces of writen evidence concerng wha

evotional Image were aken to be mages coneced to he Gospels comes om the

begnning of the urh centr n a very welnown passage n hs

Ecclesiasical Hiso (618 , Eusebius recouns seeng a bronze bas-

reef n he city of Paneas Caesarea Phlippi) Ths depicted "a ady

neelng and wh hands oustretched, n the maer of a suppli-

cant oppose it was anoher basrelef of he same maerial hatshowed a man on o, wrapped splenddy n a manle, and hold-

ing hs hand out to he ad8 A loca radiion hed hat the wo

scuptres represented Jesus n he ac of curng he woman who suf-

fered om beedng (Mahe 90- Mark56-34 Luke 83-48).

The woman hersef was supposed o have had them made and the

same radion hed that she was a naive of Paneas, he basrelefs

beng paced oppose her house. The passage shows that Eusebusacceped the inerpreaio chisiana of is group of gres which

presumaby represented Aescuapus, as we may fer om s ref

erence to a curatve herb that grew on the monument It is clear,

however, tha Eusebus was uneasy a the possibiy of Chrsian

imagesso much so hat he regarded not oly hs group thought

to represen Jesus and the woman cured of beedg, bu oher

paned images of Peter, Paul, and Jesus, as he producs of a heahen mpuse. A all events, when Constanta, he sster of the

Emperor Consantne, asked Eusebus o send her an mage of the

Redeemer, he resed uite sharpl itng he tex we have s

auhenc) both the Mosaic prohibon aganst mages and the per-

fecion of Crist, wch no image could comuncate.0

The imagemakng impuse ha we can deect n hese txts of

the early urh cenury ovehemed the ebe resistance of hecerg wich was lnked to Hebrew radition. The woman cured of

beeding became a common subject r the basreiefs hat adorned

Chrsian sarcophagi representng Jesus the worker of miracles, a

gure who, unlke he Jesus of he Passion, was mmedaely com

prehensbe o he pagan mnd Jesus became an Aesculapuswith

ghier powers han hs pagan analge4 The popuarity of he



miracl of h woman d of ding gcan alo ca

hr w mraworkng pow hi dunamis acng wih

o hi voiion o awan lik an irprl lcria charg 1

ha coc him nananoy wh h woman. 42 Thi a qui EGGE

xcpona momn n h Gopl J alway play an acv On he Sprol vn n m of ng or n h dpra lion on h Roo of Chian

co ha xpd in h word of alm n h c� of h eoional Image

woman cd of ldg (a woman who wod hav n rgardd

a in a a of impry) J do no ac; h ahr p o

aciona i h narrav whd o on down h rach of h

Law nvovd in h phyica conac wn h wo. On ccial

dail rcordd h ynopc Gop mphaz ha J hadno vn gird h woman prnc h "cam p om

hnd (opishen) "and ochd h dg of hi cloak (Mahw

90 Mak 5; Lk :44 I i gncan ha ohr prna

ion of h am cn y cona c on h mmdaly

lowing momn whn J ddy com awar of h

woman' pnc (pla n and 11.

Th imag concnad on hi poin in im hi dciivnan vinc h xraordinay novly of Chrian conography

an anonymo ck woman had nv n ndowd wih ch

mporanc in h ar of Grc or Rom 4 Mac a Mah

w ha orvd conu h knl and h ndaion of ay

Chian iconograph In h h and xh cnui howv

h radion wa ppnd and pacd y omhng compy

drn a dvoiona imag dvlopd ha had l or no nara-iv conn I Wzman righ o gg a h do in hi

nodcon o h ympom accompanyng a wlnown xh

on ha h crad "h Ag of Spiuai ha w can hr

a un of h GrcoRoman radion of dvoiona imagy?47

Ern Kizing n h am vom propo an anaiv la

naion h apparanc or appaanc of dvoonal imag may

hav n a pon o h nd r a mor dic and na con-ncion wih h havy ralm Kizing gg ha wa no

long nogh r imag o apprhndd a cua o hoca

docmn o a mn n a lcin ym ahr h

mag had o avaal hr and now.48 Th and oh c

or may ndd hv onid o h poplariy of dvoiona

imag. h am i i dcl o any nd r ch dirc and



inimae cnnecin ih he celesia ealm behind he impsing

msaic (a 2550 ha cves he apse he chuch f Hsis

92 id a ana (pae The msac depcs he visin f zeie

(:5) hee inepeed accding he Chsian adiin hch

On e Spl sa i as a evelain f Chis n zekiels ex e agan nd heRoot of Chan mua used nduce pphec passages ha ae cied in he

Devoonl mgey Gspes

lked an BEHO a sm nd as cmng m he nh a

vas clud ih ashes e and bilan ligh abu i and

ihn as a adiance le bass gng he hea he

laes. n he e as he sembance f u livng ceaues inhuan m

" lked and HOD kai eidon kai idou he visin f he Sn

f Man (Daniel 73, hich nsped Mahe 30 and hence he

icngaphy Chis n maes (Maiestas Domini, pens in simila

vein. hs mula akes us a ng ay m he sacphagi ha

ecun esus miaces ih damaic immedacy a lng aindeed m any naaive dmensin We ae n he dimensin,

ahe f ha e migh ca he sensive mde he em idou is

a devce pjec us in anhe eam he eam ppheic

visin This is emphasized by he sc Jesus hlds n hich ae

en sme based n saiah 259 EHOD THE OD [idou

ho theos hemon] hm e have aied le us ejice and exul in

his deiveance. F he hand he Ld il es n his munain 5

ou as e have ned en assciaed h nma sen

ences he Sepuagn anslain he passage m zeie us

qued hie n sicy speaing a nmina senence is chaace

ized by a lng seies f subsanives and adjecves dependen n a

single veb (erkheto. n Chisian devinal mage he sen

sive nnnaaive mde pvided a visual equivaen heseppheic nmnal senences.

his is ha is demnsaed by he nmina senences ih mes

sianic impcains ha have singled u in he Gspels. These

phases inspied sme he ms idey dised devinal

images m he nunciain en accmpanied by he phase

Ecce anca domini" "Behd he Handmaid he Ld) hn



he Bapi geneay depced holding a col ha ead Ecce aus

de "Behod he Lam o God)5 The imagetype o he Madonna

and Chid plae 13), wich ha no pecic cptal a, poay 93

deve om he expeion dou o pas; he emanic amgiy

made poile o dipace he ocialy candalo evan y On he Stul"on o o a happen n he Vgae whee he pae n Iaiah Roots of Chsn

421 (Ecce se meus) ecome, when Mahew ce 1228, Dvotonl Im

Ecce pue meus Moeove aiah evan o he Lod alo

he oce a we have ad) ou ho anthopos, Ecce homohe

iconogaphc te ha ecame mo in he We y way o he

ceeae icon kep in he Roman chch o Sana Coce n

Geaemme plae 1).54"The analogy etween he eeience o he mage and myica

eeience, an Belng ha wen, i conmed y he c ha

vion have inclded image o he Man o Soow and he Thone

o Gace, oh example o moden devoonal image55 The evi

dence have aemled hee alow o place emak n a mch

oade conex, which make i cea ha "he anaogy etween he

expeience o he mage and mycal expeence wa ooed in aexta adiion gong ack o ewih popheic leae. Ti a

don, eanimaed y he aho o he Gope, played a decive

oe no oly in he "expeence o image in he podcion

Ti poin cienly llaed y one exampe. John he

Evangei ee o he cced C n em ha ae a vaiaon

on he comay oenve mlae Jon 92627 and ha ae

ily epodced in deal in he mo widepead iconogapictype pae 1)

Je aw mohe, wih he dicipe whom he loved anding

ede he. e aid o he, Mohe, BEHOD YOUR oN de ho huos

sou]! and o he dicipe, EHOD YOR MOTHER [de he mete

sou!

By an exaodinay paadox, a ecng eate o ewih

pophec ex ceaed he pee omehing new and alo

gehe dieen: he emegence o Chian devoional mage



PLATE

Dieo Rodez de Sv y VezezJaob Rivg h

Bloosa Garms of oph (Madid Escoral



PTE

Dio Rodi d Sva y Vl, e g Vuan

(Madrid ado

PT 3.

tonio msae rg Vulan

(om vd,

Meampen

blisd

trp 606



Above

PAE 4. Caravaggo Cang f San Mahew Rome

San g de rances)

PATE Domeco

Deah f San Cea (Rome

San ug de rances)



AE 6

Rol grne ondon

Wene Abey)

AE 7.

Sn o Conqe



P 8

ns olbe the Yoge Alloy of th ld and Nw stamn

(Edbgh Ntio Glley o Scotnd)



PLA 9.

ati saohagus (no 9 (Vatan Museums)

PAE I

Saohagus with tees es Muse Rattu)



PAT I I .

agment of sarcohagus dectngesus and the woman

cued of beedng (Rome Catacom o San Callisto)



PLAE 12.

Te Vn Ezeke (Saloa chch o osios Davd)

PLAT 13

Madnna and Cd (Rome

Santa Maa ntiqa

sth-seventh

centy)



PE 14

EcceHoo (srae von Meenem

ae een ceny

PTE 15.

Con (Od eay een

ceny)



PL ATE 16.

Pa decng nbs Msc Psn Msem)



PLA 17

Caal deing a s hurh o Sain o Conques losers)

PLAE 8

Caial deing a sien urh o Sa o Conques loisers)



PAE 9

Ren Magre La tahison ds imas os geles Cony Msem o

, coyrgh S 998)



PAE 0

he eme o Soomon om Johann ernhard her von ErachEntwu ene htrhen Ahtetur 7



_·

·�

"\�..A

•

d t t)ik•;·,1.-

._1/�·t<•lLc:t.Ji1l.

c 2W>;'· : -p-

PLATE 21

Stoeheg fom ische von lach Entui . . .

PLATE 22

Chese Bdges om Fscher vo Elach, Entwui . . .

·1.�i'/t •. ��1l{ti /! ou lr·.'/�Jk ·

dJ u1

f

l/.rm

'�rd

.u,\

l . fbr

1 •l [ir., . : \ ·i1 m·t� .

1

J;

1 Jf 1 ' Ihm i;nfJi!q,

u? •?b_f9-·

f

h i

:

1

,f

I

�

· �u M!

li

{r !lr,1� fdft·! _m\u. ,1/ ·

/;lhr !,�LU- r/;{ , s»· A /·�1/dl}· M \a (hq I •n0



LATE 2

Perseols om John laman Lcu

utu 1829

AE 24.

Saue he emle of Egna om lax

man us uu

5 cptm



Vishn1t .

· Tran sf gmo:l

Above

PLATE 25. Vishnu om

Flaxman Lecures on

Scupur

L ef

PLATE 26 Transfgurato

o Jesus om Faxman,

Lectues on Sculpure



Idols nd LikenessesA PASSAG IN ORIGN AND ITS VICISSITUDS

Durn the rst entures of Christianit a arely hosile

attde toward imaes was radualy repaed, r reasons

that we are still unabe ly to understand, by a larely

vorabe attude The ext that I am about to examneOriens Homlies on Exodus throws an unexpeted

liht on this ruially important hane and on its lon

term onsequenes.

Oren's Homles on Exodus ike muh of hs vast iter

ary work, has survved only in the Latin translation made

by unus of Aquieia early in the h entur2 unus

workn om a text peed toether by shorthand writersaround the years 35-5, omitted a few passaes nserted

some repetitons, and suppled matera to aps ow-

ever, wo aments of the text with whh we are on

erned do survive also in the orinal Greek The st was

publshed by the seventeenthenury sholar Franois

Combes on the bass of the soalled atena Romana



("oman Chain) Vat Barb g 569) he second hich is onger,

and ich Baehrens included his ediion o Origens Homiies on

96 Exodus s und in a manuscrip Monac graec. 358) o he atenamos AND assemed y rocopius o Gaza (hch remains as ye unpu

IEssEs ished). hough hey der slighy n engh and conen, hese

A Passae Oe o agmens do give us a less indirec (hough sl hay) picre o

ad I Vcssudes Origen's houghs We are noneheess oiged o ork ih u

nuss ranslaion, aove al ecause s as he means y ch

Origen s nae as kep aive in he Wes despie he c ha ceran

o hs deas had een condemned.

. "You shal no make an do r yoursel nor he lkeness o any-ng in he heavens aove, or on he earh eo or n he aers

under he earh (xodus :): so runs he second commandmen,

ch n he ain Wes evenuay ecame so cosey assocaed

h he rs ha hey ere virualy sed o one. n commen

ing on hese ords, Oigen nsss ha "dos and "gods (on he

one hand) and dols and "ikenesses (on he oer) are no syn

onyms He s especay concerned ih he second disncion, andreers o he passage in he rs leer o he Corinhians in hich

San au arms ha i s no sn o ea e lesh o animas oered

in sacrce, ecause "an dol s nong in he ord (1 Corhians

84 hoti ouden eidoon en kosmo" ; an Vulgae, quia nihi est idoum

in mundo") Hoever, Orgen remarks, he Aposle "has said ha

idols are nong ("de idos dxi uia non sun) u he has no

sad ha kenesses are also noing He coninues

, r nsance, someone reproducesin haever maerial e i

gold, sver ood sonehe eares o a uadruped or a ser

pen or a rd and decdes o adore is, en he makes no a ike

ness [simiitudinem] u an idol. nd should he reproduce i n a

picure r he same reason again e should say ha he has made

a lkeness.

An dol idoum) on he oher hand, s "ha hich s no:

Bu ha s ha ch is no? Somehng hose eaures are no

seen y he eyes u sioned y he mind isel e us suppose,

r exampe ha someone rms he head o a dog or a ram ih



human mbs, or sons a man wth two heads, or jons togeter

a uman bust and the ower parts of a orse or a sh. Woever

makes tese ngs or tngs ke tem makes not ages but dos 97

IDOS AN

n ts atter case, "no rm s drawn om exstng tngs; t corKEESSES

responds to what the de and curous mnd as dscovered wtn A Psage in Orgen

tse. At al events, Orgen concludes, the dvne probton appes andI Vssitude

to both dols and kenesses6

3 In s comments on the commandment that God gave Moses,

Orgen refers on the one and to centaurs and srens dos that on

together "a human bust and te lower parts of a horse or a s) andon te other to the Egyptan god nubs who ad the head of a

dog . wth human imbs pate 6)7 t s harder to dent wat

e has n mnd n rerrng to te "lkenesses of anmas: possby

r nstance) e Egyptan god Mendes, depcted at st n e rm

of a ram, and later n te rm of a goat Orgen's omies on Exo

dus were gven shortly bere e was oblged to leave lexandra n

23. In them we ear echoes of te huge dversty of voces and anguages tat resounded n the streets of the great ct that was the

true center of Heenstc cvlzaton

Orgen's concluson, wch smply repeated the Mosac prohb

ton aganst mages, held notng new but the argment that pre-

cedes t based on the cear dstncton drawn between dos and lke-

nesses, seems unusua We need ony compare t wt the begnnng

of Tertlan s treatse De dooata wrtten a coupe of decades ear-er, around 203206: Edos s the Greek term rform; smlary ts

dmnutve eidoon gves us our wordformua Terere bothform

andformua aways realy mean ido idoum). We see that ertl-

ans pont of vew s qute derent om Orgen's. How, then, had

Orgen come to develop the dsncton tat e draws?

4 Orgens argment trns on two wors, "do idoum) and"keness simiitudo) If we consder the latter, we enconter a

derence beween Ruus and Orgen, or more precsey beween

the versons of the Bbe tey refer to. In the Vetus atina text, te

term simiitudo s used n bot Exodus 20:4 and Geness :2: "You

shal not make an do r yoursef nor the keness of anythng

non facies tibi ipsi idom neque omnem simiitudinem eorum); and



So God ceated man n s own mage and keness (ad magnem

e smludnem De) The Sepagn veson y contast has

9 homooss n the s stance and homooma the seconda d-o N eence hat dd not pevent those Geeks who voed cns om

KNSSSnvokng Geness 17 as an agment agast the advesaes A ag n Ogen . adne hs aged that te coce o a tem ke homooss"

and I Vicitude ahe than homooma" o homooes"), a tem that n Patonc and

neoPatoc tets mped a deeate ntenton o ken hmant

to od maks a decsve moment n the hstoy o deas. Boh

edlon" and homooma," the key tems n Ogen' s commentay on

Eods cay Patonc esonances tat take s eyond the scope

o the se n te ettes o Sat Pa Pato had sed these wodsto desce how the ceesta Ideas came to e emoded pece

nadeqate n eathy kenesses. May we hen catch a Patoc

echo n Ogen's dstcton eteen mages and kenesses To

answe ths qeson we mst eamne the agments hat Pato

deveops n the Sophs

The vsto om Eea dsngshes wthn the genea categoy

o mmc eteen two ats whch he cas the as espectveyo copyg ekasken) and o son" phanasken) Sophis

35e36c 6de 64c 66de e epans hat the a o copyng

o potate s nd patcay whee the copy s ade to

epodce the popotons o the ogna n ength eadth and

depth and ts vaos pats moeove eceve the pope nts."

oweve hose who have to mode o pan coossa ges" ms

wok deent Wee they to epodce the eates n the tepopotons the ppe pats o te ges yo kno wod appea

too sma and the owe too age" (35e36a . he eo made to

acheve a mo convncg son has n t an eement o ckey

n ths sense the sophs s one who poesses an a o son"

phanasken echnen). Ths s not smpy an anaog The hypothess

ha he sopst s a make o mages edolopoon) takes s to the

hea o the daoge the conaon o Pamendes thess thatnoeng s not." The mage edolon) s not te t t has eng

o a knd allesi ge men pos) (4 Conseqent negaton qa

deence s not to e consed (as Pamendes conses t n s

acy monsc agment wth negaton qa nonent

Patos agmen wch doesnot e o esence as sch pays

no heed to nonestent engs nsance poetc ctons ke sens



o centas. 8 Oigen s agmen by conas tns on pecsely ths

eston o he depiction o ctitios beings which ae podced by

the mind hogh a "compehensive epesentaion (kata peep 99

tken phantasan) Ths expession combnes he Platonic notion o mos AND

"compehensive eason eeptkos ogos) tha ses "evdence and KNSth (Sexts mpics Aganst the Logcans, 3) wth the Stoics A Passage n Ogen

concept o "appehensive epesentaion (kataeptke phantasa) and Is Vssude

pon whch hinges he ccal pobematic o the Stoics' ogc and

the theoy o peception namey the "cteon o th.2

Sexts mpiics wies that an "appehensive kataeptke epe

sentaion is one ha "comes om an exisng obect apo hupak-

hontos, and which is mpessed pon and aken p by the sbjec inconomiy wih that same existng obec [ka katauto to hupak-

hon, and is sch as canno be deved om an obec that does not

exist [apo me hupakhontos. . . . Many epesentations ste s hat

come om hngs hat ae nonexsent [me hupakhontos as hap

pens in he case o madness and these cano be appehensive

kataeptka Ogen when he speaks o idols ha ae podced n

he mnd by "compehensive epesentaion [kata peeptken phan-tasan, ses he same wods these ae "mages o thngs that ae

nonexistent [ta de edoa anupakhon estn

The expession to hupakthon (hat whch exists) anothe n

damenta em in the vocablay o he Socs impled (so A

Gaese ages) he idea hat beteen langage and ealty hee

exists a complex elaion ahe than the simple somophc coe-

spondence assmed by Plato and Aistotle.22 Some whe eaie AJ Fesgie had emaked tha n the Posteo Anatcs 9b3

Aistole (who neve ses he abstact tem hupakss) had attempted

o isolate an existenal coe withn the Geek veb "o be (ena)

Asote daws on a scholastc agment which pesmably went

back to the Sophists

Thee ae kinds o estons ha we ask and they coespond to he knds o tngs tha we now. They ae the esion

o ct the esion o eason o case the esion o exs

tence and the eston o essece hen we ask whethe this o

that s so ntodcing a plality o tems (eg whethe the sn

ses eclpse o no) we ae asking the esion o c . . is

when we now he ct that we ask the eason; eg i we now



100

DO AND

NEE

A Paage i Oge

ad Is Vicissudes

that the sun suers ecpse and that the earth moves we ask the

reasons r these cts That s how we ask these questions; but

there are others whch take a derent rm eg wheher a cen

taur or a god exsts. The queson of existence refers to simple

exstence and not to whether the subect is (say whte or not.When we know that the subject exsts we ask what it is eg

"what then is a god or "a man?

A few pages rther on (Poseo Anaics b Aristotle

emphases this pont writing

yone who knows wa "man or any other thng is must alsonow a it is because noone nows wa a nonexstent thng

is o ga me on oudeis oiden o esin] (He may now the meanng

of a phrase or of a name if eg speak of a goatstag age

apos but it is possbe to now wa a goatstag is

t was Festugire s hypothesis that n drawng such a clearcut ds

tnction beteen the use of "s as a copula and ts use n an exstentia sense Aistotle was nspred by the Sopsts skeptica attitde

toward relgious tradition We must note however, that when he

ows s remarks on how we proceed "when we now that the sub

ject exsts by posng the question "What then is a god or a man?

he distances imself om any poeica inference that ght be

drawn om the uxtapostion of gods and centaurs. Sti when he

sets rth the dicuties raised by cttious beings such as centaurs orgoatstags or other words by terms that possess meanng but ack

referentia content Arstote does open up the lne of thought that

leads to the Stoics and to the way they concentrated on nonexistent

bengs as a means of cang n queston the somorphic relation

beween words and tngs. Sextus Empricus writes as lows

Indeed every thought [noesis] s produced eiher by way of a sensation or not wthout a sensation or by way of an event in expe

rience or not without an event in experience. So we shal d that

not even those events that are called lse pseudeis panasias ]

r example those that occur in dreams or in the state of mad

ness-are cearly to be separated om those of which we are

conscious by way of sensation n accordance with an event n



eerience. And, trut, woever mgt in madne magne

being jut ike te Fure Maides all bloody and snakelike [Eurip

de, Oresteia 256 a nd a rm made up o tng tat ave 101

aready appeared to m; and n te ame way woever, beng m AND

aeep, ee in dream a wnged man, doe not dream tNSSS

witout aing rmery een a wnged tng and a man. And, A Paae i Oe

peaking more genea it not poble to encounter n ad s Vcisiuds

tougt a ting we do not aready poe a ometing aready

nown to u by way o an eent in eerence

Ti appen, contnue Sextu Empiricu, by analog eiter

becaue we enlarge te dimenion o tng (a in te cae o aCycop) or becaue we tem (a in te cae o a pygmy),

or agan

by compoition, wen om a man and a ore we tnk o a p

pocentaur, uc a a never tood bere u (Sextu Emprcu,

Agaist the Logcias 25660).

et u return to Origen argment te centaur, gien tat t a

a compoite nature, i an image and tu doe not exit Orgen

ere bring togeter te ct tat te centaur doe not exit (a Ari

totle nit) and te ct o t compote nature (empazed by

te Stoic) Ti netor o idea revea Origen' relationp wt

wat a been caed middlePlatonm, n wc Stoic teme and

eement taen om Aitote were graed onto te domnanttock o Platonic dea Ecoe o Stoic terminology can be

und, ndeed n Orgen paraprae o te rt etter to te

Corintian Corntan 84) nihil est idolum hoti ouden esti

eidolon] in mundo" paralel te Stoic ou gar huparksis to eidolon.7

I am not n a poiton to embark on a dcuon o te rt etter to

te Corintan, and n any cae t would not be relevant to my

preent teme owever, my impreion tat Orgen tranatonwa by no mean nexact. It mgt be arged tat te tatement tat

an idol i noting idolum est nihil) wc i mplcitly repeated n

a later retorica queton ( Corntan : ti oun phemi hoti

eidolon ti estin"; "Wat do I impy by ti? tat an ido ome

tng?), take up and rewor te cema developed n coatc

argment wic a Aritotle declare n te Posteor Analytics



I02

(9b3, caed in doubt he exisence alike of cenaus of gods

o of boh ogehe8

rns ND . nyone who spoke of images (above all eligious images in

KNsss dcenuy exandia inevitaby used ambigous tems, evenA Passage Orge when speakng he same anguage insance Geek We ae o

ad Is Vsses demonsae is ambiguiy by compaing Platos wods wi ose

of Paul: "he image suely is n some sense (edoon et ge men po)

says Pao and an ido "is nohng n he wold (hot ouden edoon en

komo) says Paul ( Coinhians :) Thee s an obvious opposiion

beeen po" (of a kind and ouden" (nohing) bu s is ess sig

ncan han the hidden divegence beeen he two uses and meanings of edoon" and et" which we may anslae espectivey as

"image and "ido and as "is and "exss9

Oigen was deepy indebed o he Paonic tadition, as we may

cealy see om his popensiy metaphos hat tun on images

and simies. He dd not hesiae o compae God the Fathe o "a

saue so age as o hod the enie eah . . . whose immensity is

such that noone may popey examine it and he Son o

anohe statue pefectly alike in the aspect of is membes and the

lineaments of is ce m and mate bu wich does no

have ts easueless immensi so tha hose who could not

obseve and examne a immense one may ook upon ths and

may itly beeve hey have seen he othe one since i epo

duces wih absolue keness mudne] al is feaes heaspect of is membes and of is ce, is m and its mate 30

We do not now whehe n e iginal Geek the keness (m-

udo)bewen he o saes was eessed by he wod homooma"

o homoo" In Oigen's vie he lkeness beeen God the Fahe

and the Son lke that beeen God and mannd was o be unde

sood n a puely spiita sense1 Nonetheless it is sigcant tha hechooses a sculptal meapho. Passages ke he one us cied pompt

he ught tha he distinction between he mage (edoon) and the

likeness (homooma) mulaed by Oigen n is comment on Exodus

: was insped by a tpicay exandan compomise beween

Geek plosophy and udaic adiion.3 It mgh seem ha he lae

gained he uppe hand snce he conclusion of Oigen s holy is



decdedy aiicoic i spirit eg equy codemaoy o ages

ad o likeesses I te log ru oweve s cocuso was

udemed y e ver dstico o wc it was ased 33 103

Someime ate e sevet cety or eay i e eg mos ND

Stepe o Bosta wote a treaise iled Aganst te Jews Fom te KNSSSew agmets a survve we ca see ta e sougt to ermu A assage ge

late te Mosac commadmet y coueposg eknes ad I cissitudes

esses icoso eda ka agaata.3 Ma eg ceated e

image o God mig e adored te sepet ceated e devs

image migt o I te course o is polemica argumes agast

Jewis icoocass Stepe meos te images o ceuim to e

ud te Taeracle. ow i te Catena comped y Procopus o Gaza te passage ake om Origes Hy n Exdus is

mmedatey owed y a questo posed y a uamed adver

say: "I images ae o e codemed wy e as God desed

at ee sould e images o ceuim i s taeacle? I am

uae to judge wete ts questo ad te reply at s give

ae daw om some ote omiy o Origes.3 Wat seems

poale s ta Stepe o Bostra took as e satig poi isow electos te texs o Exodus 2 coected i te Catena o

Pocopus o Gaza. We do ot ow te cotext i wc Stepes

poemca deese o mages agaist e ews was put wad. It

may ave ee ta e was seekg a opportit o express s

oppostio o a cue o oslt towad mages ked to e ai

coic tradiio o e aateas wic st suvved i e regio

o Bosta. 37 At al evets as as ee poied out e distcioetwee idols ad ikeesses tat was muated y Orige eap

peas icoopile witigs y Teodorets o Cyrus ad

Teodoe o Sudio 38

6 Origes deas codemed part as eetcal ad a wide cr

cuato i e Wes te rm o passages cuded i te Gssa

Ordnara, te geat compatio o ica commeaes made yAselm o Lao Ts is te coext wi wic as ee oted

ta Berard o Claivauxs wrtgs cota ecoes o Oige39

Wat as o ee oted is te cose relaosip etwee Oges

commetay o Exodus : (wc is amog te passages icluded

e Gssa Ordnaa) ad Beard's mous codematio o

e sculptres tat adored te cloistes o Romaesque curces



04

DO ND

NA Paage n Ogen

and It Vtude

(Apooa in Guemum Abbatem, 5)-a codeao o ith

ou t uace ad abiguie (ee plae ad :1

the coe, ude the eye of he bethe ho read hee

ha prot i hee thoe idcuou oe, hat avellou ad dered beau hat beau deiy [dicua

monstuositas mia quaedam defomis fomostas acfomosa defomi

tas]? To hat pupoe are thoe ucea ape, thoe ece lio,

hoe otrou cetaur [monstuos centau, hoe hafe,

hoe tiped ger, thoe ghtg igh thoe huer idg

her hor May bode are hee ee ude oe head, or

agai, ay head o a ige bod Here i a uoted beath a erpe ta hee, a h ith a beat head cenitu hinc

in quadupede cauda seentis iinc in pisce caput quadupedis. Here

agai he epar of a hore ra half a goat bed i o a

hoed bea bear the hdquae of a hoe ho, o

ay ad o avelou ae the vaiee of hape o every

had, that e are oe teped o read he abe ha i our

book ad to ped the hoe day odeg a thee hgraher ha edtag o he a of God or God ake, f me

ae o ahaed of thee e, hy at leat do hey ot hk

o he eee?42

o ae atquty o, ceaur ad re pread gh acro the

La We by ay of both ext ad likeee.4 Oe iporta

ext a the opeig lie of Horace As Poetica, e ko toBead of Caivaux ad o oe of h cotepoarie.4 Ho

eve Orge a a peca cae. The cataog of he brary of the

Abbey of Clarvaux he elh ceury t eleve aucrip of

hi ork, hich icude Ruu ralaio of h Homiies o the

Old Tetaet.4 We ca agie tha Beard pit of oac

piety ould have bee deepy touched y thee phae i rige'

atack o age he ikee o da o thg hat ex itcorrepod o ha he idle ad curiou d ha dcovered ithi

telf" (non enim aiqua ex ebus exstantibus assumitu species sed quod

ipsa sibi otiosa me et cuosa epeet. Aer l Bead had te

a legth agat the i of cuioi ad had depored-pehap

ih a echo of Oige-the dagerou practice of pedg he

hoe day oderig a hee tg ather ha eaig o the



aw o God (oumque diem occupare ila ia mirado quam lege

Dei mediado).

Bernad's wods espeak an attaction epessed with some d

cult wich suggests a pound amivaence toward the proa s A

tion o images His great advesary Peter eard expessed this NSSS

amivaence dierent y stng n is ook Sic e No a sees o A Pssag in Ogn

texts and against "the copoeal repesentation o God The st and Is Vissuds

o these was the passage om Oigen distngsing etween idols

and likenesses7 It s proale that this distnction, whch had

ecome curent thanks to the incuson o the passage in the Gloa

Ordiaia helped to dw out the amiguous stats o the image

tsel a element n the moe geneal amigit that Christans elttoward ewish tadton8

7. We nd anothe echo o the passage om Ogen (though ts

autho is not named in Thomas quinas's commentary on

Cornthans :. To exempli a ikeness o a nonexistent eng

quinas mentons not centaus as such, ut the head o a hose

oned to a human od It is clea that the polem m was amatter not o idoaty ut o what we now cal the eerental qua

it o the mage. n his Adoaioe i Novum Teameum Eas

mus ctes the dstincton rmuated y quinas etween idolum"

and imiliudo" or imulacrum" (dol and lkeness)unawae it

seems that ts deived om is eoved Orgen (in the tansation

o Ruus) The dstnction declared Easmus was not unwothy

o the aholico. Ths was a ankly ironic emak the aholicoa atn vocauay compiled y Govanni Bali o Genova, had een

sined out y oeo Valla as an instance o lingstc aarism

One o Vala's cosest iends and coaoratos, Giovanni Torte,

indeed correcty deed idoatry in s De Orhographia as imu

lachrrum culura" the cult o images51 Easmus was ght in cass

ca atn no meanng coud attach to the distincton that quinas

had taken om Ogen (or moe pecse om Runus). Howeve,a deepe analysis shows that the impications o Orgen' s distinction,

aong wth the questions ased y qunas n hs commentay on

Contians : ae more complcated than they seem.

One o the ojections that quinas sts (in orde to conute

them) states artst can oy epresent what he has seen Ho

then is t posse to have images o nonexstent eings? To ths,



06

DOS AD

EESSESA Passae in Oen

and I Vsstuds

Aquas ps that whn w spak of an ido's ack of smbanc

w f to th who and not to its pats which a dpcions of

naua objcts.5 his py cas th Stoics maks on th "com

phnsv pows of anasa compason that may sm

absud but is not Aquinas wot is commntay on th st ttto th onthans (up to th tnth chapt) dung hs scond stay

n Pais om anuay 169 to un .5 B hs dpatu om

Ita h had bn wokng on a vy dnt pojct a commntay

on Astots Pe ermeneas whch was agy basd on two com

mntais of th ay h cnt by Ammonius (his had ust

bn tansatd om th Gk by th Domican Wam of

Mobk) and by Bothius (ts was n tun agy basd on Po-phyiuss ai commntay).54 In th passag I hav ust quotd

om Aquinas's commntay on l onthians 8:4 w can catch an

cho both of Astos Pe ermeneas and of th commntais

mad on t n antqut

ght at th stat of th Pe ermeneias (6a.9 w onc agan

com acoss th ragelaos th goatstag

ust as som thoughts n th sou a nith tu no s wi

som a ncssaiy on o th oth so aso wth spokn

sounds o st and tuth hav to do with combination and

saation. hus nams and vbs by thmsvs nstanc

"man o "wt whn notg th is addda ik th

thoughts that a without combnation and spaation so

thy a nith tu no fas. A sign of ths is that vn goat-stag signis somthng but not as yt anythg tu o s

kai gar o ragelaos seimanei men ouo de alees e seudos

uss "is o "is not is addd ith simpy o wth fnc to

tm).

A wod k ragelaos" n whch mang and fntia a

so cay dsond highights a mo gna phnomnon namyth convntionat of anguag Substantivs Astot continus

hav a mang d by convntion th pats of which thy a

mad up hav no manng xcpt n th cas of compound nouns

I say [nams a signcant y convntion bcaus no nam is

a nam natuay but oy whn t has bcom a symbo. Evn



naculae noses o beass nstance) o nee reveal some

hng ye none o hem s a name55

07

Ammonus n hs commenary on he Pe ermenei gves a ms AND

longer lst o possbes. Ths evelops he electons o he Socs Nssson the queson o meanng a) a soun may boh be a wo an A assag in Ogn

have a meanng-r nstance "man a soun may have a mean an ts cisitus

ng but not be a wor- nsance he bakng o a og c) a soun

may be a wor bu have no meanng-r nstance bli hs was

he tratonal esgnaon the soun o the hap) ) a soun

may neher be a wo no have any meanng- nstance a

wslng o buzzng or a soun mae by some w anmal bychance an not wh he am o sgnng or epresentng any

tng.5

Ths passage consers mimei o repraeentato s s the em

use by lam o Moerbeke) however nether n antqu no n

the le Ages o we compaably rreacng scussons o

vsual representaton The ct ha we keep encounerng com

ments abou cenaus an oher nonexstent bengs emonstratesnrec tha he theme o meagless sgns an mages remane

largely unexplore The paral excepons-such as the common

place o the chancemae lkeness-oly conrm the general rule. 57

ne s empte o scen a kn o vsual bt n the act o the

Geek panter Potogenes, who supposely hrew a sponge at s

own complete work n an excess o espar here a meanngless

sgn s caught n the momen a whch t s ansrme nto a peec repesenaon o the slave o a og. oweve, was oly

because o s exaonay oucome at e anecoe-true or

lse-was ever se own Those nrnscaly meangless sgns ha

as Ernst Gombch has augh us) communcate he eerence o

luson o those who behol hem trough the eployment o spe

cc vsual convenons became the subject o theorecal relecton

only when the asc traton cenee on mess began o becale n queston

Anqut an the le Ages ha asymmetrcal attes

towa wos on one han an mages on the oher an ths c can

be ace o a hsocal vegence Snce mages were nterprete

n mmec ems ther elaon wh he naual wo was taken



grn Ariol rging g Plo h pu rwr h i

h humn lngg w o inrpr convnion n hi

8 nourg proun xporion o l ho phnomn h

mos ND n r longi n yon lngg Such n xpnion i

KN inqu howvr cu i k no ccoun o pr n (o assag i Og r I cn inrnic rnc wn h wor n h img

a Its Vicisstus A wor lk "gog my i o pric "nonxinc u

w cnno y hi o h corrponing img.8 mgwhhr

hy rprn ojc h xi nonxin oc or non

ojc-r lwy rmiv5 w wn o y Cec n' et pa une

ppe w hv o u wor (pl Img r wh hy r

Th rfrnc o Exou : "I m who I m i nnionl. Wr u o ivng h oh iolry n h conmion of

iolry long o p h w hv hin Bu proly Ori

gn w no oghr wrong o c p conigi wn

iol n lkn



SleICLUSO AD EXCLUSO

Moohism of raso ad of th har polythism of th imga

io ad of art that is what w d.

1 n 1605 tw Venetian priests accused f minr enses

were prisned and ts uleashed a btter diplmatc

war between the Venetan Republic and the Hl See Ppe

Paul basg his psitn n the prnciple f indirectpwer otet ndrecta) rmuated b elarmn tk

the vew that he had the ght t tevene n the intenal

aairs f the Venetian state b equestng that the tw

pests be reeased. A livel debate ensued. The mmediate

stakes cncened the juridica and pitica ndependence

f the Republic f Vece n a nge perspecive the

espectve lts f church and state wee at ssue PaSap the cal thelgian f the Repubc vgus

upheld the Venetan pnt f vie Sap a Sevte ia

wh was t gain a Eupean eputatin as the pseudn

mus auth f the Htory of te Concl of Trent was

excmmuncated 607; a few mnths later he was

attacked in the precncts f the mnaster t whch he



beonged by ve men who attemped o kil m by sabbng with daggers Sarpi, gravey wounded, whispered to he doctor who

was ending hm tha as everyone kne s wounds had been

STY caused styo Roanae uaeha is, y the nife of the Roman

li ad Cura, bu also y the legal procedures lterall by he stlus orExli pen] of the Roman Cura2

Sarpi' s splendid conceit can hardly be bettered as an introducton

to a dscusson of he politcal impcaions of stye Sle, as we sha

see, is oen used as a means of deming, demarcatng, and cutng

ou as a weapon. At he same time, stye has also played an mpor

ant and too le recoed) role n the acceptance of cultural

dversit shal consider this ambigit as it presents tself in theed of the visua arts; toward the end of my argmen, certain

implcations concerning he hstory and philosophy of scence w

also become apparent.

2 shal begn by discussing some passages aken om Cceros

De oatore ( ..). Crassus, the representatve of the authors point

of ve begns his account of rheorc by recalng ato's dictumthat al inellectal acivies are bound ogeher by a certan internal

coherence. owever what comes next (32636) is anyhng but la

o n lavor Crassus/ Ccero stars by staing the obvous ha n

nature certain tngs exst, such as the peasures of hearing or of

sme, wch are dierent n knd bu euay agreeable The scope

of hs observaion is extended rst to the arts, boh vsual and ver-

ba, and then to oratory. n the ed of a singe ar, ke scupture,says Crassus, we nd excelen ariss such as Myron, oiceus, and

Lysippus, whom everyone apprecates even though they are very dif-

ferent om one anoher t s he same n pantng Crassus names

Zeuxs Aglaophonts, and Apeles) or n poer oes such as

Ennus, acuvius, and Accius dier om one another, as do the

Greek poets Aeschylus, Sophoces, and Euripides nd yet tey gan

amost the same knd of praise, derent hough hey are n theirvarious maers of wrng (n dss sbend genere. Ther

exceence dees comparson; perfecton, as Ccero demonstrates,

proceeding to dee concisely he characterisics of various oraors

may be pursued by each artst n hs own particular maner.4 n the

nal analysis, i we could bring he orators of al times and paces

togeher under reve would we no concude ha there are as



ay ks or aers enera dicendi) as here are orators?5 Thus

he oo o ki or aer genu) evetualy beoes soeg

ke our oo o iiviua sle 1

Ciero' s sisee o the iporae o eret ks o oraor STYE

whih he takes so r as to e hese eret ks wih iivi Inclin andua orators was spre by he rheoral oto o appropate Exclion

ess o wha s tg ( Greek o prepon). Cero ely hose

o to oser ay aeopassg oratorial aer aapte to

every ause ever auee every oraor a ever rusae He

avise s reaers oly ha they shoul hoose a oraoral se-

igh ig or ow-approprate o he pariular ase hey were

egage . We are a log way o lao a hs ques ra uversal ea o he beau

Tis arge oul be ake ouse the sphere o he vsual a

verba arts wih ueee osequees. We a appreae s

we oser a eer se by a Augse o the iperal ois

soer avius Mareus The Roa seator Volusaus ha

aske a provoative questio: how was i possble hat Go ha

ooke voraby upo he ew sares o Chrisiat a ha oee the o sares i oher wors he ereoes o the

Jews? Cou he ever hage his ? I s rep Augsie epha

sze he eree bewee he eautu ulchrum) a he "

g apum), a thee he ha eore hs los youthl rease De

pulchro e apo. The seasos o the year a he phases o hua le

show us wrote Augse tat both aure a hua atvies

hage aorae with he eessies o he ies owg aera rhy bu is oes o ae he rhyh o he hage.

We a reogze the sae prple i regous aers. I he ear

lies es Auguste rearks he sare esabshe by Go was

tg apum); bu it is so o oger. The hage ha s tg r he

prese ay has bee we by Go who ows ely beter ha

ay hua beg what is aapte o eah e quid cuique empo

accommodae adhibeaur) Auguse seekg o eress he ea hathe O Testaet was boh rue a supersee ou o speak

ers o a jeaous vsio o ruh Exous 4; Deuerooy4:24).

He eee soeg ere a ts he u he De oraore

the iea tha the ways leag to artisi exelee are varous a

o o be opare with oe aoher. However he essetialy

aeporal oel we Cero is gve a ew rulaio by



11

YE

clin andclion

Auguse wo adaps i o a emporal perspecve. Ts e reor

ica noion of e approprae e ing aowed Agse o sus

ain smulaneous e deas o dvne mmuab and of isorcal

cangea rul crcial sep Divers of sle aog conceived n

aisorica erms conribued o e deveopmen of an idea o isorical perspecve a remans subsanal curren oda8

. Ccero's argumen surfaces agan n a passage of Baldesar Cas

gone's Corer pbised in 528 bu wrien some en ears ear

er. Tis is one of e eares nown uses of e erm "sle n con

necon w e vsua ars. Te dscussion on prezzara wic

was o become so ceebraed eads no e eme of erar maion wc was mc dscssed a a ime. Con udovico di

Canossa wo represens Casgiones own vews n e di�loge

reecs e maion of cassca models in e name of "cusom

remarkg a "e smm of ever exceence can amos alwas

be reaced b dverse roues. Tis impic ausion o De oraore

oen menioned b e speakersis lowed b references o music

and o conemporar panng In is conex e erms "maner(mane and "sle (se are used as snonms wic endow

w a specc sgcance e genera capac o "make

nd agan varous ngs are eqal peasng o or ees so a

s w dcul a we can dge wc deigs em mos.

Consder ow in panng Leonardo Vcio Manegna Rapae

Mcelangeo Giorgio da Caseanco are al mos exceen: ande noneeess eac n is manner of makg s dieren om

e oers so a i seems a none of em s n an wa lack

ing n s manner r we recogize a eac is aogeer perfec

n s own se.9

Te presence among s group of Manea a paner of e

preceding generaon is asoising: s more asosng s eabsence of Tan Tiian o be sre was s oo ong o be men

oned in 507 e ear in wc Casigone ses s ciious da

ogue a e cor of Urbno; b clearl is name could sl no be

ncluded n 528 wen The Corer was pbised0 eonardo

Rapael Micelangeo and Giorgione reman a e cener of e

canon esabsed b Vasari wo saw em as e aors of e



scaled mdern manner T der them earccally wuld seem

t many f us tday an bvius waste f tme just as t did t Cas

tglne. Hwever ths "bvusness is misleading. he passage 13

m Ccer was by n means a mee miiar topo cmmn SYE

place ather it was a rmua that pened up a new cgnitiveInclin and

md-a Logofomel we mght sa paaphasing Aby Warburg.11 t Exclin

rmed an integral part f Vasari's pespectve wch n s pnt

s sti u wn tda

n what remain a ndamental essa Erwn Pany

describes Vasars histrcal pespectve as the hybrd result f tw

antthetical prnciples. he rst is pragmatic cnsidering al phenmena as pats f a casa prcess the secnd s dgmatc cnsid

ering a phenmena as me r ess adequate incarnatns f a "pe

fect rue f art1 Hweve the antthess s easly vecme n the

telelgica pespectve hat Vasar adpted nasmuch as he is abe

t evaluate evey artist and each wr n the bass f thei cnt

butn the pgess f at. At the end f s wn wr Vasa

wte as lws usng tems that as Panfsy nted ech theSchlastc distnctin beteen mplte and eundum qud)

mean t have pased nt simpy emplemente but ather as

we sa n accdance with eondo he and wth espect t place

tme and the such ccumstances.1

The ntin f eundm qud m cntadctng the ntin fperfectin was n a sene the latte's clar Vasai cntnues

t s tue that Gtt t tae hs example was geaty paised n

hs me d nt nw what wud have been sad f m f

the ld panters f they had been f the same tme as

[Mchelange Bunat except that he men f ths centr

·whch stands at the smmit f peectin wud nt be as able asthey are had nt such thes been berehand and had they nt

cme bere us.4

Vasari Pan arges essentialy understd histy as thel

g Vasari wh caled Mcheange "divne wud nt have

demued Hwever this was an artistic thelgy whch saw n



Mcheange the utcme f a prce that had begun wth

Cimabue and Gtt; t wa nt a matter any extrahtrica

14 nm en Vaai declare at he ha away udged artt "

SY accrdance with and wth repect t pace time, and ther uch cr

nn n cumtance, we ae bund t think f the nitence n what in apprprate and ttng that we d n Ccer advce t rat and

that Augutine made the undatin f hi thelgy f hty.16

Hweve Vaari near cntructin f htry wa ndeed

theatened by an antithei thugh nt the ne uggeted by Panf

k The t edtin f Vaar Livspubihed n 1550 had n life f

Ttian wh wa then at the peak h Eupean enwn he had

jut panted tw prtrait f the empe Chale V) y th tmeVaari wa already ma with me f Ttian' wrk and he had

met the panter at Rme a few year eaer At the end f i e f

Grgine, and aer paing wrk elabate Vaari expan

why n bigaphy Ttan i ncuded ut becaue [Ttan]

ave, and hi wrk are t be een there i n need t gve an

accunt f them hee17 Michelange whe bigraphy cncude

the 550 edtn f the Livs wa t be the nly vng artit ncudedn the wrk. Vaai prbably thught the nclun f Ttian wuld

have encrached n the abute peeminence he wihed t accd

t Mchelangel and he may have had ean t beeve that

Michelangel wuld nt epecialy have wecmed the peence f

a e f Titan. Fr whatever ean the ecnd edtin f Vaai'

Livs publihed n 1568, ae Michelange' death dd ncude a

bigraphy f Titian, whee paie alternatedwth criticim n a ceebated paage, Vaar, peakng f me n the td pen

eprt a cnveratn with Micheangel at Rme n 546. The tw

had vited Ttan wh had hwn them Dana

e they had e m, and wee dicuing Ttian manner f

wkng [i far di Tiiano unat gave m cniderable

praie ayng hw peaing he und crng and hi mannermanira; but it wa a pit he aid that n Venice artan dd nt

earn t draw wel m the beginnng, and that Venean panter

dd nt have a bette methd f tudy . becaue whever ha

nt dne enugh drawing and ha nt made ucent tudy f

chice tng bth ancent and mdern cannt d well by him

ef nr can he imprve the tng that are taken m



These wors wee probbly occsione by he erivion o Ti

in' Daae om Michengeos Night Michelngelos criicism

ws ime no Tiin's "mnne, his iniviul sle, wich he 1

prise s "vey beui n livey her, he h in min he SY

inrinsic weness o he iion inuge by Tiins mse, in andGiogione, who (ccorng o Vsi "cquire epuion . . o Exin

compee wih hose who were working in Tuscn n who wee

he uhos o he moen mnne20 The secon eiion o he

Live ws sil ceebrion o he iumph o Foenne rwing,

om imbue o Michelngelo. Vsri ws, however, such n open

ne criic, wih so ile in is mkeup o he convenionl o

ace Pnoky he ogmic, h he succeee in wiing memorble ibue o he myhologicl pnings o Tiins ol ge, po

unly lien hough hese re o Forenine riion "execue

wih bol sokes, boy one, smuge, so h om nerby hey

cno be me ou wheres om isnce hey ppe peec21

Here he ension beween sle s n niviul phenomenon n

sle in broe sense is pushe o n exeme.22

5. In 55, he Venein wie Luovico Dolce h replie o he

s eiion o Vsi' s Live in s Diaogo della Pittura Here we gin

iscen he rgumen pu rr by iceo n spe by s

iglione "i is no o be beieve . . . h here is one singe rm o

perec pining. Dolce concues by prsng he "ivine n peer

ess Tiin, who inges he "greness n eceness terrbiit

we n n Michengelo wih he plesn n lovely quli oRphe, n wih he coos o nure.2 Two oppose moes were

emerging une especivey on rwing n on colo 2

The ebe wen on om he le seveneenh cenry he

ely neeen, opposng s Poussin o Rubens, ler Inges o

ecrox 25 There ws some egree o coecion beeen is

nihesis n h wich se "nciens gns "moes he propo

nens o coo were iene wih hose who voe e moes.(When i ws s suggese, n e ey neeenh cenr h he

ses n blings o he Geeks h ogny been colore, mny

ires o ncien wee le eeply shocke. e nroucion

o his Parale de l'architecture atique avec modere (650) Roln

Frr, sieur e hmb provie is sumy o he

objecions pu rr by e chmpions o he "moes



16

SY

Inlion andExclion

Tha the st s ee, and ha we have as mch ght as dd he

ancents to nvent and o ow or own gens, wtho making

orseves as t were the slaves since at s somehing te

tha grows n erfecton om day o da whe adas tsef to

the hmor of centes and naons whose jdgmens der andwhch a dene the Bea n her own way and many moe

sch agmens, vage and voos enogh a lhe same

o sway halfearned eole who have not yet een enghtened

y the racce of the ats, and sme wokmen whose only tade

s wha they have at ther ges.

Art tha "adas sef, lat saccommodant to the "hmor ofcentres and natons whose dgmens der: the noton of ada-

taon, of accommodaon, of wha s tng, havg aeady assed

om heoc no heoogy and om theology nto hsto here

connes to dslay ts rcness Sch vaey and dvest wee a

long way indeed om he chosen and changeless cassca mode

ha the "gea modes, Mcheangelo and ahael had esced

so Fra de Chamay mantanedom the rns of anqTo he chamons of the ancens, a eral attde owad casscal

models smacked of he Gothc n ohe words t odeed on the

wost of easons aganst archtece. The sxteenthceny arch

ec Phler Deome had oosed a econscton of the

Conthan ste, Frart de Chamray made short wok of ts:

Deome was "a e feo a stdent and amaer of ancen ach

tece t r a ha hs moden gens led h o see he mostea tngs n ome ogh Gothc eyes27

6. We ae aleady on he verge of the h of an antclassca

acece, wch occrred ndeed n ome t wch gave sse

nance o a evot agans he oman and the tadtona, oenng he

way to a ess narrow achectral canon eay and mressve

saement of hs attde s nd n Johann Bernhad Fscher vonErachs ook of 72 Entwu eine histoischen Achitectu in Abbil

dung unteschiedene behmten Gebude des Altetums und emde

Vlke Proec a stocal achectre, istated y a varet of

mos edices i anq and y egn eoles) Fsche

von Erach, a key ge n Asran aoqe arctectre, had sen

many years n ome 67066) and had een mch nlenced



whle there by the work of Fancesco Borromini.28 mong the

sumpous llustrations n his book we nd epesentations of the

Tempe of Solomon accodng to the reconstruction suggested by 17

the Spanish Jesuit Vllalpanda (plate ) of the megalths at Stone SY

henge (plate ) of a seres of mosques om Pest to Constantno Inon andpe of the residence of the king of Siam and of the imperia cout Exon

at Pekng (Beiing); and of a series of Chinese bridges (pate )-as

wel as of a number of bdings designed by the autho hmsef In

his ntroduction Fische von Erlach usties this admxtue of het

erogeneous edces by nvokng a more genera notion of dversit

which he connects with the idea of taste (got)

Draughtsmen and designes wil see here that the tastes of

nations les gots des natons der in archtectue no less than

they do in matters of clothing o of dressing meat; and by com

paring one with anothe wl be enabled to make a udicious

choice among them In the end they w come to see that in tuth

custom can authorize certain bizarre elements n the art of bud

ing as instance the decoative apees of the Gotc stleor ribbed vaultng or chuch towers and steepes o ornaments

and roofs in the Indian ste-and n a this the dversity of opn

ions is as ltte subect to agument as is the dversit of taste29

No Gothic eces wee incuded in Fischer von Elachs book.

Howeve Borom's opponents regulary used the epithet

Gothic as an nsult the cassicist Beoi eferred to hm as a mostignorant Gothc achitect0 The reference to the zarre aso

brings Borromini to d snce this was a tem that he applied to

his own woks One begins to wonder whethe some of Boro

m's most extravagant ideas such as the antern of SantIvo ala

Sapieza (which may have been indecty nspired by Orienta mod

es) may not have payed a part n Fischer von Erlach's attempt to

deveop a broader achitectra canon that would have room rinstances of nonEuropean work. 2 Fischer von Erlach's openness to

the diversit of national tastes (though he contnues to uphold a few

universal actectural pnciples such as the rues of symmetry and

stabilit) recas the attitde of the Jesuit mssionaries of the time

toward the nonEuropean cutres they encountered which was

based expcitly on the principe of adaptation o accommodation



ammodatio. n his eard i shoud be noed that the Entwu

was laey houh not explicity) based upon the woks of the very

18 eaned Jesui thanasius Kche, whom Fische von Erlach had

SY me in Rome 3

Inusion and Tis atitde in time made possibe a phenomenon wihoutuson preceden namey the simulaneous employmen of deen styles.

rs is was restriced o archieconic experiments witn the

space of he arden, inemediate between nare and culue and

between town and countr3 The jxaposition of Gothic ruins with

Cnese paodas n Enlish adens was oen readed as a trans-

ression of the ules of taste and provoked poleica responses as

we see in is contribuion of 1755 o Te World:

The applause wich is so ndy iven o Cinese decoraions or

to the babarous producions of a Gothic eus . . seems once

more to eaten he ruin of that simpicit which distinuishes

he Geek and Roman arts as eenaly superio to those of every

ohe naion. 3

7 "Nobe simplicit and calm randeu so ohann Joachim

Wckeman mousy deed the chaacer of Greek sculpue in

is Gedanken ber die Nahahmung der griehishen Werke in der Malerey

und Bildhauerkunst Thouhs on the imitation of Geek works of

paitn and sculptre) ikewise pubished in 755.3 These sae

quaities, Winckelmann emarked, ae o be und Greek wii

of the period, r example in he woks of Socraes pupis as weas in the poducions of hose such as Raphae, who iitated cassi

ca modes.38 There is, Winckelmann once wroe, "oy one

Beaut as hee is only one Good3

The Platoic ovetones of these words are evident. However, n

is mos inluential wok, Geshihte der Kunst des Altertus Histoy

of the a of antiqui) 764), Wickean does not pae such

exclusive sess on the revelations of sempiterna Beut Rejecin

he bioraphical amework adoped by Vasai and by Py bere

him he declaes that the task of a histoy is to examine he orin,

developmen chane, and decay of a isef, and at the same ime o

consider how stle varies n accordance wih derences amon peo

ples, imes and arists He analyzed not oy Eyptian, Etuscan,

and Greek stles but witn the Greek u separate phases of ste.



Fo he s me, sye was dened as he specc obec o a s

o we a he same me was coeced wh soy n geneal

In ode o analyze sylsc changes, Wncelmann nvesgaed

he vaous cos ha condoned hem. As wel as nong n ay YB

adonal ems he nuence o cmae, he emphased he Iio admpoance o pocal lbey he as and thus he value o Exio

ste sel as hsocal evdence 4 Thee s, moeove, a hd aspec

o Wncemans wo much less obvous and ndeed oen

gnoed by hs commenaos whch hows an uneeced lgh on

hs oveal appoach n hs summay o he pncpal chaacesc

o he Euscan ste Wnceman emas ha hese wee aso o

some exen he chaacescs o he Euscans as a peope A endency o dwel excessvely on deals s und n he eay style o

he Euscans, wch s saned and acal and thus vey deen

om he pue cla o Roman syle. Ths syle o he Euscan

ass s s dscebe n he wo o he successos, ncludng

he geaes o hem, Mchelangelo and hese same chaacescs

accoun he us o such ass as Daee da Volea o Peo

da Coona Raphae and hs llowes by conas, wee spualyclose o he Gees4

Wncelman had pased Raphael as an mao o he Ges

n he aphosm we have aleady noed om hs Gedanken whch

nges on a compason beween Gee langage and Gee scup

ue. In he passage om he Gehihte howeve, he spaagng

compason beween Euscan wng and he wos o Tuscan

panes mples no conscous maon bu an aleged ehnc connu g he Euscans and he Tuscans. Ts m o agumen

deveoped n a ahe unexpeced decon he eecon o wo

auhos, Caylus and Buon, whose wo had had a pound

unacnowledged) luence on Wncemann43

n hs Reuel d antiquit etenne etrque greque et romainewch came ou om 1752 onwad, Caylus had eeced a meey

anquaan pespecve e had agued nsead a mehod whoseam woud be

o sdy accuaely he sp and he handwo o he as o

gasp s nenons and o ow s execuon n a wod o

egad hese monumens as he evdence and he eesson o

he ase ha held sway n a gven centy and n a gven couny



. . Oce we have deterned he ase o a cor we have bt

o ow i i is progress or aeratios hs we sha be abe o

20 know, a leas par, the ase of every cery.

S

lio axlo

Here Cayls epresses the vew hat he sory of art s becoected o story n he broad sese, a view laer ephased i

he ch ore ieta work o Wckelan.5 Wnckelan,

who as a rle eded to paroize Cays as a peda acnowedged

s debt o he Frech schoar a leter ha he wrote o he ai

qary Bacon

He s he rs who ca be credied wth the glory o havg seto to eter ito he sbsace o he sye o he Ar o he eo

ples o atiq To atept s aris however was to der

ake a task that wold be os dic o accoplsh.

At a eves he prespio o a ehc ik beee the

Erscas ad he scas volved ch ore ha a oio o

aoal ases. Here, the idirect ilece of Bo shod beoted O wo separate occasios, i 750 ad n 754, Wckela

oted dow og etracs o Bos itire nturelle.7 I ws

o he recha ha he eared o cocae is ow

observaos, based o he os accrate scr n a vivid syle

ha aspred o a kd of classcal ipersoalit Syles costted

r Wnckela he sae kd o objec as aals costed r

Bo he laters grea coparatve project; Wnckela oocsed s aeto boh o the species (he style ad o he ndi

vida (the sigle work of art or artist. I ay have bee this aal

ogy that ed Wnckean to aitain ha sye cod o oy be

creaed or itaed, cold aso be rasied biologcaya sep

ha was o have resee coseqeces

8 The nneeeh cetry was a period o politca pheava heaerath o he Frech Revolio, the Napoleoc wars o Ero

pea epaso overseas n Idia, he islads o he acc, Egyp,

ad elsewhere ad o prod neleca ad social chages

Hsorica eves radicay rasred he way visal cle was

derstood by edcaed peope n Erope, who ow d he

selves rec or drec coac wh artects hat bore witess to



civlzaions quie emoe n ime o space.9 Wickeman's image

o Geek a consiued, may peope, a pon o oieaion

om which hey coud suvey is mass o heeogeeous maeia. 11

Tis is sikingy demosaed in Jon Faxma's Lecues on Sculp sYB

ue give a he Roya cademy om r8n owad ad pubished Inn andae Faxman's deah i 1829.° Faxman woked as a scupo, bu he xn

was and is bes own is usaios o Home, Hesiod

Aeschyus and Dane based o sobe cocise ie dawigs ha ae

cealy spied by he aisic picipes ha Wnckemann po

caimed 5 Howeve as Goehe poned ou, Faxmans lie dawig

echoes no jus he vase paiigs o he Euscas (ha is o he

Geeks) bu aso he wok o he Iaian pimiives.5 In he Lecueson Sculpue is doube eeence akes is pace wiin he eoe

ica and hisoica pespecive ha Faxma deveops Se, him,

was a oiga pcipe o a ad he descibes i, n his oid

pose as a

welnown quai wich oigiaes he bih o he a

ise-iceases i is gowh-senghes i is vigouaaishe ll measue o beau n he peecion o is pae cause

and, n is deca wihes ad eies. Such a quai wl dee

he sages o is pogess and wl mak he degees o is debase

men . . . Such a quai immediaey deemes o ou eyes ad

undesanding he babaous aemp o he ignoa savage

he humbe abou o he mee woman-he miace o a

conduced by sciece eobed by phiosoph ad peeced byhe zeaous and exesive stdy o naue

Ts disigishig quai is udesood by he em Se, i

he as o desig

is vey pobabe hat Faxma was he s peson o boaden

he noion o "se so ha i compeheded wha was poduced by

mee wom and even by savages.53 Le us low is agme

Tis em, a s was applied o poe and he se o Home

ad Pida mus have bee miia ong bee Phidias o Zexis

wee now u i pocess o ime, as he poe woe wih is

se o pe ad he desige skeched wih is se o peci

he name o he insumen was miliay used o expess he



122

SY

Ilin anExlin

geus ad productos of he writer ad the artis ad ths sm

bocal mode of speakg has cotiued om the earest times

through he classca ages, the revival of arts ad letters dow o

the prese momet equal telligible, ad s ow stregth

eed b he uerrupted use ad authort of the aciets adhe modes.

From the strumethe stle he stuso s producs i

he broadest sese. Flaxma cotiues as ows

Ad here we ma remark that as b he term sle we desgate

he several sages of progressio mprovemet, or dece of theart, so b the same term, ad a he same tme we more d

recl refer to he progress of the huma md, ad sates of soc-

e r such as the habts of he mid are, such wll be the works,

ad such objecs as the uderstadig ad he aecos dwel

most upo, w be most readil execued b the hads.

tle as a cocept cecg the metal ad the mauatheeb refers o weldeed phases of social ad cutural hstor

As he develops ths dea Flaxma eresses hmsef erms tha are

worh otg

Thus the savage depeds o cubs spears, ad axes r safe ad

defece agaist his eemies, d o hs oars or paddles r the

guidace of his caoe through he waers these, therereegage a suitable porto of hs ateto ad, wth credbe

abour, he makes them he mos coveiet possible r his pur-

pose; ad as a certai cosequece because useless is a

proper of beaut he equet produces such a eegace of

rm as o asoish the more civilzed ad culvated of hs

speces. He wil eve superadd to the elegace of rm add

ioa decorao reief o the surce of the srume awavele, a zigzag, or he te of a bad mitatig such simple

objects as hs wats ad occupatios reder mar to s obser

aosuch as he rs twght of scece hs mid eables

hm to comprehed. Thus r hs edeavours are crowed wth

a cera porio of success but if he exted s attemp to the

huma rm, or to the atrbues of dv hs rude cocep



on and untaugh mnd poduce ony image of lifele de

mit o o hoo and digu 54

13

The admiation ha Flaxman hee expee he at of av sY

age cicumcibed hough i i by weldened mit) decidedlyI d

uping. In paing i elegance of m he connec uch at Ex

wh a quaty we have aeady met wih "conveience the pop

et o being adaped o accommodaed (aptum, to prepon. How

eve Flaxman undeand "convenence in ulaian em "ue

lne a popet o beau-an obevaion ha need no u

pie u when we ecal tha he had woed Wedgwood maing

dawng vae and cameo.55 The new elaonhip beween atand induty wa encouaging a moe openmnded appoach o he

vaie o aec poduced n the coue of ho and indeed to

ha hioy ief hi exempied by the iuation accompany

ing e Letures on Supture, which ae baed n pa on dawing by

Flaxman and n pat on boo by ohe. Flaxman' uid wa line

poved able o convey and anlae an exaodnaily wide and

divee ange of viual langageeiefwo a Wel Cathedaand Peepo plate 23) aue om achaic Geece pae 2) and

om India plate 25), buding a Mycenae mnae aen om

medieval manucipt plae 26), and o h. By conat Faxman

poduce a vey bland wea and watey veon o Micheangelo'

ecene (terbiit, epeciay i we compae hi attemp wth

he wo o hi geat conempoay Fuel

One of hi ltene wote hat Flaxman' lece peaed hepubic becaue of hei ohnBum.56 Flaxman dd no concea

admaion Englih medeval culptue, but he polca

mpication o he Letures go wel beyond h appeciave judg

ment. The accompanyng luaion may be egaded a an

aemp o compehend divee culue to penetae them, o

anlate hem and to appopiate hem a vua equvalen o

Bitih mpeiam.

9 moe o le he ame me, he geae ivng philoophe

wa alo addeing an audience-of den a Heidelbeg and

Belinon he exoc a o he an counie. n hi pothu

mouly pubihed ectue on aehetc Hege noed that i Cnee

o Indan wo o at tuned away om he epeenaion of eal



his was no he es of eial weaknesses bt a aer of

delerate dsotion n ts respet notes Hegel we ay have an

14 perfet at that is eialy and n other ways pefetly ao

SY pshed whn is own detened sphee thogh i appears lakng

Inion and when opaed wth the very onep of at and of the deal57

Exion Bend is staeen we gpse a ndaenta ee of

Roans e eedo of he as. Hegel however drew bak

o s ore raal platons wh ae elly eressed y

Henh Hene s essay on renh panes (Frazsishe Maler:

I is always a g isake when the rti brings p the qeson

"Wha shod the artst do Mh ore oret wold be heqestion Wha s that he arist wants to do? or even "Wha

does he arist have to do The qeson "Wha shold the atis

do oes y he way of hose phlosophers of art who hogh

they possessed no sense of poet have singled ot trats of var

os woks of a and hen on the bass of wha there was deer-

ned a nor r what eveything oght to be and who del

ted he genes and invented deions and rles . . . Everyorigna arst and erany every atisi genis brings with

hi his own aeshe es and st be jdged aoding to

he58

Hee wrote hese wods t the sta of s ong exle Pars in a

ongena le. We an pk p a dsan eho of the an arie

pshed any years lae (185 n he Ree des D Mndes yeaox e paine who had eboded r deades the ejetion of

tadtional vaes. In an passioned defense of aris vae

eaox ages at the Bea ay be attaned y dverse ways:

y Raphae and Rerand y Shakespeare and Cornele. To take

antiqt as a odel is asd he says sne anqi does not oe

o onstite a sngle hoogeneos anon.5 It ay have ben read

ng s ae that nspred Badelare o write "Les phares anexaordnary exerise n ephis that starts with soe of the

paners adirgly refered to by earox (Rbens Leonado

Rerandt Mhelangeo and ends wih elarox self he oly

ivng arst n he sees. The eaon bng on a thosand tades

(phae allum su mille tadelles) wih in the poe's onlsion s a

eapho e Beal is ade pral n e e as to nde



ne the dea eressed b the extreme diverst of each strophe. In

Ma 1855 Badelare retned to the same theme n an artce pb

ished n the jorna Le Pys abot the Paris Unversal Eositon 12

wich Delacrox na ataned me beng represented b thrve SY

pictres. The Beatl wrote Badelare s alwas barre: Inn andExn

Now how can ths qalt of the bizarre-necessar rredcible

te varied dependent on settng cmate cstom race

reigion and the temperament of the artisthow can ths qal

t ever be governed or set to rights b topan res drawn p n

a ttle tempe of science somewhere on the panet withot art

tself lng nto mortal per60

Badeare therere reects an idea of aesthetic norms

Faced w these naccstomed phenomena what wod an of

these jurymen prossors of aesthetcs sa or write?so the are

called b Heri Hene that charmng sprit who wold be a

gens f ol he wod trn more oen towards the divne

f Heine's prncipa target was probabl Friedrich Sclegel

Badelaires was the rhetoric of French democrac:

There s one more ve shonabe error om which I desre to

preserve msef as I do om He.-I refer to the dea of progress

Tis obscre antern nvented b the plosopsng chatter ofthe da hoever wants to gan a cear view of stor mst

above al extngish ths perdios lantern.6

Ts passage not present n the artice as t appeared in Le Pys

as added b Badelare aer the pblication of es phares The

phare allm sr me ctadeles rst evoked b contrast the

obscre lantern (fn obscur) of the dea of progress-owedin a sdden coupdehre b the lnes wrtten b "a poet (Bade

lare hmself) and an nterpretaton of them Delacrox ake of

blood hanted b ev angels (Decroi c de sn hn des mu

vis nes). Hene had wrtten that al great artists have ther own

ndvidal aesthetic; Badeaire takes ths lne of reasong to ts

lmit:



26

SY

Inusion ndEusn

loursng is always spontaneous, ndividua Was Signorelli

realy e progentor of Micelangeo? Did Perugno conan

Rapael e ars depends ony on msef. e promises to e

ages noing bu e works e as made e is responsible to

nobody but imse e dies wou cdren

is nsistence on e mulple eements a inuence aristic

works n teir varey ad taken Baudelare to te pon were e

rejected te very possbt of any istorcal approac o ar As we

sall see, s ension woud contnue to make tsef fel

r Te ra we ave been lowng seems o lead, us r, o avcory of diversiy over unformiy of style. Nineeencentury

arcitecure, in te movemen nown as Histosmus (isorcism),

autored e coestence of diverse styes. In German te lead

ng advocate of ts approac was Goed Semper (1803-879 Semper produced a comparave analysis of ste in is ambtious

wokDer Stil in den tehnishen und tektonishen Knsten oder praktishe

Aesthetik (Sye n e ecncal and econic arts, or praccal aeseics), e rs wo volumes of wic appeared n 1860 and 1863

(Te tird was never completed) Semper's projec orgnaed, e

said, n s eperiences as a sden n Paris, between 1826 and 1830

wen was s custom o spend ours n eJardn des Pantes look

ng a te collecion of ssis made by Cuver. e menioned ese

youtl memories on two separae occasions rs n a leer to a

Brunswick publser, Eduard Veweg (daed 26 September 1843)and en in a tak gven n 1853 n ondon, were e ad gone as a

poca ee being obliged o eave Germany n 1848 because of s

nvovement n Dresden wi revolutionaries6 On bot occasons

Semper draws an analogy beween Cuviers comparaive approac

and s own. owever, e s om te German of e eter ino

te Engls of te ecure (te rs n a seres given by Sempr in te

Deparment of Pracca Ars) resulted n sgncan canges. Onone and, Semper go rid of all erms nspired by e morpology

of Goee: "ence Urform (e orginal and simples rm),

"ursprnglce Ideen (orgina ideas), "Urrmen (orignal rms),

"das Ursprnglcte und Ece (tat wic is original and sm

pe). On e oter, e transrmed a neural reference to "de

Werken meiner Kuns (e products of my ar) no a precise refer



ence o nds pomped pehps by he Inenion

Exhbion o 8 whch he hd colboed o pehps by he

pc dience he ws ddessing 127

S

Wesee he sme seleon epeng isel coninlly b wih

Inuson and

nmebe vieies moded by gdl deveopmens o he Exluson

individls nd by he condiions o exsence hey hd o l

. I we obseve s immense vie nd icness o ne

nowihsndng s smplciy my we no by Anogy ssme

h i wil be ney he sme wih he ceons o o hnds

wh he wos o ds a?7

Sempe pobby hd ly vge ide o Cvie' s wo nd he

ws cey no qed o deive n deqe biologic model

om i.68 Howeve hee s no denying h Cve exeed con

sdeble nlence on he mephos he hogh n. Goehe p

doxcl ws eqly enil even hogh Goehe n he debe

beween SnHlie nd Cvie he Acdme Fise n 830

hd en sides wih he me Sempes noion o mehod nlogos o h wich on Cvie lowed ppled o nd espe

cily o chiece wch] wold m he bse o docne o

Syle impies consideble degee o con wih his ely

Romnc mon.

A sim ph om Goees mophology o Cvie's comp

ve oseoogy evenly einepeed n ccodnce wih Dwns

evoliony heoy) ws lowed by nohe soin nd welnown conoisse wh Gemn bcgond Sempes sghly

yonge b eqly eccenc conempo wn emoe s

Giovnni Moel.9 Boh cics nyzed se n mophologic

pespecve b Moelli concened on ndivid iss we

Sempe consdeed ge cl enes. Tis dieence n sce

pomped dieence n mehod. Moei lwys held o he ide h

sylsc ees ms be vesged om wih whees Sempe sle ws he podc o n ecion beween enl nd

exenl cos, eqg sepe nlysis Hs docine o sle

ndeook s o o exme "he exgencies o he wok sel

bsed on some nl necessy ws which e he sme ll

mes nd nde eve cicmsnce somewh obsce wy o

ping gs ding o he consns execised by meis nd



28

SY

Inlion andExlion

ools e lae beng subjec as Semper mse acnowledged to

stocal cange). In te second place t set ou to examne

ocal and personal nuences suc as te clmae and pyscal

consuon o a coun e relgous and potcal nstutons oa naton te person o corpoaon by wom a wor s odered

te pace wc s desned and e Occason on wc

t was produced. Fnaly aso e ndvdua pesonalty o e

Artst.70

One eement s mssng om s ls: ace At moe or less te

same tme e enassance o e Gotc was descbed by GeogeGbert Sco one o te prcpa colaboraors n e restoraton o

Westmnste Abbe as

te resumpon o our naonal actecture te ony genune

exponent o e cvzaton o e modern as dstngsed om

te ancent wod o e ortern as dsngsed om te

Souten races

Scott went on o wre:

We do not ws to adap ourseves to medeva cusoms bu o

adap a sye o ar wc accdentaly was medeva but s essen

tially natinal o e wans and requemens o our own day.

And e ence concluded ta e dgenous syle o our ace

must be ou pint de dat. Hs was by no means an solaed

voce. In te course o te nneteent cen e admxue o s

orcal antopoogcal and boogca dscouses ad claed a

paralel convergence beween te deas o naonal caacer stye

and ace In te dscusson o arcectura syles race was venu

y to occupy a predomnan poson. Sempe's sence on seme s remaable7 He stongly beleved n e "naona genus

and also n s own abty o grasp ts by way o umble acaeo

ogcal emans wc e compared lowng Cuver o ssls

Egyptan saced boas and Gee situlae, w te close lns o te

Doc style provde us Sempe arges wt a means o access to e

actecre troug wc e wo peopes expressed e essences



(Wsn) n monmenal m7 owhee in ambtio poect

howeve doe Sempe eek o nvoke ace a a conceptal hotct.

1. Sempe pent the la pa of h ife n iena whee majo SY

achiectal wok he Hobg heae and the Memplatz lo dwee adcaly to anm the ciy appeaance and mage74 Hi Exlo

book on yle had a wide mpact among achaeolog and at ito

an. owad he end of he cent t wa vgooly chalenged

when Aoi Riegl n i Stagn (Qeon of yle 1893) ejected

he maeiaiic detem of Sempe-thogh n a nmbe of

place maly acica eaon egl tnghed between he

poition of Sempe' owe and Sempe' own moe be ponof vie Whee Sempe had een atitic development a eentialy

detemined by ool and nment egl aged hat decoaton

and m execied an aonomo contevailng powe to

wch-emphazng t toica feae and apec-he be

qenty gave he nme Kunstwolln ac wl 75 In gea book

Strmsch Kutndust (lae Roman atitc ndt 901) egl

aged hat the atic podction of what had tadtonaly beenegaded a a decadent ea begng wth he baeef on e cof Contantine which aai had coy dmed a clm

cold be ndeood a coheen eeion of a pecc and homo

geneo Kunstwolln nped by pncple no le legiimae than

hogh qte deent om hoe of claical a

t ha oen been poned o tha thee i an obvo conecton

beteen Regl eeache and atic even in the enna of me When we ead that geomecal yle wa not a pmive phe

nomenon aibtable o an incapaciy epeenaon (a Sempe

had hypohezed) bt a aheo egl aged-he deibeae

podct of a eed aic wl we nk of Gtav m almo

conempoaneo pcte wih he geometcal decoaion.6

Howeve egl' heoecal appoach had a deent and longe

ance a we can ee om it ndamenaly Hegeian npaon 77he paage on Cnee and Indian at tha we cied eae om

Hegel lece on aehetic gh have been he point of depate

iegl eection on Eopean a. Moeove egl acceped

Hegel eleological pepecve wch aowed hm to defend lae

Roman a boh n em of i own pecc cieia and a a nece

ay tanition whn the ovea coe of hoical development.78



130

SY

Iuso aElio

egl Kuwollen namuch a t depoyed a a weapon

agant mateialtic detemnm eem to echo the Romantic

noton of attc eedom that pompted Hene queton Wa

wde Knte? "What t that the atit want to do? Howeve

eg doe not dwe on the ndvidua atit a a ubveive geniunead he anaye coectve ene-he Kunswollen o ae

Rome o o the Neheand7 Stlic anay baed on an etnic

pepectve (howeve "ethnic may have been undetood) wa itef

pat of the intelectual nhetance of Romanticm. Thi a we have

een a context whee the wod "ace oen ecu. Baudeae

imelf incude ace in hi heteogeneou t of cto that condi

tion at aong wih cutom cmate elgon and the indviduachaacte o the atit Howeve given the gowth o an openy anti

Semtc atmophee n atenineteenthcenuy Vienna the emak

eg made n univeit ectue concenng the gidit o the

Jewh wodvie whch i ad to py "an ncapacit to change

and to impove pobaby awakened a paticuay ympathetc

epone in hi audence Two yea eaie n 1897 Rieg had

und pace n i ecte to daw a paae beteen the t Citan ea and modenday ocalim paing e atte becaue "at

eat t ndamenta manetaton it popoe to mpove thi

wold hee beo T paage ha been een a an aluion to the

Chitian Sociat whoe eade the antiSemite Ka ge had

jut been eected mayo of Vienna 2 cannot ay whethe o how

Rieg ndeed accepted the antSemtc tenet of the Chitian Socia

it Pat Howeve i tendency to egad ace and e a coteminou enttie emege in a otnote to i book Sprmische Kun

sinduse the divegence beeen late pagan and potoChitan

at ha oen been exaggeated he ay and i n tef cacey ced

ibe given tat pagan and Chtian beonged to the ame ace 3

1. Wihem Woinge who did moe than anyone ele to pead

egl' idea (abeit in much cude tem) did not heitate to etthem n an ecty acit amewok n h Formprobleme der

Goik (Foma pobem o Gotic) o l9I Wonge epeatedy

link dieent eve of itic pui to an ethnic hieachy

t] may be aid that Fance ceated the mot beautl and mot

ivng Gotc buidg but not the puet. The and of pue

Gotic cuue i the Gemanic Noth . t i tue that Engih



archtecture s also tnged with Gothc n a certan sense; it s true

that England whch was too selfcontaned and solated to be so

much disturbed n its own artstic wl Kunstwoen by the Renas

sance as was Geman aects Gothic as ts natona style rght

down to the pesent da But this Engsh Gothic lacks the directmpulse of German Gothc85

Hence Worringer's concluson:

Fo Gothic was the name we gae to that great phenomenon

irreconcably opposed to the classcal a phenomenon not

bound to any sngle peiod of style but reeang tself contnuousy through all the centures n ee new disguses a phenom

enon not beongng to any age but rather n ts deepest unda

tons an ageless racial phenomenon deeply rooted n the nner

most constitution of Nothern man and r ths eason not to

be upooted by the eeing acton of the Euopean Renais

sance.

n any case we must not understand race n the narrow sense ofracal purty here the word race must nclude lthe peoples n the

compostion Rassenmischung of which the Germans hae payed

a decse part. And that appes to the geater pat of Euope.

Wheeer Germanc eements are strongy present a acal con

necton in the widest sense s obseable whch in spie ofraca ferences n the odnay sense is umstakaby operae . . . . For

the Germans as we hae seen are the sine qua non of Gothc.86

The years that hae passed snce these words were wrtten n 9

hae gen them a sinster feel Of couse one should aod

anachronistc readngs Neetheless heaing ths talk of race "n the

wdest sense so wide that t would go beyond imted notions of

racal purityone is neitably rended of the Nurembeg aws

wth their minutely detaled odnances concernng aous lees ofRassenmischung Wongers stystc club s open to peoples of al

knds so long as they hae a sucient percentage of German blood

n the eins

13. Ou discussion so r wl hae estabished an approprate con

text in whch to consider the roe attrbuted to style by an nuentia

contemporary phosophe of scence Paul Feyerabend

13

SY

n andExn



13

SY

csn an

Ecin

In an essay itled Scence as Ar Feyerabend seeks o appy o

he scences Regls heory of ar wch he dsngushes om

Vasari's approach. n a noe Agains Mehod (197) Feyerabend

had remarked tha f one consdered boh scence and art as

approaches o solving problems hen no imporan derence

would reman beeen hem: woud be possible to speak of

stles and predlecions n the rst case and progress n the second

case Wth pical miscevousness Feyerabend nvokes Gom

brich (menioned in the mmediaey preceding noe) agans Pop

per. However the equvaence proclaimed here between scence and

art rned out o be no more than a sep aong he road leadng to

issenscha als Kuns "Science as Ar the tleof

Feyer

abend' s essay on eg and also of the volume n wch it was sub-

sequeny repubshed iegl was a perfect choice his work involved

(a) a coherent attack on posvsm based (b) on a vson of sory

as consising of series of artstc impuses Kunswoen) dscree and

selfconaned wich led o a rejecion of he noons of (c) deca

dence and (d) progress Tis las pot regarding progress n c

seems quite unconvncing n that t gnores he Hegean eeologcal aspect of iegl's work. However the oher pots jus Fey-

erabend' s concusion "n he ligh of s modern conception of art

[i.e. Reg's concepion] the scences are arts. ieg's relaivisc

approach based on the idea ha every age creaes is own arisic

uverse governed by aws specc to oered unookedr sup

por o a relativstc vew of science i aowed the elmnaion of

referena truh and rea al of which coud be placed so ospeak n quoaion marks. We are no surprsed when Feyerabend

proclaims hat Reg aong with a handl of others has under-

stood he process of he acquiston of knowledge and of change in

the sphere of owedge better han mos modern posophers.

Feyerabend mus have dscovered Reg n the eary 98s How

ever his poshumous autobography Kiing Time (995) shows a

much earier at the tme of s ntelectual rmaon VennaFeyerabend had been caugh up n wha we nigh cal he byprod

ucts of Riegl's deas

Kiing Time s presented as an uusualy an and sncere

accounerms o be regarded wh a ceran cauion as always n

he case of auobograph The secion on he war n which he

young Feyerabend took part as a voluneer ghing on the Russan



ont and reachng he rank of eutenant, seems markedly recent

o hs mtary career, he wres, "Ths s wha my army records say;

my mnd, however, s a bank Perhaps he pas ha has been 133

erased om he auhors memory (or a any rate om hs narrave) SY

emerges agan n he delberate ambguty o he books ttle "pass cli ad

nghe tme and "a me o k However, he pages on he war do Exuson

ncude a srkng passage drawn om some lectures ha he author

gave o oher ocers n , n Dessau Rossau. The argumen o

hese lecures was closey connected o he theme have been exam

nng Feyerabends summary s ful o extracs (here ndcaed by

talcs) om hs noes o years earer

People have derent proessons, derent pons o vew. hey

are ke observers ookng a the word hrough the narrow wn

dows of an oherwse closed strucure Occasonaly they assem-

ble a the centre and dscuss wha hey have seen then one

obeve will talk abou a beautl landape wth ed tee a ed ky

and a ed lake in the middle the next one about an innite blue plane

wthout atiulation and the thid about an impeive veoohighbuilding they wll quael The obeve on top of thei tutue me

an only laugh at thei quaelbut fo them thei quael wll be eal

and he wll be an unwoldly deame" Rea , sad, s exacly lke

that Evey peon h hi own welldened opinio whih olo the

etion of the wold he peeive when people ome togethe when

they ty to diove the natue of the whole to whih they belong they

ae bound to talk pat eah othe they will undetand neithe themelve no thei ompanio I have oen eeened painlly the

impenetability of human beingwhateve happe whateve i aid

ebound om the mooth uae that epaate themom eah othe

My man thess was that hsorcal perods such as the

Baroque, he Rococo, the othc Age are ued by a conceaed

essence ha oly a onely outsder can understand. Most peope

see oly he obvous . . Second sad, t s a msake o assumeha the essence o a hstorca perod hat started n one place can

be ranserred to anoher. There wl be luences, rue; r

example the French Enlghtenment nuenced ermany. ut

he rends arsng om he nuence share only he name wh

her cause. Fna s a msake o evaluate events by compar

ng them wh an dea Many wrers have deplored he way n



34

S

l adExl

whih he Caho Churh ransrmed Good Germans dung

the Middle Ages and ae and red them no ations and

beliefs unnaural o them . . . u Gothi ar produed harmoni

unts no aggregaes. This shows tha the ms of he Chuh

wee not aen rms (aremd a vorie tem a he ime), andhe Germans of hat period were natural Chrsians no unwill

ing and owadly slaves. I onuded by appying the esson o the

reaions beween Germans and Jews Jews I said ae supposed

o be aliens mles removed om genune Gemans; they ae sup

posed to have distorted he Geman haaer and o have

hanged the Geman nation into a olletion of pessimisi ego

is, maeiaisi indviduals u onnued he Germanseahed ha sage al by hemseves They wee ready r liberal

ism and even Maxsm Eeryody knows how theJe who is a ne

psychoogst made use of this situation at mean is that the soifor

hs work was we prepared Our misfortune is our o work and we

must not put the ame on anyJew or Frenchman or Engishman

At a numbe of poins in his autobiograph Feyerabend speaks ofhe ews of his atide oward them of his ewish ends of anti

Semiism, of deren ways of playng Shyok A ean ambiva-

lene and embarassmen is oen pereptible in hese emarks No

doub he mus have been pleased o dsove ha n 1944 he had

taught ohe oers hat he Jews wee not o blame r Germanys

orupion However the ex of the ees reveals a more om

plex hain of reasoning The examples of visua ar hosen o us-rae he diulies of human ommunation (at he time Feye

abend waned o beome a pante) pu one n mind of he aue

Reiter groupMa Kandns and Fenngerwhose works had

been pu on show in he exhibition of degeneae ar held a Munih

1937. of the exampes suggest he idea of anoher word df-

feen, oheren and selfonaned omparable o the largersae

wods of he Got the baroque and the rooo. The hddenessene hat unies eah perod (or eah ivaion) is of ouse

style We detet a nt eho of iegs aestheti aiude oward s-

toy his way of seeing i as a suession of sefenosed ivations

eah based on ariular Kunstwoen o ses. In he inervening

yeas, however, egl's nsisene on stle as a oheren and ohesive

phenomenon, wih is own ritera had aquied a new meanng



one that can already be sensed n Woringer' s work. The conection

between style and ace had reached a wider audience through thewoks of crude ideoogists e H K Gnthe Rae ud Sil [Race 35

and Style 96) who during the Nazi peiod became an inuential Y

expert on acia questions.99 Style had ecome a most eective tool Ilui adof excusion Adof Hiter spoke as lows at a party meeting hed Exlu

on l Septembe 933 (the Victory Congress")

It is a sign of the hoible spirita decadence of the past epoch

that one spoke of styles without ecozing their racial deteminants . . Each cleary med race has its own handwriting in

the book of art as r as it is not e Jewr devoid of any creativeartistic abiit The ct that a people can iitate an at which isrmaly aen to it aremde Kut does not prove that at is anntenational phenomenon.100

Feyerabends paaphase of his notes om 944 reads thus:

Gothic at produced harmonc unts, not aggregates, which

shows tat the ms of the Church were not alien rms aremd,a voite term at the time)" It is cea that the ectre Feyerabend

gave to his feow ocers echoed azi ideas on race, cutre, and

stle. If evey civzation is a homogeneous entit om both the

ststic and the racia pont of view then ews and eigners can

have no proper oe to pay in the development of the German

nation, since they ae excluded om it by birth The impications of

these ideas, om Auschwitz to the rme Yugoslavia, om raciapurit" to ethnic cleansing are we known.

4. Race plays no ole n the wors of Feyerabends matit How

eve a relation does exst between what he said in his 944 lectres andcertain leadng themes of his matre work. As a young man Feyer

abend had egaded the dicult of commuicating between one

wold and another as a regrettabe conion wich not even the solitay obseve equipped with privileged access to reat was n a position to ovecome. These eary observaons on the impenetabit of

human beings" may have constitted a psychological stuus to Feyerabend s ater theoretical elecons.01 Be that as it ma n his

matue work he alotted hmsef a position n some ways cose to that

of the unwodly dreamer comparng one (scientc) univese with



noher he emphszed her ncommensurb. Ccero hd

expressed himse in somewh smilr erms; however he hd mde

3 cer h he impossibi o esblising errchy pped s

sYB beweennd ony s beweenworks h hd ceved sc

cli a excelence concepion que disnc om he ide h nyExci ing goes" (however h moo my be erpreed)

The in word intepetatio mens rnslon." inerpreerwho compres vrious syles o hough wh he im o highlghng he rsc derences beween hem s crrying ou knd o

rnslion The erm seems redily dped o such conex hecomprison eween syles nd lnguges (suggesed y h

beween syles nd wrng) generly eds o he recogiion hoh re dverse However rnslion s lso he mos powerrgumen gins relvsm. To be sure ech lngge conses deren world nd hese worlds re o cer exen ncommen-sure bu rnslons ae possibe Our cpciy o undersnd

diverse syles cn llumie our cpciy o undersnd oher ngges nd oher syes o hough nd vce vers.

5 I shl conclude his essy wih n exercise rnslion

whch sggess he possiiy o doge eween hree peope

who so r s m wre never n c enered io dloge direc

or ndrec wih one noher.The rs is Simone Wel n wo yers bere her deh she

mde n enry n her Noebooks commenng on pssge in he

Timaeus )

When ing s perecy beuu s soon s we our enionupon i represens unique nd single eu Two Greek sues

he oe we re ookig s beul he oer no So i s whChoic h Ploic hough Hdu hough ec Wchever

one is ooking s beul he ohers re no.

For Wel he mpossiiy o comprsonoen ivoked s wehve see n relon o works o rppes lso no oy o pi

losophy bu o regon oo

Ech religon is one rue h s o s h he momen were hiking on we mus brng s much enon o ber on



s tee wee nong else n e sme w ec lndscpe

ec pictue, ec poem, etc. , s one beutl. A syntesis o

eigions impies lowe quit o ttention.104 37

S

The second is Adono. One o e phosms n Mnm Morl lio adwten n ) eds, n p, s lows xlio

De gts est dpundum.-Even someone beevng mse

convced o he noncompbty o woks o t wi nd m-

se epetedly invoved debtes whee wok o , nd pe

cisey tose o igest nd teee ncommensuble nk, e

comped nd evuted one gins the ohe. The objection ttsuc considetons, wich come bou in pecy compusive

w ve the souce n meceny sncts th woud mesue

eveytng by e el, usuy sges no moe tn tht sod citi

zens, wom cn neve be tion enough, wn to keep

seious eection nd te cims o uh om te woks Ts

compuson to evute is loced oweve, n he wok o t

hemselves. So muc is ue they ese o be comped. Teywn to e one nohe. No wihout cuse dd he ncients

eseve te pnteon o he compbe to Gods o Ides, bu

obged woks o t o ente he gon ech the motl enemy o

ech Fo i e Ide o Beut ppes oy n dspesed m

mong mny woks, ec one neveteless ms uncompois

gy to eess he woe o beu clims t n is snguit nd

cn neve d its dispesl wihout nuling tse Beu s sge, tue nd beted om ppence nd ndvidution, mni

ess itse not n he snthesis o wok, n he uiy o he ts

nd o , bu oy s physicl eiy n the downl o t tse.

Tis down is the go o evey wok o t, in tt seeks to

bng det to otes. Tt l t ims to end , s nothe wy

o sing he sme tng It s is impulse to seldesuction ihe-

ent wok o t, e inemost stivg owds n imge obeut ee o ppence, t is constnty sing up the es-

ec debes tht e ppenly so te.1

Pu Vy comped woks o t in museum to "tmu o

ozen ceues, ech o wc demnds n vin te nonexstence

o l he ohes.6 Aono ludes impicitly to this pssge, nd



38

STYL

luio adExlui

brng it wt the Hegelian concept of the "death of art every

work of art tend toward the tth and th towad elfdetrcton

nch a t partake of the ntolerance that the natre of trth

By a dieret and even oppote rote Adono tellectalm

arrive at a conclon paradoxicaly coe to that reached y Wemyici: every work of at ceate an empty pace arond tef

and we erere need to perceive t n iolaton

Th very poiton wa Roerto Longhi' polemica target in h

eay "Propote pe na citca d'arte (950:

And o t the moment to crh the ngerng metaphyical

otam and eta contited by the prcpe of the aboteatepece and of t plendd ioaton The work of at o

the vae made by the Greek caman to the valt of the Stne

chapel i alway an exqitely "elatve materpiece The work

never tand alone t alway a relatonhip n the t place t

i at the leat a relatonp wth anoher work of art. A work that

tood aone n the wod cold never be ndertood a a hman

prodction bt wold be regarded wth veneration or with horor a a piece of magic a taboo te work of God or of a orcerer

rather than of man And we have aeady eed more than

enogh om the yth that artt ae dvine or perdvne

eng rather than mpe hman

In readng thoe cang paage one i remnded of the ditinc-

ton eween mpiter and ecunum qui that Vaari took omAtotelan and Scholatc tradtion. Wel and Adorno both init

even thogh their tartng pont are deent) that we mt

approach work of at a aote and nrelated enttie. onghi

like Vaai bere arge that work of art t e een n a -

torca and reational perpectve ecunum qui Bot of thee po

ton eem to e ndpenable even we they are maly

ncopatibe we cannot adopt the imutaneouy. It lke the

wenown gre of the dckabbit the dck and the rabbit are

both there bt yo cannot ee them oth at the ame tme. How-

ever the o pepectve ae nited in an aymmetrcal relaton

hip The "mpe diect aote von can be expeed the

angage of to bt the revee not the cae



Distance and PerspectiveTW MTPHRS

n , an ssay by an Soka, pofsso of thotcal

physcs at w Yok Univst was pbshd n th o

na Social Text Sokas long and dnsly fncd ssay

was titld Tansgssng th Bondas Towad a Tans-matv Hmntcs of Qantm Gavt Som tm

lat, Sokal hmslf vad that th ssay had bn a savag paody of th adicay atvst postions nowadays

shonabl among posophs anthopologsts tay

ctics and histoans (ncldng hstoans of scnc). Th

psod had wd ntnatonal pcssons ndng p on

th ont pags of th New York Times and Le Monde. PaBoghossan who tachs phiosophy at Nw Yok nvst contbtd an atc to th Times Litera Supplement

(nd th titl at th Sokal Hoax Oght to Tach Us)n whch h ncldd an xampl to lstat th knd of

tagt Sokal was amng at n hs paody of postmodn l

atvsm To a postmodnst Boghossan wot th vws



40

DSNC ND

RSV

w Maph

of archaeoogists cocerig the origs of e rst peoples to veo e America cotiet are o more or less true tha the mythscurret amog Natve Amerca peoples such as the Zui Boghoss

ia arge thus

[The suggesto wou be that the Zu a archaeologcal versios are equaly true . . . This is impossible sce they cotraicteach other. Oe says or mples that the rst humas the

Americas came om Asa the other says or impies that they ot that they came om . . a subterraea wol of spirts Howcoul a caim a ts ea both be true? f I say that the earth s

at a you say that it s rou how cou we both be right

Postmoersts e to respo to this sort of pot by sayigthat both cams ca be true because both are true reatve to

some perspective or other a there ca be o questo of truhoutsie of perspectives. Thus accorig to the Zuperspectve

the rst humas i the Americas came om a subterraeawor; a accorg to he Wester scietc perspectve the

rst humas the Amercas came om Asa

Sce both are true accorg to some perspectve or otherboth are true.

I shou say at the outset at I am as critca as Soa a

Boossa of the septca positios arrve at by the postmoerists However Boghossias way of presetg their pot of

vew seems to me to be simpstc. The argumet that arms a co

ecto betee truth a perspective eserves a more serous

aalysis payg hee both to its metaphorical aspect a to its hs-

torywhich of course begs og bere postmoersm.2 I shaoo especialy at three crucial epsoes the rst atg om ate

atiquity a the other o om the moer age.

recet ecaes e reatoshps amog hstor memor a

rgettg have bee scusse much more tesivey tha theyever were the past As may peope have remare there are sev

eral reasos r this the members of the ast geeratio of wt-

esses to the etermiatio of Europea Jewry are reacg e e



teir lives natinaisms new and d are srcing in ica, Asia,and Erpe; tere is grwing dssatisctin wit a dryly scienticapprac t istry; and s n Nne tis can be dened and it

scienty sties te attempt t siate memry witin a less nar

rw strigrapca visin tan crrenty lds sway. Hwever,memry and istrigapy d nt necessarly cnverge. Here I

sall nsist n a deren and even ppsite teme te irredcibilit memry t istr

In is bk Zakhor Yse Yersalmi as analyzed te lik

beteen memry and str asking w te cmmand tremember [is] related t te writing istry" and nting tat is

trigrap an acta recrding strical events, is by n meanste principal medim trg wic te cllecive memry teJewis peple as been addressed r arsed"

Te Jews ave engaged in a vital reatinsip wit te past n neand by way te prpets, wit teir expratin te meaning istr and n te ter (writes Yersalmi by way a clec

tive memry transmitted trg rita, wic ands dwn

nt a series cts t be cntemplated at a dstance, bt a series sitatins nt wic ne cd smew be existentially

drawn. Tis can peraps be perceived mst ceary in tat qn

tessential exercise n Jewis grp memry wic is te assverSeder . . a symbic enactmen an istrica scenari wse

tree great acts strctre te Haggada tat is read ald: slav

erydelverancetimate redemptin

Yersa cncldes tat te astrica, i nt indeed anky

antiistrical, attitde s markedy caracteristic bibcal and rabbnica traditin dd nt inibit te transmissin a vital ewis

past m ne generatin t te next and Jdaism lst neiter itsnk t istry nr its ndamentaly istrical rientatin"

Histry" ere means res gestae, nt historia rerum gestarum: aived experience te past nt a detaced nwedge te past.

n te ceremny te Seder, Yersal pintedly writes tat

memry . . is n lnger recectin wc stl preserves a sense dstance bt reacazatin."5

Tis cncsin des nt crse appy sey t ewis traditin. In any ctre, clective memry cnveyed trg ritas

141

DSAE AD

ERSEE

Tw Maphs



DSNC ND

SVwo Metaphos

ceemonies, and simia events einces a ink with the past of akind that invoves no explicit electon on the distance that sepaates s om it. We sally egad sch eecton as ecomng pos-

sibe only wth the emegence of histoogaph a teay gee

that ams among othe tngs to ecod and peseve inmationabot events woth emembeng It s not contngent that the temistoy" deves om the Geek wod histria qi Thcy-dide was ong consideed the st pactitone of hstoy as sci-entic nqi and hs naative of the Peloponnesian Was was seen

as the speme example of a neta, obective appoach. Moeecetl howeve, attention has een dawn to hs oe as an

obseve caght p in the events he was econting. One essay onThcydides' histoica pespective mantans nstance, that themos passage (12) in which Thcyddes anticipates the da

in the te when thens and Spata wi e destoyed, eslts

om the viewpot that the stoian adopted n mch of his wokas a conseqence of the thenians defeat n 404. Tis defeat taght

Thcyddes that cties wee not impeishale6

It might be somewhat pedanticaly objected that the ancientGeeks had no wod coesponding to pespective," and no pac

tice eqivalent to that whch was nvented and theoized in f-

teenthcenty Floence.7 Thee is cetany nothing to pevent o

appyg the tem pespectve to the passages in which Thcy

dide sggests, as a le mpcty, his own sbjectve invovement

n wat appeas to e a detached naative. Howeve, even these

passages have vey ltte n common with the postmoden idea thatBoghossan citcizes, accoding to which eithe of two acconts of

the oigins of the st inhabtants of the meicas can e te

ecase both ae te eative to some pespective o othe." The

distat oigns of sch a way of thinking may be taced ack, as I

shal attempt to sho to a tadtion that was nethe Jewsh no

Geek

et s etn to memoy and itua moe pecisel to a case nwhich the connection etween these two eements s especiayexpicit Celeating the Passove bee hs death, Jess says Ths

s my body wch is given yo do ts as a memoia of me"Lke 2219. These wods, as has been pointed ot, wee cetainly

i accodance with ewish tadition.8 Howeve, when Pa qotedthem, in a slightly alteed m, in the st ette to the Cointhans,



radicaly rintrptd tm, transrmng t body of ss intowat wod mc latr com to b dd as t rps mystim

t mystica body in wic a bvrs wr incorporatd: 43

DN ND

Wn w blss t cp of blssng" is it not a mans of saringRV

n t bood of Crist Wn w brak t brad, is it not a Tw Meahs

mans of saring in t body of Crist Bcas tr is on oaf,w, many as w ar, ar on body; r it is on loaf of wic w

al partak. Corintians n6 )

1" mant, as w rad Gaatians 32 vryon; it implid t

disapparanc of vry tnic, social or sxal distinction Tr isno sc ting as Jw and Grk slav and man, mal and fma;

r yo ar lon prson n Crist ss"In tis nivrsalist prspctiv t rlationsip wit t past and

mor spciay wt t Jwis past took on nw rms SantAgstn dns t qstion in gnra trms n a passag of De

Trinitate 4..) wr dscsss t prsnc of sds of t

divn imag in t man so

Tr ar tings wic ar itr n tir own propr pacs,

or av passd tim; altog tos tat av passd no longr

xist tmslvs bt only crtain signs of tm as passd and

ts signs, wn ty ar itr sn or ard, indicat wat wasand wat as passd. Sc signs ar itr locatd in crtan

placs as t tombs of t dad and t lik; or ty ar in ri-ab books, as is al story of wigt and approvd atorit or

ty ar in t minds of tos wo alrady now tm10

T powr tat govrns signs in or mnds is mmor t cly

tat Agst trats wit sc wondr prondi in t tntbook of t nssins Howvr, as as bn pontd ot, mem

ia n Agstin' s writngs ad manngs dirnt omand to s,lss obvios tantos of t trm as w s it. o it dnotd

t tombs of t martyrs or as in t passag jst citd) of t dad

in gnra rics and riqaris and litrgical commmorations1ts signs and manings wr nkd to t Elesia santrm

t crc of t saits, wic Agstin dd as ows n t

Ennaratines in Psalms 93)



144

DSAN AND

RSIV

Tw Meaphos

i

The church o the saints s that hch God rst pregred [pr

igavi bere it as seen, and then set rth that t might be seen.The church o the sants as heretore n rtng, no t s nnatons Heretore, the chrch o the sants as oy read o;

no t s both read o and seen When t as oy read o, t asbeleved; no t s seen, and is spoen against!2

Ecclia acorum ra aa i codicibu modo i gibu. One oAugustne's contemporares, Ncetas o Aqulea (a 444), gave

even cearer emphass to the continuty beteen the Old and the

Ne Testaments, beteen hat might be read n hoy books andhat might be experenced n reaty

What ese is the Church but the congregaton o a the Sants?From the beginnng o the orld, the Patrarchs Abraham, saac

and Jacob the aposes the martyrs; and the other just ho ere

and are and i be, are one Church, because sanctied by one

th and conversation, sgned by one Spirt, they are made into

one body; he head o hch s Chrst as t is rtten.

n Augstne s thought, the Jesh and he Chrstan past are con-

nected through the noton ogra n his treatse D doca Ch-

iaa Augstine used is as a means to clar severa passages omthe Gospes hat are cut to understand For instance, the apparenty monstrous ords o Jon unless you eat the esh o the

Son o Man and drink is blood you can have no ie in you" are saidto be a gre o speech directing that e are to partcipate i theLords passon and treasure up n gratel and sautary remembrance

he ct that His esh as crucied and ounded r us"Elsehere in D doca Chriiaa hoever, Augstne points

out that gratve nterpretatons o the Bible can be taken to

excess. He arns aganst projectng into t�e Bble the customs o

the time and pace n hich e, ts readers, ive:

Since human nature is incined to apprase sns not by the meas-

ure o ther mace, but, instead, by the measure o its on cus

toms, t oen happens that a man consders as reprehensbe oythose acts hch the men o hs on country and age usualy

protest aganst and denounce and he holds as acceptable and



commdabl oly hos allowd by h usag of hos wih

whom h lvs. Th su is ha f cpu h achssomg whch is a vaiac wih h cusom of is iss

o csus wha is o a vaiac hy cosid i a gaivxpssio povdd ha h auhoy of s wod has a hold

upo h mids Bu cpu commads oy chai

This pcp impis ha w mus pudy ak io accouwha is pop pacs cicumsacs ad psos quod ur

loc e emporbu e peron conena] so ha w may o idis

cly covic hm of s."7Th a cass Augs obsvs wh w mus ad h

Bibl a oc aly ad gaivl bcaus cusoms havchagd sic hos ims

Upgh m of m ims psd ad old h kg

dom of hav ud h guis of a ay kgdom. c iwas od o povid sucily umous dscdas h

pacc of o ma havg sval wvs a h sam im wasuobcioab. . . Ad ayg of ha kid ha is h

ad i i cipu is udsood o oy i s hisoica

ad lia appcao bu also is gaiv ad pophic

impcao non olum hoce ac propre ed eam rae ac

prophece accepum, ad mus aways b ipd owad ha

pupos of chai whh i pais o God ou ghbou o

boh8

W a obigd o ad h Bib a oc pophicaly ad iso-

ca bcaus God has accommodad hmslf o h hsoy of h

huma ac Th aiud ha Augs adopd owad h sac-

ics of h Jws was spd by h d h aicuad i

spc of h polygamy of h paiachs o judg cusoms accod-

g o im ad cicumsac Th Roma sao Vousiaus ocposd a povocaiv quso askig how was ha God had ud

h w sacics of h Chisas accpab ad had jcd h

old sacics phaps God had chagd is mid? I his pl s

o mpial Commissio Favius acus Augus agai

vokd h da of Gods accommodaio o h huma ac.20

Augs wo as lows

14

DSANE AND

ERSETVE

o Metaph



DSAN AND

RCVTwo Meaho

Anyone can see wha a wide appicaion his pinciple has if he

reies on and does not o obsere the dierence beween

beauy and ness, which is spread r and wide, so to speak, n

he generaliy of gs or, beauty is ooked upon and paised

is own sake, and is conrary is ugliness and unsighness. Buttess, whose opposie is untness, depends on someng else,

and is, n a sense, sened o i it is not pred is own aue,

bu hat to wich i is oined. Doubess, he words "suiabe

and "unsuitable ae synonyms, o ae so considered Let us now

apy wha we said bere o s poin unde discussion. The sac

rce wich od had commanded was ting n hose eary imes,

bunow it is not so Therere, He prescribed anothe one, tng s age, snce He knew much beter han man wha is suiably

adaped o each age [novt qid ciqe tempor accommodate

adibeatr] and, being he unchangeable Creao as we as Ruler

of he world of change, He knows as well wha to gie and when

o gie, o add to, to take awa o withdra o ncrease, or to

dimnsh, unl the beaut of he entie world, of which he indi-

idua parts are suitable each r is own time, swels, as i wee,ino a migh song of some unuterable musician, and om

thence he true adoers of od rise o he etena conemplaion

of His ce een he ime of ih.

To undestand s ndamentaly important passage, we mus

remembe that Augsnes rs piece of wriing was a treatise, De

plcho et apto (n he beaui and the g), dedicaed o aRoman oraor who had been bon n Syria and educaed in eece

(Conessions .r.2). In is Conessions (s) Augusne refers to the

conens of ts treaise, aleady los hen and neer snce recoered

and with ndsight criticizes he Manichean iepoin he had

adopedn it rom the tie, and om Augusine s concise reference,

we can see ha the treaise mus hae ned on he dierence

bewen he beautiful and he tng or suitabe (plchm" as

aganst aptm o accommodatm). Plao discusses s distnc

tion in he eate Hippias and it had undoubely enered no he

adiions of Platosm. Augusne s knowedge of reek was slgh,

howeer, and he must hae come upon hese themes ndirecl by

way of he wings of Cicero, which he read passionately n s

youh In the passage we hae jus noted, Augsne is echong a



long argumen developed by Cicero n s D orator This begins by

referng defeenialy o Plao bu soon akes a decdedy aniPla

onic rn24 Ciceo sars by remakng ha hee is n naue "a

muiplic of ngs ha ae dieren om one anoher and ye are

eseemed as havng a sla nare.5Ths appareny innocuous principe was appled rs o he ars

(vsua and veba) and hen o rheoric leadng o he pon whee

he noion of leary or rheorica genre was ansrmed no

someing close o wha we ca ndividua sle.6 Poes such as

Aeschylus Sophocles and Euripdes each have heir own ncompa

rabe excelence; all arss achieve pe�fecion n he way paricua o

hem n al says Cicero "if we could scruinize all he oraorsom evey place and every me woud we no conclude ha ere

ae as many genes as here are oraors (33)

Thee is no single perfec kind Cicero concludes s he ora

o o choose om ime o e whicheve is suiable o he cir

cumsances.

Augsne had eaned-rs as a sden and ae as a professo

of heorc-o empoy ecnca ems such as aptum" and accom-modatum wch ae Lan ranslaions of he Geek word prpon7

Hs developmen and exposion of Chrsian heolog was songly

nuenced by is educaion n rheoric. Tis appes especialy o s

noon of dvine accomodaion whose speccaly heoica oi

gn is plainy evden in s indiec answer o he Roman senaor

Volusianus. In hs anaysis of he reaonshp beween Chrsians and

Jews Augsine drew on a concepa schema deived om hisyouhl eecons on he relaion beween puchrum and aptum

beeen wha is universay beauul and wha is ing. Ciceo had

nsised ha n he eam of he visua and veba as excellence and

diversi are no ncompabe His agmens howeve despie a

eference o oraors "presen and pas wee esseniay achronic

Augsne made use of he same model bu exended is applcaion

no he dmenson of ime. Nare lke he acv of humans"change according o he needs of mes by lowing a ceran

rhyhm bu is does no aec he rhym of her change28 Here

Augsine ns o he me of hsor descibng God "he

unchangeable Creaor as wel as Ruler of he wold of change as

being like an "unuerable musician.2 Cceos reecons on he

nae of a and poery had opened he way ha ed Augsne o

47

DACE AND

ERSEVEo Metapho



DSNC ND

PPVTwo Meaphos

pas h bau o h cours o human nc univeri aecui

uchtudo"), comparn o a modous son: maphor ha

alowd m o conc dvn mmuaby and sorcal chan

h uh o Jwsh sacrcs n hr own m and h uh o h

Csan sacramns ha had placd hm.Alhouh h ancn soans om Thucydds o oybus

had mphaszd ha human nau was nvarab hy had und

sood ha nsons and cusoms chan. Ts was somn o

whch Ausn was aso awa. In De doctna Chtiana J.19) h

rmaks I was a dsac amon h ancn Romans o wa

ncs ha rachd o h aks and had on slvs; now s

unsmy r hos o nobl bh whn hy war ncs no ohav ha kd"by no mans a bana snc hs xamp o hs-

ocal chan ows and rocs h juscaon h ors ·

h poyamy paccd by h arachs30 Aus naly

ardd h wsh pas as a spcal cas kd o h Csan prs

n by a poocal rah han an anaoca raonsp.3 How

v n od o rss h da ha consd h conson o

av radnnaml ha h Old Tsamn was a onc uand supsddAusn had rcous o Ccros amn ha

asc xcnc s nnscay rssan o compason

I Hrodos was h hr o sor" Yusha mds us

h hs o mann soy wr h ws"32 Howv nhr

h Grks no h Jws vr nrand anyn compaab o h

noon o sorca prspcv wh wch w a ar33 Oly a

Chrsan such as Aus cn on h dsnd raonspbn Crsans and Jws and bwn h Old and Nw Tsa

mns cold hav mulad h da ha bcam by way o h

Han concp o Auebung a cuca mn o our soa

conscousnss: nam ha h pas mus b undsood boh on s

on rms and as a k n h chan ha n h as anayss ads up

o ouslvs 34 I am poposn ha w can s n s ambvanc a

scuazd pojcon o h Csan ambvanc oward h ws

Th bauy o h cous o human xpnc univeri aecui

uchtudo, s compard by Aus o a mody basd on a har

monous vary o sounds. H wo n De vera reigone ha h su



cession of e cenuries mig be kened o a song a no one s

abe o ear n is enire3 We are a once remnded of e mporance of music in e reecons on ime se r in e Confeion 49

Fai is based on earng (de ex audiu) n s wa Augusne sNCB ND

was abe o counerpose uman sor e ime of i and of is ERECVEening o eern e meess conempaion of od.6 w Meah

Toda owever we are irresisby drawn o ransae Augusnes

acousic meapors no visua meapors a urn on dsance andperspecve is obvous enoug wy is sensor s as akenpace. Prinng as made ages and books ey more accessibe

and as payed is par in wa as been caed e riump of vson

or more recen e scopc regme of moderni"37 wonderowever weer suc a vague caegory as is can reay eain ourpropens r visua meapors Far more ougprovoking is e

parale oen empasized by Panofsk beeen e invenion of lnear perspecive in e aan Renaissance and e emergence a esame me of a crica aiude oward e pas3 To be sure s is

no more an a convergence oug a suggesve one However

isea Bock in a mos percepive essa as idenied a specic beween e wo erms in a pacee dedcaion of Macavei s

Pncipe Te Prnce)were no one ad ooked r 39The Pnce was wrien n 55 and pubsed in 52 ve

years aer Macaves dea a once aceved me successand noorie Te lie work (opuculo) as is auor caed i

was orgnaly dedcaed o uiano de Medci wen e died i

was dedicaed insead o orenzo di Pero de Medci uke ofUrbino and nepew of Loreo e Magncen. Te posumous

prined ediion of The Pce produced n e Medci circe sll carried is dedicaion o e uke of Urbino wo ad died 5

Sor bu densey wren is cenraly concerned wi Macaveli s awareness a as a privae czen of umbe bir e was

sowing considerabe audaciy n seing r rues r e exercise

of prncey power. He defends mse agains possibe crcsm asllows

Nor ope wl be considered presumpuous r a man of ow

and umbe saus o dare dscuss and ay down e aw abou

ow princes soud rue because us as men wo are skecnge andscape pu emseves down in e pain o sudy e



0

DSAN AND

EETwo Metaphos

aue of he mouas ad he ghads, ad o sudy he low

yg ad hey u hemseves hgh o he mouais, so, o

comehed ly he aue of he eole, oe mus be a ce,

ad o comehed ly he aue of ces oe mus be a

odiay cze.41

has bee covcigly agued ha we shoud see hs assage

a aluso o Leoado, who made mas ad dew adscae.42

Bewee Ocobe ad Decembe 1502 Machavel was he ocal

amassado of he Reublc of Foece a he cou of Cesae Bo

ga, Duke of Romaga, Imola. Wle hee, he may wel haveme

Leoado, whom Boga had egaged as a mlay egee. fewmohs ae, he ma of Imola ha Leoado oduced oeed

exceoal evdece of hs abl o dec ladscae om above.

I May 1504, Machave hs caaciy as seceay o he Cha

celey of he Reublic, aoved he ayme of a advace o

Leoado Ts was owad he sum ayabe a esco ha would

eese, o he wals of he Paazzo dea Sgoa, he bale of

Agha, a esode Foee hso The esco was evecomeed, ad has o suvved I Leoados Codex Aanicu we

d a bief desco of he bae we he had of Maci

avells seceay goso Vesucc. We may seculae, bu s

ufouaey mossble o assembe hese scas of evdece io

a cohee whole. Si, Machaves asso "hgs as hey ae

ea uh, ke his coemuous judgme o auhos who

descbe deal, uely imagay eublcs (see chae 15 of ThePnce) may have bee segheed, eve f was o sed, by

eoado's deached, aaycal aude o eali4

I s i chae 5 of The Pnce ha Machavelli mously wes

ha a ma who was o ac vuously evey way ecessaly

comes o gef amog so may who ae o vuous. The agc

awaeess ha eal s as s-so oe ieeed as cycsm

deved om a massoed advocacy of aayca deachme.Hee s whee we d he aael wh hose who skech he lad

scae, ad mcy (y way of he ssece o o of vew)

wh he acce of esecve Macaveli was suggesig ha df

fee os of vew oduced dee eeseaos of olcal

eal The eeseaos deved om he esecve osos of

he ce ad he oulace wee equaly limed obecv was



atainabe oy by one who oberved real om ouide, om a

diance, om a perphera, marginal poonuch (we may add

a Machave occuped n 11314.

I can be een ha we are a very ong way om he Augtnan DSAN AN

model and not oly becaue Machaveli' cognve meaphor waRSV

baed on igh rather han on hearing. Far more important he di w Meaphs

erence between a mode baed on dvne accommodaton, n whch

ruh (Judam lead o a higher truth (Chriian, and a purely

ecuar model, baed on conc. The conra beween repreen

aon o pocal rea derive om the nature o hng, which

nhereny conical Machave awarene o th came, a he

wrote in he dedicaton to , om "a ong acquantancewh contemporary aar cose odee and a coninuou udy o

he ancen word H nvovemen n poica ruggle and h

tudy o Roman hory uggeted to Machavei the enrely new

thei, expounded chapter 1, 4 o he Discouses (and aer deve

oped n he Stoe , hat "the dunion o he Peb and the

Roman Senate made ha repubc ee and powerl

acheved uch grea and wide me and ucce (andwa he ubjec o uch condenaion and reaion ha may

eem a wae o me to earch r pecc echoe o the paage n

he dedcaton where Machiave len hme to "men who are

eching he landcape. We nght thn hat we need oo no r

ther han "he copc regime o moderni However, a e hat

invetgation trn out to produce unexpeced reul.

In 1646 over a cenury aer it pohumou pubcaton, wa he cenral ubect o an exchange o eter beween

Decarte and h devoted pup Eabeh, Prnce o he Paa

nae. Aer readng and commenting on a dra o the des pas-

sions de e, Eabeh aed Decare what h though were

concerng la potica and oca e, a we ngh put t

nowaday The two (one in Holand, the other in Berlin then

decided tha hey hould read Machiave ogeher InAugu or September 1646 Decare en Elizabeth a dealed com

menary onarou paage n , whout menioning the

boo ie or t author. Th cauon wa undertandable, nce

ted in he ndex o prohbted boo, wa regarded by

Cahoc and Proeant ale a an impiou and heretical wor

(no o mention unuitable r a prnce. In order o concea the



15

ANE AND

ERSEVE

T Mtaps

h hey were orresondng on suh sndlous o, z-

beh sed Deses o ddress hese ees o he younge siserSo, who ws n dolesen. esres omed wih he eques,

nd he end of hs ee suggesed rudenly h in ure, iz

beh should we o im in ode9We shl shorly see he ernene of hese dels. Fo he

momen, e us jus noe h he ssge on he dwing of lnd

se is mong hose h Deses quoes (n Frenh) om The

Prne nd disusses Hee s n some oher les, he eesses his

disgeemen

Now he en eesens oy suh hngs s n be seen om

dsne bu he mn esons r he ons of ines oen ie

n iumsnes so se h hey re no o be gnedexe by one who s msef Pe or hs ong been shre

of hei seres5

Thus Deses, by emhszng he seil oson of rnes,

reses he soi nd ognive hierhy denied by Mivelissymmeil meho51

The orresondene beeen Deses nd izbeh reminedn he ossession of So, who er beme leress of Hnover.

Some dedes er ws o be dsovered by he og Lebnz zeous seeerou of Desres' mnusris nd eers.52 Lebnz,

who of ouse new he Prnevery we,53 mus hve been sru by

Deses' ommens on he ssge onering he deion ofndse. Ts onon edng of Deses nd Mive

undees mous ssge in he Mnad

And s he sme own, looed om vous sides, ersquie deren nd beomes s i were numerous n ses per-

spetivement even so, s esu of he nnie numbe of smle

subsnes, i is s f hee wee so mny dieren universes,wih, neverheess re nong bu ses perspetives of s

ge univese, ording o he sei on of view of ehMond.5

For Lebz s Mhive, e meho of eseive lowed

he deveomen of mode of oon bsed on uriy of



points of view. However, whereas Macavei's model had been

ased on conict, Lebn's was based on the harmoous coexis-

tence of an te muipiciy of subsances Such coexstence 53

impied, n he as analyss, he nonexisence of ev. In the heod sTAC AD

Lebniz draws a comparison beeen appareny shapeess images SV

"hose invenons using perspective, n wich cerain eauil draw- Tw Meaphs

ngs seem nothing bu conson, unl hey are resored to the cor

rec point of ve or looked a by way of a ceran mirror or lens

and the apparen dermities of our ie Worlds [which] are

reuied in beauty in he great world: ha is, in God55 n he var

ous versons of hisorcism, echoes of these heological themes may

be heard The heoloian and piosopher Johann Marn Clade-ius, who deveoped Leibnzs hought aong original nes, sands

righ a he begng of this neecual radtin.6 Historical

sources when hey are the product of human inentions, and the

wrngs of hsorians are both bound up, according o Cadeius,

wth parcuar poins of view SehePunckte an expresson ha,

Cadenus observes, Leibniz was probaby he rs to use in a gen

eral as opposed to a srcy opica sense7 However, Cadeius,when he insss ha he accouns of any sorical even must

dverge, as wel as on the idea hat hey can utimaely be harmo

ized, reveals tha he had read Lebnz with Machave in mnd A

loyal subject, a rebel, and a regner a courer, a ciydweler and a

peasan, w each have heir own way of perceiving a rebeion8

Cladeniuss observaion, wch seems banal enough to us (but

wch r a long me was anying bu bana), rmuated anewMachiavelis counerposition of he popuaces vew of the prince

and the prnces vew of he popuace. Tis exampe shows tha he

cognitive modes we are discussing can be adequatey evauated oy

in a ongerm perspecve an expresson I empoy no r he sake

of a sly play on words bu r reasons shal soon expa

Smping, we may say hat he hree models deveoped by

Augusne n he h centr by Machiaveli n the sxteenh and byeibiz n he seventeenh can be paced under he signs respec

ivel of accommodation, of conc and of muplic A few

exames w be enough o ilusrate he lasting nuence hat lhree have had Hegels piosophy of isory combnes Mac

aveli's conicual model wh a secuarzed verson of Augstnes

model, based on accommodaion 59 It s plan enou ha we nd n



DIN AND

RSIVTwo Mapho

j

I

Max who gealy admied Macaveli a ewoking of he ae's

conicual mode60 We need hadly emind ouselves ha n Nie

zsches batles agains posiivisic obecivi pespecivism pe

med a cucial oe. Meaphos conneced wih disance and pe

speive have played and si do play an impoan pa n ou inelectal adition.

III

ended he s secion of s essay by nong he ambivalence

fel by histians towad the ews. Tis ambivalence goes o he

oos of histianit igh om is beginngs n using ts aboeameapho, am of couse making an ausion o Paul's lee o the

Romans 16 ) Hee Paul he ewish "apose o he Genties,

compaes the Gentles conveed to hisianiy o a wid oive tee

gaed ono a cultivaed olive ee the ews) whose banches have

been cu o because of hei "unbeief hat is because they have

no ecognzed esus as he Messiah. This same aitde combing

dsance and continui subsequeny expessed iself in he hisans' caim o be ves Ise the ue sae) a polemical sef-def

iniion aimed on one hand at he ews and on the othe a hose

hisians who ike Macion in he second cen shaply opposed

esus he benevolen God and he malevolen God of the Od Tes

tamen. Macions ideas have neve completely disappeaed om

hisan cutue o subculte even if hey have neve succeeded

in gaining pedomnance Macions defea is symbozed in hehisan Bible whee the physical contigiy of he wo esaments

even the "old is aloted meey he posiion of pecuso o he

new) is dsplayed in a singe voume o codex

was a defea tha had incalculable consequences oninuity

and disance neaness and hosit coninued o chaaceize he

elaionsipwich is pehaps uique in he histoy of he gea

eligionsbetween histians and ews. this is obvious essobvious ae he consequences beginng wih he agmen deve

oped by Augusne o demonsae ha ewish ceemoes wee a

once ue and supesededa conclusion ha mus have seemed

quie simply absud o a eaned heahen such as Vousianu he

Roman senao whose quesions i was intended o answe

n De civitate Dei 24 Augstine eecs the cyccal heoy of



hsoy togethe wth the dictm n Ecciat that "thee s notng

new nde the sn We kno he declaes that ato taght once

and once onl at Athens becase we now ha Jess Chst ded

once and once onl o sns.6 The nssence on the niqeness DSAN AND

of the Incanation gave se to a new pecepton of hman histoy. RSVThe kenel of the cent histoiogaphica paadgm is a seca wo Mtaphos

zed vesion of the model of accomodaton to which may be

added a vaiable dose of conct and mltipcit Metaphos sch as

pespective poin of view and so on vvdly expess his atde

towad the past. myself he eade wl have emaked have no

been able to go the se of sch metaphos one smal poof hat

they ae ompesent n cen histoiogaphical dscose. Howeve hei secla gab shod no conceal he ogin whh goes

back to Agsine O way of knowng the past is mbed wh the

Chisian attitde of speioity towad the ews. n ohe tems he

phase vru I" the te sae nasmch as is the selfde

niion of Chistiant is also the matx of he concepion of hiso

cal h hat emansand hee delbeaely se an al-embacng

emo ownThis dscovey made me vey neasy a feelng that othes ew

ish o not may pehaps shae. n he end howeve the context n

which deas oignae oy paly deemnes he ses o which they

ae lae p. n D dcrina Chtiana Agstine takes the acon of

the sons of sael in plndeng the god and sve ewels of the

Egyptians Exods 235-3 as a mode of the aitde Chsans

shold have taken to the heathen clal nheiance Evey clal nheitance we we no is sbect o connos appopia

ton · and edeveopmen. Who w plnde and appopiae o

noion of hso possibly ejecg is concepal coe emboded n

he meapho of pespectve?

I have no answe to this qestion One thing howeve s beyond

dobt two of the thee models idened so have ecently been

cae n qesion thogh in iex of wdely deng impoance.Fndamentasts of evey knd atack he model based on accom

modation; the model based on conict is contemptosly dsmssed

as a piece of antic by hose who ak o sed to ak abo "the end

of histo65 The mode based on mtipicit by contast becomes

eve moe shonable albeit n a skeptical vesion tha sees each

socal gop deemned by gende enic oign egon and so



DIANE AND

PESPECETwo Metapho

rth, as adherng o a set o values o wch t s, n he last anay

ss, he prsoner. erspecve, we are od, s good, ecause empha

szes the eement o suecvy; ut t s also ad, ecause empha

szes ntelecual dsance, raher than emotona closeness (or den-

caon). I s ts annelecuals cmate hat has seredhe ne o argumen ha I reerred to a he sart, accordng o

whch memor eng coser o ved eerence, s etter ale han

sory o esalsh a va reaonsp wh he pas

adequate dscusson o hese audes would requre another

essa I shal make jus one remark here Boh ndamenass and

neoskeptcs reject or gnore hough each r her own deren

and opposed reasons, what has made perspecve nto such a power- cogtve metaphor he enson eeen suecve pont o

vew and ojectve and verale ruths, guaraneed y reaty (as n

Machave) or y God (as n Lenz) I hs enson can oly e

kep open, he noton o perspectve wl cease o e a sumng

ock etween scentsts and soca scentss and ecome nsead a

space o meeta square where we can converse dscuss and ds

agree.



To Kill a Chinee andarinTHE M RAL IMP LIATI NS F ISTANCE

opposton btwn aws of nau and stoy as

bn bquatd to us i so muc s, by ancint

Gs. In a mous passag of t Rhe istot

wo

ust and unust acons a bn dnd n fnc to

two nds of aw and n fnc o psons spon of

n two snss. I cal aw on on and spcc on t

ot comon, t a bng unwttn, m

wittn spec bing wa as bn dnd by ac

pop in fnc to mss and mmn tat

wic s basd on natu kaa physis s in

natu a comon pincp of ust and unus at a

pop n som way dn n f ty a no associ

aon o comc i ac o, xamp, wa

ntgon n Sopocs' pay sms to spa of wn s

says tat oug biddn i is ust to bu Poyncs



nce th u by natre Fo no now and yeerda bu

alway ever Lve h rule and no one now whence t

8 appeared.

O K A

CHNS MANDARN Artole analyzng the varou branche of hetoc deberaTe o ve udal and epdec (ntended that o pe or to

mlicais repove). n h dcuon of judcal rheoc that he rmulate

f Dstae he oppoton beteen pecc wrtten law and he general

unwten la Atote wate no me demontrang he exence

of unwrten naral aw natural t elfevdenly ext One

hould noe that he Loeb Claca Lbary tranlaton (96) (a

men n a maner dvne . . no mn noweth) ha to our ear anundertone of exm hat not n e orgnal Greek. The pont

no unmporant boh Atotle and Sophoce ue neuer term

(oudeis no one; nte eveyone) n paage ha efe drecty

to female characte ke Antgone o nvoke uch character a

example. Thee neuer term remnd u that natual aw nclude

both women and men Antgone peak n the voce of he uve

a he wrtten (and macune) law whoe name Creon prohbtPoynece neral by conra accordng o Atotle a pe

cc law (nomon ton men idion).

Aoe eem to want o tel u hat what aed on nare

(kt hysis) not coed to partcular place and tme However

a deren pont of vew uggeed n ome paage n he econd

book of he Rhetori. Hee Atoe analyzng the varou emo-

on called to play by the oraor a he eek o convnce h audence or example (36a) py:

ow hoe whom peope feel p are the lowng and thoe

ke hem. They p he acuantnce ule they are very

cloey conected to ther own houehod and n tha cae they

feel r hem a they feel about he own tre uerng . . . [For]

the drea omehg deent om e ptable and capabeof expeng py . peope no longe feel pt when ome-

thng dreadl near themelve. And they pt hoe lke them

eve n age n chaacte n habt n ank n brth r n al

hee cae omethng eem more to apply alo o he elf; n

general one hould gap here oo ha people pt hn hap

penng o ohe n o r a hey a r themelve. Ad nce



suerngs are pabe when they appear near a hand and snce

peope do no feel pi or no the same wa about hngs ten

housand years n the pas or re, nether antcipaing nor 59

rememberng them, necessarily hose are more ptiable who con O

tribue to he eec by gesures and cries and display of feengs CHNS MNDNaµd generaly n ther acting; r they make the ev seem near by The Ml

maing it appear bere [our] eyes eher as somehng abou to Impliatins

happen or as somehng that has happened, and hings are more f Distane

ptiable when havng us happened or gong o happen n a shor

space of time.

We encouner a similar argument n he section devoed to env(1388a)

People envy hose near o hem ime and pace and age and

repuaton, whence it has been said hat Knsp oo, nows

how o en d [they envy] those they rva r hey rva

hose menoned [feeng] the same way oward them and on he

same grounds, but no one rivals peope en housand years n heure or dead nor hose who live a the Pars of Heracles nor

those hey or ohers regard as feror or much superior

risole akes as obvious ha he emotions analyzed n the sec-

ond book of he hetoc are ased on nature" kaa physis.

Nonetheess, he ends up setng both hsorcal and geograpcal

limits to them Accordng o he myth recounted by Plato, he ngdom of Aanis oushed ne housand years bere Soons tme._

Asoe uses a s larger number, en housand years (muioson)

o convey he dea of an immensely disant ime, pas or ure,

wch woud precude any possbi of our dentng posively or

negaively wth he emotons of the human bengs who ived in i.

Somehng more or ess sar is imped by the alusion to he Pl

ars of Heraces legendary tradons (which would be one day con-neced o risoe's pupil Alexander he Grea) held ha the ands

and seas that ay beyond the lims of the Medterranean were peo-

ped by savages or monsers

What Aristoe says about e ronological and geograpcal

limis of pty and envy canot be reduced to an opposiion between

reat and myth. Mycal beings, especialy when hey appeared on



the stage, could arouse deep feeng. istote remarked n the Poe-

ics that tragedy deals with incidents that awaken fear and pt"

hoberon kai eleeinon) (145b), and he went on to add that deeds

O A

CHNESE MANDARN

The Mol

Implcaton

of Dstance

regarded as fearfu or pitiable must of course nvolve people who

are either iends to one another, or enemes, or nether. ow f

a man nures s enem there s noting pitale either in s act

or in s ntention, except so r as suerng s inicted nor is

there i they are nderent to each other. But when the suerings

vove those who are near and dear when r example brother

kls brother, son ther, mother son, or son mother, or i such a

deed s contemplated, or someting else of the knd is actuaydone, then we have a situation of the knd to be aimed at 4

Out of sght, out of mnd," as the Englsh say as the Itaians sa

Fraelli colelli" there are brothers, there are knves. hese

two proverbs help us to grasp the contradiction mpcit n the pas-

sages we have ust quoted om the Rheoc and the Poeics. oo

great a distance gves rse to nderence too great proxmit mayawaken compasson, or provoke murderous rvar s ambva-

lence, eressed wth extraordinary vigor in Greek drama, was part

of everyday eerience in the society rstote ved n a imted,

conned socety based on cetoce reationsps

. et us turn now to a very derent text, wrtten two thousand

years ater Dderot' s Enreien dun pre aec ses enfan ou du danger dese mettre audessus des lois (Conversaton of a ther wth s cdren,

or the danger of setng onesef above the law) was rst pubshed n

13. In a broken antc stye, nspred by Sternes Tram hand,

Diderot describes a conversaton that takes pace one cam wnters

eveng n is thers house. Peope come and go, a of them tellng

of events and memores at bear on a sngle problem the relaton-

sip beteen the written code of the law and moral prncpesbeteen, as stoe woud have put t, specc aws and the com

mon a wich are represented respecvey by Dderot pre and

Dderot 6 Do we have the ght to break the wrtten code n order

to protect the genera principes of moraty? s t alowable r a doc

tor to rese to treat a wounded cal? Is t moray egtmate to

destroy an unjust w that woud deprive a group of poor peope of



thei heritance to the soe benet of a rch egost? hen he

reworked the text of the Entrtin, subsequent to ts orgina 1773 pub

caton, Dderot inserted a digresson that is not vey we liked to 61

the man text hamaker arrves an tes s sto For eghteen years K A

he tended to is sick wife; when she died, and he und mse penCHNESE MANDARN

nless, he appropriated the dow that by aw shod have gone to her Moal

reatves. Has s acon been rt or wrong? discusson begns, n Implicatios

wich Dderot pr nssts that the hater shold restore what he has of Dtac

wronuy taken. To is advce the hatter repies brusquely:

"No, sire I sha go away to Geneva

nd do you suppose you wl eave your remorse behindhere?

"I do not now, but I shal go to Geneva

Go where you w, your conscence wawat you there.

The hatmaker departed and our talk urned to his strange

response. We agreed that dstance n pace and time perhaps to

some extent weakened feelng and awareness of al knds, even

the consciousness o crme. The murderer transported to hecoast of China s too r away to make out the corpse he has le

beeding on the banks of the Sene. Perhaps remorse is engen

dered less by our horror at ourselves than by our fear of others,

ess by the shame we fee over our deeds than by our nowledge

that blame and pushment woud be the consequence shoud

they be discovered.7

In the Suppmnt to th Voyag da Bougaini Diderot was to

antain that sexuait ince it s a natral cul shoud be subject

to no knd of ega constrant. n the Entrtn dun pr avc

nant he seems to suggest the same ting about murder Dderot's

uncompromisng observaton that "distance n pace nd ime per

! haps to some extent weakens feeng and awareness of al kinds

seems a wordrword echo of the passage quoted ealer omAsoles Rhtorc but here Arstole's thought s taken to its ogcal

extreme. There is nothing strange n this In s earer Dicour on

Dmatc Potry 1758) derot had described Astotle as a phoso

pher who proceeded n an orderly maner and rmulated general

principles, eaving it to others to draw their consequences and appy

them.8 One nstance of uch a consequence wold be Dderot's own



'a�

1

move here, where he transms the ac of compasson whch

Arstotle had seen as a resut of dstance n pace o tme" nto the

2 presumptve ac of remorse r mude, whch mght low om

o A the same causes. uman bengs who ae r apart and unabe to

CHNEE MANDAN communcate tn themselves nto spt egosthe theme thatTheMa nspred two of Ddeots nest wos, Rameaus Nephew and he

Impicati Paradox of Ating Distace Ts trnng nward taes place acoss a geograpca spacethe

dstance om Fance to Cnantey wder than the Medte

ranean wod Arstote wote of But why Cna? Ts menton of

Chna n the dscusson of a cttous moral case has been thought

to show that Dderot pehaps too the exampe he uses om a Jesutcasustca treatse. The hypothess s attactve though as yet

unproven Wheever he und the anecdote, Dderot made t the

startng pont r a moral experment that may be compaed to the

one he had thought up twent yeas eare n the Lette sur les aveu

gles lusage de ex qui voient Letter on the bnd r the use of

those who can see

I suspect that the bnd geneal ac humat; r of a the

outwad sgns that awaen compasson n us and convey the dea

of pan they are aected ony by ces. To a bnd peson, what s

the derence between a man unatng and a man who beeds

but does not cy out? Do not we too cease to feel compasson

once dstance, or the smalness of obects, produces the eect on

us that the lac of sght poduces on the blnd? ow greaty ouvrtues depend upon how we feel thngs and upon the degee to

wch we are aected by what s outsde us! And so I doubt not

that, but r the fear of punshment many peope woud d t

ess hard to l a man at a dstance om wch he appeaed no

larger than a swalo than they would to st a buloc's throat

wth the own hands f we feel compasson r the sengs of

a horse, but have no scuples about squasng an ant does notths same prncple deterne our feeng?

Thee s an obvous anaogy between the dstance that separates

Fance om Cna and the sensoy deprvaton that acts the

bnd The ac of humant and compasson whch (accodng to

Dderot results om ether stuaton cals nto queston the pe



sumpon ha moray has an eenally esablshed haraer As

Ddero elamed o Mme de Puseu, he deaee of he Lettre

ur e aeuge Madam, he moray of he bnd-how de 63

en s om our own12 Moa n Ddero's ve s he esul of O K A

physaly and hsorally spe rumsanes and onsans HNESE MANDAR

The same wo words rate" and htmet" "fear and "push h M

men, eho aross a wenyyea gap, elag boh how a hypo Impat

heial murderer mgh qu Pas r Cna and how someone Da

mgh kl a man who was paed a suh a dsane ha he looked

no arger han a swalo Ad hen, wh a sudden sh pal of hs

mode of reasong, Ddero allows hs analogy o nrodue a new

heme ha rases he queson of a que deren knd of gaphanvolved n human ades oward amals. Even when we look a

anmas, says Ddero ou peepons of sze and dsane have an

uene He does no make lea wha onsequenes ae o be

dawn om hs apparenly nnoen prnpe and hey are om

obvous Shoud we eend o he ans he p we feel r a sueng

hose Or shoud we raher regad he horses suerngs wh he

same lak of ompasson ha we, human bens fee r ansThere s no doub ha he rmer onuson s moe n harmony

wh Dderos sess on he passons and sensby-"ha dspos

on, as he wroe (undoubedly wh hsef mnd, whh

aompaes onsuonal weaness, and wh esuls om he

movemens of he aphragm, he lveness of he magnaon, he

deay of he nervous orgazaon; whh s always ready o p

o shudde, o wonde and o fear, o grow aous and o weep,and so on13 Howeve, one egheenhenury eade elly dew

he ohe, oppose onluson, wh s mpaon ha our nde

ene o he suerngs of nses should be apped uversal rano

Venur, he grea hsoran of he European Eghenmen, auely

obseved n hs youful wok euee e Derot ha Sade was

srongly luened by he argmens agans egon se h n he

Lettre ur e aeuge. I may be ha we should even go so as osay ha we ano magne Sades plosophy whou Ddero s Let-

tre ur e aeuge Hee s how Sade defends he legmay of mu

der n La Phoophe a e bouor

Wha s man, and how does he der om he oher pans and

amas of nare o a al, suel Plaed le em by ane



K A

HESE MAAR

The Mal

Impliatis

f Distae

in the world, he is born n the same manner reproduces, rows

and dwindes as they do ke them, he arrives at old ae and s

nto nothnness at the end of the term set by naure to the exs

tence of every amal species, as a resut of his oraic constit-

tion. If he is so cose in kind that the eye of the plosopher isquite unabe to discern any dssimlarit then it must be fully as

wron to k an animal as to k a man, or rather there can be as

ttle wron n either case and it is oly the prejudice of our pride

wch sets the two apart. But nothn is more sady absurd than

the preudice of pride If it is impossible n nature that crea

tures should live rever, then it is a law of naure that they must

be destroyed . . At the moment when a lare amal breathes itsast, smal animals are rmed, and the ife of these tle anmals

is notin but a necessary eect and consequence of the momen

tary seep of the lare one Would you now dare to say that one

is more peasin than the other n the siht of naure?6

Sade has sometimes been rearded as the extreme but loical

outcome of the Enihtenmenan arument that was suestedas eary as 8o by the reactionary writer Chares de Pouens.

However it was Diderot rather than Sade who was the obvious tar

et in the eyes of the political and intelectual champions of the

Restoration. FraoisRen de Chateaubriand ave a new wist to

the story of the assassin who eaves Europe r Chna in is

extremely success Gnie du Chistianisme. Distance n place and

time perhaps to some extent weakens feein and awareness of alkinds, even the consciousness of crime, Diderot had written; and

no such consciousness woud arise n the absence of the fear of

punisment These words awakened the virtuous indination of

Chateaubriand

0 conscience! are you then perhaps nothn but a phantom of

our imanation, or the fear of human puishment? interroatemyself, I ask he question If, merey by wishn it, you coud k

a man n Chna and iherit s rtne in Europe, ben assured

by supernatural means that the deed would remain rever

unown, would you alow yursef to rm that proect? It is n

vain that I exaerate my povrty to mysef it is n van that seek

to soen the murer by supposn that my wish would cause the



Cnaman o die sddeny and panless ha he has no hers, or

that his deah wold n any case mean the loss of his goods to he

Stae; is n van tha I magne his sranger as one bowed down 6

with sicness and gref is n vain that I el mysef hat death O K A

wold be a boon o

ha he himsef cas ot r i or that heCHNESE MANDAN

has bt a moment e o ive al my poor sberges canno The Mol

sence the voice ha speas deep in my hear, and wch rbds Implcaos

me so lodly even to enertan sch a hogh that I canno r an of Dsace

nsan dob the reaity of conscience.8

I is plan tha Chaeabrand was here responding boh o he

passage n Diderot concernng he mrderer who ees o Chna andto Didero's caim hat many people wod not hesate o k a

hman beng at a dstance. By combng the wo passages he cre

ated a new stor n which he vcm was Chnese and the mrderer,

who eplcy sogh o gain a sm of money by his deed, was Ero

pean. In s new verson the story-msatrbed to Rossea

became mos. The mistaen atribon can be traced bac o

Balac1 9 In Pre Got, Rasgnac spends a nght consderng the possby of mang a rich marriage that wod nvove m a eas

ndirecl n a mrder hen he goes to the emborg Gardens,

where he mees a end, Banchon Rasignac, decaring that he has

been tormented by "tempations ass Bianchon

"Have yo read Rossea?

"Yes"Do yo remmber the passage where he ass the reader what

he wod do i he cold mae a rne by ng an od man

darn n Cna by smpy eertng s w, wiho sirrng om

Paris?

"Yes.

"Wel?

"Bah! I'm a my rytrd mandarin."Dont pay the ol Loo here, if it were proved o yo that

the thng was possible and yo only needed o nod yor head,

wold yo do it?

"Is yor mandarn welsrcen n years? Bt, bless yo, yong

or old, paralytc or healh pon my word-The dev ae it!

We, no.20



Th paabl of th mandarn rshadows how h chaac of

Rasgnac wl dvlop. Balzac wans o show ha n bourgos soc

66 y t s dicut to kp th wh moral oblgatons, cudng th

10 K A mos mnary ons. Th srs of rlatons n wch w a al

HNESE MANDARN

caugh up ma mak any of us rsponsbl a las ndrcl ae M crm. A fw yars la hs nov Modst Mignon Bazac agan

mpiti usd th gur of a mandan o put rwad a smlar agmn

f Ditae Th po Canals asks

If a hs nsan h most mpotant mandan n Chna wr

bratng s ast plunging h Empr nto war woud you b so

sad In Inda th Engish a kilng thousands of popl lk oursvs a ts vry momn a dlght lady s bg consgnd

o h ams; and yt hav you no duk your co jus h

sam"

n a wold whr w now ha h cuy of backwardnss and

h crul of mprasm hod swa our moa indnc s

aady a m of compcWhn Rastgac's nd rsss th da of klng an uown

Chns mandarn, w may s n hs an mpc rcogon of th

c tha (as sto had put ) h s nau a common prin-

cp of h jus and unjus" No howvr, wh h mgnc of

a globa conomc sysm hr would hncrth b al oppou

s popl o grow ch across dsancs mmasurably gratr

tha vr Asotl had magd or coud magnTs conncon had ong bn cozd. n h scton of h

Trtis of Humn Ntu ttld Of Cong and Dstanc n Spac

and T" Davd um rmarkd hat a Ws Indan mrchant

w l you hat h s no wthout concrn about wha passs n

Jamaca. As w shal s, howvr ums subl dscusson

gnors h moal and judca mplicaons of h quson Toda

w a suck by hs silnc. W kow ha on prson's conomcgan may b h mor or lss dirct caus of th surgs of ohr

human bgs at a ga dsanc who ar condmd o povr

manuron, or vn dah. Econic latons morovr, ar but

on of th mans that progss maks avalabl uncng th

lvs of ohr human bings a a distanc Th most wdy nown

vrson of th stoy of th Chins mandan has m kld by th



smple pessng of a uton: a eta tat puts us n mn of moen

weapons of wa ahe an of Rousseau e suppose auo of

e anecoe.2 Aplanes an msses ae sown ow g 67

Deot was o suppose at people mgt muc ease to K A

uman engs tey looke no gge tan swalows. Te pogess CHNES MANDAN

of ueaucacy as un along a sla tac, mang possle o The Moal

eat lage numes of nuals as f tey wee mee numes- Imliaios

anoe potent way of placng em a a sance of Disae

To elease a om tat s unes of tousans of people

may lea to emose, as t n e case of Claue Eathe te

Hoshma po. Boms owee, o not eque those wo launc

em to lean e eal patculas of uman utce Een ne (equent) cases wee te equste tag succees com

pletel lte malnctons may st occu Ts s sown n Cso

pe Bowng's ele ook Ordnary Men whc ges a eae

account of te ole playe y a esee attalon of te Geman

poce ce n te exemnaon of e Jews n olan.24 en

ese nomal Geman cens wo a een tansme nto mass

muees cance to come acoss ews wom ey a peouslynown ey poe ncapale of cayng out te task n te

expecte manne. It was cleay ease to poec e steeotpes

of Na popagana onto oens, unes, o tousans of Jews.

Te cleacut scton eteen s an thm at was at te

cente of te acal legslaon of e Nas was conece, a te

leel of eo to an ec ejecon of te ea of naual laws.

In s sense we may see te emegence, a te en of e Seconol a, of e legal noon of "cmes agans umany as a

elate ctoy of Antgone. "Toug en, s just to uy

olyneces, snce hs s us y naue: Asotle egae ese

wos as mlyng te supeoy of common laws oe specc

laws, of utes owa e uman speces oe utes owa a pa

tcula commun an of stance oe poxmy. Howee, as

Astole msef no l to pont out, stance an poxmtyae amalen noons As we ae seen, sance, wen puse to

exemes, may lea to n asolue lac of py ote uman

engs. How en ae we to aw te ounay etween sance

an excesse stance? To pu ths anote way wa ae e cul

tual ounaes of a putate natual feelng suc as uman com

passon?



5 hs is a dcut ueston and I shal not ty to ive a dect

answe. shal attempt oy to cla some o its mplicatons

68 he stoy o the mandain nvoves dstance in space o ume,

T K A n his Teatse exploed a much wde theme, "Contiiy and Ds

CHES MADARN tance in Space and me, wh wch Aistotle, as we have seen, hadhe Ma aeady been concened ume wtes

mpicatis

f Dstace Accodny we nd, common e, that men ae pincpally

concened about those objects that ae not much emoved ethe

n space o tme, enjoyn the pesent, and eavn what s a

o to the cae o chance and tune. alk to a man o hs con-

dton thy yeas hence, and he wil not ead you. Speak owhat s to happen tomoo and he will end you attention.

he beakn o a mo ives us moe concen when at home,

than the bunn o a house when aboad, and some hunded

leaues dstant.

In his Teoy of Moal Sentments 59) Adam Smith deveoped

umes electons, ain that only the sense o euity and justiceis capable o coectn the natual eoism o ou sentments hs

eosm s evoked by Smith by way o a paabe that ecals the is

bon eathquake that had happened n 55 shotly bee he wote

Dideot's stoy o the mudee escaped to Chna may have been

one ndiect inspaion the paabe

et us suppose that the eat empe o Chna, wth all its myiads o nhabitants, was suddey swallowed up by an eathuake,

and et us consde how a man o humaiy in Euope, who had

no sot o conexon with that pat o the wold, would be

aected upon ecevin nteience o this deadl caamy He

wold, I maine, st o al, eess vey stonly s soow

the mistne o that uappy people, he would make many

melancholy elections upon the pecaiousness o human ieand the vanity o a the abous o man, wch could thus be

aated n a moment. He woud too, pehaps he was a man

o speculaton ente nto many easonins conce the eects

whch ths dsaste miht poduce upon the commece o

Euope, and the tade and busness o the wod n enea. And

when all ths ne philosophy was ove, hen al these humane



sentimens ad been one ir epressed, e woud prse is

bsness or s pleasure, tae s repose or s diverson, wi e

same ease and ranquil as if no s aden ad appened .

f e was o ose s itle nger tomorro e would not seep

onig; b, provided e never saw tem, e wil snore wi temos prond seriy over te rn of a ndred ons of is

breren and e desrution of a immense mltiude sees

plal an obe ess nteresng to im, tan ts palr isr

tune of s own.

Hue r is part, maes no menton of smpat w e

regards as srtl onneted wit morai However, e introdesa dstinon:

Toug distane, bot n spae and ime, as a onsiderable

ee on e imagnaon, and b at means on e w and pas

sions et te onsequenes of a removal space are mu infe

ror o ose of a removal n tme. Twenty ears are ertai bt

a smal disane of tie in omparson of wat isor and evente memor of some ma nr tem of, and e doubt a

ousand leags, or even te greaest dsane of pae tis

globe an admt of wl so remarab weaen our ideas and

dminis our passons

Hme ten sppors ts vew b iing e West Indian mer

ant, onerned abo evens n amaia; wereas "few eender views so r nto trt as o dread very remote aidens

s asmetr leads m to disss a rer diston tat an be

made n respe of me: the superior ects of the same distance intu

rty aboe that n the pt" Dstane n e past weaens bot or

passion and or wi. "Ts dierene wit respe o e wl is eas

aoned r, sas Hume "As none of or ations an aler te

pas, t is no strange i soud never eterne e wil. He oers am fuler dissson of e passons, onudg as ows

We oneive te fure as owng ever moment nearer to s,

and te pas as rerng equal dsane, terere, n te past

and n e re, as no e same ee on e imaginaion and

a beause we onsider e one as onina nreasing, and

69

T A

CHEE MADA

he Ma

mpica

f Dtance



e oer as continuay diminsng e ncy anicpates e

course of tngs, and surveys e objec in a condion o

170 wc tends, as wel as n ta wic is regarded as e presen.

O K A

CHE MADARN

Mo

plcao

of Dstae

Hume clais a s dealed anayss as enabled toaccunt r

ree penomena, wic seem pre remarkabe. Wy disance

weakens e concepion and passon wy dsance n ime as a

greaer eec tan tat in space and wy dstance n pas me as

stil a greaer eec an a n tre We mus now consder

tee penomena, wc seem o be n a manner e reverse oftese: wy a very grea disance ncreases our esteem and adm

raion r an objec wy suc a dsance n te ncreases it more

tan at in space and a dstance in pas me more tan ta n

ure

ese wo ses of contrasng argmens reveal, unless am mis

aken, a conradcion (of c, raer an ogic) ta Hume, and teEnigtenment more generall were unable o ce up o On te

one and, tere was te tendency to make notng of e power and

presige of tradition, o regard em as based on a mere rraonal

argment; on e oter, ere was e tendency o recogne te

rce a tey undenaby exerted In some of e sarp remarks e

makes n comparng tempora dsance wt spaa dstance, we

overear Hume te plosoper engaged n uful dialoge wtHume te soran:

Ancen busts and inscrptons are more vaued an Japan tables:

and, not o menon te Greeks and Romans, s certan we

regard w more veneraon e od Cadeans and Egyptans,

tan e modern Cnese and Persians; and besow more· uess

pans o clear up e istory and cronology of te rmer, tani would cos us to make a voyage, and be certainly inrmed of

e caracer, learnng and government of te latter.

Humes way of atempng to resove te contradcion we ave

menoned s dsappoinng, because e consders ony ndvdual

psycolog He empaszes e conecion beween wa s dstan



and ha is dcl, and beteen diclty and the please of ove

comng obstaces, b is is not enogh to explain the vale atib

ted n o cvilizaton to disance and o he past-indeed to the 17

vey emote past. Tis is a specic phenomenon bond p ith pa T A

ticla hsoical cicmsances that have ndegone pod CHEE MADA

change in the cose of the tentieth cent Hme cod s The M

ie condenty tha "none of o acions can ae he past. mplcans

Toda e might e add hat hman acons can, hoeve exet a f Dstance

pond nence on he ay the past is emembeed they can ds

tot is taces, consign hem o obvon, and condemn hem o

desction

6. The implse to esce the past om an incmben menace has

neve been so pognanly acated as Walte enjamin's "Theses

on the Posophy of Hiso ten n the st monhs of 1940, in

he aemath of the Hitleain pact. Even he eal not be safe

om he enemy he ns, ote enamn, ho itin a fe

monhs as to p an end o his on fe28 The second hesis begins

ith a qoaion om he nineeenhceny posophe Hemannotze "One of he mos emakable chaacesics of hman nate

is, alongside so mch sesness n specc insances, the eedom

om envy hat he pesent displays oad the e

Hee e discen a dsinc echo of Aistoles Rheo ith its dis

cssion of he ambivalen elaionsip beteen he passions (in the

case in pon, envy) and tempoa and spaial disance. Loze sa he

lack of envy e dispay oad hose ho come ae s as a"onde phenomenon tha

may el tend o conm o beef ha thee is some ni of

so anscendng that of ich e ae conscos a ni in

hich e canno meey say of he pas tha t is not-a niy

athe in ich a that has been exoaby dvided by the em

poal cose of isto has a coexistence ndependen of ime . The pesenment tha e sha not be os o the e, that

hose ho ee bee s hogh hey have passed aay om

he sphee of eahly eait have not passed aay om eali

atogehe, and ha in some mysteos ay the pogess of his

oy aects them too-s convcon it is hat s entiles s to

speak as e do of hmanit and ts isto29



I I.

Th PaagenWerk Wlt Bnjmn's gt unishd wor on

nnnhcnuy Pris includs numb of quoons om nd

72 rfrncs to Lotz's Mcrocomu wch njoyd gr populiy

O A h nd of h nintnh cntr Loz ws n importnt hough

CHESE MADAR

long nglctd nunc on Bnns hought0 On of h nThe Mal dmnl hms of Bnjmns Thss on h Phiosophy of is

Impliati or" h nd o rush istory gns grn" ts up Lozs

f Ditace obsrvons bout h dmpton of h pst dvloping hm n

prspcv inspid by boh Judsm nd istoicl mtilsm

L vry gnron tht pcdd us" writs Bnmin w

hv bn ndowd wih weak Mssiic pow powr to which

th ps hs cim"Ths words wr writtn in n h igh of wh hs hp

pnd sinc hn w my b tmpd to sy tht h s two gnr-

tions hv bn ndowd conry to wht Bnmin supposd

wih trong if ngtiv Mssnc pow Th nd of storyno

n th mphocl sns tht hs rcny bn in vog but n n

bsouly irl snshs bcom chniclly fsb dung h

lst hlf cntur Th possbity th th humn rc my bdstoyd possblty h n itslf consius dcisiv hisoricl

urngpot hs xrtd nd wil xr s nunc rspcvly on

th livs of vry gnrion nd on h gmns of mm

ory of vry gnron h psss or hs pssd; nd his ncuds

os of whom so wro n housnd ys n h ps or

tur" h sm im h sphr of wh so cld com

mon lw" sms to hv bcom much brodr Bu o xpss com-pssion r thos distn fow humns woud b suspc a ct

of m rhtoric. Ou cpciy to pollu nd dsroy h prsn

h pst nd h tu is ncompby grt thn our fbl

morl imgnon.



IPope Wojla's Slip

he Caholc Chch has aske gveness om the

Jews an we can expec he scssons ha hs hasspake o o conne a long me o come Many peo

ple canno accep sch a n of evens, an woul ce

anly have een nconcevae o anyone nl he as en

yeas o so The s occason on wch he Chch ha he

couage o acnowege s espons Csan

anSemsm was, we have een emne, he "now hs

oc plgmage of John Paul II o he Synagoge nRome. Ts emne nexpecely pompe a o

one ha I se ou o esolve y eang, s of a, the

accon of hs exaonay even pne n he Ossea

toe Romano of Apl 1986 an hen he compee ex

of he speech ha he pope gave a he me.

John Pau II's vs ha een annonce n avance, an



journass om across the worl stoo among he crow watng

r hm o appear. he Chief Rabb, Elio oa, an the leaer of he

74 Jewsh communi n Rome, Giacomo Saban, recae he persecu

PPE wJYA' on hat the Jews, especialy hose lvng in Rome, ha been sub

S jecte o r cnres humliatons, massacres, mournng hen theope spoe His st wors were Dea ens an brohers, Chris

tan an Jewsh he appause, n he words of he Osservatore

Romano was uforeseen an amos unpreictable, bu t was long

an warm. Furher bursts of applause coninue o interrupt the

speech: one of these, he ournalst connue, was memorable,

an greee another very beauti expresson of he ope's: You

are our eares brohers an one mgh sa n a ceran sense, oureler brothers.'

Commenaors seze upon hese wors, an n he eyes of nter-

naonal pubic opnon hey seeme o sum up he meaning of the

even, as no oly a soen conemnaon of anSemitism bu also

an more generaly he openng of a new pero in reaons

beeen Chrsans an Jews, n wch Chrsat wou acnow

ege the ssolube lns beween he wo reigons an the s-orica preceence of Juaism he same two wors ae mag

go eler brohers) were use by Rabbi oa as par of the tle of

his autobography Ped gude ae mao Mlan, 1987, con

joiny wih he notorious phrase referrng to perous Jews,

whch ope John XIII ha ha remove om the Caholc lurg

oa seeme to mpy hat we have come a ong wa in these last

ecaes, owar a better unerstanng beteen Jews an Chrstians.

I o no now f anyone noce hough magne hat they

that he wors eler brohers echo a passage n San aus leer

to he Romans (92. he sgcance of is conceale reference

wl soon become plain At he sart of Romans aul remns us

of he prophecy mae by he Lor o Rebecca when she as preg

nan wih wns Geness 2523: he eer sha be servant o theyounger n ts is exactly wha came to pass: he younger

broher, Jacob, bough he oer brother Esau's brhrigh r a mess

o potage, an hen rice ther ol, bn ther, Isaac, into gvng

hm hs blessing n Esau's stea. aul appes the prophecy o he

relaionship between he Jews an hose Genles who ha been con

vere to Crsiani he eer shal be servan to the younger,



o ohr words th Jws (Esa) wl b placd blow h convtd

ns (Jacob) n anJroms Vlgat vrson, th vb rvt

s sd h orgna k mpoys a st harsh trm, doulu, 175

whch has connotaions of dgradng nsavmn (s h nty r PE wos

doulo n Kt and Fidrchs Nw Tstamn Lxcon, r sLrP

nsanc, comns 417 and 429) To mphasz how w ar to rad

th pras Th ld sha b srvan to th yong Pal gos on

to o anoth phras, th wods atbtd o h od by th

popht Malachi: Jacob ovd and Esa I hatd. Fo wo thosand

yars ths passag om th works of h convrtd Jw Pa has

bn invokd o lgmat Christians hard of h Jws who hav

bn gardd as h rpsntativs of h tr as agast th spiritand of th sh as agans h spt f a sing xt s h ndation

of Cistian antimtism thn hs is t

And this is h x o whch John Pa I rfrrd on h somn

occasion of his pgrmag to h synagog at om Th ct s

scarcly crdbl. How can w lan i Thr a two possb

answs. Th st is tha vn as h was pononcing h most

ct and gav condnaon of antimism n al ts rms,th pop wishd to mind h Jws ha thr condtion was to

rmain on of sbodaion and infioi Ths was my iial

hpohsis mpobabl as thoght it bcas i smd o m stl

mo mpobab that h pop could hav bn nawar that th

phras h sd n ryng o d th ations bwn Chstians

and Jws was akn vrbam om so wlnown and pnnt a

tx as omans 9:12 Howv whn I ad h compt txt of hspch as t was pblshd h Oator Romano, dcidd ha

th da of dibat otaon was it ntnabl Th pop had

insistd on h s tha bind th wo rgons toghr and on th

c ha ach of hm dsrs cognion and spc by vu of

is own idnt byond any syncrsm or any sggstion of appro

piaon h had rmindd hs adinc ha h ndamntal

fnc, om h bginnng, has bn that w as Chisans adho th pson and th acings of Jss of Nazarh, who s a son of

yo pop b had commnd hat hs adhnc is a ma

of ih ha s, of th assnt of th tgnc and h hat

ndr h gidanc of th pri, and can nvr b h obct of any

owad prssr, n on dction or h oh. It smd to m

ankly absrd to sppos tha as an ntrodcion o samnts of



is naure e speaker could deiberatey ave picked ou a quoa

on empaszing te subordinaon o e Jews to e Crisans.

76 Ho ten, was tis o be explained?

O oJA My second poess remained namely at wen e pope n

is searc r a deon o te reatonsip between Cristians andews, ad used e expresson elder broters e ad done so wi

ou being aware o e ct tat e was econg Romans 912. In tis

regard t is wort observng at no even e ex o te speec

as pubised n te Osseatoe Romano records is reerence o Paul

oug i s generaly scrupuous n nong al e scriptural quota

ons a punctuate e popes speecncuding o, a ew lines

rter on, drawn om oer passages o te etter o e Romans2 and u 28 Peraps te expression "elder broers was added

a te last momen? I do not ik we can rue out is possibit

Te prase is preceded in e speec by a reerence o te concliar

documen Nosta Aetate dedcated o relations between Cristians

andJews, wc makes many reerences o te leter o te Romans

incuding caper 9 wle carey avodng is aniJews pas

sages. Here e pope said Te Jewis reigion s no exrnsic' ous, bu in a ceran kind o sense i is intrinsic' to our regon And

herere our relatonsp wt t is unke e relationsp we ave

wit any oter regon You are our deares broers and one migt

sa in a cerain sense, our eder broters Te woe speec, as one

would eec gven e solemt o te occason, s very carely

worked, stscaly and reorical Te elegant repeition,

win a ew lnes, o te prases "n a cerain kind o sense, in acertain sense, migt revea an exempore addton Te pope was \

ookng r a detion: om te recesses o memory a denion

te radtional onecame nto s mnd A te very moment wen

e was seeking o trn over a new lea, te od exs reasserted ter

power over im.

We ave earned om Freud to regard sps as te esult o

impulses a te conscous ego as censored. Oen ese impulsesare aggressve ones Some gt take te vew at he pope's sp

reveals is true eengs abou te Jews. I do no tnk is is a all te

case. In my view e implcaons o te slp are r more serious.

Jesus was no a Cristan bu a Jew even e Vaican II Councl as

acknowledged tis, n Nost Aetate) . Cristani s born i Pau,

by way o erentaton om and oppositon o Judaism Te erad



iction of Christin ntSetsm requires more thn the goowl

n courge of singe invu even tht iniviu s pope.

In John u II's sip tritionnot smpy ntJewish trton 1

rerne r moment n took its revenge. There s stl long w PE wYAs

very ong w to go. su

The bove rgument ppere na Repubblca on 7 October 199

The owng Gn Frnco Svercoschi chrge me (in n rt

ce in Aenre of eng n "ght n supercil mner with

the questions rse by the popes use of the expression eler brothers on the occson of his vist to the Syngogue in Rome n 1986 I

h seen the eresson s coninng n echo wch seeme n

sti oes seem obvous to me of the pssge in the letter to the

Romns 92 where u ppies to the Jews n the Gentes con

verte to Chrstit the prophecy n Genesis 2523 concerning

Esu nJcob "he eler sh be servnt to the younger Aer

weghing up the possb tht this ws conscous usionwhch wou hve h somewht unforunte ir to sy the est

in tht pce n those crcumstncesI remrke t such pos

sibl ws rue out given the content of the popes speech s

whole. The other possib ws tht the pope h me slip

whch I tre to nterpret

Accoring to Sviercosch I cme tht ope Wojl me

"Freuin sp Cley he ws eceive by the title" lapsuseudano d papa Wotyla (ope Woj's Freun spuner

whch the rtice ppere n a Repubblca. the sme s jour

nst by professon Sviercoschi shou now tht titles re sup

pe by etors If he h re my rtce ess hurriel he wou

hve reize tht I nee ttrbute he sp to unconscious

cuses but tht I rese to interpret t s Freu woul hve one in

terms of inivul psychoog I wrote

We hve lerne o Freu to regr sps s the result of

impulses tht the conscous ego hs censore [more ccurtel

tht it hs represse] Oen these impulses re ggressve ones.

Some t tke the vew tht the popes sp revels hs true fee

ings bout the Jews. I do not thnk ts is t the cse.



n oter od, expcitly rued out e poibiiy a te ip

revealed putaive antiSemic feeing on te par of Pope Wotyla

78 ould neve peculate in vein, even te ligt of te mot

PE woJYA untunate remark tat e pope made n Ro (2 October 1997)

up about ee avng been "many Holocauemak tat eemalmo to go agan t aemp, bgun ga couage n e

peece of Wojtla imef, to acnoledge te paticular epon

ibltie tat Critian antiSemtim mut bea. Rater, expaned

e ip by efeence o te eigt of te adiion, no almot to

ouand year old, tat goe back o te eter to te Roman

Te pope a oog r a detion: om te recee of memory a detion-te tadional one-came nto mind. t e

very momen en e a eeking to turn ove a ne lea e

o tex reaerted teir poer ove m.

Svidercoci rebuke me not aving even aked myelf

"eer te inpiration r t prae migt not ave come o e

pope by oter ay rater an via Sain Pau He ten oe anaternaive-eemngly autoriaive-expanation "On te con

trarfor al we know [my ialic], i prae may ave been dran

om te culal netok e iorica memor of e Pol

erland, ic te Pope broug i m en e entered into

oce may ave come "om a kind of politica manfeto . \

ic a to be ued in e contiution of e tue independ

en Slav ae a manifeo dran up by e gea Romanic poetdam Mickieic in ic e peak of ae at i of te

Je, caling i "our oder bote o om ae due "eteem, and

elp upon te pat to propeit and elre, and eual rigt in a

matte.

Tat n a peec uc a ti given in te ynagogue at Rome,

and l of efeence to te etter to e Roman, e expreion

"elder broer ued of te Je oud deive intead om Mick

ieic eem o me not "vey pobable a Svidercoci rite) but

very improbabe and in any cae impoibe o prove Moreover,

even i e pope melf ere to am a it dd my argment

oud not be damaged in te ea, e plet of reaon

namel tat Mickieic imef a obviouly referrng to e let

e to te Roman ay "obviouly becaue no one aeced even



minimaly by Chrisan radion can cal he Jews "eder brohers

wihout alluding consciousy or unconsciousl to Romans 9

Tha Mickiewicz could have done so is compleely implausible The 79

ex that Svdercoschi draws to our aention s he Simbolo politio E wY s

polao Poish Poltical Creed a regiopolitical credo tha Mic su

iewicz wroe smulaneously n taian and Poish datng t Rome

9 March 88 "To Israel our older brother . . euality n al ma

ers of cvilpotica righs hus runs the aian edition brough

ou n 188 by he Propaganda Fde prinng wors as we have seen

Svidercoschi who presumably was maing use of he Polsh text

gves a sighly deren version of hese words "equa rghts n al

maters Ths euaity is lned r Miciewicz wth a messianiceven he naonal resurrecon of Poand wch he compares here

and elsewhere o he resurrection of Chris "Poland rises up in he

body in whch i has suered and n whch i was placed in he sep

ulcher a hundred years ago. Is reay true as Svidercosci tels us

on good auhort that pope Wojta was hnng of Miciewiczs

Simbolo poltio polao whle he was speakng in he synagoge in

Rome The opening phrases of he Simbolo mae clear what ndof amewor woud enclose the polcacivil rghs ha the Jews

were o enjoy

I. The Chrsian sp n the Hoy Roman Caholic ih to man

ifest isef n ee acons

. The Word of God as given in he Gospels o be he aw of

saesther cvl and social la3 he Church to be cusodan of he word

As we can see his s a mos insructive ext t can be read n l

t s very short n the coecton of Mcewcz's Poltial Wting

edied by M. Bersano Begey (Stti politii Turin 965 pp 359

Miiewicz aes us bac then o Paul and to he expresson

"eder brohers. This alludes by way of the passage om he lettero he Romans in whch is conaned o he subordnation of the

Jews to he Chrstians. That ths radton surfaced involunay n

he words of someone seeng o brea wih i as Pope Woja was

gives s sp a tragic aspect

Svidercosch accuses me of beng someone who "drags along

behnd him an ancient remorse l of rancor and suspcon



80

E WJTYA'

S

S

whch prevents him om seeng the new thing' that is happenng

I sha not respond to ths charge whose tone I nd unpeasant I

shal smply say that what I presented was not a suspicion, but an

nterpretaton I still await its retaton As r the new thing

there are very many o us who will be delighted ever t succeedsn appearing



E

MKNG SRNG H RHSORY O

ERRY VC

I have preeted t ea He, Vece (at a ea e

r Maed Tar), Pa Maatrch, ad a te Gett Ceter

Sata Mca I a grate fr cet ade b Perr Ader,

Ja Breer ad Fracec rad; I tha tt r daw

g attet t Guevara' travet Marcu ureu ad acwege the aace Per Ceare Br ad te e ct

c the wh t part he ear that I cducted a vtg char at the Get Ceter

he assage s qoted y P. Steer Russan rmasm. AMetapets Ithaa N.Y 984), 4

ater years, ther reaos sored. I the trodto

he wrote to . odorovs ahology re de a Littrature Pars

965), aoso ored sor o Sovsy's sy deas aot

estrageme . 8). A rher oemal reree the same

essay s dsssed y V Strada Strument l Otoer 966):



8

MAKNG T

STRAGE

e ety

Ltey ece

3 V Shklovsk ey f Pe trans Benjan Sher with an troduc

tion by Gerald . Bruns (Ewood Park 199, pp 5 Translatos

noe We have added the gloss "or deiarzg to the estranging of

Sher's Engish version as deiarzaion is the ter eployed else

where in he present chapter.]

4. Quoted bd p 7.

5 bid p

6 Ibid p. 6 .

7. See F Orlando, lumnm e etriceun (Tur 1982, p. 163 Tis

is a revised editon of Olando's llumnm bcc e etric eun

(Turin 1979.

8. My discusson hee is ndebted to Pierre Hadots essays on Marcus

Aureus (ecice prituel et plpe ntque [Pars, 1987 ]), esp pp 9-154of the taian transation (eciz prituli el ntc Tur 1988]

9. See Hadot, eciz ptul pp 135-154

10 e Mettn fMcu Auelu trans with a coentary by A S

L Farquharson (Oxford 944 occasionay oded by the pesent trans

latos].\

1 See . Tosto lle Tge ed E H. Scht and A. Skarvan (Des

den 1906-190712 See A Aarne Veglecene Rtecungen (Helsnk 9181920,

26-28 (Counications) On iddles n at cuure cf PaulyWissowa

Relnzyklpe s Rtse,' esp 16-22 (Wessbach) See also A. Jolles,

nfce men (1930 (see pp. 103-119 of the French ranslation, me m

ple Pars, 972; and the perceptive essay by S Levi Dea Tore,

Eeneutica nciana, Acem Len Vnci 6 (1995: 228-23

13. See he rearks of Joy in s introducion o he edition he prepared

(Pee e l'empeeu McAuleAntnn u len e l etu que ce Prince

plpque e ft lumme nuelle tuctn u gec . . . [Paris 1770 ,

p Joly's edition was he st o be based on s Vatican 1950, which

Winckelan had discovered.

Prolegoena to Mc Antnn mpetri e e p et pum lbri

Gul Xylne Augutns gece et ltne primu et nunc e . . . nt ementne jecit Meic Cubns (London 1643

15. Baye, ctnne trique et critque 3rd ed (Rotteda 1720 ,2:1339-1340. Bayle vgorously eects the skeptica rearks passed by Gue

vaa on the criticiss of his work ade by the Spash aniquarian Pedro

de Rhua; on s exchange of etters see Bblitec e ute eple

(Madrid, 872 pp 229-250 and also the enry "Rua, Pierre Bayle's c-

tnne. As ealy as 1548 Fausto da Longiano expressed the viw that Gue

vaa's book was a coplee cton see H Vagana toio de Guevara

et son oeuvre dans la lirature itaene'' L Bbll 17 1915-1916: 339.



The lowers of Erasmus mae no comment on the matter whch M.

Batailon (Erasmo y Espaa [Meico-Buenos es 950 :) nterprets as

a ec of guly agans Gueaa.

e Gueara erzo lbro d Marco urelo con lHorlogo de' Prncp

(Veice 57), v- [Translators note Ecerpts om Guearas work

amountng only to about onetenth of the orignal are pubshe n K N

Colve, e, The Dal! of Prnces by Don nony of Guea slaed by r

Thomas orh . . (Lonon, 99). In e present work al passages om

Guevaa are transate om the Itaan of Gzburgs te

7. See e Guevara El llano del Danubo y oros agmenos with an

introucion by Castro (rinceton, 95) p. Spitzer, howeer

makes some cogent criicisms of Castros nterpretaton n s bre las deas

de mrc de Casro a ppso de El Vllano del Danubo de nono de Guea (Bogot 950) Guevara's work receies no mention in G Gozzi's

important book damo e l nuoo mondo (Florence 977).

8. Guevara, erzo lbro 9r.

9 Ib r

20 See A. Castro, n s ntrouction to Guevara's El llano deDanubo

p

r See El dyalogo d alomon e Marcolpho (Vece 502) reprnte n P

Camporesis etion (Turin, 978) of G C Croce Le solssme uze d

Beroldo. e paceol e rdcolose semplc d Beroldno p 208

The Latin tet (see the eition of W Benary Heelberg, 9! pp

l- reas as llows

Statra itaque Marcopi erat curta et grossa. Caput habebat grane

ontem assimum, rubicunum et rugosum aures plosas et usque a

meium maarum penentes; oculos grossos et pposos et labium

subterius quasi cabaum barbam soram et fetosam quasi rci;manus truncas; igitos brees et grossos pees rotns nasum spis

sum et gibbosum; aba magna et grossa; cem asnam caplos velut

·spnule ericiorum calciamenta peum eius rustica erant mis; et cnge

bat renes eius imiius glaius vaginam quoque meiam habebat

crepatam et n suo capite repalatam; capulum e ta ctm erat et

cum cornu hircno ornatum.

With reference to the consion between the porcupne an hehegehog (Latn "ercus Italian "cco) characterisc of other Euro

pean languages as well as of Itaan see the entries r rcco an por-

cospno in Salvatore Battagia's Gnde dzonaro della lngua aana

partcularly the quotations om ncezo Maria i S Caterna an Laz

zaro Spaanzani

3 Et hi rtasse est que buose popularium narrationes Marcol

m cant e quo ictr qu Salomos solvebat aeigmata et ei

183

I MAN

STRANE

he rehsory o a

Lera Dece



I MAKNG T

RANGE

The rehstry f a

Ltera ece

respondebat aeqpoenter et iterm sovenda proponens (see Croce, Le

sttlssme astuze d Bertld p. 169) On te meeva precsors of these

stores see R . Menner, ed The Petcal Dalges f lmn and aturn

(New York 9)

Croce Le sttlssme astuze d Bertld p ro On the echoes of the

Cntadn de Danub n Bertld see Camporesi "Mostrosit e sapieza

de vano, gstn Gall nella cultu del Cnquecent ed M Pegrari pp.

9-1, esp pp 9-197

5. M. Bakhtn, Rabelas and Hs Wrld, trans Hne swosk (Boom

ngon, 98.

6 Compare e passage om Agstne s De ctate de in Aqnas s

De regmne prncpum (Parmae 1578) .5r-v: "Remota istitia qae

snt ipsa ea, nisi qaedam atoca? ntodcit atem ad smpobandm tentm exempm\ de qodam pyrata qi vocabar Dion

ides qi cm isset capts ab Aexandro, qaesivit ab eo cr mare haberet

nfestm? Ipse ibera contmacia responit: Qid tbi t obem terarm?

Sed qia ego exgo navigio id co, ato vocor, t vero qia magna casse

diceis impeator.

7 See Miche de Montaigne Essas ed A. Thbadet (Pais, 950) p. 79

(I "De yvrongnerie) Montaignes dgment on Gevaras etters was

negative see I essay xv

8 Miche de Montaigne The says f Mchel de Mntagne ed and

trans. M. A Screech (ondon 99), pp 0

9 or a genera discssion o hs isse see G Ceas prece o he

Itaian eition of Swis Gullers Traels ( a d Guller) (Man 1997)

0. de a Bryre, De Homme, n Carctres See the Oeures Cm

pltes ed Benda (Pais 978) p . Transators note: We tansate om

the rench origna A recent Engish version is La Byre Characterstras . Stewart (Harmondswoth 970). Ths passage is tansated to

Itaian and brey discssed by G dea Vope n Russeau e Marx (Rome,

96), pp. 16 f.; my nterest the theme I am discssing here dates back

many years to my rst reading o those pages.

. Votaire Essa sur les meurs ed R Pomea (Paris, 96) pp.

See A Prospeis important essa Otras ndias: Missionari dea

Controrima ta contadni e sevaggi, in cenze, credenze cculte, lell dcultu (Forence, 980) pp 05-; and see the same athors recent Tr-

bunal della cscenza: nqustr cnss mssnar (Tn, 996) pp. 55

See C Gnzbg Hst Rhetrc, and Prf(Hanover and ondon

1999), pp 7-9.

Shkovs The f Prse 6 n his diar te yong Tostoy noted,

sng phrases that seem to eca the passage by Votaire we have jst cited

that to trn a person into a beast a yo need is a irm, sepaation



om the mil and beatng on a drum" . F Gustason quotes this n Le

Tty: Resdent and tranger(Prceton 986 p. 347.

3. A document om ate Tostoys ie (1907 is the short troduction

he provided to an anthology o passages om La Bruyre and other French

moalsts, prepaed by his discipe Rusanov; see N. Gareth Jones, ed., Can

nt Be lent Wtngs n Pltcs rt and Relgn (Bristo 989 pp 200

(ts passage was brought to my notice by Pe Cesare Br). ere Tolstoy

compares the moralistsamong whom he names the extraordnary

Montagne sayng that s wok is some respects an stance o the

genreto the systematic thinkers displayng a clear preerence r the r

mer.

36. C Pomeaus introduction to hs edition o Voltare's Essa sur les

meurs : mong a s works it was ts Phlsphy f Hstry openeven at that tme to so many objections om a scientic pont o ve

whch had the most pronounced luence on the imagnations o evou-

tionaries and romantcs."

37. n s llumnsm e retrca eudana (a book om wich have

earned much) F Olando has arged that the demiarization o the

Enightenment is to be clearly distguished om that o the nneteenth

and twentieth centies (though he makes a partial exception o Becht):see esp. p 163 The perspective am oug here suggests, to the contrar

that on one hand a substantial continuty ks peEnghtenment and

Eightenment demarzation with that o Tosto whle on the othe

there is a substantia break between the atter and Proustian demiaza

ton.

38 L Tolsto Resurrectn, trans Louise Maude (Mosco 98, p. 76

39 See V Bulgako Lene Tstj nellultm ann della sua ta (Foligno,

930 p 43 (this passage, too, was brought to my notce by Pier Cesare

Bri

40 Proust A la recherche du temps perdu ed. Carac and A Fer (Pars

960 163 [Translators note: We transate om the French. The stan

dad English transation is Remembnce f Thngs Past transated by C .

Scott Moncrewith ater revisions by Terence Kmartand Andeas

Mayor (London, Chatto and Windus 98] Proust ots a phrase hs

uotaton om the Letters Madame de Svign writes o inen ownhere and there back men, other men buried upright: see Madame de Svi-

Crrespndance ed. R Duchne (Pars, 974 2:970 (lette o 2 ue

680

4. ater critcs have gnored the penetrating remarks made by Samuel

Beckett in his Pust (London 96 rst pub 193 pp. 8-87 see r

instance, L. Backs, Le Dostoevski du narrateur Cahers Marcel Prust

n.s 6 tudes Prustennes (973907 A Labat Prousts Mme de Svi

8

I MANG

TANG

The ehstry a

Lte ece



6

I MAI T

TRAE

he rehsto o a

terar Dee

g" Esprt crateur 5 os. 2 (SprigSummer 95): 225; M.

Peovic, Proust et Dostoesk: tude dune thmatque commune (Paris 97)

42 See Shklovsk Theory of Pse p. 6. See also . F Gustaos aaly-

sis i his eo Tolstoy: Resdent and tranger (p 24), of the passage i War and

Peace that depicts Prce Nesvitss arrval o the eld of battle

43 Cf Moorug's dget accout Proust et la penture

(Geeva ad ille, 95), pp. 72

44 Proust A la recherche 3 f

45 See M MerleauPot en et nonsens (Pars 94) e doute de

Czae, pp. 27-44 esp. p. 30: We live the midst of objects made by

me, amog toos, houses sreets tows ad most of the time we see

them oly trough the huma actios which hey may be caght up. We

become habitated to the idea that a ts �cessarly exists ad is ushakable. Czae's patigs susped this state of habt ad reveal the back-

groud of huma are upo wch me have established her pres-

ece his is why these gures are strage as if see by a beg of aother

speces." [raslators' ote: We traslate om the Frech. es et nonse

s trasated to Egsh by ubert Dreys ad Patricia Ale Dreys

ense and onee (Evasto 964) MereauPoty does o meio

Proust i tis essay.

46. See F Olados spedid essay Proust SateBeuve e la ricerca i

drezioe sbagiata, pubished as the itroductio to the Itaia editio of

Contre anteBeue (Contro anteBeue uri 974).

47 See Moretts briiat aalysis Opere mondo: ao sulla forma

epca dal Faust a Centann d soltudne (ur 994)

4 Proust, A la recherche 337

49 C L. Sptzer, Sul ste di Proust, i Spitzer Marcel Proust e altr

sa d letteratu ancese (u, 959), pp. 309 ad B. G. ogers Prust's

arrte Technques (Geeva, 965) pp. 60

50 Proust, A la recherche 392 f

5 See Proust, a prsonnre p. 379 ad Prousts atcle Setimets l

iaux du Paricide" wch appeared i e Fgaro February 907 (ts is

reprted the ala colecto of Prousts jouraistic ad criical writ

gs crtt mondan e lettear ed. M. Bogiova Bet [uri 96] pp.

20524). Proust's halfcocealed ideicatio wth eri de Blareberghe,the youg ma who had led his ow mother became especially expicit

the cesored al pages of the article (p. 694) I a earler passage,

Proust had referred to is ow feeligs of gult about he suerigs is

mother had had to bear Al the same it may be that a a deeper evel his atti

tude was more ambivalet, ad had more of the sadstic impulses expressed

the great scee auprs de Motjouvai. It is sigicat that the later

eds with a clearly autobiographca prase wch echoes the passage just



mentioned om Sentments iaux dun parricide: That inderence to

he suerngs we cause . . which is whatever ohe names we may gve it

the teribe and permanent rm o cruelt A la recherche Du ct de chez

ann p 165).

2 MYH DSANC AND DECE

ut tk Prry dro Pr Cr B Pg DuBo Ao Fuk

rto Gjo, Vycl Io d Sto Dl orr r r

uggo d r pog out o rror Sro rcgo d Cr

t Nt

r Representatve sudies include G Nag The Best of the Achaeans: Con

cepts of the Hero n Archac Greek Poetry (Baltmore 979); H BlumenbergArbet am Mythos (ranurt am Ma 1979) [Work on Myth trans R M . al

lace (Cambidge Mass and London 1985); M. Detee Lnenton de la

mytholoe (Paris 198); Veyne es Grecs ontls cru leurs mythes? (Paris

1983) and C. Calame ed Mtamohoses du mythe Grce antque (Geneva

988)

2 Ths is M. Detienne's thesis in s Lnenton de la mytholoe (see r

instance pp. 282 . ong those who have citicized it see AMomgiano Rsta storca talana 94 (1982) 784-787; . Brisson Platon les

mots et les mythes (Paris 982); and L. Edmunds "The Practice of Greek

Mythoog he coecton edted by Approaches to Greek Myth (Bal

tore and London 1990 ) pp -20. Momigliano draws attenton o he dif

ference beween Detienes views and hose of . Vernan and tis is con

rmed despte e clam made to e contar by the ntoduction to the

new impression of es matres de t dans la Grce antque (Paris 1994);

see esp. pp. 22 3. Tanslators note: Quotations om he Republc ae om he vesion

by F M. Cord (Ord 1941). Aistotle on the oher hand when he

chaacterzes Homer as a maser of the ctitous (Poetcs 24) refes o the

sphere of logic rather than hat of moraitso much so that he makes s

point by citing a paraogsm.

4 Tanslaors noe Quotaions om the maeus ae om he version

by Desmond Lee (Harmondsworh 197) om the Phaedrus om the vesion by C. . Rowe (London 986) modied places] E. Cassire in

prache und Mythos Stden der Bibohek arburg 6 ((Hamburg 1923) pp

makes this passage om the Phaed his sartng pon; see also M.

Deenne n L'nenton de la mytholoe pp. 157

5 Plato Phaedrus pp 26

6. Dionysus of Halicanassus Essay on huddes Italan version by G.

Pavano (Palermo 1952) pp. 33 Translaors note The Engish text here is

2 MYTH

tane and eet



MYTH

Dtance and Dece

aed on thi aan ediion n the lowg paragraph Donyu init

on the localitic apect of uch raditional tale a pont emphaized y L

Edmund hi Approaches to Greek Myth p 5

7 e nd he ame oppoiton in he t paragraph of utarch es

where "reaon (logos) i contrated with "myth (mythodes) See W Trimp

Muses of One Mnd: The terary Analyss of Eerence and Its Contnuty

(rinceton 93) p 9

See L Bandwood The Chronolo of Plato's Dalogues (Camridge

1990) ep pp 5-47 On the compoiton of he Republc and he po

tha here were two editon ee the introduction y A Di to the

"Bele Letre ed (ari 199) pp 1 Di propoe an earlier date

(no later than 375)

9 Here and elewhere in what low I deveop ome pont rieynoted in the eay "Repreentaon whch rm the third chapter of the

preen ook I have earned much om N Denyer angage Thought and

Falsehood n Acent Greek Phlosophy (Camridge 1993) and have taken

account of Denyer dicuion in my own argument

10 Tranlator' note Quotation om the ophst are om the verion

y A E Tayor ed R Kian and E Ancome (olketone and London

1971) Artote argue imilay the Metaphyscs 1051 C L M de Rjk Platos ophst: A Phlosophcal Commentary (Amter

dam 196) pp 304 n the Cratylus lao had arged that noun too po

e ruthvaue (hi i dcued in id pp 77-) n "The hoophy

of Logica Atomim (91) Bertrand Rue remar that it wa only

thak to hi pupl ittgentein hat he realzed the "oviou ct that

propoition (and not noun) can e earer of truth or lehood ee B

Ruel ed R C Marh ogc and Knoledge: Essays 9011950 (London

966) p 7 and the dcuion n N Denyer angage Thought and False

hood pp 15 and 1 n

1 Tranaor' note: Quotaion om On Interpretaton are in the ve

ion y L Arl Aritotle De nterpretatone (Oxford 1963)

3 M Zanatta he editor of the Italian editon of he De Interpretatone

(Dell'nteretazone Milan 199 ]) refer at thi point (p 146) to the work of

V Saai

1 Aritote PosterorAnalytcs tran H Tredenck (London and Camridge Ma 1960) [Tranaor note Tredenick render "tgelaphos a

"ucorn which we have repaced y "goattag] On the general ue

tion ee G ilt Tgelaphos: tora d una metafora e d un problema

(Nape 90)

15 On thi paage ee the intereting peculation of A etugire

a rlaton de Herms Tmgste (ari 191) 4:1416

6 See Siit Tgelaphos pp and passm



90

. MYTH

sane and ee

menton it n Theoes of he Prposon: Ancen and Medeal Conepos

of he Bearers of Truh and alsy (Amerdam and London, 973 p. 33

9. J L Acril gve cautou uppor to t nterpretation in i com

mentary on De nerpreaone (Oxfod 963 p 5

0 L. M de Rjk point t ou i On Boetiu Notion of Beg

p. 4.

. Boetiu (Commenar pp. 5, 65 tanate Aritoe u: Nomen

ergo et vox ignicativa ecundum placitm ne empore . . verbum

autem e quod conigncat tempu Te term "aboluely and "inde

nitey denote Aritotle' haplo and aoon (6a.30, 6a8. It i ow

ever noable tat in i commentay on te Pe Hermeneas Boeiu ren

der te ereion onoma aoson a nomen nitum, rater tan

"nomen indenitm "et nomen o, quod ni denitum deignaret, nondiceretur mpiciter nomen ed nomen um Cuiu ententiae i

oele aucto et, qui e o ei vocabulum autmat venie (..63. On

"implicter ee alo L. M. de jk, La phlosophe au moyen age (Leiden,

985 pp. 64-66 (in connecion wit Aquna' interpretation of Exodu

4.

. See J Sie Boetiu' Commenare on Aritotle, Medeal and

Renassance udes 4 (958 7-44. L. M de jk low Siel and oer

rter evidence, in "On te Conology of Boetiu ork on Logic,

Varum (964 -49 55

3 Augutine Conssones .0: Tempra unt tria, praeen de prae

teriti, praeen de praeentu praeen de rbu.

4. Boetu Quomodo Trnas unus Des n Mgne' Parologa Lana

653 and ee ao te Proem (iid., 64:49 C Leonard daw attenion

o te ditance between Boetiu and Aquna on ti pon n "La contro

veria trnaia ne epoca e ne opera di Boeio, A del Congresso nernazonale d sud Boezan ed. L. Obertello (Rome 98 pp. 9-. On te

abence of any ditncion beween aeeas and sempernas n Aug

ine ee De Trnae 55 (Parologa Lana 49 f

5. L M. de Rjk oer ome elecion on t atempora peent

"Die kung der neupatonicen Semantik auf da mtelalteice

Denken be da Sein, in Aken des nernaonalen Kongresses r melal

erlchePhlosophe . (Berln and New York, 98 :9-35, ep p 9.6. Boetiu Commenar : "Sunt enim intellectu ine re ua

uiecta, ut quo cenauro vel cimaera poetae nxerun Ti i e pa

age L. M. de Rjk alude to wen e ue te ng prae poeical b

ication (On Boehs oon of Beng p 6. My arguen ere advance

rte argument r uc a tranlaton.

7. Macobiu, Commeno al omnum cpons ed. M. Regal (Pia,

983 . ...



28 See de k On the Chronolo of Boeths Works on Log esp the

tables on pp. 159 and 161

29 Boetus ntroduction to De hothets syllogsms ed. L . Obereo

11.3-5, pp 206

30 The suggeston is L M. de ks and is supported by Oberteo (see

p 135 of the latters edition of De hypothets syllogsms)

31. De hothets syllogsms 3. 66-7, pp 356 f

32 Gaius nsttutones ed. . Renach (Paris, 1950 )

33 See M Lipenius Bblothea reals jurda (Lipsiae 1757) 15 A

Dad de Hauteserre (Dadinus de Ateserra) De ctioibus jurs" (Paris,

1679), n Opera omna vo 6 (Naples 1777) F Prngshe Symbol und k

tion in antken Rechten," Gesammelte Abhandlungen (Hedeberg, 1961)

2382-00; E antorowicz, he Sovereignty of the Artist: A Note on LegalMams and Renassance Theories of Art [1961, n eleted tudes (Locust

Vae 1965), pp 352-365, esp p 35 f; L. L uer, Legal Ftons (Stan

rd, 1967).

3. See the contributions collected under the e Patonc Insults" that

appeared n Common Knoledge 2 (al 1993) n particular S. Toumns ntro

ducton (pp 19-23) and the entry r hetorical'' by D McCoskey (pp

23-32)35 W rimpi refers to Vaingers book n Mses of One Mnd empha

sizing the importance of ctiones" in iterar theor (Vaihger wrote the

work in 1876-1878 but t was st pubished only n 19 it was reprnted in

Hamburg, 1986)

36 See . Isaac, Le Pe Hermeneas en Odent de Boe t Thomas

(Paris 1953 (he lustraton on page 36 shows clearly the spread of manu

scripts of the work.

37 Peter Abelards Phlosophshe hen vo r De Loga ngredentbs

3, De Glossen zu Per Hemeneas ed B Geyer (Mnster, 1927), p. 333

38 See D. F Backwe, onOntologal Construts: The Ets of Abaelard's

Logal and Ethal Theoes on Hs Theolo: A tudy n Meanng and Vea

ton (Berne, 1988), esp pp 132-11.

39 See de k La phlosophe au moyen age p. 98

0 See G. Papare, ictio Flologa Romanza 7 nos 3- (1966) 1-83:

Papare emphases the eymology but does not draw attenton to eword's uridical meaing (partly because he has not taken account of an

torowiczs essay) See aso AM. Lecoq, t: Le pentre comme ctor

au XVIme sicle Bblothque d'Humansme et Renassane 37 (1975)

225-23

1 See Sant Augustine, Quaestonum eangelorum lb duo 51 (Patloga

Latna 3362), cted by Aquinas n the umma Theologae 3, q55, a Cum

autem ctio nostra referetur ad aiquam sigicatonem non est men

91

2 MYTH

stane and eet



9

2 MTH

stane and eet

dacum sed aliqua gura veriaisoquin omia quae a sapienibus e

sancs viris vel eiam ab ipso Domno gurae dca sun mendacia rep

uabanr quia secundum usiaum inelecum non subsisi verias in a

bus dics Ths passage on wich anorowicz remarks in is The Sov

eregn of e Aris" (p. 355) should be consdered alongside hose ds

cussed by E Auerbach n s crucal essay igra" in is cenes om the

Drama of European Literature (New or 1959) pp -76 229-237; he dis

cussion of Augsine s on pp. 373.

2. C A. unkensein Theolo and the citic Imagnation (Prnceon

986) pp. 208-289 (on he idea o accommodaion")

3 D W Roberson r cies his passage (see Patrologa Latina 22:16) in

Some Medieval Lierary Terminoog wih Specia Reerence o Chrien

de Troyes" tudies in Philolo 8 1951) 669-692. See p. 673 (eferrg oPerarch Familiares 0)

See Perarch Familares 0 (V Ross's alian edion lorence

93), 23

5. G Bocacco Trattatello in aude di Dante rs version ed P G. Ricci

n Boccaccio's complee works (Tutte le opere ed V Branca [Milan 97),

3:75.

6. Ibid p 697 See M. D Chenu nvolucrum' Le myhe seon les hologiens

mivaux" Archies d'Histoire Doctrnale et Littaire du Myen Age 22 (955):

7579; E eaunea Lusagedu noon d' integumentum a ravers les noes

de Guillaume de onches Archies dHstoire Doctrnale et Littraire du

MoyenAge 32 (957): 35; B Soc Myth and cience in the Teh Centu:

A tudy of Beard ilester (Prnceon 1972)

8 ere develop some ideas pu rward by Trimpi i Muses of One

Mind see aso . Pavel Uniers de action (Pars 1988)

9 Isidore of Sevle Derentiarum Liber 122 quoed by AM Lecoq

ix p 228

50. See A Chasel e dicum oraii quidlbe audendi poesas e les

arises (XIIme-XVIme sices)' in A Chasel Fables, formes, gres

(Paris 1978) 1:363376.

5 s may also be rue o some amal species D. Upse n Grego

Bateson (Cicago 1978), es an anecdoe conceng Baeson and a dolpinha relaes cosely o he hemes we are considerg here

52. See C Gzburg The Cheese and the Worms rans ]. and A edeschi

(armondsworh 1992), p 9.

53 See G Boccaccio Decameron ed V Branca (Turin 980), p. 82 (he

rd ale on he rs day). On is heme see ischer a soria dei re

ane Dal mio al uopia" in Annali dela cuola ormale uperore di Psa

Lettere e Filosoa s II (973), 3: 955-998 odorov commens on he narra



tive device n Potque de la Prose Pars 97) [Poetcs of Prose ans. R.

Howard Oxford 977)

54 See Todoro La conqute de lAmue La ueston de lautre Paris

982) [The Conquest of Amerca The Queston of the Other trans R Howard

New York 984)a book om wich I have learned a great deal despite

and also because of) its rather unstorcal approach

55. M de Cervantes Saavedra Don Qujote de la Mancha ed. V Gaos

Madrid 987) 243 Para m sola naci don Quijote y yo para l . . )

see The Adentures of Don Quxote rans. ]. M Cohen Harmondsworth

968 rst pub 950) p 940. Spitzer discusses some of these themes in hs

very e essay guisic Perspectivism the Don Quxote hs Lngs

tcs and Lteary Hsto Princeton 948) pp. 4-85: I read this only aer

writg these pages Much to the present pont is the way Spitzer drawsattenton in his essay to the goatsag" (tragelaphos) and simlar linguistic

hybrids

56 Cervntes on Qujote p. 45 Don Quxote p 940.

57 See] Brown and. H. Eliott A Palacefor a Kng The Buen Retro and

the Court of hlp New Haven and London 980) pp 9 . Luca Cam

biaso's usanna was hung n the same room).

58 ] Glego arges n the cataog edited by A. Domngez Ortz and

othes that he orignal measurements were the same see Velzquez New

York 990) pp 4 ] Brown akes he view that they were not claiming

that the Vulan now 223 centimeters by 290 centimeters was 33 centmeters

narrower ad heJacob now 223 centmeters by 250 centimeters was 50 cen

timeters wider (Velzquez Panter and Courter ondon and New Haven

986 p 72). Brown makes his case regardng theJacob by citng the Descrp

cn del Real Monasteo de an Lorenzo del Escoal Madrid 68) p 66

though is gives only approximte inrmation un cuadro casi de cuaovaras de largo y de alto dos y meda").

59 n s attribution o Velzquez o the paintng the Palavcni

Rospgliosi coecon known as La Ra en la embajada de Espaa R ongi

remarked tat one of the gres n the work is based on a model used also

n the Vulcan see Vezquez 630 a rissa allambascata di Spagna n

rte talana e arte tedesca e altre congunture a tala ed Europa [orence

979 pp 9-) he gre in question is the young smith shown prole second om the righ). ]. pezRey reects he attribution n Velzuez

A Cataloge asonn of hs Oeure ondon 1963) p. 66 n 3.

60 See he work o usti whch E. Haris refers to n Velzuez Oxford

[982) pp 80

6 One cannot deceive divine Wsdom wich sees he most idden

places of or hears wich needs make no enquiry nor ca any witnesses

snce she ows everythng abou our secrets; the quatrain is reproduced

. MYH

stance nd ecet



19

2 MYTH

tane an eet

in D. Anguo Iguez a fbula de Vulcano Venus y Marte y a aga

de Velzquez'' Arho Espao e Arte 23 960) 72 n. ro The rst to note

the paralel with Tempestas prnt was E du Gu Trapier (Vezquez [New

ork 98 p 162) who says however hat the resemblance is not very

cose"

62 n is essay Aggiune e margnala'' R. Longi arges that the lu

ence was direct: see Arte taana e arte teesa pp 97

63 E arris reproduces he Cang of t Matthe cing it an nstance of

an mitaion of nare that was once revolutionary but now looks the

atrcal" when we compare it to Velzquez's Roman pantngs She oserves

that Vezquez noneheless drew spiration om Caravaggio much more

than om the latter's pups (Vezquez p 85 plate 76). Anoio empesta is

discussed and adjudged a anal itator of received Pathosformen in EGombich A Warburg An nteetua Bogphy new ed (Cicago 1986)

pp 230 (referrng to an unpublished paper by Warburg on Rembrandt's

Copra of Cau Cs)

6 Inis comments on The Forge of Vuan C.Justi cas a criical trn

ing point (kritisce Wendepukt") beteen two movements (Dego

Vezquez un sen ]ahrhunert 2nd [re ed. [Bonn 903 :255) Slvia

Gzbug drew my attention to Velzquez's debt to Domeichino65 sidore o Seve Etymoogarum b 6 (AM ecoq draws atten

tion to he passage her article x' p 232). Cf. F Pacheco Arte e a

Pntura ed F Snchez Cantn 2 vols (Madrid 956) index (however ts

does not appear n he ist pubshed by Snchez Cantn a beria di

Velsquez" n Homenaje . . . a Mennez Pa [Madrd 925 79-06) n

an imagay speech that R Longhi puts nto Velzquez's mouthLongi

is paying homage to Carl ust's mous pastichesthe panter is made o

say: I feel that concentraed and cused memory of tis kind issues

someng that we cal evidence wich is a ction hardes of a to acieve"

( rte taana e arte teesa p 93).

66 See G Celati Il tema de doppo parodico'' n Cela's Fnzon o-

nta new ed (986; Tun 1975) pp. 69218 esp p. 92: Borges once

inssted hat the character Don Quxote becomes the reader of the book

then s rases the suspicion that e reade is trn might be acharac

ter" (it is ts sensaton mia to anyone who has looked at Las Mennaswic nspired hope Gautes mous emark " est le ableau?) In

a otnote to he 975 edtion Celai sums the po up hus: Don Quxote

carnates the modern practce of witng as a mode of orderng the word

at a remove and thus of admisteing it bureaucratically or renventg it

novelscaly (and here it is shown that these to ngs oen amount to

one)" have been much stmuated my own reections both y these

pages of Celatis book and by an essay of talo Calvno's hat is closey



linked to them (and hat also discusses Don Quxo and meapainting); see

" ivelli dela eal n letteraura, written n 1978 and included in Calvno

Una pra sop (ur, 98), p - see esp. p. 1.

67 Pao Rpublc p 76. See aso Brisson, Plaon, pp 44151 ("utlit

des mythes)

68 Tis is the myth refered o by Kar Popper n hs depiction of Pao

as a pooNazi, as the myh of Blood and Soi. See Th Opn ocy and s

Enms 5h ed. (1966 rs publ. 1945), 114.

69 Arstoe Maphyscs 74b, Oxford translation, ed W D Ross 2nd

ed. (198, epnt 96) Veyne draws aention to ts passage cang it

"sensational, n Ls Grcs onls cru lurs myhs? p. 5 n 8 he refers o

Aubenque L problm d lEr chz rso (Pais, 196) pp 5

7 The passage n queston om Critas's syphus wich is refered toby Sexus Empricus (d. mah. 954), is discussed n M Unterseiner,

sos new elarged ed (Mlan 1967), 5

7 See the evidence coleced by M Esposito, "Una mafestazione di

increduit religosa nel Medioevo Il deo <ei Tre imposto' e la sua

rasmissione da Federico I a Pomponazzi rcho orco alano s 7, vo.

16 a 89 (191) pp. -48 (Esposito makes no menon of he passages om

Plao and Aistotle discussed here) here s no adequate scholarly treat-

ment of s opic

7 Celsus dscorso ro ed. G Lanata (Mlan 1987) p. 65 (14 6) On

he unes of his text in the sxeenh centr see L. ebvre Ogn Ds

Prrs (Pas, 194)

7. Esposio, "Una manfesazione, p. 4.

74 N Maciaveli, Dscors sopra la pma dca d To Lo ed. C Vivanti

(urn 98), pp 68 7 f Translaors' noe We tanslate om he Italian.

Engish vesion is Macave Th Prnc and Th Dscourss rans M

Lerner (New York 194)

75 The tre plagiaist of Maciavei's Prncp A Nfo had produced

a raer drab commentary on the stotelan passage (74b1) see Nifo, n

duodcmum Maphyscs rsols rros olumn (Veice, 1518), r

76 hs has been demonstraed by C Dioisotti see hs Machalr

(urn 198), p 19·

77 See C. Nicole, "Polybe et es suons romanes Polyb (Vandoeuvres and Geneva, 197), Enrns ondaon Hard : 45 and bibog

raph he echo om Poybius n Machiavel was idened by om

masn, as C Vivani notes in his edton of the Dscors p. 65 n . [ransla-

ors note: We translate om Ginzburg's alian version of he ext.

78 A. Momigliano remaks (citng Mommsen to he same eect) that

Polybius had ile understandng of oman region see "Poibio Posdo-

io e 'imperialismo romano in Mogiano, ora sorograca anca

9

MYTH

Danc and Dc



96

MYTH

Dstanc and Dct

(Boogna 198 pp. 303-31 s he passage quoted here shows however the

outsiders vantage pont can soetes conduce to understandng.

9 On Polybius and Plato see P Fredlnder Socates Enters Roe

Amcanoual of Phlolo 66 (194 33-31 on Polybius and isotle see

I. Drng Aotl (Mian 196 p 46.

o Maciave Of the eigion of he Roans scourss 1 (pp

66-0 of Vivants ediion) M. C. Siths Opiu of the People ua

Poplius n the French Renaissance Bblothqu d'Humansm t Rnas

sanc (990 - proses ore than i delivers.

See Machiave Dscourss :, What peoples the Roans had to

ght with and how enaciously they defended their iberty (pp 3 of

Vivantis edion). On the debates occasioned by these pages see Pros-

peri cristiai e a gerra una controversia a '00 e '00'' n Rsta d sto- ltttura rlgosa (994 pp. -83.

8. See R Pntard L lbrtnag udt das la prm mot du s

t (1943 new and elarged ed Geneva 1983, p. 1. On is thee ore

general see also D. P. Walke Th Dcln of Hll: ntnthCntury Ds

cussos of Etrnal Tormnt (ondon 1964

83. See C Gburg he Dovecote Has Opened Its Eyes in Th nqu

ston n Early Modrn Eurp ed. G. eningsen and. edeschi (Dekab 1986 pp 190-198.

84. "Oratius ubeo (a Mothe a Vayer) "De la plosopie scep

que n Pesse ed. Dalogus fats !mtaton ds ancns reprnt ed

(Paris 1988 p 41: scrre des bes pour des verite doe des contes

la posteit pour des stoies cest le it dun posteu ou dun autheur

lger et de nue considraion escre des caprices pour des rvlatons

divines e des esveres pour des o venus du Ciel c est Mnos ua

a Mahoet e leurs seblables esre grands Prophetes et les propes s

de Iupiter. . Gegory quotes tis passage n l beniso dea pra

et del Secento Stato attuae degli std e prospettive di ricerca n Gre-

gor Rcrch u lttratur lbrtna lttratur clandstna nl cnto (Flo

rence 981 pp. 6 f a Mothe e Vayer did not nclude the Dalogus n the

colection that he ade of is copee works.

8. Oraiu ubero (a Mothe e Vaye) ntroduction to Dalogus "Ma

an est si genereuse ou s lierne quele ne peu suivre que le seul capricede es fanaises et cela avec une icence si dependente et si aance

quele fait gore de navor autre vise quune nae recheche des verits

ou vrayseblances nareles he passage cos that Valry is correct

n the terpreation of the ter "lbtn wich is quoted n G. Scneiders

cosed ragbg of a book lbrtnsmo (Bologna 90 pp 3

86. a Mothe e Vayer D la rtu ds pays n urs (Geneva 190

(a reprnt of the Dresden edition of , pp. 16 (n the new pagination).



87. here is no indeth scholaly treatment o s toic. or the subse

quent eriod a sartng oint is F E Manuels The Eghteenth Centu Con

onts the ods (Cambidge Mass, 99 .

88. T HobbesLeathan 1651 ed A. D Lindsay (ondon and New ork

Everyman's ibrar 1914 vo l h 13 65, 64 Tanslators noe

Seng and caitaization have been modernzed in this and subsequent

quotaions. Hobbes ived exile Pais r some time Hs De Ce was

translated by Samue Sorbire (sterdam 1649) : on hs, see R Pintad Le

lbertnage rudt 552558 and assm

89 Hobbes Leathan 2 . 5462. Hobbes draws a contrast beteen

olytheism wch is e result o ear, and monotheism wich comes om

the desre men have to know e causes o natural bodes and hei severa

virtes and oeratons" the atter as even he Heathen Plosohes conessed eads to the notion o one st Mover . . . a rst and an Eterna

cause o gs" On Hobbes's attde to risotle, see Strauss The Polt-

cal Phlosoph of Hobbes 1936; rernt Cicago 1973, 3043

90. Leathan h 2 . 62

9. Ibd, h 32 . 99

92 On ts asect o the mate see the convncng arguments o S

Landucci Iloso e sela 80180 (Bar, 972 . 4142.

93. Leathan h 8, 240 (talcs in orginal).

94. Ibd., h. 7 89 Tis is te generaion o that grea eviathan or

rather (to seak more reverenly) o that mortal god

95 Ibid h. 42, 269

96. Bayle Penses derses sur la comte rst ublished unde a derent

title n 1682, and subsequently reubished an elarged etion n 1683

See chaer 6 See also Bayles Ronse ax quesons d'un rovncia n

s Oeures derses 3 2 (The Hague 77 958 here Bayle nvents anextraordnary dialoge beeen a Chnese mandarn and a esuit.

97. See Trattato de tre mpostor: La ta e lo sprto del sgnor Benedetto de

pnoza ed S Berti and wih a ece by R. Pokn (Turin 1994 On the

basis o various ieces o contemorary evidence, Berti attrbutes te wok

o Jan Vroesen

98 In additon to a numbe o examles eatng to Charron noted by

Berti ( liv-xxv), one notes how the Tratdeals wth the assage oma Mhe Le Vayer's De la vertu des ayens" wch s quoted eale in

he esent chater (see note 86 above). The anonymous auhor o the

Trat leave out the hrases concernng the great ignorance o the

agans sking wthout comment om a assage comaring the re

caused by Phaeton with tha wich destroyed Sodom and Gomorrah to

another n which Phaeton is comared with Eia (or severa have

remarked the relation between Samson and Hecules Elia and Phaeon,

97

2. MYTH

stance and ecet



MT

tance an ecet

et) Te awkarly onoted Fren text i made more awkard, n te

talian edition, by an error of tranlation.

99 rattato p

100 S. Berti rgty empaze t pont in er introdtion (bid. p . Ibid pp. 67, 69 9

10 . Kant Crtque of Pre Reason tran. . M. D. Mekejon (London

veryman Lbra n.d.), p. Kant onote. Te droppng of ti om

e pree to te eond editon i noted by R Koeek Ktk un Krse:

n Betrag zur Pathogenese er brgerlchen Welt (1959) ee p 16 of te Itaan

tranlation Crtca llumnta e cs ela socet borghese (Bologna 197)

Koelek' book leverly rewok te old onpiratoia tei advoated by

te bb Bare.

10 See Bogna ngannare l oolo (Bari 1968) (wee Catlon ontribtion i reprnted togee wi tat of Condoet), pp. 1 5 606

ller eletion of te orgnal ext to be nd in W Kra ed., Estl

utle e tromer le eule (Bern, 1966)

104 See G. L. Me he atonalzaton of the Masses Poltcal ymbolm

an Mass Moements n Germany om the aoleonc Wars hrough the hr

Rech (1974)

105 See p. 7 (agment 884) of te Italian ranlation of ovai, Fram

ment (Mlan 1976)

106 Te paage qoed i alo qoted in part by Cateovo a te

openng of i eay rte e rvozone indtiae, n i rte nustra

oluzon (Trn, 1985), p 85 See p. 4 of e taan editon of Marx and

ngel Work (Oere comlete ed N Merker Rome, 1986])

107 K. Marx he Eghteenth Brumare of Lou Bonaarte tran and C

Pa (196 trd impreion, London 194) p. 6

108 Ibd. pp 5

109 Ibid., p. (Max pee to te 1869 Geman edition) In a letter to

Marx of Deember 1851, ngel refer to te "travey and te "re of

te igeent Brmare (Kar Marx and riedi ngel electe Corre-

sonence, 1841895 ran. and wit a ommentary by D Tor [London,

194] pp. 49, 51)

o Eghteenth Brumare p. Marx note ta te term "Caearm wa

onable above a n Germany. t orign wee ren ee .Mogano' o eay, epbied in i ufonament ella stora antca

(Tn 1984), pp. 789

r. he Eghteenth Bmare onlde wi a eferene to te imperial

mantle . . . lng on te olde of Lo Bonaparte (p 144)

Ma and nge, electe Corresonence p. 99 e letter i dated

17 gt 1870 te pae "om te beging and owman are n

ngl in e orignal.



3 bd pp 205 f (leer of 3 Apr 1866

or a general aoun, see D Losurdo, Dmocraza o bonaparsmo

ronfo dadna dl sago unvrsal un 993

5 M Joly Dalog a Enrs d achavl t Montsquu ou l pol

tqu d Machavl au XIX scl par un contmpon (Brussels 186) pp 8 f

Shorly aer s inal appearane he work was republshed (wh Joly

named as auhor and ranslaed no German (Lepzg, 1865; laer, was

redisovered and reprned (ars 98 and 1968)

6 A de oquevie Dmocracy n Amca rans G Lawrene and ed

Mayer (London 99 pp 69 (rs publ aris 180

7 Napoleon's words are menoned and dsussed n Losurdo

Dmocraza o bonapartsmo pp 56 22

8 On he soures o he rgery and he rtne eoyed see NCons exellen book Warntfor Genocd: h Myth of thJwish WorldCon

spra and th Protocols of th Eldrs of Zon 967 London 996) Con jus-

es is use o he overorn erm myh in a onoe (p n 2 in he 1967

eion he oneon wholy's Dalog was rs revealed in an are

he ms 1921 noher aoun of he works rnes s A ague,

(ed s Protocols ds Sags d Son 2 vols (ars, 1992)

9 See he Iaan edon of he Protocols ed G rezos, repubshed as

an appendix o S Romano, Ifals ptocoll (Milan, 1992) pp 51 153 56 163

171 76 18 205

120 Ibd, p 6

21 See M Conno Volnc dans la violnc Laar BakounnNcav

1973) rans ino aan as catchsmo d! roluzonaro Bakunn laar

Nca (Milan 1976) p 123 and he referenes o he "sysem of he esus

on pp 50 158 f 7 73 200 20 Cono autously arbues he Cat

chsm o Nehaev and rules ou he possbity ha Bakuni may have on-rbued o V Srada akes a deren vew n s inroduon o A

Herzen, A un ccho compagno (uri, 1977) see he noe on "revoluonary

Jesutism on pp

22 Romano als protocoll p 6

123 Her s sad o have onded o Rausng ha s reading of he

Protocols e im "pertrbed "How devous he enemy s and how

opresen! I realsed a one ha we mus opy m bu our own wao ourse How hey resemble us, and ye on he oher hand how df

feren om us hey are Wha a sruggle here s beeen us and hem nd

he sakes are que smpl he desny of he world (H Raushning tlr

m ha dtto rans G Monre Mian, 195] pp 262 Engsh edon Htlr

Spaks [London, 939 N Cohn quoes s n par in is Warrant for Gno

cd p 20 [ransaors noe: here we ransae om he aan and see

also H rend's ommen, quoed in Cohn, Warrantfor Gnocd p 23) n

99

2 MYH

stanc nd ce



2

2 MYTH

Dane and Deei

the same conversaion Hitler supposedy told Rauschnng that he had

earned above all om the Societ of esus Besides, I seem to recal that

Lenin dd sometng smar Hiler mi ha deo pp 263 ).

24. F Nietzsche Die Gebur der Trgdie (872); tans F Gong in The

Birh of Tragedy and he Genealo of Moral (New York 956), pp 8,

(transaon sghtly moded) L Gossman quoes part of his passage

Le oudor' de l'Europe: a Be de Buchardt et a crtique du moderne

n ernel reour onre dmoraie lidologe de la dadene ed Z Stern-

he (Paris 994) p. 65 A itte rther on (p. 5), Nietzsche remarks hat the

conception of prmitive man as essentiay good and artistic . has by

degrees become a menacng and rather appag laim against which we

who are ced with presenday sociaist movements cannot stop our ears

The nobe savage demands s rghs: what a paradisaical prospect!25. The orignal pece is dated Decembe 87 Birh of Tgedy and

Genealo of Morl p 7). In he Citical Backward Glance written n

886 Niezsche efers to the times n wich (in spite of wich) the essay

was composed 87-7 e turbulent period of the rancoPrussian war

(bd p 3). See Sores troduction (dated 97) to Rlexon ur volene

(Pars 946) and also the section on Nietzsche (pp 356-367)

26. See Nietzsche Birh of Tragedy, pp 6 f.

27 Boh passages are quoted by V oa (who adds the itaics) in oa La

Geralemme rmandaa: Domande di o agli inglei del prmo Noveeno

(Turn 985) p 9 (and see the whole of ts important book).

8 Dalogue quoted n N. Cohn Warranfor Genode p. 28

29. The passage om ]. de Lignes Le enenaire de la pree (June

936), is quoed in W Benjamin D PagenWerk vol 5 pat 2 of Ben

amn Geammele Shren ed. R Tiedemann (982), p 926

3. Le Bons Pyhologe de oule is cied o tis eect n LosurdoDemoazia pp. 83 ; and see E. Genie ulo del Lioro: La arlizzazione

della poliia nellIalia faa (Rome and Bai 993) pp. 55 3. A. Hitler Mein Kamp quoted in D Cantimori, ppuni sulla prop

aganda (94) Cantimori Poliia e oa onemporanea: Sri 9794

Turn 99) pp 685 (and see he whole of is essa pp 683699)

32 Cf. T W Adorno, Minima Moralia trans E F N ephcott (London

974), pp. 5 f. aphoism 69 Ltle k33 See T W Adorno and M Hoheimer Dialekik derAuklrung 947;

Dialei of Enlighenmen trans. . Cummig (London and New York 979

rst pubshed 972) pp 2-67 and G. Debord La o du peale (97);

The Soey of he Speale rans. not named (Exeter 977); aphorism 43

(scacely oig r al Debords bombastic claims to the contrary).

34 Birh of Tragedy p 37.

35 Legitmaion through myth is discussed n M. rank dio a venire



(urin, 994 n connecion with the "new mythology of he German

Romantics owever the idea that myth by vtu o bg myth alows us

access to a deee truth s regn to he ne of thought ha comes down

om Plato. Sch a (equeny unconsious retrospectve projection of

Romanic views is what has ndered the apehension of he neus ikng

the Phadus and the Sophst wich is the sartng pont of the present essa

36. On he quesion n general (consdered om another pont of view,

see W Rsler, Die Endeckung der Ftionat n der ntke Potca 2

(980 283-39

37. See Detienne, Lvto d la mytholog p. 444

38. On ts passage see Trimi Muss o O Md 50 f39 See Detene, Lvto d mytholog p 239 (quoting Athenaeus

6.22b.-7.40. Tis s argued by C Caame whose L ct Gc a (Paris

986 55 s cited by N. oau in Polunekes eonumos Les noms du

ls d'Oedipe enre oe et tragde, in the volume cited above Mta

mophoss du myth, p 52-66 where the name is considered as he smal

est myic oc ( 5 See also ag h Bst o thAchaas Uness I am

msaken none of these stdies ctes . Usener Gttam (896. For an

accoun of sener, based n part on unuished mateials see]. Brem

mes roe in Clscal Scholashp: A Bogaphcal Ecyclopada ed. W WBiggs and W M. Cader I (New York, 990 p 462-478.

4 he viewont suggested here alows us to ermulae on slighly

dierent reses the notion of poetry as neither true nor false that was

ut rward by the Englsh Romantics. See M. . Abrams h Mo ad

th Lamp (Ord 953 rerint 974 320326.

42. See M Prous, Du ct d chz Swa (Paris 954 : See also A.

enr Mtoym t mtapho (Paris 97 p 44-46. ere as esewhereBoch s echong othe peopes ideas Maime Du Cam recounts hat

Flaubert havng criticed Racine r his us of language, went on to

acknowledge tha he had written one ne which is eternal, because is so

sublme . . [e drew himself up to is l height and his most

resoundng ones, cried out: a le de Mnos e de Pasipha' (M. Du

Cam Souvs ltts wth a rece by D Oster [Paris, 994 p. 443

3 REPRESEO HE WOR HE DE HE HG

r See R. Chartier Le monde come rersentation Aals ESC 6

(989: 54

2. M.. Monain, mag c coom: Ls soucs zats d lmag

a cotmpoa (Paris, 996 at once denounces and symtomaticaly

ties tis nteectual shion.

20

. EPETAT

h d, th da,th hg



RERESNTATIN

e Wor e eae ng

3 See E oe ewsh Partcpaton n Royal Fneray tes: Early

Use of Repesentaton n Aragon Joual o e Warburg an Couraul

sues 45 (982 9294.

4 See R E Gese Te Royal Funeral Ceremony n Renassane Fane

(Geneva 96 pp 79-4 Gesey eects, wth convncng argmens, the

theory that the rst se of neral eges shold be dated earer to the

neral ceremonies r Hen II n 27; see on ths also W H St Jon

Hope On the Fneal Eges of he ngs and Qeens of England, wth

Speca Reference to hose n the Abbey Chrch of Westmnster, Arae

ologa 6 (97: 526-528 Gesey makes a the contrbton to the stdy

of eges n Crmonale e pussane souerane ane XVeXVIe sles

(Pars 987 here s now an accont of the nlence of these pactces n

tal in G cc, Le Corps et lEge Les Fnralles des Ds de erraea a Renassance n C Rual an Drama ed A F onston and W

Hsken (Amsterdam and Atlanta Ga 997 pp 75-2

5 See St Jon Hope On the Fnera Eges pp 57-57; R P How

graveGraham, Royal Portrats n Egy: Some New Dscoveres n West

nster AbbeJournal o e Royal Soey o Ar or (953 465-474 ( have

not been abe to consl this A Harvey and R Mortme eds, Te Funeral

Eges o Wesmnser Abbey (Woodbdge, 994 srveys the most recentdocmentay evdence and ncdes many lstratons

6. E Kantorowcz Te Kngs Two Boes: A Suy n Meeal Polal Te-

olo (Prnceton 957

7 See a Crne de SaintePalaye, Donnare sorque e lanen lan-

gage anas vol 9 (Pas 88 entry r "Reprsentaton (wch refers to

the neral of the Cont of E n 388 and to the wl of the D de Berry

n 45 A mch older docment 225, wch have been nable to ver

refers to a payment made by a woman of nspeced socal stats r a rep-

resenaon made of her hsband aer hs death see A N ZadokJosephs

tta Anesral Porraure n Rome an e Ar o e Las Cenury o e Repub

l (Amsterdam 93, p 9, whch refers to V Ga Glossare arologque u

Myen Age e e la Renassane (Pars 928 2:297

8 Gese Te Royal Funel Ceremony pp 8 f 99 f

9 bd p 86.

ro See St Jon Hope, On the Fneral Eges pp 53 antorowczTe Kngs Two Boes pp 49 At the tme of Edward s death a rmor

was crrent (and was recorded n some contemporary chrocles that he

had been assassnated f so s copse wold then have been n no cond

tion to be eted n the nea cortge Nether Gesey nor Kantorow

cz recods that one accont, set down at the tme by the papa notary

Manee del Fesco tels s Edward made a o of s enemes by escapng

om prson and that they then kled the doorkeeper n s placewch



wd ave made it absltey impssible r te g's bdy t be exib

ited see A Germain, Lettre de Maue de Fesque coceat es derres

aes du ro dAgeterre Edouard II (Mnelier, 1878); igra, "Un degli

Edard n Itala: vla stria? La Nuoa Atooga ser 5, v 92 (1901)

403425; ttn and T W Lyman, Were s Edward I?, Specuum 3

(1958) 522544 Hwever is s if te wld nt explan wy a g

ine was sedsill less wy tis practice lasted s lng

. ]. vn Sclsser, Gesccte der Prtrtsbldneei in Wacs''

ahrbuch der kusthstorsche Sammuge des aerhcste Kaserhauses

(1919) 29171258, esp pp 202 (repblised as Tote Bcke: Geschhte

des Portrtsbdere Wachs ed T Medics [Bern 1993).

2 Ibid pp 8 f

13. Giese The Roya Fuera Ceremoy pp 149 f See pp 145154 79 f0174

14 E Bicerman "Die rmisce Kaiseraptese,'' Arch r Rego

swssenscha 27 (1929) 134 (see Bicerman, "nsecrat, le clte des s

verains dans lEmpire rmain in Etrete de fodato Hardt vl 19

[andevres and Geneva, 1972, pp 3 See als Giese prece

15 See R. Hertz Mages de socooge regeuse et defokore (Pars, 1928)

pp 198. S r as I can asceain is essay as neve been made se indiscssins f rya nerals wit te sngle exceptin (and even ere te

eence is irly spercial f te b by R. Hntingn and Mecaf,

Ceebratos of Death (ambridge 1979); see pp 159 n Kantwicz and

Giese n Hertz p 13

16. Bicerman, Die rmsce Kaiserapese'' p 4

17· Hertz, Mages p 22

18. F Dpnt atre crps de l empererde'' in Le temps de a rex

o (1986), pp 231 f (Te eme f e vlme was "e crps des <ex

19 Giese The Roya Fuera Ceremoy p 152

20 Ernes ary's transatin f Di assis qed in Giese ibid p

149

2. Giese The Roya Fuera Ceremoy pp 147 f

22 bid, p 5 (drawng n Pierre d asel's accnt

23. bid pp 172 189.

24. bid, p 17425 Francisc Pizarr, Reac deDescubrmeto y Coqusta de os Reos

de Per ed G man llena (Lima 1978) pp 89 f , qted in G Wnrad and A A Demarest The Dyamc of Atec ad Ica Easosm

(ambridge 198) pp 2 f (I ms express my warm tans Aarn Segal

r drawing tis b t my attentn See as pp 51

26 Ibid, p 3 (I reprdce tis accnt amst wd r wrd

27 Giese The Roya Fuea Ceremoy p 190

0

3 REREETATN

e Word the ea,the hg



24

REEENTATN

h th th hing

28 For discussio of logous probem, see the preset uthors St

nttu: Un izin sbb (Tur, 989) pp 9 205 (d the

refereces to Bloch d LviStruss) The origl editio of St nt

tu is ville i Egish s Estasis: iphing th Withs' Sbbth

trs R Rosehl (Lodo 1990)

29 Dupot utre corps, pp 24 f

3 M Muss "Ue ctgorie de lesprt humi: l oo e persoe,

cele de moi, i Muss, Anthp t sg (Pris 190) pp 352 f See

lso M Rmbud, "Essi sur certis usges rres de lique Nore et

de l Rome ique Ls Etus Cssius 4 198): 3-2 esp pp 12

3 See dosJosephus itt Anst Ptitu pp 9- (o the

oeistece of the soclledj imginum hypotheszed by Mommse)

32 Bicerm, "Die rsche Kiserpotheose, pp Dupot utre corps p 240 O "erl ssocitios, see K Hopis th n

Rn (Cmridge 1983) p 2 (where "nus imgnium is trslted

"mgiry body)

33 Chtre "Gre ksss Butin 'Ititutnis hgi

int30 931): 449452 E Beveiste "Le ses du mot ksss et les mots

grecs de l ste, R Phi Litttu t 'Histi ninns 3rd

ser, 5 193): 8-35 esp pp 8

he discussio sce the hs cuded co

tributios om mog others, Ch Picrd (Le cotphe de Mid et les

olosses de Ms ibid 1933 341-354)J Servis (Les suppits s

l loi scre de Cyre, Butin spnn hniu 84 190):

2-4 mo useu overview) d J Duct "Foctios de l stte s

l Grce ciee ouros et olossos ibid 19): 239-25

34 SeeJ ert, igus, is msus (Pris 1990), pp 39 2 (d

the etre volume is mportt)

35 P Brow mes the sme remr deret coet A DrAge Crisis Aspects of the coocstc Cotrovers i Brow Sty n

th Hy in Lt Antiuity (Lodo 190 )

3 See E H Gombrich, Mitti n Hbby Hs (Lodo, 193), pp

- (see pp , 3 5, 9 ) The title essy dtes om 95 O its reltiosip with

At n Iusin (Lodo, 90) see Mitti p

3 K Po, "Etre et ivisble: L collectio, i Pomi C-

tinus mtus t ux (Prs 98) pp 15-59 Cts n Cuisitis:Ps n Vni 1500800 trs E WiesPortier (Lodo, 1990) pp 22 24

3

38 JP ert Myth t Pns hz s Gs: Etus psyh his

tu (Prs, 19) publshed Eglish (trs ucowedged) s Myth

n hught Amng th Gks (Lodo, 1983) See chpter 13 "he Repre

settio of the Ivisible d the Psychologic Ctegory of the Double

The Colossos pp 38 314



39 See Vernant, Figur ido maqu; and also s Psuc Smulacre

du corps ou mage du dvn? Nouv Rvu d Pycanay 44 (Autumn

99) 223 a specal ssue on te teme of i d imag.

40. Dupont autre corps pp. 234 237

4. uyon a vente des tombes tavers pgrape de a Rome

crtenne Mang d'arcoog dioir: niqui 86 (974) 594 cted

n Brown, Cu of Sain (Ccago 982), p. 33 n. 6.

42. Brown Cu of Sain pp. 3

43. Muc relevant materal s brougt togeter n H Beltng Bid und

Ku(Muc, 990).

44. Ou startng pont must be te substantal evdence collected n D

eedberg Powr of Imag (Ccago, 989) (toug te books teoret

ca amework s not very convncng) M. Camlle Goic Ido (Cam-brdge, 989) oers some stmulatng deas muc tat s obvous and a

weat of errors (see r nstance te atn quotatons on pp 2 22, 22

227 etc.).

45. See Senec a uvvanc d diux aniqu (ondon 940) F Sa

cur (ondon 957); E. Pano Rnaianc and Rnacnc (Stock-

om 965.

46. See e crca edton of te ibr miracuorum Sanc Fidi ed. andntrod . Robertn (Spoeto 994) Tee s a dscusson of te term

scolastcus on pp 39 f.; n Robertn's vew t canot be taken as a tec

nca term referrng to te master of a catedral scool. On te tet see A

. Remensnyde, Un problme de cultures ou de culture a statueel-

quare et les joca de sante oy de Conques dans e ibr miracuorum de

Bernard dngers, Cair d cviiaion miva 33 (990) 35-379

47. ibr 3.

48. Brown Sociy and Hoy pp. 302-332, esp. pp 38-32 330; te quotaton s om p. 330.

49. e capters ttle n full s Quod ancorum au propr inncbim

ingniamqu idioarum coudinm r prmianu prrim cum nii ob

id d rigon dpra d ci vindica

50. An mportant comentary on Bernard's capte s B. Stock

Impicaio of icy (Pnceton, 983), pp. 64-72.

5 Remensnyder Un probme de cultures, oers a derent opnon.See also E. Bckerman Su la tologe de art guraf A propos de ou

vrage de E. R oodenoug n Bckerman Sudi in]w and Cian

Hiory (Leyden 986), 48, n 7

52 On ts see te excelent artce by Taaon, a maest d'or de

Santeoy de Conques Ru d' r 404 (978): 9-22 esp. p 6; E Da

Heavely mages: Te Statue of St oy of Conques and te Sgncaton

of te Medeva Cut n e West ca arcaooiam arium ioam

05

REREENAN

Word da ing



20

3. RRESETAT

h Word, h da,h hg

pra 8 (1978: 175-91; Wirh, mag mdal (Paris 1989 pp

71-9.

53. Taralon "a ajes, p 19.

5 ee H orsyh, Th Thro o Wsdom (Prnceon, 1972

55. ee] Wrh "a reprsenaion de !iage dans ar d Ha Moyen

Age Rv d !Ar (988 p 15

5. r 11 : 114 115 1:17 1:25 2.

57 Iid, .

58. Ibid 113.

59. ee R Bgges ne essay "Egie Chrsi q ransis seper hon

ora erses Condenng he Cl of acred Iages n Ar and ierare,

Aca ad archaoloam arum hsoram pra (975 27-39

0 ee W Drig, mago: Brag zur Trmolog ud Tholo drrmsch urg (Mnch, 1952 R Da mago: Ursuchug zum Bldl

gr dr Rmr (Hedelberg 1975. ee also E Aerbach "Figra, in Aer

bach Scsom h Dma oEuropa raur (New York, 1959 ) pp -7

. r :5 A Boie and ervres, n Sa Foy vrg maryr

(Rode, 1900 p 458 ransae he as phrase "Non dans absracion, ais

ssanieleen incarn dans n corps ee aso ock mplcaos o -

ra p 9 "No in an iage b geninely presen n sbsance2 an Abrose psalmum 38 n 25 (see aloa aa :51-

52 qoed n H de bac, Corpus myscum (Paris, 99 p 218 (and see

pp 217 f generay)

3 Dahl Heavely ages, p 19; de ac Corps p 275

. ee ock mplcaos o cy pp 2 f5. arologa aa 5:col 31 qoed in ock mplcaos ora

p 250 ee aso Geiselan "De eng des Giber de Nogen, Th

ologsch Quaralschr (1929 : 7-8 27305.

Cae, Gohc dol p 217

7 Browe, "Die Hosienschndngen der Jden Mielaler

Rmsch Quaralschrr chrslch Alrumskud udr Krchgschch

3 (192: 7-197; and he sae ahors "Die echarsische erwand

lngswnder des Melaers iid 37 (1929: 37-19.

8 ee evi della Torre, " delo ecarisco n Dea Torre,Mosaco:

Aual aual dgl r (Roe, 992 pp 5-13; ]. Cohen, Th Fr-ars ad h Jws: Th Evoluo o Mdval Audasm (aca 1982 More

recenl see G I angr "The Torres of he Body of Chris, in

Wagh and P D Diehl eds, Chrsdom ad s Dscos (Cabrdge,

199 pp 287-309.

9. Kanorowcz Th Kgs Two Bods pp 9-20.

70 Chroqu du rlg d SaDys (Paris 1839, 100. The ahor of

he chroicle ied eeen 130 and 35 see M Norderg, "es sorces



bourguignonnes des accusations portes contre la mmore de ouis d'Or

lans Annals d Bourgogn 31 (1959): 1-9.

ECCE ON HE SCRURAL ROOS OF CHRSAN

DEVOTONA MAGERY

hav prstd alr vrsos o ths hapr a two ors: "oolasm

h Possb o Rprstao Ro, dlbr, Fbuary 99( hoor o Mosh Barash) ad maato ud Wrkhk, Frakurt,

Ju 99 My thaks to all thos who otrbutd to dsusso, spaly

Klaus Rhrt am dbtd fr oh obsrvatos ad rtsms, to Stph

Grlatt ad, partularl to Mara usa Cat ovrsato wthJass

ma (as v) sparkd o may das Pr Csar Bors hlp was dspsabl

at vry sta o rsarh ak sol rsposblt f th papr ts frm

Here and belo the use of capitals is me Transators note: We use

the text of the New nglish Bible Tis is modied here and when we quote

Luke r n that the word ehold has been added we aso add it where

appopriate n later quotations The Italian ext used by CG is La Bibbia di

Grusalmm (Bologna 190).

2 See Coppens, nterpraion dIs 1 la umre des tdes

es plus rcentes, inLx tua Vt stshir Hubrtunkr ed H Gross

and F Mussner (Trier 1961) pp 31-6. he alternaties parthnos and "na

nis aleady constitte a topic of dssension n the dialoge beeenusti

nus and is ewish interlocutor Triphon Dialog wth Trphon 3) and see

Prgent Jtin t lAnin Tstamnt (Paris, 96) pp 15 More than a

thousand years later, the translators of the Jeish Bible nto adno out

anked the censors of the nqusition by printing dierent copies in wch

the word almah was rendered sometimes as vrg sometes as"moa see Th adino Bibl o rrara 553 citica edition, ed M aar

(Culer Cit 1992), pp f

3. Rendel Harris and others put rward fertle and trailbazingand

sometimes incautioussuggestons (see R Harris and V Buch, Tsti

mons 2 ols Cambridge 1916-920 ), as is recognized by C H Dod

Aording to th Srpturs Th SubStrutur o Nw Tstamnt Tholo

(London 952), p 26 and passim See also B indars Nw Tstamnt Apologti h Dotrnal Signian o th Old Tstamnt Quotations (ondon,

1961).

The works subttle may be a later addition, as aged by C H Turne,

cited in]P Audet hpothse des Testimona Remarques autour dun

lire rcent R Bibliqu 0 (963) 3-05 esp p 32. Audets tone is dis

mssie n s iew the supposed tstimonia incudng the agments of

Qumrn (see pp 391 401) are pobably unimprtant "notes made wle

07

ECCE

n th SrpturalRoots o hrstn

otonal magr



208

4.

n e rpur f ian

evna mage

readig ad idexles of authors. he essay by itzyer that we cite

beow oers a very dieret oo.

5. J. A. itzyer S " 4Q Testioia ad the New estaet The

ga Sudies 8 1957) 513-537 es. . 534 f "Whle he colectios of es-

imnia that are ud i atristic writers ight be regarded as the result of

ealy Chistia catechetical ad issioary activit 4Q Testoa shows

that the strgg rocedure of OT texts o various books was a re

Cristia iterary ocedue whch ay we have bee itated the

early stage of the rato of the NT t esebles so strogy the co

oste citatios of the NT writers that it is dcul ot to adt that esi-

mnia ueced cetai ats of the NT The rst editor of 4Q Tesimnia

had oted: "It ust ow be regarded as oe tha a ossibility that the st

Chstias were able to take ove ad use collectos of ebrew esimniaalready curret i a closely related regious couity like this of Qu

. legro urther essiac Refereces Qur teratre

urna f Bibia Lieraure 75 [1956 174-187 es . 86 . 107).

6 See the survey with bibogahy by F a Segboeck es citatios

daccosseet as lEvagile selo sait attheu dars trois

ouvages rcets LEvane sen sain Mahieu Rdain e hge ed.

Dider ouvai 1972) 108-130 ore geealy o the questo ofbibica refereces the New Testaet see the review by I. . ashal

Assesset of Recet Develoets iI Is Wren: Srpure Ciing

Srpure. Essays in Hnur f Baabas Lindars ed D A Caso ad G.

iaso Cabdge 1988), pp -21 ad see the recet work C.

Tuckett, ed. The Srpures in he Gspes euve 1997)

7. he oble is of a geeal orde ad was ut thus by eo Stauss: "t

s oy atualy o huay ossible that the st Isaah shoud have

kow the ae of the uder of the Persia eire it was ot iossi

ble r the ootet God to reveal to hi that ae (Spinza's Ciue

f Rein 1965 rert Cicago, 1997 troductio [196 28). Those

who would reaso o the basis of the secod ositio would disquai

theselves o he esearch couit

8 K. Steda The Sh f S Mahew and Is se f he Od Tesamen

Usala 1954 . 204. G. Soares Prabhu, SJ takes a cotastg view

arguig that the Gosel accouts of the icy of Jesus were ot "stiulated by the Scritures a theoy that ight lead soe to draw a aal

ogy with the ebrew taditio of idrasic coetary ut by the

evet of Jesus Chst (The Frmua Quains in he Infany Narraive f

Mahew: An Inuiry in he Tradiin Hisry f M. 2 Roe 1976 .

f 09).

9. See Stedal Sh f S. Mahew 217 . 207217 the closg

ages of the book are devoted to a discussio of esimnia)



0 teda wrte i introducton to e coecto of eay tt e

eited ttled T cos and t Nw Tstamnt (Lodon 958 p 6) But

ar o ee ow e auort of Crtat could depend on org-

nalty e on a ue wc wa releva n te me wen Crtiaty

emerged ot of e matrx of udam no a a ytem of toug but a a

curc a commuit But one may ope at te Crany of oday

prtuay and intelecay ealy enoug to accep agan te condion

of t br tenda a profeor at Harvard Dvinit cool, ubequenly

became Lueran bop of tocom

I I W Zmmer Gand Lssco d Nuovo Tstamnto 9 co 333-33 (alo

Zmmeri n W Zmmerl and]. Jerema T ant of God [London 9

pp f)

ee] Koeng Lmnutu analogu du judasm antu daps stmo txtus dIsa (Leden 98). H M Ory compare e epu

agn minterpretao of aa wt e dencaon of te uf-

rng erva" wt Jeu namuc a bo exempl dea generaed n a

nonBblcal eenic ambace (de on te ecod art of e

Boo of aa" n Orin T oCad ant of t Lod and ur-

ng vant n cond Isaa [Leden 967 pp 73 ) Or denie at

tere ay relatonp between e uerng ervant and e eu ofe Gope

3 ee ] Bcerman ome Note on te ranmo of e eptu-

agn 90 n Bceman, tuds n Jws and Cstan Hsto (Leden

96) 3-76 ep. (r te dae) p .

e Vulgate read Ieu autem ce recet nde et ecui un

eum mult e curavt eo oe E praecep e e maem eum c-

erent ut admplerer qud dcum et per Iaam propetam dcenem

Ecce pue meu que eleg dlecu meu n quo bee compacut an-

mae meae Poam prum meum uper eum et ucum genibu u-

ab. o contede neque camab eque aude aqui n pae vocem

eu aruem quaaam non connget et um mgan on

extngue donec ecat ad vcoram ucum E n none eu gene

perabunt" [ralator note We ave repaced Here my ervant"

NEB tex) w Beold my erva"

5. an tace of wat a been caed e Rxonsztat a rmua at caractertc of Maew.

6 n t conecto, ee Lev Della rre denely arged com

metary o e paradoxe of eleco n i eay dea del popoo

eleo n ea orre Ess o uogo dmma baa ta daspoa

too (Rome 99 pp 779

] Bcerman Uta Cu, tud 3 (986) 37·

8 Zmme and Jerea an of God p 86 and pam C. H.

09

. ECE

n uaoos o an

oona ma



2

. ECCE

n h Srrls hrsan

nal mag

Doddon the bass of somewhat derent argmentsmakes a sar

ase n Ardng h Srprs Benot disusses a number o more

reen sudes n sus et le servteur de Deu, in] Dupont, ed., Jess a

gns d la hrslg new earged ed. (even, 989 pp -0 9

9 Jeemas n Zmer and Jeremias, Sran f Gd pp. o See also

R Snakenburg, h Gsl Ardng SJhn rans Sth (Tunbrdge

Wels, 98 p. 299 Transaors note: The NB text (Jon :36 has ere s

e amb o God whh we render below Behold the amb o God.

20 his s poned out by H Dodd Hsal adn n h Frh

Gspl (ambidge, 963 pp. 2- 3 f Dodd noneheless onludes:

Surey he smpler hpothess s tha ohn has owed nrmaton

reeved and that it was the remembered ts tha rst drew the attenton

of hrsan thnkers to the testmonum of Ps XXXII:2 rather than theother way round Obvousy hs agment (rmated n general terms

on p. 9 needs turnng on ts head. There s a l disusson nJ D. rossan

h Crss ha Spk: h gns f h Psn Narra (San ranso

988 pp 6

2 See J enger, Zu erbot des Knohenerbrehens be den

Semten, nSd nas n nr d Grg dlla Vda (Rome 956

pp 8-58; revsed and earged n ennger Neere orshungen umerbo des Knohenerbrehens, Sda Ehngrapha Fkra n Hn-

rm e Gnda (Debreen 97 pp. 673702 and see also . Gburg S-

a na. Una dazn dl saa (urn 989 , p. 228 he orgnal ed

on of Sra nrna s avalable n Englsh as Esass: Dhrng h

Whs' Saah trans R Rosenthal (London, 990

22 See Dodd Ardng h Srprs pp. 98 f M . Menken argues

onvnngly n vor of the hpothess of a preexsng smnm

to onlude unexpeted by mananng he opposte vewn The Old

esament Quotaton ohn 9:36 Soures Redaon Bakground n

h Fr Gspls 199: Fssh Frans Nrynk ed F G van Segbroek et al.

(even 992 32-28

23 I s H. Dodd who remarks n Hsral radn (p 35 Yo an

not see a hlgmnn

2 On he dsssons to whh ths dvergene has gven rse� see . .

Dodd, bd. pp. 9 (who somewhat oddly denes thaJon was nterestedn the parael between Jesus and the lamb of he Passover. ganst tis f.

Shnkenburg h Gsl Ardng S. Jhn p 299: The pashal lamb

of the N des, aordng to the ohanine hronolog ust when the

pashal lamb of he ews s beng slaughtered n the emple, and none of

s bones are broken

25 Papas, Bshop of erapols (a 60-38 AD), ted by usebus of

aesarea (Elsasal Hs 339 says tha the evangest Mathew ol



lected suetasato) the loa in Hebrew" or according to the Hebrew

style" and translated them" or interpreted them) as best he coud however, loa here means as i does esewhere oracles, dne words

see JE Mnard LEvale selo hoas Leden, 1975 p 75) then Papias

is descrbing two phases o Mahews edtorial workwhich makes it di

cult o dent the loa with the Gospe as is the intention o B Orchard

and H. Rile he Order of the Syots: y hree Syot Gosel Macon

Ga, and Leuven 988), pp 169-195 on Eusebuss chapter, esp. pp 88 fThe Gospe was presumably the outcome o the process

26. D Crossan, he Hstoral Jesus he L of a Medterrea ewsh

Peasat San rancsco 1992), p 75.

27. Ibd p 72

28 G Va Psam 227B The Old Guess,' oual of Blal Lterature6 1997): 45 Translators note: The EB text has this as verse 16b raher

than the 17b o AV

29 Such a testou is among hose postulated by C. H Dodd Aord

to the Stures pp. 89 esp. pp. 08). Dodd regards them as dating

to a very early period, bere he letters o Saint Pau, and attrbutes them

in he al analysis o Jesus imsel.

0. Sendahl Shool of St. Matthew pp 96 and see also D Daube, The

Eares Srucre o he Gospes, eue etaetlhe Stude 5 1958-959)

174-87

1 I must thak laus Reicher r drawng my attenton to tis pot and

Seno Levi Dela Torre r suesting he nterpretation proposed here

See JE Mnard, LEvale selo hoa a translation with com

mentary)

Bickeman The Septuagn as a Translation," n Bickerman Stud

es 1167-00 esp. pp 87 and see also J Coppens, inteprtaion dIsVI," p 9 and edler, De orel Ud Sehe eue estaet

unc, 969) wch Per Cesare B drew o my aenon

4 iedler De orel Ud Sehe, p

5. Ibid pp 4 citing M. Johannesson Der Wahnehmungsatz be

den Verben des Sehens in der hebrischen und griechischen Bibe n

etsh fr verlehede Sahforshu 64 197) 45260, esp pp 188 .

and ohannessohn, Das bibsche a dou in der Erhung sam einerhebrischen Vorlage, in he same journal 66 199) 45-195, and 67 1942)

0-84

6. I thank Pier Cesare Br r drawng tis point to my attenion

7 Patoloa Lat 22co 5 eer d Paunum de sdo Scp-

turarum"

8. Eusebius o Caesarea, Sto elesta trans. ino Ialian by M Ceva

Man 979) pp. 401 [Translaors noe We translate om the Itaan

4 ECCE

the Srturaloots o hsta

evtoal aer



22

ECCE

n he rpul hran

enal mae

39. See E von Dobschtz, "Christusbilder: Untersuchungen zur

chrstlichen Legende, n Tee und nersuchungen zur Geschche der

alchrslchen Lerur ed. von Gebhardt and A. von Harnack NF I

(Leipzig 1899) pp. 3 9 ; and A von Harnack De Mssn und Ausbre-

ung des Chrenums n den ersen dre]ahrhunderen (epzg 1902) p 88.

0. See H. ]. Geischer Der zannsche Bldersre (198), pp. 15 f E

Clar argues support of the tex's authentcity in Eusebius on Women

in Early Church istor in Eusebus Chrsany and udasm ed. H. W

Attridge and G. Hata (eiden 1992) pp. 2529 esp. p. 21 (and there are

rerences to recet sudies) There s rther discusson in M. V nastos,

The rgument r Iconoclasm as Presented by the Iconoclastc Council of

75 in K Weitzman ed. Lae Classcal and Medeal Sudes n Hnr

Alber Mahas endJr (Princeton 1955), pp. 8188 esp pp. 183 See E. Dinkler Crists und Asklepios Szungensberche der He-

delberger Akademe der Wssenschaen 2 (1980) 12 and passim. Justinus

explains in hs rst Apla aer pointg out the paralels beteen the

miraculous cures wrought by Jesus and by Aesculapius that the atter delib

erately imtated the rme (22, 5 o2 I take the term eectricity om T. F Mathews he Clash Gds: A

Renerprean Early Chsan Ar (Princeton 1993), pp. 1 f esp p. .

3. thank Steno Levi Dela Torre r suggestng this interpretation to

me.

C Nauerth Heilungsunder in der hchristlche Kunst Span-

ke und hes Chsenum Aussellung . (afr 983) pp. 3393 sp.

p 31, 157 Nauerth tentatively dentes the neeling woman in Latin

sarcophags 191 as the woman with the ow of blood. The ct that the

woman is approachng esus om behind places ths identicaion beyond

doubt5. Mathews Cash Gds p. 8. Of course ths novelty is traceable back

to the Gospes as Erich Auerbach showed in some unrgettable pages n

Mmess (Berne 19; Englsh transation by W R Trask [Princeton 1953).

or a femist iscussion of the mirace of the woman cured of bleeding see

E Moltman-Wendel Das Abendmal bei Marks, Wr uen und das

Herrenmahl (Sutgrt, 99) pp 5055 (I thak degard Cancik-Ldemaer

r makng it possble r me to read is) On the pont in time or puncumsee R Barthes La hambre care Ne sur la phgraphe (Paris, 1980) (Camera

Lucda: Reecs n Phraphy trans. R Howard London 1982).

. Mathews Clash Gds p 5

7 K. etzman itroduction o Weitzman ed., Age Spuay: A

Sympsum (New York 981), pp 3

8. E. Kitzinger "Christan Imagery Growth and Impact n Wetz

mann ed, Age Spualy p. 18



4 S Mathws ah of Gods pp. 6 ; and also G Scilr, Ikonogra

phi dr chrtihn ut ( Gtsloh, 7 47 83 ; and A. Grabar hr

tian Ionograph A Stud of It Ogs (Prnton, 68 p. 44. Translators

not Again th word hold, not prsnt in th NE txt has bn

addd and th txt slighly modid

50. Dail3 I was still watcg i visions of h ight and BHD

I saw on l a man coming with th clouds of havn. Translators not:

Th NE tx has bn od by th intpolation of "H

Matw 2430 "Thn w appar in havn th sign hat hralds h Son of

Man th popls of th world will ma lamntation, and thy wil s

th Son of Man comg on th clouds of havn wh gat powr and

glory.

5 Mathws ash of Gods p. 37 Cf C Dhl, Un mosaqu byan-tin d Saloiu omptsrndus d Acadmi ds Incrptions t BsLt-

trs 27: 256-26; V Gruml "Diu Sauvur au monast du Latom a

Saloiqu, chos dOrnt33 no. 58 (AprilJun 30 57-75; F Mitchl

"Th Maig of h Maistas Domini in Hosios David Bzantion 37 (67:

43-52. Transators' no: W altr "his is th ord (NE) to "bhod th

od.]

52. S H. ltng, Bid und ut (Much 0 p. 62 and 85 lting

cis K Corrigan "Th Wnss of Joh th aptst on an Early yantin

con in K Dumbarton Oak Paprs 42 (88 r- an con dating om

around th sixh cnur oigiay om Mount Snai and now in Ki

shows th propht not oy olding a scol baring th words "hod h

amb of God but aso poiting to a mdallion of Chist o whom is

prophcy frs

53. S th vry n ssay by A von Harnac, "Di ichnungsu als

Kncht Got und ihr Gschcht dr altn Kirch (26 in Harnacin Schrn zur at irch (Lpzig, 80 pp 730-756 Fgratv pc-

dnts in pagan at ar dscussd n Grabar, hrstian Iconogph pp 36 f

Hr, howvr am concrnd w a dirnt thm, as th subtil of

s chaptr ndcas.

5 S C. rtll "Th Imag of Piy in Santa Croc n Grusamm

i Essas in th Histor of Art Prsntd to Rudo Wittkowr d. D. Fras t

al.(ondon 67 pp. 40-55

55. lting, Bid und ut 462; and s also his Bid und Pubikum im Mitt-

atr (r 8.

56 Translators' not: Agai w hav modid th NE tx rplacg

hr is by hold Th Vulgat (Jon 25-27 rads: "Stabant autm

uxta crucm su matr us t soro matrs ius Maria Clopa t Maria

Magdaln. Cum vidisst rgo sus marm ius discipulu stantm

qu diigba <icit mati sua Mur cc ius tuus; did <cit ds

13

4.

n th crptuRoot o hrtian

Dotiona mag



214

. ECCE

n h ral hrtan

tnal ag

cipuo Ecce mater ta.' On te ue of d in Jeu utterance, ee H

Scrman, Die Sprace de Critu Bblsh tshr 95 544

ep. p. 64

DOS ND KENESSES SSGE N ORGEN ND

S VSSUDES

hak Frado Lal ad Aglca Nzzo fr bblographical ggo; ad

Pr Ca Br Albro Gajao a Maro Pc r comm

. G. Ladner mention te paage i Te Concep of e Image n te

Greek ater and te Byantne Iconocatic Conrover Ladner

Imags and Id n h Mddl Ags (Roe, 983) :91 n 3 (and e wole eayi o ndamental importance; a ao doe P C. Bor (wo note te

coac nature of te dtncon it draw) in llo doro: rad dlla

ontrorsa antgdaa (urin, 983), p. 64 o te et of my nowedge

tere a een no analyca dicion o te paage.

See Origen Wrk ed. W A. Baeen, 6: D Homln z Gnss,

Exods nd ts (D grhshn Chrstlhn Shsllr dr rsn dr

]ahrhndrt) (Leipg 90 pp e Lan i a llowPot aec videau, quid etia ecundum vdeur coninere manda

tm: non e tii pi idolum neque oe iudnem eorum

quae unt i coelo vel quae terra ve quae in aqui utu erram

[Exodu 04. Longe aliud un idoa et aud d icut ipe no nilo

nu Apotou docet Nam de di dxit: icut un d multi et domini

multi [r Corntian 5 de idoi auem dicit "quia ul et idolum n

mundo [r Corintian 4. Une mii videtur non ranitorie aec

egie, quae lex dicit Vidi em derentiam deorum et idolorum et

ruru dierenia idooru e imitudum nam qui de idoi dxit

quia non unt non adddit quia et militudne non unt H auem

dici non e tii ip idolu neque iitudnem omniu Exo

du 04]. iud ergo et cere idolum aud mtdnem Et

quidem Domnu no ad ea quae dicenda unt llumiare dgetr, ego

ic aritror accipendu, quod, veri caua qui quoliet metalo

auri vel argenti vel igni vel lapidi ciat peciem quadrupedi acuiuve erpent ve a et tatat llam adorandam non idolum ed l

dne fecit; vel etiam i picram ad o ipum atat ihilou

imiudnem fece dicend e Idolum vero fecit ile, qu ecundum

Apotolum dicentem quia idolum n et [ Corntian 4 cit

quod non et. Quid et aute, quod non et? Specie, quam non vidit

ocuu ed ipe ii anmu git. eri graia ut i qu umai em

r caput cai aut areti re vel rurum in uno o aitu dua



cies gat aut humano pectori postremas partes equi aut piscs aiun

gat. Haec et is simlia qu ct, non smltudinem sed idolum cit

Fac enm quod non est ne abe alqud smle su. E dcrco aec sc-

ens Apostolus <icit qua dolum est mundo" [l Corintians 4;

non e alqua ex eus exstantibus adsumitur speces sed quod ipa

sb oosa mens et curosa repperer Smtdo vero es] cum aliqud

ex his, quae sunt vel n coelo vel n terra vel n aquis," rmatur sicut

superius dximus Verumtamen non scu de hs quae n erra sunt ve

mari smltubus in promptu est pronuntare ta etam e

coelestibus isi s quis dicat de soe et luna et stells ho posse sentri e

horum namque rmas exprere genttas sole Sed quia Moyses

eruditus erat om sapenta Aegyptiorum Acts ? etiam ea,

quae apud os erant occuis et recondiis prohibere cupebat; scutveri causa, ut nos quoque appellatiobus utamur ipsorum Hecaten

quam dcunt aliasque daemonum rmas quae Apostolus spiritala

nequiae in coelestbus" [Ephesians 6 vocat. De qubus rassis et

propheta <ict qua inebratus es gladus meus coelo" [Isaa 345]

His e rmis e smltudiibus vocare daemoia mors est hs

qubus taia curae sunt vel ad repelenda vel etiam ad invitanda maa

quae nunc sermo Deo unversa complectens simu abiurat et aicit etnon soum dolum er veat, sed et simuinem omnium quae n

terra sunt e n aquis et n coelo" [Exodus 05

3 On s see also R Devreesse Les nens ommentteurs gres e lOt-

teuue et es Ros Frgments trs es hnes (Vatcan Ct 959) pp 6 C

Hammond Bamme Der Rmerbreex es Run un sene Orgenese-

setzung (reburg 95) pp. 435.

4 See Migne Prlog Ge 35335 (based upon F Comes Bb

lothee Greorum Ptrum utrum novssmum [Paris, 67) loeidolon kai heteron homoioma. Homoioma men gar estn ean poes

ktuos e tetapodou e theriou dia tekourgias e dia ograpias

homooma. Eidoon de hosa anaupousa psuce poiei ou eks upar

honon prototpos. Hoion anamemigmenon to zoon apo anthropou ka

hippou. C . Doutreeau Recherces autour de la Catena Romana de

Combes," n Coron gtrum Msellene . . . lgo Dekkers . . oblt

(Bruges 975) 3673.5. See Origen De Homlen ed. Baehrens pp. 3 and Baehrenss

troduction pp

amen on omoiomaa ton onton eisn ekones zoon e kai somaton, ta

de edola anuparkton esn anaplasmata. Ou gar huparkss to eidolon.

Ouden gar eidoon en kosmo Paulos phes Hoion e tis hppokentau

rous e Panas e teratodeis nas anapasaito puseis. Pan ara noema ata

perepien phantasan en pernoa tes eias gomenon phuseos

215

A

KEE

A Pge n gen

n t te



26

S AN

IKENESSES

sag n gn

and ts csstud

edolon platte Theou ou Theon ataggele Genoto d an a ton en

ourano homoomata graphonton e a guphonton tnon heion e sele

nen. sos de a per ton atastrologan phes deanon Alootous gar

tnas iagraphous aimonas ha per sos pneumata tes ponerias en tos

epouranos onomastai ata ton logon tou legontos Theou "emethusthe he makhara mou en to ourano. Toutous ga en pnaksn

astrologos atagaphousin en te phulaterios apotrepos amonon

e potrepkos en hos an ts heuro ta men homoomata ta de edola

shall not comment on the second part o the passage whch does

not l wthn my area o concern n tis essay. Mgne Patrooga raeca

7 605 contans a atn translation o this passage. Procopus o

Gaa has oen been regarded as he orgnator o the catna as a ter

ary gee however see F Pet Catna Graca n Gnsm t n xodum

vol. Catna Sntca (Corpus Chrstianorum Seres Graeca (Brepos

and Turnhout 97) pp.

6 The quotatons om Orgen n the body o he chapter are translated

om the atn text pnted n note above

7 See .C Grener nubs xandrn t oman (eden 977).

See the entres "Mendes and Wdder n the Lxkon dr ptoog

W elc and E Oto.9. dos Graece rmam sonat ab eo per dmnuonem doon

deductum atque apud nos mulam ect (Tertuian D Idooata

3.4 ed . Wasn and C. M. van Wnden eden 97 pp 6

see also pp. ro3 on the date o the treatse The edtors emar on pp.

9 that Tertullan's etmology s ncorrect See however S. Sad

"Deux noms de !mage en grec ancen dole et cne n cadm ds

Inscrptons t BsLttrs Comptsndus ds sancs d ann 987 pp.

309330 esp p. 3.

The ulgate has "smtudnm n both Geness 6 and Exodus 04

n Exodus 04 the ulgate uses "scupt ather than the doum oets

atna

n See adne "Concept o he mage pp 7 £ 4

. See G. adne Th Ida of form Its Impact on Chrstan Thought and

cton n th g of th athrs (Cambridge Mass. 959) pp. 4o7 esp. p 3

(on p 94 adner remars on the alternate usage o homooss andhomooma n Gregry o Nssa. See also] anilou Orgn (Pars 94)

p. 9.

3 See n the Thoogchs Wrtrbuchzum nun Tstamnt ed G. ttel

and F Gerhard the artcle omooma (by Scneder.

4. See E. Cassrer "Edos und Edolon n Vortrg dr Bbothk War

burg 922923 vol. 94) pp ; and also Sa "Deux noms de mage

(wich s very mportant.



I5 Plato h Sophst trans. and inro. A. E. Taylor and ed. R bans

and E. sombe I96; reprint Folkestone and London, 97) p. I3

I6 See W S. Cobb n R. S. Bluk and G. C. ea eds Pato's Sophst: A

Contay (Manhester 975) p 7

I7 Here I low C H. Kan he Thesis of Parmenides, w oftaphyscs 969) 70074 esp. pp 79 f See also in the same issue, the

ommetaries by H. Stein (pp 75734) and by A. P. D Moureatos (pp.

735744) as we as Kas rep "Moe on Pamendes w of ta-

physcs 3 I969) 333340

I8 See Ka More on Parmenides pp. 338 Buk Patos Sophst pp.

6I ) remarks that these kds of being seem not to have been taken into

aount in Plato's agment, but he does not expla why.

I9 See Sexts Empiius Agant th ogcan whih aludes to Plato

aus 8a and Origen Hos ( Hon ed. it p. ) [Transla

ors' note: Our enderngs of Sextus Empirius are om the Italian edition

used by CG Conto ogc ed. A Russo (Rome and Bari I975)

0 See F H. Sandbah Phantasia Kataleptike n A A. ong, ed Pb-

s n Stocs (London I97), pp 9 G Striker riterion tes aletheias,

in Nachchtn Aka Wssnchan n Gttngn Ph.hst.

I974) ro7o G. Wason Disoverg the Imagation Platonsts andStois on Phantasia in . M Dlon and A. A Long eds., h Quston of

Ecctcs: Stus n at Gk Phosophy (Bekeley and Los ngeles

988) pp. 0833; G Camassa Phantasia' da Platone ai eoplatoi, in

M. Fattori and M Bianhi, eds ssco ntttua upo: PhantasaIag

nato. V Cooquo ntazona Rome, I988) pp. 356, esp pp. 4043 See

also E. Eordu El Enuo estio en Orgenes n H Crouzel et al. eds

Ognana Bari 975), pp. 7788

r Origen Hon pp. I

See A Gaeser Propos hupakn bei den Stokern Ach f

Bggschcht I, no. I97I) 99305 This is a ritique of an arile by

Hadot "Zur Vorgeshte des Begrs Existenz': Hupakn bei den Stok

ern, Ach f Bggschcht I3 96) 57

3 ristoles Posto Anaytcs is ited in the translation by Hugh Tre

dennik r the oeb Classial ibrary edition (London and Cambidge

Mass, I96o) See A Festugire a aton Hs st vo. 4 u nconnu t a gnos (Paris I98I) pp. 67 esp. the note on p. . C H

Kahn, having rmery rejeted this vie later anowledged, impiil

that Festgire was orret: see Kan he Greek Verb to Be and the

Conept of Beg, Founatons of anguag I966) 4565 esp. p. 59 n

5 pp 665 (postsript) and Kahn's subsequent book h Vb to B n

Ancnt Gk (Dodreht and Boston, 973) pp 300306 Wth disusses

Arisotles ideas on essene and exstene in ag a (Pais I989),

A

EEE

A assag n gn

an ts sstus



5 A

EE

A ssae n ren

an s Vcssues

book with wich I hve oen und yse disgreeing but tht is ful of

suggestions Wirth's exosition is ndequte s is er o the ssges

cited ( 12) o the Per Hermeneas.

24 Trnsltors note We hve reced Tredenick's "unicorn wth

the iterl "gotstg Festugire does not consider tis ssge For generl discussion see G Sitti eaphos: Sora una meafora e un prob

ema (les 90)

25 See lso Diogenes ertius Lves of he Phosophers 5 (cited by

Wtson "Dscoverng the Igntion 25)

26 Crouzel Oren trns A S Worrl (Edinburgh 99) 162

27 See Festugire La rvaon 4:n, where Festugire rerks tht the

insistence on huparkss ws conected n Plo nd n the trdtion

descended o hi, with the iossiblt of owng God The gento the Homy on Exous tht Cobes ubished reds thus: ouk ex hupark

honon prooupos (not de o tngs wch origly eisted)

2 For ttets to reconstruct Pul's debte with the Corntins see]

C urd Jr he On of I Cornhans (ondon 1965) nd R A orsel

"Gnosis n Cornth I Cornthins 1-6 ew esamen Sues 27 (90)

2-51 C K rrett rgues Essays on Pau (London 92) 40-59 es

51 tht there is retionsi beteen Cortins nd the tet trnslted nd eited byW A Esie, "The Misn on Idoltry: Abod r

exs an Sues no 2 (Cbridge, 19) At events the nogy

beteen idotr nd "scrces to the ded ( whch is nsisted on

n the Mishn, does not ount to the se tng s Puls rers on the

nonexistence of idols though it is cotibe with t (nd see lso 42 ,"Ecursus I O n the Dedness of the dols) Soe nterestng directions re

ndcted n R M Grnt "elensc Eleents the Cortins n Eary

Chrsan Ons Sues n Honor of Haro . Wouh ed A kgren

(Ccgo 196) 666 (Grnt does not coent on 1 Corithns )

29 On the rst ir of ters, see Sd "Deu nos nd orsle

"Gnosis in Cornth es 7 on the second the works by Festugire nd

Khn cited n note 2 bove he ossiblit tht there is Ptonc echo in

1 Corintns 4 is strengthened by the convergence beteen 1 Corntns

9 nd Euphrons e-4 wch W K C Gutre onts out n Hsory

of Greek Phosophy (Cbrdge 1975) 4o7 n (Alberto Gno drew thsnote to y ttention)

0 Orgen I Pnp ed M Sonetti (Turn 196) 5 f (Oigen

ra es prnpes vo ed Crouzel nd M Sionetti Pris 96 in

Sources hrennes 252, 126 ). [Trnsltors' note: We trnste o the Itl

in renderg

On the lkeness beteen God nd n see Origen Homy on Gene

ss 1



32 For general disusion of the pont see Ladne, Iages and Ideas 1:84

; H Crouze hologe de !'iage de Die chez Ogne (Paris 19), pp

47-79 217-24

33 C Ladner Iages and Ideas : "Oigen so many respets the

ther of Byzantne thought both othodo and heterodo

34 Paologa Gaeca 9437; Merati Sephani Boseni nova de sacs

iagnis agmena e lio depedio Kat oudaion n Opee ino (Vatian

Cit 1937) 1202-20 Ladner ages and Ideas 1:9-97

3 Paloga Gaeca 94:137 See also John the Damasene ibid 941329

3 As noted above, the caena o Proopius of aza remains unpub

ished he Latn translation (Coenai in Eod Paologa Gaeca 871

007) eads as llows: "Quidam quaerunt S adeo detestatr imagines

quae Cherubim ngi volut? espondetu: Non ussit eri Cheubim utadorent sed ara adoranda erat sub imagnibus vituorum, qubus apd

Aegptios divnus deferebatr honor, ut si ognoserent se pariter Deum

et numina Aegptiorum oleent

37 See J Patrih, he oaion of aaean A Pohiiion of a Gven

age Aong he aaeans (erusalem 1990); W Bowersok Hellenis in

Lae Aniqiy (nn Arbor 1990 h

38 See heodorets of Cyrus Qaes. in E Paologa Gaeca 80:24;

heodore of Studion, Aniheic 1 Paologa Gaeca 99:34 C (both

mentioned n adner Iages and Idea 1:9 n 73)

39 B Smale he Sdy of he Bile in he Middle Ages (1940 reprnt,

Od, 92) pp 13 and note Cf Oigen Holies s lEode ed M Bor

ret (Soces chiennes 32) p 404 where abanus Maurus Co in E. I

Paoloa Laina 8:9 is ited Jonas of Orleans De cl iagin

Paologa Laina :32

0 Paologa Laina 321-224 C Fau Les chapiea de Conqes (oulouse 19)

42 he Latin tet is n Paologa Laina 82914-9 he passage is

quoted in M Shapiro, On Aestheti Attitude in omanesque At in

Shapiro oanesqe A (London 1977) pp 2 (see esp p , but the

whoe essay should be onsuted) ranslators note We reprodue

Shapiro's English version itself deved om the tansation in Coul

ton Le in he Middle Ages (New York 193) See rthe C udolph hehings of Geae Ipoance: Benad de Claivas Apoloia and he

Medieval Aide owads A (Philadelphia 1990) p 283 and the om

ments on pp -124 and also J Adhmar nences aniqes dans la d

Moyen Ageanais (ondon 1939 ) p 270 n (whih refers to a lette om

Saint Nlus to Oympiodous Paologia Gaeca 79:24) Unrtunatey no

reliane an be paed upon M Camie's book age on he Edge: Magns

in Medieval A (Cambridge Mass 1992) Camille begins by ommenting

29

AN

ENEE

A sage n gen

and s icssdes



22

5 S A

EESSES

A sage n rgen

and s udes

on the np of a manuscriptDeus n aduor (O Lord hear myprayer"which reads n ct Deus n aduorum meum (O ord urnyour eyes upon me to hep me" and this sets the standard r the est ofthe work.

43. On textual transmissions, see A Chastel e dum Ho udbe

audend poes et les artstes (XIIIme-XVme sies)" n Chastel, abes

formes, gures (Pai 1978, 63-376 on related images see C. la tpoesis pictura': Appunti iconograc sui codici Ars Poea Aeum 62(1988): 186-197.

44 See J Leecq Reu d 'udes sur San Bernard e ses rs (Rome1987) 4:216 De are poea 139 and eclercq Reue dudes sur San

Bernard e ses rs Rome, 1966), 2348 f esp. pp 369-371 (lette to a monk

named Evrad, idented as Evrard of Ypres.45 See A Wmart anciene bibothque de Carvaux" Coeanea

ordns Cserensum Reformaorum (1949): o1-123 3o-319 esp. pp 7

the catalogs and nventories prepared and edited by A Vesnet assisted y J

F Genest titedLa Bbohue de abbaye de Caraux du Xme au Xme

se (Pars, 1979, 1:22 See also G. Hoquad Reue du moyen age an

(1945, :92 G. Bardy San Beard e gne iid p. 42 E. Gson La

hooge mysue de San Bernard (Paris 1947) pp. 27 f J Leclecq SaintBernard et Origne d' aps un manuscrit de Madid," in Leclercq Reue

dudes sur San Beard e ses s 2373-385.46 On Bernard and curiosi see Schapiro On the Aesthetic Attitde"

p 7 Rudoph hg of Grar Imporan pp o n hsApooga (8Bernard opens his dscussion of pantngs and sculptres with a lukewamaccepance of curosas depictiones (Rudolph p. 278).

47 Peter Abeard S e Non ed B. B. Boyer and R. McKeon (Chicago

1976-1977, pp. 24-2o: XV Quod Deus pe corporales images non strepraesentandus et conta." It seems that as a teacher Abelard was muchmore elicit n attackng reigious ikenesses cf. Commenarus Canabr

ges n Epsoa Pau e Shoa Per Abaeard ed A andgraf (NotreDame nd 1939, 2:25 (on l Corthians 8)

48. On his see the thrd essay in the present volume.49 See A. Reeve and M. A Screech, eds, Erasmuss Annoaons on he

New esamen AsRomans and Cornhans, asme of he na

Lan ex h A Earer Varans (eiden 199 p 481homas Aqunas adduct novam dierentiam nter idolum et simulacrum qud imulacum sit ectum ad simiiudinem alicuius reinaturalis dolum contra ut inquit, si copoi humano addatur caputequinum. Quae distctio vera sit ne ne, iudicent al mihi lexicoqud Cathoicon inscribunt, non indgna videtur. Certe Ambrosiusnullum novt discrmen inter idolum e simuacrum: ne ego ullum



ido nisi ud simucrum st ox tin simulndo dict dolonGrc, eidoon scis ud scim t imginm nnm r sfrt, um si ris n nos scr ocms, Grcicnt eidoa.

50 aurentii Vae Epistoe d Bsom nd Rgoios (Pdu,

1984 200 (lttr to Gion rr, 13 Augst 1440 Bli's Cathoion

rst uishd n in 1460 cn und in n nsttic rrint(isnhim/ Gl 19

5 G Tortli De Orthographia r thnum Kolingr, Vicnti149: dolum di otst nostris simucum t ind idololtri usismulchrorum cltr

52 nt homs Auins Super epistoas S. Paui etu d R Ci,

OP (uriniRom 1953 14, 31 Idoum nihi est in mundo id st nius ri u sit in mundo hns similtudinm st nim drnti intridolum, t similitdinm ui simulchrum dictur d t d simdnm ri cuus nturis: idolm d nulius ri st simitudinm ut scorori humno ddtur cut num Esa 40 ui simiem istis Deum

tc; Contr non otst rtifx cogtr l rmr isi u non iditRsonsio non ht simitudinm in toto sd in rtius

53 Goriux ssis sur s Commntirs scritrrs d snthoms t lur chronoogi Reherhes de thoogie anienne et mdivae 1(1950 23-266 s 254-258

54 Ammoius Commentaire sur e Peri Hermeneia d'Arstote tradu

tion de Guiaume de Moerbeke d G Vr (oin nd Pris, 1961 Vr suggsts n his ntroduction ( ) tht Auins s commntry onthPer Hermeneias (th editio prneps ws shd in Vc, in 1526 y thhirs o coto rmind nnishd cus Aus hd to Vitro

r 12 tmr 1268 th dt on wich im of or comltd his trnslton (s w now om th colohon o Vat. at. 206

55 stot trns Acr De Interpretatione (Oxord 1963 43(169-18 44 (1626-28 D. Blcwl oints out som signicnt chosof this n Alrd s NonOntoogia Costruts (Brn 1988 s 33-14

56 onius Commentaire 60 ccidt im hnc dm ss

ocm signictim t littrtm, ut homo hnc utm sigctim tttrtm ut cnis trtus, hnc utm non sgctim t ittrtm utitur hnc tm non sgnctm t ttrtm ut silus ustr t non grti sigicndi iuid ut ocis icuius irrtionium

mum rrsnttio u t non grt rrsnttiois (hc imim sigcti sd u t nordint t sin intntion s" xtsmiricus hd notd th toics intrst n words without mgs (suchs bituri skindapsos) s Agaist the oians 2133 On bitur bit

S AN

ENESSS

A Paae in ren

and ts issitude



5. A

KEEE

assag n Org

a csus

r bcr see the billint contributions of C Ginnelli nco poposito di blttri Su n onor ngo Monvr (Moden 19599-77 nd of G Crbel Blictri Un prol per rleccino Er

umnsmo ed. A Sntcci (Bologn 1979 pp. 357 (it wll be noted

tht the pssge by olnd th is cited on p 0 conts echoes of the pssge in Aistotles Posror Anaycs 89b.35 tht is quoted bove n thepresent chpter.

57 See Gombrich Ar an on (London 190 pp. 15 WJnson. he mge Md by Chnce' in Renissnce hought in D rbus

Opuscua ed M Meiss (New Yok 191 558 A coded sysm of communiction bsed on imges such s ero

glpics mounts to seprte cse nd does not contrdict the clim with

which L R. on begns his book A Naura Hsory o Ngaon (Cicgond ondon 989 p. humn systems o communiction contn representtion of negtion.

59 eo Chen hs poted out to me ht ts is n observtion mde byS Worth in Suyng sua Communcaon (Phidelpi 1981 p. 179 It is pot tht M. Foucult misunderstnds in is essy Cc ns pas un pp

Dux rs quar sss Rn Magr (Pris 1973 Ths s No a Pp

trns. nd ed. ] rkness [Bekele 983 Foucut writes L vieleuivlence entre ressemblnce et rmtion ndinski l don congdie ns un geste souverin et uniue l nci peintre de luneet de lutre (p. 59 cf. so pp. 77 For ndins to get rid of resemlnces ws the indispensble condition of the cievement of ly mtive pintng: cf. S. Rngbom's importnt essy At n the poch of theGret Spiritul': Occut lements n the rly Theory o Abstrct Pintingourna o h Warburg an Courau nsus 9 (19: 38-18.

. SYL NLUSON N EXCSON

s essay was gve as a paper at te coeece stores o Sceces sto

res o rts at arvard Uversty i e atum o 99. or e suggestos

ad crtcal commets must ta Pery deso Per Cesre r ad

leto ajo

r. See Ds lteste Systemprogrmm des deutschen desmus Thetext dting om 1797 ws rst published by Fnz Rosezweig s trnscription in egel's hnd of text by Scheng but is now generlygreed to be ttributble to egel msel

. See Fulgezio Miczio a par Paoo 2163 P Srpi so-

ra Conco Trnno ed C Vivnti (ur 197 38 f See lso Sus

Romana Eccsa (n.p. n.d. (the copy hve consued in the BibliotecAngeic is bound up with two writings by . Buccell Daogs cu uus



st rigo and In Cotantini Imp. donationm, iur utrqu prais both ublhed at ucca in 539 Prodocimi a civlt e canoit de ecoloX e XVa ooio dea geei del oeto i tylu" i Bartoo da

Sassorto (ilan 962, 2:44430 H. W Strtz Notize zr St udRecht," i Sti. Gschichtn und Funktionn ins kuturssschaichn

Diskursmnts ed. H Gumbrecht and K . Pfeier (art am an,986, 3-67 (ad the whole volume i imortant). On the quetion genera, ee rt of a the exremely lucid and tghty acked entry Ste"by C Segre nEnccopdia Einaudi (urin 98 3549-565 (but note alo theame autho Notii da csi [uri, 993, . 25-37 A uel oveview . Gai and A. Pee Diionaro da crtica dart (urn 978 .565-568 See alo E. H Gombrich Style" n Th Intrnationa Enccopdia

of th Socia Scincs (968 5352-36 ]. A Schmoll gen. EienwerthStluralimu tatt EhetzwangZur itk der Steoche Kuntgecchte," n Argo Fstschr r Kurt Badt ed. . Goebruch and .Dittma (Cologe 970 . 77-95 W Hager ad N. no ed. Bitrg

um Prom ds Stipuraismus Studie zur Kunt de 9. Jahrhudert o38 (unich 977 . Biaotocki, Da odurobem in den bdedeKnten" (96 i Sti und konographi (Cologne 98 . 2-42; W Sauerlder, rom Stilu to Style Reection o the ate of a Notion" Art His-

to 6 (983 253-270 G. Gadamer Hrmnutik Wahrht und Mthod

in Gsammt Wrk (bnge, 986 Excur" 2:375-3783 See Ccero, D orator oeb ere ta H. Rackham (talaton

lightly moied)4 t i gnicant that Cicero draw t comarion a a rue he

nclude oraory among the igher diciie maima arts) uch a waroitic ad admiitration, wherea oet aintig and culture ae rel

egated to the lower dcine mdiocrs arts) uch a mathematic or iloohy. See A. Demouez Cicron t son got (Bruel 976 240 f

5. Quid ceneti i omne qui ubique unt aut erut oatoreamlecti voluerimu? noe re ut quot oratore totidem aene eeriantur genera dicen?"

6. See . Polez, "To prpon. Ei Beitrag zur Gechichte de gecchen Geite" i Nachrchtn von dr Gsscha dr Wissnschan u Gttin

gn aus dm]ah 933 Pl.Hit. . 6 . 53-92, e . 58 f7. S Auei Augt . . Epistua ed. A. Goldbacher (ndoboaeiiae, 904, CSE, vol. 44:3, etter 38 Ad arcenum" r 5, . 30quoted i art by A. ukenten Thoo and th Scintc Imagnation

(Prnceton 986 . 223 (ad the whole of the chater on accommodaio of geat imortance). On Voluiau ee P Courcele, Date, ourceet gene de Conultatone Zacchae et Aolloi" Rvu d histoir ds

rigons 46 (954 74-93 A. Chaagno, e nateur Voluie et la co

223

6. STYE

con andEcuson



6 STYE

nluon anEluon

vesion dune mle de laristocrate romane au BasEmire Rvu s

us annns 58 1956) 21253; P Brown sects of the Christiaisationof the Roman Aristocrac ounal of Roman Sus 51 (1961): ; and P

Brown, Augsn of Hppo (Bereley and Los geles, 1969) . 3003038 See chater n the resent volume.9 B. Castiglione l Cogano ed V Can (oence 1923), XXXV

92 (the edito rghtly draws attention to the assages allusion oCicero. [Translators note: We translate om the talian A recent Englishversion is Castiglone, h Cou trans G. Bull (London 196) C.Dionisotti Appun su a l [Man 995, 121) has remared othis assage that here r the rst time artists are taen as auhorities in aterary dscussion We should note however tha Ciceros agument D

oao 325 f aout divesit of sle in ct starts y consideing scuture and ainting M Kem notes othe assages more or less directlyinsired y Ccero in Equal Exceences omao and the Exanationof ndividua Styles Visual Arts, Rnassan Sus (198) 26 es5 f 1

G. Romano suggests that Mantegna was ncuded n homage tosaela dEste Duchess of Mantua (where Castiglione was on seeerso la maiera moderna n G. Pevitai and Zer eds. Soa lla

alana , 2 (Tuin 1981) . 3 On the asence of Titian see DionsottiAppun . 120122

I E. Gomich has used the term opos n reference to the assageom icro o whch h nds an echo n a tex y Alamano Rincc seeThe Renassance Concet of Artistic Progress and ts Consequences, nGomrch Nom an Fom Sus n h A of h Rnassan (London,1966), . 139 n 5 On Warurgs Pahosfomln see E . Gomich Aby

Wabug An nllual Bogaphy (London 90 ) 18 f2 E. Panos Das este Blatt aus dem io' Giorgio Vasars EineStude e der Beurtelung der Got n der italieschen Renaissance The essa ulshed 1930 is ncluded Pano Manng n h Vsual

As (Garden Cit N.Y 1955) 16923513 G Vasari L v (text of the 1568 edtion ed G. lanesi (Florence

1906 anastatic rert o 193) 5

id. . 615 Pano Manng n h Vsual As . 216 ere llow unensten holo . 21 n. 69 ut have ncluded

Cicero r the reasons given aove1 G. Vasai L v . . . nll'zon p p Lonzo onno, Fnz

0 ed Belosi and A. Rossi (Tuin 1986), 56018 Vasari L v (1568 edition : f. and the whole aragrah is rele

vant. See also iid., . 31 r a simar comment y Seasano del Piomo



19 We an eraiy dimi C Hpe uggein ha Mihelangel

mmen a perhap prvked mre by prudery han anyhng ee

(tan e k 980, pp. 89 he ha Dana nain ee f

Mihelangel a already regnied by Cavalaee (G. B. Cavalaele,

zan a ua ta u tmp ed. . A. Cre [lrene, 878; reprn,

1974, 257. hanne Wilde pned u preumay in he 950, e rela

in beeen Dana and Nght ee hi eure phumuly publihed

under he ile Vntan Atm Blln t tan (Oxfrd, 974, plae 149 (he

apin huld read "Nght inead f Dawn Saxl argue ha Dana

derve m a arphagu depig Leda (ee ian and Arein

Saxl A tag f mag Harmndrh 970, p. 8; h nein

may be even mre afely armed ih repe Mihelangel l da

r Nght Valanver link bh f hee Dana (ee he aalgDa zan a El Gc la ta dl anm a Vnza Man 981 pp.

8 f I i rh ning ha he radinal ideain f Dawn and

Nght n he Medii hapel i invered by C Giler, chlangl On and

O th Stn Chapl (e Yrk, 994, p 45 plae 12 and ha i i an

verigh i prved by (amng her hing he rd f he mu n

ne rien a he me a ntt, ch tu d n dlc att dm (ig

hm in uh ir aiude hu ee aleep

20. Vaari t (1568 ediin, 4:92.

2. bid 52. On paage and i mplian, ee P. Shm, t

tc (Cambrdge 991, pp 51 f

22 In my vie i i mpibe, n he igh f hee paage, manan

ha Vaai i ereed ye raher han in he ndividual (S. Lenief

Alpe, Ekpha and Aehei Aide n Vaari ual f th

Waug and Cutauld tut 2 1960: 19215, ep. p. 2 I i rue, n he

her hand, ha r Vaari he mean f ar are gadualy pefeed ile heend reman nan (p 20 bu nk i i exeive harge uh an

apprah ih i n unke ha e nd n Caigline and Cier bere

him (bh ae menined n p. 22, h beng ankly nhereial.

2. L. Dle, "Dialg dea pira, in attat dat dl Cnqucnt ed

P. Barh (Bar 1960 202 (n iian Aumptn he hurh f Sana

Maria Glria <ei Frari, 206. See al M Warke Praxi der Kunhe

re ber die Geburehen de ndvidualil, da ahuch d am-

ug Kuthall l (1982 54

24 On a hi (and n Dle, ee D. Mahn "Eeiim and he Car

raiunal f th Waug and Cutauld ttut 6 (195 04 ep.

-

25. he lael ued nealed a realiy a a aualy mre mplex,

a i hn, r inane, by . Purken, Cmpiin Perpeive and

Preene: Obevain n Early Aadem hery in Frane in Sght and

5

6. STYE

ncn and

n



226

6 SYE

ncuon andEon

night: Eay in At and Cultue in Honou o E. H Gombch d ] Onans(London 994)

26 Roland Frart siur d Chabra Pallle de lachitectue antique avec

la modene (aris 65) vantropos, pp f W nd th sa ky trsn loris crticis of Rubns ( llori, Le vte de pitto, culto e

achitetti modei d E ora Turn, 976, pp 267 f O th paralsbtwn llois Vite and art d Chabrays atr Ide de la peection de

la peintue s rvtais introduction to lori (pp xxivxx27 rart d Chabra Paallle p 828 R Wagnrig oroini und Ostrrich, n Studi ul Boo-

mini (Ro 967) 2:22 29] ischr von Erach, Entwu eine hitochen Achitectu in Abbil-

dung untechiedene behmten Gebude de Altetus und emde Vle(Lipzg, 72):

Ls dssnaturs y vrront, qu ls gots ds nations n ifrnt pasons dans 'arctctur qu dans la anr d shabr ou d aprtrls viands, t n ls coparant s uns aux autrs, ls pouront n irun choxjudiciux E s y rconnotront qu la vrt !usag putauthorisr crtans bisarris dans l at d btir co sont ls orn

nts jour du othiqu, ls vots d ogivs n tirs point, ls toursdEgs, s ornnts t ls tots lIndinn, o a divrsit ds opnions st aussi pu sut la disput qu cl ds gots

Th passag is quotd in pat by anok Meaning in the Viual At

p 8) S also A. lg Die iche vn Elach (Vinna, 895) pp 522 ;

Schidt Di Achkubchr dr Fischr von Erlach" Wiene

ahbuch Kutgechichte 934 pp 49-56 sp p 52; Kunoth, Die

hitoche Achitetu iche vn Elach (Dssldof 956) E vrsn,

Fischr von Erlach as istorian of Arctctur" Bulngton Magazine

roo (958) 323-325 AurenhaohanBenhad iche vn Elach

(London 973) sp pp 53-593 S ortoghsi Boomini nella cultua euopea (ari, 982) p 52;

and ortoghsi also rfrs to a convrsation n siilar vn btwn rniniand an anonyous cclsiastc (rcordd by aldnucci

S R Wttkowr Francsco orroini: rsonat dstno, in

Studi ul Boomini (Ro, 967) 33 (citing orrois Opu32 R Wittkowr antans that oroni ay hav bn indirctly

inspird by zggurats" s p 78 of th taian transation of his workAte

e achitettua in tala 600750 (Turin 972)33 is th is xplord n y ssay n Voics n Hitoy, Rhetoc,

and Po(Hanovr and London 999), pp 7-934 S Kunoth, Htoche Achitetu and E Ivrsn Fischr von

Erach" oroi, who built th cog D ropaganda id r th



ests le 500 cudi n s wl r drments t the ltr f Sn gntis(Wittkwer rncesc Brm" p. ).

35 See M Tri La ra e il labino (Trin 980) p 536. he World 27 Mrch7 qed by A. Lvej nEay in he Hi

ory of Idea (ew Yrk 960 ) p. 2 (bt he whle f is ess The Cnese Orign f Rmnticism" shld be red s ls the essy The irsthc Revivl" see pp. 99-35 3665). See ls K. Crk he ohic

Real (928 reprnt rmndswrth 96) pp. 380 S. Lng nd Pevsner Sr Wllim Temple nd Shrwdgi" Archiecural Reew 06(99): 39-393 . Srn China and he arde of Europe (ew Yrk 950 2ded mbrtn Oks 990).

37. The essy cmprises pp -5 f]. ]. Winckemnn ello nellare

ed. Pster (Turn 973)38. Ibid. p 2.39. See C. Jsti Winckelmann 2d ed. (eipig 872) 67 cited n F Mei

necke Die Enehung de Hiomu 936 ed. C inrichs (Mnch 959)see p 2 f the alin trnsn Le orgni dello ocmo (lrnce 973)

40. ]. ]. Wnckelmnn echiche der Ku de Alerum ed. Sen(Wemr 96) p. 7.

. Menecke Die Eehung Itlin ed. Le orgni) pp. 232-26 Fskel Hiory and I Image (ew ven nd Lndn 993) pp. 21722442. Wnckelmn echiche pp. 02 A nt ech f ts pssge is

udibe in cmment by . ]. Brende n the mher f Chincin" (wrk dtng m c. 00 nw kep n the Mse Achelgic n lrence)she gzes in vid bere herglmy ncestress f Michengel's sdlyprphec Mdnn t Brges Erucan Ar [Hrmndswrth 978 p32).

3. See Justi Winckelmann 2:86-97 (hee I tke the rgument n sightlydierent directin) .

. A.C.P. cmte de Cylus Receuil daniqui eienne, erque

grecque e romaine new ed (752 new ed. Prs 76) . Trnsltsnte: We trnslte tis pssge m Cs tin rendering.

5. n the dedictin f hs wrk t the Acdmie des Inscriptins etBellesLettres Wnckelmn wrte: ntl yu were s gcis s t

t me mng y i ws n merely rtistic ght tht egrded theseremns lerned ntiqi wch hd escped the brbrism f thetimes; y hve tght me t see in them n tey higher meritthemert I men f cntg thsnd ntble crisities cncerg thehistr the reigis prctice the mnners nd the custms f heserenwned peples" See the mintng essy n Mei nd Cylus n KPmin Collecioneur, amaeur e cureu (Pris 978) Collecor and Curioi-

ie: Par and Venice 15001800 trns. E. WiesPrtier Lndn 990). The

6. STYE

ncluon andEluon



8

6 SY

nuion nd

xsion

importanc of aylus's antiquarian work has n srssd ndpndntly Hask Hisory nd ts mges pp 8-86 and y G Pucci l pssto

prossimo (om 993 pp 8-846 J J Wncklman Lettere itline d G Zampa (an 96 p 3;

Just Winkelmnn 87 On th aught rlations tn aylus andWincklmann s Pucc l pssto prossimo pp 8-8 Winkelmnn :9548 Buons mous dcum styl c'st lhom mm has on

n undrstood (or sundrstood: s Spitzr ngistics and itraryHistor" nRepresenttie Essys d . K. Forcion t al Stand 988 pp3 34 as maning that sty is an xprssion of th idiosyncratic ndividuality of th writr Hgl is among thos who hav takn it n this sns (G.

F Hgl Vorlesungendie Aesthetik [Frakfurt am an 97 :379 Hglrfrs to a wllknown Frnch dictm without mntoning Buon). Othrlanations hav n givn y Gruzz (s Buon rex hoisis d. JLa Paris 93 pp Buon's rmark styl st l'homm mm'so on quotd and somtims altrd mans that styl displays th trunatr of th ntignc that producs it Thought is so to spak gnraland imprsonal; it dpnds upon humaity; sy dpnds upon and

xprsss th man aon") and y th ditors of th Amrican dtion ofSpitzrs ssays p 53 n 4 In conxt Buon's pras . . . suggsts thaty mans of good wting styl man acivs his ssntial humanity andassurs his morality") Both ths xplanations ar rronous h txtrads thus: s choss ls connaissancs ls ts t ls dcouvts sonthors d lhomm l styl c' st lhomm mm" (Ths things owldgcts and discovris ar xtrnal to man; styl is man slf) Buonmans that scinc dscovris ar xtrnal n rlation to th human spcis(lhomm in th gnric sns no th individual writr) thy maycom truly th proprty of th human spcis and thus immortal oyy virtu of sty (a fw lins arir Buon says s ouvrags n critssront ls suls qui passront la postrit" Oy wlwrittn works wl godown to postrity) is ntrprtation is consistnt with h mphaticprais r th imprsonal styl that is xprssd n th sours aspctthat is sundrstood in Pucis othrwis valual l pssto prossio

49 P Junod uur n th Past" Oppositions 6 (984: 495 S IrwinJohn lxmn (w York 979 pp 455 S Praz Gsto neolssio (lan 99 p. 67 or gnral s

th pulishd vrsion of S Symonds's Ph dissrtation lxmn nd

Eupe: he Outline lltrtions nd heir nluene (w York and ondon98

5 and E Panok Pndors Box (w York 96 pp 9 G. Pr



vitli a oruna prmiiv al Vasar ai noclassici new ed. Turn 989 pp. 69

53. See lxmn Lcurs on Sculpur . . as Dlivr im Bor h

Prsin an mbrs o h oyal Acamy London 829). Refeences re tothe reprint edtion published by Bel nd Ddy London 865) see Lecre7, Stle pp 68-97. In ddition to those cited n the body of the text, thelown psse p 72 is so worth notin

n our pursuit of tis subject we re we of the popensi to imittioncommon n ll by which our knowlede of surroundn objecs isncresed nd our ntellecl cuties re elevted nd we consequently nd n most countries ttempts to copy the humn re, nerly times, equly brbrous whether they wee the production of

nd Bbylon ermn exico or Otheite. They equly prtke nthe common dermities of ret heds monstrous ces diminutivend misshpen bodes nd limbs We shll however sy no more ofthese bortions, s they relly hve no nerer connection with stethn the clds rst ttempts to wite the lphbet cn clim with thepoet's inspirtion, or the rument nd descrpon of the ortor5. o ts nd the precedn three quoted psses see lxmn c

urs on Sculpur 865 reprnt) pp 68-7. E H ombrich hs not edto note tis psse: see rom Archeoloy to At History Some Stes inthe Redscovery of the Romnesque" n Icon o Caroon: A Tbu o Sin

ingbom ed. . Tert nps nd Rinbom Helsnki 995 pp 98,esp. p. 96

55 Choic Eampls o gwoo Ar: A Slcion oPlaqus, Camos, al

lions, Vass, c., om h Dsigs o Flaman an Ohrs prouc in Prma-

nn Phoography by h Auoyp Procss wh Dscrpions by Eliza yar,

Auhor o h i o gwoo, c. London 879) nd see the ctlo ofthe exbitionJohn Flaman: yholog un usr Hmbur 979·

56. ]ohn Flaman p 27.57. . F Heel Vorlsungn br i Ashik rnrt m n,

97 5 f These lectures published r the st tme n 836-838 werebsed on notes tken by students n 87 nd 829.

58 H. Heine Franzsisch alr: Gmlaussllung in Pars 131 n

Hene, Hisoschkrisch Gsamagab 2/ ed. R Derr nd C esenHmbur, 98), p 24 S Zntop ed Paining on h ov: inrch in

an h Visual Ars [incoln nd London 989 pp. 3334. R BincBndine quotes ts psse s reference to redrich Sceel (Inro

uzion all'achologia [Bri 975 p. n. 4. See lso Rsch DiePriser Kunstritik Henrich Henes" in Her nd nopp Birg zum

Problm s Silpluralisms pp. 23-244

9

6 SE

csion anEcsion



2

6. E

son anxuson

5. E. elacrox Ouvrs Lttars (Paris 23, 23-36 (Quesios sur

le Bea. See also pp 37-5 "es variaios du Beau (18576. C. Baudelaire Curosts sthtqus: L'Art omantqu t autrs ours

crtqus ed. H Lemare (Pars 62, pp. 25 f "Or come cee

bzarrerie cessaire compressible varie l dpedae des

mlieux des cmas des moeurs de la race de la regio e du empra

me de l'arise pourraele amais re gouvere redresse par les

rgles uopques coues as u pei emple scieque quelcoque de

la plae sas dager de mr pour l' ar lui mme?

61. Ibd p 213. "Que dirai qucriraije rpee ce de ces

phomes isoles u de ces prossursjurs d eshque comme les

appele Her Hee ce charma espri qui serai u ge sl se ourai

plus souve vers le divi? O Baudelaire ad Hee see C. Pchois "La lirature aaise la lure du surauralsme L surnatusm

aas Acts u cooqu . . . (Neuchel 7, p 27. See also he comme

Heie Hstorschkrtsch Gsamtausgab p 566.62. Baudelaire Curosts sthtqus p. 217. es ecore ue erreur re

la mode de laquelle e vex me garder comme de l' efer . . Je veux par

ler de lide du progrs Ce al obscur veio du plosopisme actel

. . . Qui veu y voir clair as l'hisore doi ava ou eidre ce al per

de.

63 bid p. 238 l p. , oe o p. 217 (correcly give as p. 216. Ibid. p 2. Toue oraiso es spoae dividuee. Sigorell

ail vrame le graeur de Michelge Esce que Prug coeai

Raphal? arse e rlve que de luimme. l e prome aux sicles que ses

propres oeuvres e cautoe que luimme. meur sas efas.

65. The leer was pubshed as a yer aached o Sempers Wssnscha,

Intr, un Kunst (Bruswick 1852 (see H. F Malgrave Got Smpr:

Archtct of th Nntnth Cntury New Have ad Lodo 6, pp. 156 f

66. G. Semper Lodo Lecre of November I 1853 published Rs

6 (Fal 83: 5-3 wih a commeary by H F Malgrave ad a preory

oe by] Ryker

67 bid. p. 8.68. Ibd pp 26

6. he aerord (Poszioe o G. Morelli Da pttura taanaStu storcocrtc. gar Borghs DoraPamph n Roma (Mla 1,pp. 453 ] Aderso cricizes my essay Clues ad siss o he

porace of Cuvier However see my refereces o Cuvier ad associ

aed commes i Mt mbm sp (Tur 186, pp. 83 (The essay is

avalable i Eglish Cus, Myths, an th Hstorca Mtho ras.J ad A

edeschi Balore ad Lodo 8 pp. 6-25.7 Semper Lodo Lecure pp

l



7. G G Sco Remarks Seular ad Dmest Arhteture, eset ad

uture 2d ed London 1858) n 16, 263 iics n orgl)72. Gusv Klemms rcil heories on which see H. grve Gu

v lemm nd Gofried Semer: The eeing of Ehnoogicl nd Ac

ecrl heor" Res 9 Srng 1985 68-79) hd no iuence on Semer73. G Semer Der Stl dertehhe ud tektshe Kste unich1879), 21-5 Semer used he sme exme n hs rs London lecure: seeRes Fl 1983) : 9

7 See Schorse desle Vea New Yor 198) 11-1.75. See Riegl Stage 1893); nd on Kustwlle see O rms

Represetat Als Regls The Art Uiversiy Pr P 1992) 72.76. See W Honn Gustav Klmt ud de Weer ahrhudertswed

Slzburg 197).7. See Olin rms Represetat nd versen Als Regl Art Hs

t ad Ther mbridge ss 1993).78. See Riegl's Sptrmshe Kustdtre 86 of he n rnslion

Idustra artsta tardrmaa Forence 1981), where he ses of henecessy ls hse of rnsiion of he r of niqui

79. See W Suerlnder lois Regl und de nsehung der uonomen

Kunsgeschiche m FdeSicle" in de Sle Zu tetur ud Kust deahrhudertswede Ffur m Mn 1977), 125-139

8. A Riegl Hstrshe Grammatk der bldede Kste ed K Swobodnd Pch Grz 1966) see 288 of he Ilin rnslion Grmmat

stra delle art guratve ed F Dino [Boogn 1983)81. bid lin ed) 261, n 21. On Lge see Schorse deSle

Vea 133-682. See On he ul of onumens s Se Region in Le

Nneeenh enry Ausr'' Weer ahrbuh r Kustgeshhte 33 1985)199-218. Oln who quoes wihou commen eer sen o he r hisorin Frz Wicho wrienby reder who uses seudonym o concel hs ideniyn n ggressivey niSemiic one emhszes h weshould robbly me discion beween iegs mild nd universlsicroch nd he rcis oiics of he hisin Sociiss see 196 f)

83 iegl Hstrshe Grammatk Iin ed Gmmata stra) 77

eg Sptrmshe Kustdustre In ed Idustra artsta) 9 .von Schlosse shows his unese bou he rcil lcions of iegls cegories n his remrs n L scuo vieese" 193 see Schlosser La stra

dell'arte ellespereze e e rrd d u su ultre Bi 1936). Gomrichsone is more deched: s chd of hs ime Riegl never doued he uence of cil cos on rsic deveomen" see Gomrich The See

Order London 1979 18).8 he heoreicl ncoherence of he oosiion beween bsrc

3

6 STYE

ls adls

I

: 1



6 ST

uin ausin

tion" and eathy" that Worrnger develoed n a boo of that title(Astraktin un Einfhlung 97) was critically analyzed by E. ano nDr Bgr s Kunstwllns (see . 75 n. 7, of the talian translation a

prspttiva m rma simlia Milan 96). However, Worringer's distinction aounts oly to a rather slistic develoent of an oositonaready suggested by Reg see, r instance the atters rear that certainrs of artr exale the art of Egytare cosely tied to the objectve and ateria vision of thngs (Regl nta artitia . 3)

5. W Worrnger, Frmprlm r Gtik (9 second ed Much 9) 97 See . of the English translation by Herbert Read Frm in Gthi

(ondon 96) the rst edition of this translaton was ublished n 97See aso N H. Donahue Frms f Disruptin Astrtin in M Grman

Prs nbor, 993), 3-336 Worringer, Frm in Gthi . (he translation has been slightly

oded)7 he Geran text of the essay is Wissenscha as Kunst Ene disus

son der eglschen Kunsttheorie verbunden t de Versuch se auf dieWissenscha anzuwenden n Shnuht nah m Ursprung Fstsh r

Mira Eia ed. H. Duerr (rart a Man 93) See Science as t

Attet to Aly iegls Theory of Art to the Scences, n Art + Tt-3 (93): 66 (a shortened version), and also the Italian translatonSinza m art (Roe and Bari 9) 93-6. References here are totis Italian text.

. eyerabends Againt Mth rst aeared n Engish n 975 arevised edition aeared n 9 and a trd editon n 993 ublished byVerso, in London). The otnote n uestion is n. 9 . 97 n the talianversion (Cntr il mt Mlan, 973).

9 Feyerabend inza m art . 9 bd. . 56.9. bid. 5 n. 9. he list ncludes (as wel as iegl) E ano B

Snel H Schfe and V Rnchi. eg! and ano are added n a ostscrit the other three are entoned, n connection with Against Mth

(97), in Feyerabend, Killing Tim (Cicago 995) . .9 See the esay Quantitaiver und uaitativer Fortschritt in Kunst

ilosoie und Wissenscha n Kunst un Wisha ed Feyerabend and C. hoas (Zurch, 9) . 7-3. Here Vasari is nerretedas in a way a recursor of egl the latter is not entioned resuabybecause Feyerabend was not yet acuanted with s wor

93. Much is revealed by the way n wich Feyerabend recounts s reaction o the news of the Geran surrender I was reieved, but also had asense of loss had not acceted the as of NazisI hardy new whatthey wereand was uch too contrary to be loyal to anytng (Killing



Time . 55). n hs samns sms dibl n h igh whah auh has ld us aliha h usd ad ein Kamp u in aud vi, hs assias ha his aid wad h Nais had bnambivan ha h had wand blng h SS, and s n.

94. Ibid , 45.95 Ibid . 4. I sll hav h ml x h ls

ags a sxbyighinh nbk. hs is uy miauus, am nin h habi assmbng mmabia" ( 47).

96. S als. Agassi Wi s uh gl, in Versuchungen: Autze zur

Phiosophie Pau eyerabends d . P Du (Fanu am Man, 1415, and Fyabnds ly (Scenza come arte . 3-5). und Fyabnds mmns n Ashwiz vy disbing.

97 S h aalg h xhibiin Dgna " ha k la ah s Angs Cuny Musum n 993· On Fyabnds wish bma an s Kiing Time 43.

9. Ts ashizain isy" is nd in W Saulnd Aois

Rieg . 432.99. H F K Gnh Rasse und Sti: Gedanken ber die Beziehungen im

Leben und in der Geistesgeschichte der europischen Vke insbesondere des

deutschen Vokes (Munih 926) (Wing's ormpbeme der Gotik isd n 56). A lng ail n ais Gnh by L. Snl vnRuwski aad n h Nationasoziaistische onatshee s 6(Nvmb 935) 96299 and 69 (Dmb 935): 099-4

rno A il Di dushn Kuns als slzs Vidigung dsdushn Vlks" in Nationasoziaistische onatshee 4 n. 34 (Ob933) 43. Th assag is qud in a by S. Fidnd, Nazi Germany and

theJews (Nw Yk 997) 7. h ssu n wh is viws w ub

lishd was lagly dvd a in h Tid Rih.IOI. S Fyabnd Against ethod

2. I is wh nng Fyabnd's mbaassd maks in Scienza

come arte 3-33.3 und 40 T L. Dnaldsn w ha syls n ai migh

b mad languags n lau. h is n syl, as h is n langag whih has n is aiula bauis, is individual nss and

wh is n n wih an b saly d . . s h ai ism d h mgnis his du a wh an mmand hmasy h lassi syls, h suby h Ghi h ga hRvval h bian nis abi" (qud in H Mallgav, The dea

o Stye: Goted Semper in ondon 93 dissain . 99 ) Th aal hasa lng is gng bak a las h assag m Casgins Courtier

ha w qud ai (Casign, Cortegiano 92 )

4. The Ntebooks o Simone e ans. A. Ws 2 vls (Lndn 976),

6. SYE

ncuson andExcuson



234

STY

clon andluson

1:. See the taian edition Quan ed G Gaeta (an 1991) 212176 P C Bori has emphaszed the importance o these passages n P un

conno tco ta cultu (Genoa 1991) p 29.10. Adorno Mnma Moala trans E F N ephcot (ondon 197)

p 7 aphorism 47 De gustibus est dsputandum" (whch should bereerred to n its entiret)106. See Holdengrber ' Visible History of Art he orms and

Preoccupations of the Early useum" Studs n ghtnthCntu Cultu

17 (1987: rr

107. R ongi Critica d arte e buongoverno" in ong Op complt

(orence 198) rp7 f

108. Based on Aristole P Hmna 18a98, wich was spead by

Boetiuss transation see chapter 2 above109. See E Gombrich At and lluson (ondon 1960) pp

7. DSNCE N PERSPECVE WO MEPHORS

hee pge e lghty moded eo o lectre ge the W

echkolegi Berl o 12Je 997 thk Sephe Greeblt fr the crt

cl commet he me whch he tke ccot o here

r Paul Boghossian What the Sokal Hoax Ought to each s Tms

Ltay Supplmnt 3 December 1996 pp

. See C Glns notable essay On the Concept o etaphor and Perspectve'' n Ltatu a Systm (Prnceton 971), pp 83-371 (Cristophthy kndly drew tis to my attenton)

3. Y H Yerushalm Zaho:]wsh Hstoy andwsh Mmoy (Seattle andondon 1982) p . T C Rmer makes no mention of Yerushalmis book inis recent essay ransrmaions n Deuteronomstc and Bblca Hstoriograph Ztsch d alttstamntlch Wsscha 109 (1997) r-rr

. Yershai Zaho pp 26.. bid p 46 A Perry hucydides Hstorical Perspectve" Yal Classcal Studs 23

(1972) 7-61, esp pp 8 7. In his mos essay Die Perspektive als symbolische orm n

Votg d Bbloth Wabug 1924 (Bern and epzig 1927), pp28-330 Erin Pano argues that we can dent in Greek and Romanart a specc rm o perspective dierent om tha developed in theRenaissance (See E Pano Pspct as Symbolc om trans C WoodNew York 1991.)

8. Translatos note Here and beo bibcal quotations are om thetext of the New English Bble Hee we add the phrases wch s given r

me; do tis as a memorial of me wich are given n a otnote See G el



lnbach, D hstrsch Dmnsn dr turgschn Cmmmrat mtlatr" n K. Schmd and]. Wallasch ds. Mmoa: D gchchtlch

ugnwt d tughn Gdnkn m Mttalt (uch 984), .200-24, s. . 2 ; th authr rfs t Jrmas D Abdmahlwot

]u (Gngn, 960), . 229 239 wh th Jwsh cntatns fth assag a mhaszd

9 Galatans 3:28.. Qutd n Pan, h Myty of Contnuty m and Htoy,

Mmoy and Etty n th hought of Sant Augutn (Chattsvll, 986,. 36 Th atn tt Patologa atna 4245) ads thus:

Tras qua mag D am quarnda n rnca mns art . . Un qua scunu vut advntta sunt n anm sv cgntn hs

tca lata, ut sunt cta t dcta qua tmr raguntu t tansun, vl n natura rrum sus cs t rgbus cnsttuta sunt, sv ns hmn qua nn ant runtur, aut as dcnbus aut cgtatus s. . . . Sunt autm v n lcs sus vl qua tmr atrun quamvs qua ratrrunt nn sa snt sd rumquadam sgna atrtum, qubus vss v audts cgnscanturss aqu transss. Qua sgna vl n lcs sa sunt scut mnumntamrturum quacumqu smla; vl n tts d dgns, scut stms gravs t abanda auctrtats hstra; v n ams rumqu a am nvunt

(S Augstn h nty rans S. cKna Washngn, 963, .627). S als D rntat 522.. S V Sa Mot maty lqu n Aqu chtnn a pm -

cl (Pars, 980), . 25-33 (n mnumnts) 97 (n urgcal cmmmratns) 26 (n rcs), 298 (n rlquars)

2. Ctd n Plkan, Myt of Contnuty 7 ranslatrs nt:Our rndrng hr s m th tt n Epozon u Salm d V Tarull(Rm 977) . 9 s Patologa atna 395.

3. S S. Bnk, Th anng f Sancrum Cmmun n Stud n

Htocal holo (ndn 964) 398 f (m whch th translatn squtd) (n Nctas f Aqulas Elanato Symbol

4 S E. Aurbach gura," n Aubach Scn om th Dma of

Eupan tatu (Nw Yrk 959), . -76; R. Brnad, ThRhtc f Gd n th gratv Egss f Augusn n M. S. Burrwsand Rrm ds. Bblcal Hmnutc n Htorcal Ppctv Stud

Hono of Kal hlch on H Sxtth Bthday (Gand Rads, ch., 99 88-99 (wh th s n mntn, ddl f Aurbach).

5 Sant Augustn D doctna Chtana 36.24 Chrtan Itructon

trans J. Gavgan n v. 4 f Augusn's Wtng 2d d. (Washngn 950;rnt, 966) . 36.

3 TANCE AN

ERETVE

wo Mtaho



2 DACE A

PERECTVE

o Mhos

. D docn hsn .5 (Chsn Insucon trans Gavigan pp29 f

Sd quoniam procv st humanum gnus non x momntis ipsius ibidiis sd potus sua consutdinis astimar pccata t prumqu ut

quisqu homum a tantm cupanda arbittur, qua sua rgiois ttmpors homis vituprar atqu damnar consurunt t a tantumprobanda atqu audanda, qua consutudo orum cum quibus vivtadmittit oqu contingit ut si quid sciptura v pracpit quodabhorrt a consutudn audintium v quod non abhorrt cupavrit,si aimum oum iam vbi vxit auctoritas, guatam ocutionmputnt. on atm pracipit sciptura si caritatm.. bid .29 Quod igitur ocis t tmporibus t prsois convnat,

diignt attndndum st n tmr agitia rprhndamus" (Chsn

Insucon trans. Gavigan p. ) 8 bid. .22 (Chsn Insucon trans. Gavigan, pp. 9 S A. Funstin Tholo nd h Scnc Imgnon (Princton

98 pp 22-289 sp. p 222.2 bd. pp. 22 f t is probab that Augustins rpy rfrs to mana

o th sacric of Mcsd: s Augstn, In ]ohnns Englum, c-

us 2 2 (Polog Ln 52 Hunc panm signicat manna, huncpanm signicavi atar Di. Sacramnta ia runt in signs divrsa sunt, r qua sigcantr paia sun (quotd by Gss Euchsch

Gmch b gsnus Wzbug 9 p. 9 Mor gnra s].Lcuyr L sacric son SantAugst, ugns Mgs (Paris,954) 2954 G d Bogi, La notion augstnn d sacric ivisib' t vrai,' Rchchs d scnc lgus 4 9) 5-5 (not a con

vncng ssay.2 S Aur Augustini . Esu d A. Godbachr (Vindobona-Lipsa 94 CSEL, 44, ttr 8 d Marcinum 5 p. Hac quastio quam at patat procto vidt quisquis puchriaptiqu distantiam spasam quodam modo in univrsitat rrum vatnqu nggit inturi. Puchrum nim pr s ipsum considratur atquaudatur cui tup ac drm contrarium st Aptum vro, cui xadvrso st inptum quasi rigatum pndt aiund, n x smt ipso

sd x o cui connctitur judicatur nimirum tiam dcns atqu indcns v ho idm st v prnd habtur. Ag nunc a qua diximusrfr ad iud, un agitur. Aptum it pims tmpoibus sacriciumquod pracprat Dus nunc vro non ita st. iud m pracpitquod huic tmpori aptm sst qui muto magis quam homo novit, quidcuiqu tmpori accommodat adhibatur quid quando imprtiat addataufrat dtrahat augat minuatv inmutabis mutabum sicut crator

ita modato, donc univrsi sacui puchritudo cuius paticua sunt



quae ui quibuque emporibu apa unt, velut magnum caren cuiu

dam ineabil modulatori excurra atque nde traneant in aeernam

contemplationem pecie qu Dum ie colunt etam cu empu et

dei" he paage quoted in part i unenein, Tholo p 223.[Here he ranlaion ued i hat by Sier Wilid Paron, Sn Augs

n: Lrs (Wahingon 953) 338 ] On the gratve interpreaion of

Jewih acrice in Auguine' Conr Fusum ee S D. Benin, Th Foo-

prns of Go: Dvn Accommoon n Jwsh n Chrsn Though

(ban 993) pp 2

22. E animadvertebam et videbam n ipi copoibu alud ee quai

oum e deo pulchum, aud auem, quod ideo deceret, quoniam apte

accomodaetu aicui cu par corpoi ad univeum uum aut calcia

mentm ad pede e ima" (Consson 4.13.20) et pulchru, quod pee ipum apt autem quod ad alquid accomodatum deceret

deniebam e dtngebam e exempli corpor adruebam" (Conssons

454) Ben Fooprns pp 99 ee the importance of hee paage but

doe no develop eir impcation

23 See H.I Marou SnAugsn l n l culur nqu (Par,

1958) Reactaio" 1949 pp 63-637 Brown, Augn of Hppo (Bere

ey and o gee, 969) p 57 A Solignac' note on Cosson boo Bblohqu ugnnn 2d er (Pai 1963) 367-673 . Ka,

Melodia nteror Sur le trai De Pucho e apo Rvu s us ug

nnns 12 (1966) 229-24024 M. etard pu rard convncng argmen n vor of he idea

tha the eaie D pulchro po wa npred by Cicero rather han direcly

by Plato SnAugsn Ccron (Pari, 958) 96. He quote variou

paage om Cicero but hee do not include he one I dicu here

25 Cicero, D oror Loeb erie ran H acham

26. On thi whole opic, ee alo chaper 6 above

27 See M ohez "To prpon. En Beitrag zu Gechchte de grechi

chen Geie," n Nchrchn vn r Gsllsch r Wssnschn zu Gn-

gn us mr 1933 Phl.-Hi n 16 pp. 532. he mporance of

Augine' reorical education i emphazed by M Sonei the

ntroduction to the taian ranation of D ocrn Chrsn ee

L'sruzon csn ed M Simonetti (Milan 994) pp xxxi See aloG. Srau Schrgbruch Schruslung un Schrbws b Augn

(bingen, 199).28 Th Works of AurlusAugnus ed M Dod (Ednburgh 875) 12 2

197 f29 H Marrou comment on thi paage om a vepoint derent

om the one taen here Lmbvlnc u mps lhsor chz Sn

Augsn (Par 950) pp 82-84.

3 TAE A

ERSECTVE

wo Mphor



238

7. STANCE A

ERSECTVE

wo Maos

30. iu enim talaes et maiaas tnias habee apud Romanos vetees agitium eat nun autem honesto oo natis, um tuniai sunt noneas habee lagitium est" Chstian Insttion tans avigan, p 134) .

3r. Cf Tatats ass aos 3 Patologa atina 4:53) Ut populusDei, qui nun es populus histianus, jam non ogau obsevae quaepophetiis tempoibus obsevabant non quia damnaa, sed quia mutatasunt non ut es ipsae quae signabanu peient sed ut eum signa suisquaeque tempoibus onvenient"

3 Yeushalmi Zaho p 8.

33. In his Epilogemena zu Mimsis Romanish oshngn 65 954)

-8 esp p 3, E Auebah wites that the moden pespetivst and istoiist" pont of view has been y developed oly duing he last enty

and a hal Howeve Auebahs own essay Figa" suggests tha tsmoden vision" has olde oots Hee, as esewhee n tis boo, seekto establish a dialoge beteen vaious aspets of Auebah's wo dawing ou thei mpaions in ways hat thei autho might not haveaepted In the oote (p 6 n 7 that onludes is essay ingistiPespeivism in the Don Qixot in is ingistis an itay Histoy

(Pneton 948 , pp 485 pitze emphasizes that pespetivism' is

iheent in Chistian thought" aodng o whih the ommon man hasaess to wsdom as wel as the leaned man the spiit i not the lette, of he la an be undestood by anyone" s same idea is ental oAuebah's woitized by pitze, he peeding otnote itseessively soiologial appoah eithe Auebah no pize obsevesthat Chistian pespeivism (oen aompaed by the oppositon maintaned beteen the spiit" and he lette") was ystalzed in th ambvalent elaonship of Chistianity to Judaism: a blnd spot that was pehaps

paty eated to the t that both men wee assmated ews examined asimila ase in onnetion with anothe geat shola, Fitz al who epitze ame om a Vienese ewish mil n my essay Die Venus voniogiane onogapishe Inovationen und he Folgen" Votag as n

WabgHas 998) 388.

34. s double point of vew povides the stating point uillnsnvestigations n his essay On the Conept of Meapho and Pespetive

(ited in n above) He ightly obseves hat he meapho o pespeiveis deived om a Euopean histoally ondtioned disovey n the visualats" (p 366 . Howeve, as we shal see the metapho atiuates a noonthat had aleady been mulated in a eent sensoy langage

35. D a ligon 4 um autem odnem saeuloum sentienulus homnum otest"

36 Patologa atina 3357 que nde tanseant n aetenam ontemplationem speiei qui Deum ite olunt, etiam um tempus est dei'



37. M Ja he Scopc egme of Moden" n Vson an Vsuaty ed

H ose (Seae, 988) pp. 33; and see also he same auhos Downcst

Eys: h Dngaton o Vson n wntthCntury rnch hought (Bee

993) (use as a suvey bu ulmaely no e umnang).

38 See e pesen auo's Mt mm sp (Tun 985) pp 59

(Cus Myths an th Hstorca Mtho ans and A Tedesch Balmoe

and ondon, 989]).

39. G Boc Machave as Geschchssebe,'' Qun un orschun-

gn aus tanschn Archvn un othkn 66 (986): 539 esp pp. 75

4 See C Doso, Machavr (un 98) pp 1 f.

N. Machave dedcaoy lee o h Pnc n he ansaon by

Geoge Bull (amondswoh, 961) p. 3 uhe quoaons om h

Prnc ae om his anslaon4 See E Slm, Leonado e Machave" [19 n Scrtt Vncan

(loence 976) pp 53557 esp p 569 (whee s mped ahe han

saed ha he dedcaon o h Prnc may aude o eonado). The

aeged anes beween Machavel and Gaeo have dsaced aen

on om he me's possble ns wh Leonado: hough G Sasso, n

Stu su Machav (Naples, 967) pp. 38 eecs boh nes o agu

men oweve, E Gan n Rnasct rvouon (Ba 975) p 53 sug

gess may be oppoune o consde once moe he od cam ha

Macavel and Leonado wee n conac a suggeson noed by Don

so (Machavr p 8 n 6) Mases, n Machav Lonaro an th

Scnc o Powr (Noe Dame, Ind, 1996) enhusascay aes up s

heme (hough he shows no nowedge of much of he eae wo

ncludng he conbuons of Sm and Boc). See also he voume

Lonaro coc Hammr a mappa moa ed C Pede (Bologna

985).

43. Sm Leonado e Macave p. 569 and see aso C. Lupoini L

mnt Lonaro (loence 953) p 74 n. 63

4 eo Sauss ages n houghts on Machav (Glencoe 958) ha

Macavel's moden" aude owad human eay mpled a dscont

nu wih he ancen" (Gee and ewsh) adon o anquy Kal

wh (Manng n Hsto Chcago 949) sees he decsve dsconnut

as lyng in he opposon beeen Chsany and he ancen wod. Pobaby hey ae boh gh and boh wong nasmuch as hey ae ponng ou

two adca dsconnues (Chsan and moden,' especvely) whch

Hegel nheed and combned ogehe.

45 h Prnc p 9

6 See G Boc Cvl Dscod n Macavels sto orntn

Machav an Rpucansm ed G. Boc M. Vo and Q Sne (Cam

bdge 199) pp l81.

39

7. DSTANCE AND

ERSECTE

wo Mtaphor



STANCE AN

ERECTVE

wo hors

47 S G Procacci achavll nlla ltura uropa ll' t moa (Ba

995)

48 . Dscarts Corrsponanc in Ouvrs d C Adam and anry

(Paris, 976) 446

49 Dscarts, Corrsponanc 4485496

5 bid., 449 Car l crayon n rprsnt qu ls coss qu s voynt

d lon mas ls prncpaux moti ds actons ds Prncs sont souvnt ds

circonstancs s particulirs qu si c n'st quon sot Prnc soymsm,

ou bin q'on ait st rt longtmps participant d lurs scrts on n s

s«aurot magnr

5L Gox migt av drawn rtr support om tis passag r t

ratr asty rmarks is Dscarts t a prspctiv," L'Espt Cratur 5

no. (Spring 985) rn S also G. Bom tun zur Prspktivtt:Phlosoph un Kunst n rhn Nuzt (dlbrg, 969 ), pp 784

5 Wl was n Paris n 675 and 676, bnz transcrbd and trans

latd svral manuscripts by Dscarts. S E. Garn, ntroducton to t

Italian d of Dscarts Works (Opr [Bari, 967, l:x) and lopp d,

Corrsponanc Lbnz avc llctc oph BruswckLunbourg vols.

(anovr, 874) 158

5 S Procacc achavl p 6454 G bn, onaolo trans wit an ntroducton and nots by

. atta (Oxford 898), no. 57 p 48 s onaologa n ibz, Opra

phlosophica d]. E rdma (Aan 959, p. 79 Et comm un mm

v rgard d rns cts parot tout autr t st comm multipl

prspctivmnt, arriv d mm, qu par la mutid d sub

stancs simpls y a comm autant d drns uvrs, qu n sont pour

tant qu ls prspctivs d'un sul slon ls drns points d vu d

caqu Monad conctions w ar xamning provid t bass r

a s loo at t comparison bn Dscarts prspctivism and tat

o bz, as ts as bn st rt (r nstanc by ]. Wzl

Dscarts n d Prptiv ds Prsptivismus E Sizz, n Prspk-

tvn s Prspktvmus: Gnksch zum T Fch Kaulbachs d. V Gr

ardt and N. rold (Brln, 99) pp. 59 sp. p 59 S also Guln,

Concpt of Mtapor pp 85 (on Libs visual mtapors.

55 G. ibz, Thoi in Opra Philosophica p. 548Diu, par art mrvllux, tourn ls duts d cs ptts Monds au

plus grand ornmnt d son grand Mond C st comm dans cs nvn

tions d prspctiv, o crtas baux dssns n paroissnt qu con

sion jusqu'a c qu' on s rapport a lur vrai point d vu, U qu' on

ls rgard par l moyn dun crtan vrr ou mro. C st n ls

plaant t s n srvant comm ut, qu on ls it dvr ornmnt

d'un cabnt ns s drmits apparnts d nos ptits Monds s



runssent en beaut ans e grand, et n'on rien u s'oppose a ut

d'un Prnpe uiverse nnment part au ontrare s augmentent

' admraon de sa sagesse u t servr e ma au pus grand ben

ransators' ote: We transate om the Frenh For an abridged Eng

sh ransaton see Lebz hodc ed D Aen (ntaro 1966) In a

etter to des Bosses of 1712 Lebnz ounterposes senographae dver

sae" whh are derent and depend on the spetator's vepont, to the

onograpa seu geomera representato," wh s snge and

unue, and orresponds to the vson of thngs enjoyed by God (uoted

n A Funkensten hoo and th Scntc Imagnaton [Prneon

1986 p. 2 n 9)

56 See R Koseek, Standortbndung und Zehket En Betrag zur

storiograpshen Ersessug de geshihen Wet, n KoseekVrgangn ukun ur Smantk gschchtchr tn (Fanfurt am Man

979), pp 176-207.

57]. M Chadeius Entung zur rchtgn Ausgng: Vngr Rdn

und Schn wt an ntroduton by . Gedsetzer (Dssedorf 1969), pp

181-189 esp. p 188 See aso H Mer]ohann Martn Chadn 171159

n Btrag zur Gschcht dr Gstswsnschan, bsondrs dr hstorchn

Mthodk (Bern 1917); H Re h Grman Enghtnmnt and th Rs oHstocsm (Berkee 1975), pp 4-2 (see p on sua metaphors); M.

Emarth Hermeneuts and Hsory he Fork Hermes Pah hrough

he Eghteenh Centr in Aukrung und Gschcht: Studn zur dutschn

Gschchtssscha m 18. ahrhundrt ed. H. E Boedeker et a (Gtn

gen 1987) pp 9322

58. Chadeu, Entung p 187. Koseek aso notes ths passage Vr-

gangn ukun p 185)

59 See Proa, Machav pp. 370-373 on Hege's br d vassung

Dutschands and on Fhes portant essay of 1807, ber Mahave as

Shrsteer und Steen aus ener Sen ( chts Wrk ed I. H

Fhe (Bern 1971), 4-453) n pp 430-433 Fhe transrbes and

ommens on the passage on the depon of andsape om the deda

ton to h Prnc

60. B Kaser and Werhan eds Ex bs Kar Ma und dch Engs

(Bern 1967) p 134, no. 286 n a eter to Enges of 25 September 857, Marxrefers to Mahiaves Isto orntn as a maserpee" (see MaEnges

Coctd Works Mosow Progress Pubshers, 40187) s evdene may

be added to that anayzed in Proa Machav B Croes wenown

ommen on Marx and Mahave s n Matasmo stoco d conoma

masta (1899 reprint Bar 95) p. 161 n. r

6 See F Netshe, Dhch Wsscha 354 ('V Genus der Gat

tng") n Ktsch Gsamtagab [KGW V2 ed. G. Co and M Mont

24

7 ANCE AN

ERECTVE

wo taors



7 STACE A

ERECTVE

o Mephor

ar Ber a New York 97), pp 272-275 Niezshe Zur Geneoge der

Mor 2 KG 6/2 Ber 1968), pp 82 Nahgelassee Fragmee

Afag 1888 s Ag Jauar 889, KG 8 / Berli a New York

972) pp 165 See also Kauah, Niezshe u er moaologishe

Geke NescheSuden 8 1979) 127-56 V Gerha a N. erol,

es , Ppeven des Perspevsmus: Gedenschr um Toe redch

ulbchs Wrzurg 1992)

62 Seeusus Dlogues : e G Arhamaul Paris, 1909) O he

helogial impliaios of the erms verus a "verssmus Augses

writgs see Leuyer, Le sarie e Broglie La oo e sae" M

Smo erus sel Pas 198), s of ameal imporae as regars

is whole quesio see p. 9 r a oe of he owlos work agast Mar

io wie y Jusius) Jusus rers ak o Romas 9:6 r o aleseas of Israel are uly srael), a more geeraly o he Pauie

uersag of he relaios ewee Jews a Crisias erms of he

opposiio ewee ee or esh) a spiri, a ewee Esau a ao

see haper 9, elow)

6. I may also e he ase lookg at it om aohe pot of view, ha

he ee o ho ogeher a material sese the orah, the prophei

ooks a he Gospels was oe o ha le he Chrisias o prefer heoex o he less maageale sroll: a hypothesis pu war E. Biker

ma Some Notes o e rasmssio of he Sepuag 1950), Bik

erma Sudes n Jeh nd Chn so Leie 1976) :7166 esp.

pp 18

6 See Kamlah Chrsnum und Geschchch: Unersuchungen ur

Ensehung des Chrnums und u Auns Brgersch Goes " 2 re) e.

Stugar a Cologe, 951) p. 17. I woul e quie eresg o ompae

his wih he rs eiio of hs oale sy Chrnum und Selbsbehup-

ung Hsosche und phlosophsche Unersuchungn ur Ensehung des Chren

us und u Augns Brgersch Goes Frakfur am Ma 1940)see

also he omme of aues a oe o F Oveek Selbsbeennnsse

Frafur am Ma 1966 p. 152) he aerwo o he seo eio

aws atetio o a umer of hages, wh lue a ew routo

to wh refer aove) Oe oes ha he epihet "phlosophch spre

y eiegger who s graely akowlege o pp. x gres hesuile of he s eiio u has isappeare om the seo, whee t is

sae a he ouse tha he qury to e oue wl e hisoria p

7).

65 E Geer Posmodernm, Reson, nd Regon Loo, 1992). Fukuyama's ook The End of Hsory nd he Ls Mn New York, 1992) is

isusse a se a roa ieletal otex, i P. erso he Es

of isor A Zone of Enggemen Loo, 1992), pp 279-5



66 M veren Warurgneu geleen, n Baumgar ed Denkrume

wschen Kunst und issencha ed S Baumgar wch read a he ug

geon of Karen Mche Cf alo G Bock, Dr laz der rauen n der

Gechche," n Neue Autze in der Geschichtssescha Vea, 184) pp

8-127 D Harawa Suaed nowledge he Scence Queon n em

nm and he rvege of aral pecve Feminst Studies 14 (188)

575-5 ep pp 581 and 583 whch rad a he uggeon of Nane

Ta

67. See m u One Wne, n S redanger ed, Prbing the Limits of

Representation Nazism and the Fina Soution Camrdg, Ma 12, pp

826 Histo Rhetoc and Proo London and Hanover 1

8 . O K A CHNS MANARN H MORA MLCAONS

O SANC

Ts ssy ws g s lc 99 s pt o th srs o Oxord Aty

cts o th th Hu ghts d Hsto Foh hlp d ctcs

y ths go to Py dso Pr Cs Albto Gjo Sl R

Glbt, Sto Dl Torr Frcsco Oldo d dro Prospr Th

sio prtd h s slghly log th th lctur s oglly g

Arole Rhetorc ran wih nroducon and noe G A.

Kenned New York and Oxrd 11), pp 2 f. George Sener oer an

ana of he variou mage of Angone om Sophocle o he preen

Antigones Oxford 186)

2. Arole, Rhetoc ran Keed pp. 153

3 Se VdalNaque Alane e le naon," n VdalNaque La

dmocratie grecque vue daieurs ar 1), pp 13 4. Arole, On the Art of Poetry n Arstote Horace Longnus Cassi-

ca Literary Crticism ran and ed. . S Dorch Harmondworh 165)

5

5. Ddero, Oeuvres ed A Bll ar 51) pp 75-78!

6 See E dmon, Diderot and the Famiy A Conict of Nature and Law

Saraoga Ca, 185) pp 75

7 Ddro Oeuvres p 772

8 Ddero Oeuvres Esthtiqes ed Verire ar 188) p 26 However when Ddero refer o a ex ce exe pu" p. 7, he

doe no necear mean a wren ex; cf p 817 Lettre sur es aveuges)

Ddero Oeuvres d. B p 82.

n See he nghful commen n F Venr ]eunesse de Diderot ar,

13), pp 142-167 ep pp 163-166.

12. Ddero, Oeuvres ed. B p 82.

13 D. Ddero, Paradoe sur e comdien Diderots tings on the The

243

8 T K A

CHNSE MANARN

he o

Impcato

of Dstac



4

8 T A

HINES MANDARIN

T oa

aton

o Dtan

at ed F C Green (Cambdge 1936, . 284. ranlator' note Th

anthology conan Dderot text n rench whch we tranlate here

14. Ventur]unss d Ddt . 59 f

15 n reerence to Dderot obervaton that to a blnd eron there

no derence beteen a man urnatng and a man bleedng Ventur

remar on the charactertc cruety oen aocated wth the von of

nature n the eghteenth cenuy unss d Ddot 165.

16 D. A F de Sade La posop dan boudo n Ous Compts

(Par, 1966 514 f.

17. See the aage quoted by M. Deon n the ntroducton to de Sade

Ous (Par 990 xxiv

18 F. de Chateaubrand Gn du Cstansm (Par 1930, 166 f

19. na wa the rt to ont out the conecon beeenChateaubrand and Bazac n Tuer le mandarn Ru d ttatu om

pa 1930: 520-523. Dete the artcle ubtte . eate doe not

conde eghteenthcentury ecedent n Myteou Mraculou Man

darn Ogn terary Patert Imlcaton n Ethc, Ru d ttatu

ompa 40 1966: 497-525 A Combra Martn exctly dee that the

to aage n Dderot are gncant n O Mandam aanado

Esaos Quosanos (bon 1967, . -266, 38-383, 387395 ee e 27 f. See alo Trouon, Bala dsp t jug d Janaqus Rossau

(Geneva 1983 243 and n. n

20 . de Balzac d Goot tran. M A Crawford 1951 rert ar

mondworth 1979, 57 ee alo 176 On the mtaen attbuton to

oueau ee Combra Martn O Mandam aanado 38-40

2 Baac La omd uman (Par 1976 1593 P. na emar on the

aage (ee Combra Matn Mandarm aanado 3840.

22 D. ume A Tats ofHuman Natu ntroducton by A. D nday

19 ret ondon, 1936, 2:139.

23 Dderot too alude to a text uoedly by oueau Ous ed.

Bll 1418, n 7, ctng Em but gvng no rece reference. That the e

erence erroneou can be radly conrmed by checng E Bunet

IndxConodan dEm ou d !duaton 2 vol (Geneva and Par 980

24 C Browng dnay Mn Rs Po Battaon 11 and t na

Souton n Poand (New Yo, 199225 A Smth T To ofMoa Sntmnts ed. D ahael and A Mac

e (Oxford 1979 rernt Indanao 982 . 36 h aage wa

dawn to my attenton by Pery ndeon

26 ume Tats 140 tac n ognal. The text read ueror

not eror but the entre logc o the owng aage requre ne

ro, and I amend accordng

27. ume Tats 143·



8 Bejam Theses o he Plosoy of Hiso Beja ed

H. ed . H Zo, Iunatons (Lodo, 970) 57 (Tesis 9 H. oze, Mcrcosus An ssay Concn Man and s aon to

Word as E Cosace oes (Edibgh 89) 7, 73

30 O Bejams ieeca deb o oe, see Moss 'An d s

tor osw Bnjan Sco (Pas 99) 66 d see also D.

isee Wale Beam's Hisocsm w Gran Crtqu 39 (a

986) 79 (boug o my aeio by Da ee)

3I Bejami Theses 56 (Thesis I)

9 O WOJY's S

owdg wh thks h crtcl commts o Csr GCov d Sto v Dl To

I. M Poi, " nocco davant a br (O hs ees bee e Jews)

La pubbca eembe 997 (o some emas made by Cadial Ma

i).

245

POPE WOJTYA'S

SP



INDEX

llusttions are indicated plate number in itaics (for exampe: 1 pl.)

Aey o Cairvaux, 4

Abelad Peter 35-36, 45,220(!7)

absence, 63

abstraction, 76, 78

Acadme Fraise 127

accommodaon, 17-8,

45-47 5, 55

accommodatum, 46-47

Adnotationes in Novum

Testamentum (Erasmus)

5

Adono, Theodor Wesen

grund 137-38

Ad Quirnum: Testimoniorum

libr tres (Cprian), 8

adverisg, 52 54, 58-59. See

aso popagandaAesculapius 90 2(!4)

Agaist Method (Feyerabend)

32

gainst the Jews (Stephen of

Bosra), 3

Against the Logicians (Sexs

Empiricus), 99-

'ge of Spirialt The" 91

Agrcoa (Tacitus),

A a recherche du temps perdu

(oust), 2 7, 61 185(n40

Alemert, Jean Le Rnd d

50-5

Alexander he Geat, 59



INDEX

Alexandra 56 02

lnso n 64

aegorl eadgs, 36-37

Allego of the Old and New esta

ment (Holben) 89 8 pl.

A l 'ombre des jeunes lles en eur

(Proust) 78

ambgtxv 33, 63, 102

ambvalence, 45 47 54-55, 6o

mbrose, Saint, 76

mmonus 06 22(56)

anaogy

analytcal deacment 49Sanmas , 3, 4 86

Annuncaton 9293

Anselm of Laon 103

ant-classcal arctecture, 68

ntphanes 6

antSemism 81 03 30 34

73-77

nubs (Moscow Pshkn

usem) 97 16 pl.

Apologa in Guillermum Abbatem

(Bernard of Clavaux) 03-5

apprehensve representaton, 99

approprateness 4 45-47

aptum 146-47

Apuleus 34Aqunas, Thoas, 05-6, 84(m6)

91-92(41) 22152 54)

Ach of Constanne, 29

Arsole 47 67 72; On Intereta-

ion 30-1 32 34 35 Metaphysics

4-43 Organon 33, 90(m) Per

hermeea, 06; Physics 3; Poet-

ics, 6o-6r 6o 87(3); Posteror

Anlytics 9OO 0; Rhetoc

5759, 6 171; Second Analytic 3

Ars Poetica (orace), 04

art, -2, 4 7, 820. See also sye;

Gothc art 78, 128 130-35

Art and llusion (ombrch) 70

Arte de la Pintura (Pacheco) 40

arscw, 9-30

Asa sy, 23-24 29

Atlants, 59

AudeJ.-P, 2078(4)

Auerbach E. 238(33)

Auebung 48

Augste Sant, 47 53 Confes-

sion, 33 43 46 49 9o(23)

237(m2); De civtate Dei 34

54-S5 84(26) De doctrna

Chstiana 44-45, 7-48 148,

55 236(6 20) 238(30) DeOratore -I2 De pulchro et apto

46 De Trnitate, 33 43 De

ver religone, 4849; Ennara

tiones in Psalmos 43-44 Epitu-

lae, 4546 236-37(m); Quaes-

tionum evangeliorum lib duo 36

9-92(4) Tractaus adversus

Judeos 238 (3)

automatzaton 2 20

Averroes 43

Avenire L 77

Aztecs, 39

Baehrens Eml 96

Bakh Mhal 55Balb Govann 05

Balzac Honor de 65-66

Baudelare CharlesPerre 24-26

3 23o(60 6 62 64)

Bayle, P, 89 49 82(5),

97(96)

beau2425, 36-37 146 47

Bearmno, 09

Bellor, Govann Petro, n7

Betg, Hans 93

Benja Wae 58 71-72

Benvenste Ele 69, 70

Bernard d' Angers, 73-76

Bernard du Guesc, 78



Brnard of Carvaux 3-5

Brr 737

Bancon Gova udovco 10

bca rfrncs: Acs 8-85

Dan 13(n50; utronom ccsasts 155; xodus 55

86-87 96-98 -3 8

zk 89 9; Frst Cort

ans 96 101 105-6 1-3

18(n9; Gaatans 13 Gnss

97-98 17 177; Goss 76;

saa 80-85 88-89 09(n1;

Jrma 89 Jon 80 8

86-89 93 15 I(n0

uk 80-83 8890 ark 80

8 88-91; at 79-85

88-93 (5 13(n50 ; Od

Tstamnt uoatons 81-8;

Psam 88-91 Psam 3

(n0 Psam 3 86-87Romans 15 17-79 (n6

Samu 80 8 Stuagt

80-81 83 85 88-89 9 97-98

09(n1 Vts ata txt 97;

Vugat vrson 175 09(n

13-1(n56 Zcara 87

Bckrman as 6566 68

Brth f Tgdy, h (Ntzsc

56-57 (n15

blau Rtrgrou 13

btur, 7 1-(n56

Boc arc 68

Boccacco 37 38 60

Bock Gsa 9

Botus 3135 6 899(n819(nn1 6

Bogossan Pau 139-0 1

Borga Csar 150

Borrom Francsco 6-17

6(n3

bourgos 53

Brazan natvs 1-13

Brown Ptr 7 7

Brownng Crsor 167

Buon Gorgsous crc d

9-0 8(8

Casarsm 53

Calng f Sant Matthw (Caravag

go 0 9(n63

Canossa udovco

catasm 5 53 59

Caratrs (a Brur 13

Caravaggo 0 1 9(n63 4p.

Carogan scutur 73

Casaubon rk 8

Castgon Badsar 13 5

(n9 33(n3

Caston Frdrc d 51

Cathsm f a Rvutnary

(Ncav 55-56

Catna Rmana, 956 3Catoc Curc 5 7 8 55

1333 173

Cathn (Ba 5

Caus Comt d 90

Cat G 995(n66

Csus

cmtrs 7

Crvants g d 39

Czan Pau 0 86(n5

Cantran Prr 68

Cars 9

Cartr Rogr 63-6

Caaubrand FraosRn d

16 16-65

Cna dsanc and 7 165Cns Brdgs (om Fscr von

ac 117 pl.

Cns mandarn ara 1657

Cadus Joa artn 153

Crs 7576 903 ucars

and 76-78; as ar 90-91; as

mostor 3 6 aspadn

9

NEX



50

NDEX

Chis (continued)

8283 Passion 84 888 per

specte a 43

Chstian iconogaph 79; aniconic

tradition, 10; devoional

imager 9-93; eidoon 69

97-98, 01 02 sculptura

metaphors 102

Chrisai xv 209(10) ambiva

lence towarews 45 47

54-55 church thers

church of he saints, 43-44 as

nstrument of political oppression 49-50 myh and 4647

Protestant Rermaion, 45 48,

57 relcs 7274

Chisan Socialst Part 30

Cicero 36 223(4) Dream of

Scipio, 34 De oatore 4

4647; Topi 34 224(n9)

Cimabe 4, 5

Cinq diaoguefat a !'imiaion

des anciens (Oasius Tuero), 46

civl socie 4849

Codex Alanicus (Leonardo),

150

coiie metaphor 5053

coomen 68Con, N., 99(n8)

CodWar 59

Clossus of Rhodes, 689

Combes Fraois 9596

commandments, 967, 103

communicatons 39

comparison 2-13 3638

compassion 6-68

comprehensive epresentation 99

105

Conn M, 99(2)

conc model, 4951 354

conscience, lbery of 49

consecatio 656, 772

Constantia 90

Constantne 90

"Conbuon to he d of

the Colectie Represenation of

Deah pt (Hertz), 66

conenence 23

copying 98

cossack repubic 53

Courtier (Castigione) 2-3 5,

224(n9), 233(3)

Crassus

Cremonini, Cesare 45 47

crimes against humaniy 167Criias 42

critical gae, xv 2

Critique of Pue Reaon (Kant), 50,

97(2)

Croce, Giulo Cesare II

rossan John D. 88

cucix, 73 75

Cuciion (Ohrid), 93, 15 pl

cultue 7-8; oral, 60 74; siari

ties 65, 67 syle and, 22-23 tra

ditions 394

custom, 2

Cuver Georges 126-28

Cprian

Cyrene, saced aws of 68-69

Danae (Micheangeo) 4-5

225(9)

Danel, Anaut, 36

Dante 36

Daroca (ciy) 64

Death of Saint Ceia

(Domenchno ) 40 pl.

decadence, 132

Decameron (Boccaccio) 38

demliaraon, 82(n3) See

also dsance art as device, 3,

7, 20 cognitie impications

2223; as deegitmzing device,



6-7 kphrai 9-20 hstoy

and 4, 222 immediate

impessions 922 ingenuous

ness and, 3 as iteay tech

que, 6 makng it stange 4

7, 3- pecepton and, 8-9

iddles, 3-4 7, , 2 social ci

tique 2-6 tuth and, -7

6-9

Degas Edga 9

D dololatria Tetuan), 97

Deacoix Eugne 24 2

deeatve hetoic 8Delome, Philbet, 6

D Orthographia Tote) 0

D pignorib antorum uibet de

Nogent), 76-77

D rgimin prinipum Aqunas)

8426)

Descates Ren, -2, 24n0)despotism, 34 6

"Des sauvages Voltaie) 4-

Dl h Dosoevs) 2

devotional mage 9-93

Dialogo dlla Pittura Dolce),

Dialogu aux Enr ntr Mahiavl t

Montuiu oly) 3 4

Dialogu o Solomon and Marolph

I, 83n22), 83-8423)

Ditionnair hitoriu t rtiu

Baye) 8-9

Ditionnair univr Fuete) 64

Dideot Dens 60-68

dgnia 64

Dio Cassius, 66-67Dionysus of Halicanassus 28

87-88n6)

Diour on Dramati Potry

Dideot) 6-62

distance, x S alo demlia

ation China and, 7, 626

compasson and 6-68 ego

and, 62 68-69 fea of puish

ment and, 64-6 ndeence

and I6-66 ionic 27-28 juxta

posing of cultua tadtons

39-4I moaity and, I6267

myth and, 2 natual aw and

I7-6I passons and, I69-70

pty and I89 emose and,

I6-62, 67 space and time 68

697 Stocism and, -7

Dodd, C H 2020), 229)

Dolce, udovico

Domencno, 40 5 pl.domnant ideolog I3

Donadson, T L, 233n03)

Don Quixot Cevantes) 39,

I94-9n66)

Dostoevsk Fyodo I8 2I, 22

double, 70-7I

Du t d h Swann Poust), 2 I8Duns Scotus Eiugena, 337

Dupont, Foence, 66 68, 7-72

Eathe Claude I67

89 92-93, 2I3n0, 2)

Homo von Meckenem) 93 pl.

Elia antorum I43-44

Eliatial Hitory Euseus) 90

ecclesastcal nstittions 38

economics 2

Eonomit 7

econom 2 I66

Edwad I 64-6 202-3)

gs, 646 202nn4 7) pl

pl. koloo 6869, 7071 teated as if aive 66-67

ego I62, I68-69

idolon 69 97-98 II 02

ido 97, 2I6n9)

Eightnth Brumair o oui Bona-

part h Max), 23

98nn, II)

NEX



22

INDEX

eikatiken, 98

ekphrai, 19-20 124

Eds of Zn, 5455

Eeaics 98

Eeaic schoo, 2930

Ezabeth Pncess of te Paati

nate 151-2

Enges Fiedich 53, 198(n9)

Engand, nea egies 64-65

Enlightenment 16 50 163-64, 170,

85(n37)

Entretien d'un pre ave e enfant ou

du danger de e mettre au-deude loi (Ddeot) 160-61

Entwu einer hitorhen Arhitetur

in Abbildung unterhiedener

berhmten Gebude de Altertum

und emder VOlker (Fische on

Each) 618

env 159

Epcetus 5

Easmus 5 220-2(n49)

L ept de M. Benoit de Spinoa,

4950

Eai ur le mor (Votaie) 6

Euscan stye 9 121

Euchaist 7678

Euipides oEusebus, 90

Eusebius o Caesaea 2(n25)

expeience 20 133 4749

bes, 46

Faih Sant. See Foy of Conques

state of

se discouse 26 29-37 60

188(n), 201(41); potica use

o myth 4147

miiarit x . See ao demia

zation

scism 58

Festuge, A 99-o

Feyeabend, Pau, 131-35 232(nn8

92) 232-33(n93)

tio 3436 40, 191(n40)

cion, 38-39

gmenta, 34

gra 144-46

nxerunt, 34

Fische on Each, Johann Ben

had, 6-18 226(9)

Ftzmaye ] A 81

Faius Maceinus III, 145

Faxman John 12123 123 229(n53)

23 pl. 24 pl., 25 pl, 26 pl Foence 150

Forge of Vulan, he (Tempesta) 40,

193-94(n61)3 pl

Forge of Vulan, he (Vezquez)

39-41 2pl.

m 97 23

Formprobleme der Gotik (Woge),

30-31

mua 97

Foucaut Miche 222(n59)

Foy o Conques, St. (staue o),

73-75 pl., 17 pl. 8 pl.

Fance nea egies 64-65 67-

68

Fancis I, 67"Fanzsische Mae (Hene), 124

Faze ames Geoge 6566

Fat de Chamba Roand, ns-

16

Fedeik I o Swabia 42 50

Fench moaists 16 185(n35)

Feud Sigmund 177undamentasts, 15556

nu imagnaum, 65 68

Fuetie ntoine, 64

Fusei, en 123

Gaus 34

Gego J 193(n58)



Gauer hople 94(n66)

dankn br d Nachahung dr

gchschn Wrk dr Malry

und Bldhaur (ncelmann),

naloga dorugnlu (Boc

cacco), 60

enealo 60-6

n du Chrsans

(Chaeaubran) 6465

enres 4, 7 42

eomercal syle, 29

Gerar San sae o 74-75rana (acs), 0

German 57, 26

schch dr Kuns ds Alrus

(nckeman), 9

Gese Ralph 64 65, 67-6

202(n4) 202(), 203(4)

Gorano Luca, 40

Gorone, 4-5

Goo, 3-4

lossa Ordnara (Ansem o Laon)

03 05

oasa example, 3-36, 00, 06,

(4), 93(n55)

Goehe, ohann olan on, 2

26 27oldn Book of Marcus Aurlus.S

Lbr dl pdor Marco Aurlo

con rlox d pnp

Gombrch, Ens, 6970, 07,

32 224(n)

Gorbache Mha 59

Gospel o Sa homas 9Gospels S bblical rerences

Goc ar, 7-, 2 30-35

Gaeser A., 99

Gees, x 44, 7 42 57-5

Gee sculptre -9

Gueaa ono e -2,

2-3(5)

Guln, C 23(n34)

Gnher, H. K 35

Guyon an 72

Hao, Perre, 7

Harnac, A on 5, 23(n53)

Hars, E , 94(n63)

Hars, Rene, 2

Hebrew aon, 2, 90, 93

Heel Geor hem Frech

23-24, 29 53, 222()

Hee Henrch 24, 25, 30

23(n6)Helensc uasm 3

Hener Joseph, 6

Heoian 67

Heoous, 69, 4

Her, Robe 65-66, 203(5)

hnn 9

Hsor naurll (Buon), 20

hsoa 42

sorcal conscousness, 4

sorcal la 57-6

hsororaph 42

Hsos 26

hsor 4, 23 46, 7 asc, 3-4;

cultra, 22-23 emara

on an 4, 2-22 memory an,40-4 meaphors an 55 me

an space, 70-72

Hsory of h Councl of Trn

09-0

Htler Ao 5-59, 35, 99(23)

HlerSan pac,

Hobbes, homas, 47-49, 97(n,9, 94)

Hoben Hans he Youner, 9, pl

Homer 36, 4

Hols on Exods .3 (Oren),

9507 24-5(n2), 25-

6(n5)

hoooa, 9 02

2

NDEX



25

IEX

ora, 7,

orn, L R, 222(n58

osos Davd, hurh of

(Saloa 92, pl.

uldri 7

uman ustoms 8

um David 66 68 69-7

yrd raturs, 28, -7 as dols

96-97 -

onograp S Chrstan ionog

apy

Idas, 98dolatr x 99 28(28 hyrd

as 96-97 0- ags

of Chist 75-76 Jws and,

77-78 lnsss 9697 lis

and 72-7 sond ommand

mnt 96-97

dolum, 5

dou 92-9

llumsmo rtoa udaa

(Olando, 85(n7

lusion 98

mags, xi 222(n58 S also Chris

tian ionograpy amgit of,

2 of Crst 75-76 90-9

wittn ulur and, 7imagnation 5 52

mago 68 72, 76

imitation 0 8 2 9(n6

Imola, map of, 50

Inarnaton 55

Inas 67

ndt pow 9

nnovation, 65

Inquiston, 5

Isttutos (Gaus

intmdars 70

Intnational on of 85

26-27

trprtato 6

Isdor of Svil, 7

Itaian Rnaissan 9

aob Rvg th Bloodstad Gar

mts of osph (Vlzquz,

9- pl.

aoson Roman -2 8(2

ras Joahm, 85

Jrom, Sant 89 75

Jsuits, 5 5, 55-56 7, 99(n2

Jsus S Chrst

uss d Ddrot (Vntr 6

Jws xiv antiSmtism toward,, 0, 7-77 Catoi

Chur and 7-77 Chrstan

amvaln toward 5, 7,

5-55 uharst and 76-78

w traditon 82 90, 9

oloaust 0- 67 idolaty

and, 77-78 mmory and

Protools of th Eldrs of Zo,

5-56 99(n8 sarst viw, 55,

56

ohn aul II, 7-78

ohn th Baptist 86 92-9

John I, 7

Jol auri, 5 5 58 99(nn5

8jounasm 58

juda rhtori 58

usti Carl, 9(n65

ustnus, 207(2 2(n 22(n62

Kant mmanu 50, 98(2

Kantorowiz rnst, 6 65, 78,202(

kata physs 57 58 59

ostomr" (olstoy 6

Kllg Tm (Fyand 2-

rhr, Athanasus 8

tzngr rnst 9

lmt, Gusta 29



koloo 687 77

Kuntollen, 29-30

a ruyre ]. de 3 5 9

Ladner G 98

La Fontane ean de 9

La Mthe Le Vayer Faos de

447 49 96(n84 85)

97(n98)

langage 36 6-8

Lanuvus 68

la natral v. storcal 57-6

learned culure 7-8e on Gusave 58

Lectures on Sculpture (Flaxman),

121-23, 123, 23 pl. , 24 pl, 5 pl, 26

pl

lega cons 34-35

e Goted lhelm 52-53

24(n54) 240-4(n55)Leonardo 50 239(42)

Lermole wan. See Morel

Govan.

es phares (audelare) 24

ettre ur le aveugle uage de

eux qui voient (Ddero) 62 63

eviathan (oes) 47-49

97(n88 89 94)

LvSrauss Claude 68

exion (ttel and Fredrch) 75

iber irauloru ante idi, 73 76

205(n46)

lertnes 46

ey of conscnce 49

ibr del eperador Maro Aurelio onrelx de prnipe (Guevara) 8

lfe eenal 48-49

lkenesses 96-97

'ngnu" (Voltare) 6

lteray aton 2

ive (Vasar) 4-5

logc 336

ongh Roeto 38 94(nn62 65)

Lotze erman 772

Lge Kal 30

Machavl Nccol 47 53 58

239(n42) The Dioure, 43 5

96(n8) The ne, 49-54 Sto

re iorentine, 5

Macrous 34

Madonna and Child (Rome Sana

Mara ntqua) 93 3 pl.

Magre Ren 8 9 pl

Mahommed 42-43makng t strange. See delar

aon

Mane douard 9

maner 2

Mantegna 2

Marcon 54 242(n62)

Macolphus - 83(n22)83-84(n23)

Marcus ureus 4- 2 69

Marana 45

Matn (martyr) 72

maryrs 72 73

Marx Kal 5-53 53-54 98(nn9

)

Mass 6

Mathews T F, 9

Mauss M. 68

meang 06-7

Meckenem srael von 93 14 pl.

Medc 45 49

Medtaton on a HobbHore (Gom

ch) 69-70eora 43-44

memo 2 75 40-48 56 appro

prateness 45-47 church of he

sans 43-44 course o human

experence 47-49,

44-46 rtua and 4-43 54

Mendes 97

255

NEX



DEX

Mnnas Las 40 I94(n66)

Menken M.]] 2(2)

Menoccho candea

Domenico

MeleaPont Marice 20

86(n45)

meadscorse 38

meaphors 55

Mchelangeo 3-I6 9 23,

225(9), 227(n42)

Mckiewcz, Adam I78-79

Mcrocosms (Lotze), I72

Mcroma (Votare) I5middlePaonsm, OI

mrah, 82, 208(n8)

Mens 9

mimesis, 63-64 7

mimicr 98

Mnma Morala Adorno) I37

Minos 46

miracles 90-9

Mishna 2I8(8)

misnderstanding, 3-I5

Most Mnon (Bazac), 66

Momigiano, A. I87() 95(n78)

Monaolo (eiiz) 52-53

Mon, L 39

Monet Clade 9Montaigne, Micel de I2-I3, I7

Montesqie Baron de 53 58

moralit 62-67

Morei Giovan, I27

Moses 42-43

mrde� I60 63-65 I67

msic 26 I47-48

Mycenae I23

myth, x 25-26, I59-60

200-20(35; in Chrstian sto

ies, 40, 46-47; lsehoods and

26 29-37 4, 60 88(n)

20(4I); genealogy and 6-6I;

hybrid creares, 28, 3I-37,

96-97, 3-4 imagination and

52; le eternal and, 48-49 57;

logic and, 3-36 Marx on, 5-53

patriotism, 5I 57-58 Prtocols of

th Elrs of Zon, 54-56,

I99(n8); reigion as, 43-46;

social control hrogh 4I-47

rth and 27-28 37

mytholog 25 26

mythos 29

Nabateans, 3

Napoleon II 52-54nationaism, 52-53 4I

Naive Amercan peoples, 48 140

natra eqait 48 49

natual la 57-6

Naure, 48

Nad, Gabrel 45 49

Naerth C, 2(n44)

Nazis, 56, 58-59 I35 I67, I95(n68),

232-33(n93)

Nechae Sergei, 5556

neter terms 58

New Testament, 780; messianic

element, 8-87 89; tstmona,

8082

Nw Yrk Tms 39Nicetus of Aqileia, I44

Nietzsche Fredrch 56-57, 60,

2(n25)

Nht (Michelangelo) 5 225(9)

nineteenh centur 20-2

noble savage myth, 9- I2

Nogent Giber de 76-77

nomnal sentences 92

nonexistent engs

Nost Atat, I76

Notbooks (Wei) I36

nons 30, 33 6 I88(n), 9(n2I)

Novals, 5I

Nma, 43 4445 46



Oli, M 231(82

On Hothetical Syllogs

(Boetus) 34-35

"O the Cabals (Motaige)

12-13

oral cultre 60, 74

Orasius Tubero, 46

oratory 111

Ordinary Men (Bowng 167

Orestia (Euripides) no-rn1

Orge, 42, 95-7 214-15(2

215-16(5

Oado F 185(37Orsk H. M., 209(12)

Osservatore romano, 17377

ostrnienie. See demliarizatio

Pacheco Fracisco 40

pagas, 4647 9091, 197(98)

paidion, 82-83

pais theou, 85

Paeas basrelief 90

Paosk Er 113-15 149, 234(7)

Paparelli G., 191(40)

Papias Bshop o Hierapos

211(25

Pall de l'architecture antique avec

l modee (Frat 11516Paris Unversal Expositio, 125

Parmenides, 98

Passio 84, 86-88

Passover, 86 87 141, 142

Passover Seder 141

potism 51 57-58

Paul, Sait 96,rn2,

154 174-75Paul V rn9

Pays, e, 125

"Paysa du Daube, e (La

Fotaie 9

Peasant of the Danube, The (Marcus

Aurelus, 9-rn 12

peasats characterizatio o 9-15

perceptio, 2, 18-19 rno-rn; Stoic

techiqe 57

Pe Goo (Balzac), 65-66

perfectio, 11315

Pedi gudeiatelli maior (Toa

174

Pesepois (om Joh Faxma,

123 23pl.

persona 68

perspective 140 142 238(33;

accommodatio, 145-47 151 155;

alytical detachmet 14!-51;

coitive metaphor 150-53; coict mode I49-5I 153-54; ml

tiplicity of viepots 152-53,

155-56; socia positio ad

149-51; uiversalst, 143

persuasive hetoric, 158

Pertax 66-67

Per 67

peshe 82

Petrarch 37

Phaedru (Plato 26-27

Phaeto 46-47

phantasiaSee magiatio

Phdre (Racie, 61

Philosophie dans le boudoi La

(Sade) 163-64

Philosophie der AOb Die, 35

phiosoph 25

Plars of Heracles 159

pit 1589

Pzarro Fracisco, 67

Plto: Greater Hppi 46 Phae-

drus, 26-27; Republic 26-28, 4143-44 46, 51; Sophist, 2931 98;

Timaeus 26 60 136

Patosm, 35 101-2

plebiscites, 53 54

Pl 118

poetr 26, 36-37 41 201(41)

Poad, 179

257

INDEX



NEX

Political Witings (Mckiewcz) 179

Polbus 4344 46 47 95(n78)

Pomian rzsztof 69 70

Popper Kar 132 95(n68)

popuar cutre 78 IIposvsm 132

postmodernsm 139-40 See also

relaivsm

Pougens Charles de 164

power 9 149

preacng 81

presence 63 76-77

probablt 28

Procopus of Gaza 96 3 219(n36)

progress 132

proletarat 57

propaganda 52-56 58-59 See also

advertsing

Propaganda Fde 179

prophets 89-90 93"Proposte per una crica d' arte

(Longh) 138

Protestant Rermaon 45 48 57

Potocols of te Eldes of Zon 54-56

99(nI8)

Protogens 7

Proust Marcel 2 17-8 20-21 23

61 85(n40) 86-87(n51)

pscholog 2

pulcu 147

Qoga Vasco de 9

Qumrn 81

Quoodo Tnits nus Deus

(Boehus) 33

race 128-31 134 135

Racne Jean 61

Rakovs hrstian Georgievich

54

Raphae II6 I8 II9

Rsse und Sl (Gther) 135

realt 52 63; anatical detach

men 149-51; ction and

38-39

Recuel d' antiquits etiennes,

etusques gecques et oaines(Caus) 9-20

relecton 31

Rejlexioitate, 209(5)

relativism 132 136 138 139-40

relcs 72-74

regon 136; as ctor of socal dis

order 48; as nstrumen of

poltical oppresson 4950

natonalsm as 5253; represen

aton and 70-71 socal control

and 43-47

remorse 161-62 167

epaesentatio 7

epesentacion 64

representaton: abstracion 76 78ads to memory 75 Chrstan

72-75; comprehensive 99 5;

devotional magery 91-93; dou

be 70-71 Euchars 76-78

magnary 5; maton 70 81

II2 94(n63); ntermedaries 70

kolosss 68-71 77; as mmecevocation 63-64; presence 63

76-77 staes 7375; substt

ton 69-70 as substtion

63-64; vsua 7

Republica La 177

Restoraon 164

Resuection (Tolsto) 16-17

revolutionar cells 55-56

Reve des De Mndes 124

rhetorc 147 158

iza 83

Rchmond]. A, 57-58

rddles 34 7 II 21

Riefenstal Leni 59

Regl ois !2931 231(n83)



232(n92); Feyerabend's vew of

32 34-35

jk, L M. de 9(6)

rtal 4-43 54

Robert ., 205(n46)Roma Histoes (Do Cassus), 6667

Romans: emperors eges 65

772 perasm 9- socal

control 4344

Romantcsm 30, 20(n35)

Romulus 43

Rousseau, JeanJacques 65 67

royal grne (London Westmn

ster Abey) p.

Royal Prussan Academy of Sc

ence and etters 50

Ruus of Aquea 95 96 97 4

I05

Russell Berrand 88(n)

Russian rmalism, 4

Saban Giacomo, 74

Saccardno, Constantno 45

Sade Marqus de 63-64

SanteHlae 27

Santa Croce n Gerusaemme

(Rome) 93

St Fo Conques, 7 p.

Santvo ala Sapenza, antern of,

I I7

sarcophag 90, 9 9 p. 0 p., 11 p.

Sarp, 9-

savages, 9- 2-5, 22-23

Savonarola Grolamo 45

Saxl Frtz 238(33)

Scandella Domenico 38

Scosser, uus von 65, 23(n83)

Schnackenburg Rudolf 2(4)

Schoastcs 35, 99 3

scence as art 32

"Scence as Art (Feyerabend) 32

Scott George Glbert, 28

Second Empire 53

secudum quid, 3 38

selfeducaton, 4, 5, 7

Semper, Goed, 2629

Sepmus Severus 67Svgn Madame de 8 2 22

85(n40)

Sextus Emprcus 9IOI

Skovs Vtor, -4 7 20

8()

Sic et No (Abeard) 45

sgncaton 35-36

Simboo poitico poacco 79

Simeons hymn 82-83

simiitudo, 97, 5

Smon of Tournai, 42

simpcite 3 38

slave cass 56

Sh, Adam 6869

social control 5 elghened despotsm 52-53; fe eterna and

48-49 57 hrough myth 447

socalsm 30

Socia Text, 39

Sodom and Gomorrah 46-47

Soa Eectress of Hanover 52

Sokal an, 39Soomon Kg, -

Sophsts 28-3,4, 99-

Sophoces, 58

Sorel, Georges 57

Sottiissime tuzie di Bertodo

(Croce)

Soviet regme 59

Spansh conques 9- 39 67

Sparta 69

spatal distancexv 68 69-71

Sptrmische Kutiduste (ieg)

29 30

spx (Church of Sant Foy), f

Spnoza Baruch 49

Spzer L 238(n33)

259

IDX



6

NDX

spzzatua

Sta, Josp 9

Sat t Tmp of Ega

(om Faxma f

stats, 73-7Stp of Bostra 03

Stda str, 9

09(

Str, aurc 60

Sagn (g, 9

St n dn tcnscn und tktons-

n Knstn od paktsc

Asttk, D (Smpr, 6

Stocs 4, 7 99- 06

Stog (om Fscr vo

Erac 7, 2 p

stors 46

stagss S dmazato

Strauss o 0(7, 39(44

st, , 147; accommodato; acts vs modrs

-6; atcassca arctc

tr 6- appropratss

III 4; Asa, 34 9;

baty, 4-, 3637 46, 47;

ctura stor ad -3

dvrsy vs urm 67;

dvdua tc, 6;

tt ctr , ; p

fcto 3 rac ad, 3;

scc as at 3 spcc

obcts ad, 0 (4;

uttara cosdratos 3

sstto 6970

Suppmnt au oya d Bougan(Ddrot 6

Svdrcosc, Ga Fraco 77-0

sogsms 343

Tacts 0

taa 6

Tarao, a 7

tcoog 3 9 67

Tmpsta too, 40, 3 p

Tmp of Soomo (om Fscr

vo Erac 7, p

tmpora dstac, 6-7Tmps ouv (Proust, -

Tta, 97 6(9

tstmona, 0- 0(4 ,

(9

Todcy ( 3

Todor of Sdo 03

Todorts of Crus 03

toogoumnon 7

toog 36-37 34

Toy o Moa Sntmnts (Sm

6-69

Toy o Prs (Sovs ,

6

Tss o t Posop of s

tory (Bam 7-7Tomas Scots 43

tougt, 00-0

tr mpostors, 443, 49-0

Tucydds,

tm, 3-33, 9 tmpora dstac

6-7

Tms ta Suppmnt 39

Tta 4-

Toa, Eo 74

Tocquvl Axs d, 3-4

Tostaa xadra vova, 7

Tosto 3 7, II 6 4(34,

(3; radg of Marcus

Aurus, 7,

Topc (Ccro, 34topos 3, 4(

Tora 3, 4(63

Tort Gova 0

tagapos 06 (4 S aso

goatstag xamp

Tason ds mags a (Magt,

0 19 p.



rait ds passion d m

(Desates, 151

it ds rois mposturs, 49

Tasguatio of Jesus (om

Flaxma, 26 p.Tasgessg te oudaies:

Towad a Tasmative

emeeutis of Quatm

Gavity (Sokal, 139

taslato 13638

tasubstatiato, dote of, 77,

78rattato in aud di Dant (oa

io, 37

ratis o Human Natur (ume

166, 168, 169-71

rstram Shandy (Se 160

rumph o th Wi (Refestal, 59

tut 42 46 50-51 87 140 deml

iaatio ad 5-7 16-19 myt

ad, 27-28 37

Tsaist seet pole, 5456

Tsa sye, 9 120

uivesaism, 43

Ume 126

Vage as, 35

Va Paul 137

Val, Gego 88

Valla, oezo 105

Vasai, Gogo 2-15 8, 129 138,

225(22 232(92

Vatia II Coul 175

Velzquez Diego Rodiguez de

Slva 40-41 193(58 59

194(63, 1 p 2 p.

Veetia Repubi, 109

Veti Fao, 163

Veat , 69 70-71, 77 187(2

Vespu, Agosto 150

Vo, Giambattista, 37

Vea, 130

Vieweg Eduad, 126

lalpada 7

vgi 79-80, 81, 207(=

vtue, 5Visu (om Flaxma 123 25 p.

Vision o Ei, h (Saloika

u of osios David 92

12p

visual metapos, 149

Votaie, 1416, 184-85(34, 185(36

Volusiaus 145 147 154Vula, 51-52

Wage Riad, 57

Wabug Ab 3

Wabug stte, 72

wax masks 68

Wedgwood, osa 123

Wei, Simoe, 136 138

Wetzma Kut, 91

Wes Catedal, 123

'at te Soka oax Ougt to

Tea s" (ogossia, 13940

iam of Moebeke, 106, 107

lliam of Tye

Wikelma, Joa oam8-20, 227(45

Wittgeste Ludwig, 88(

wod, v 3 36, 60

Word, h 8

Wod Wa 5758

Woige, Wiam, 130, 135,

232(84

witte ulte 74

Xeopaes 26

Yeusalmi, Yose 141, 148

Zahor (Yeusalm, 4

Zu, 140

21

NDEX



ERPEAN ERSPECIVES

A Seres n Soca Thought and Cutura Ctcsm

Lawrnc . rzman Edor

Ja rsvahodor W Adono

chad Won dor

nono ramsc

Jacqus o

Aan Fnkkrau

Jula sva

Prr Bourdu

Prr VdaNaqu

ugo Ball

s luz and

F uaa

Karl nz Bohr

Jula sva

lan Fnklkrau

Jula Krsva

Elsabh Badn

Kar wh

lls uz

Pr VdalNaqu

Strangers to OursevesNotes to Lterature vols. 1 and

The Hedeer Controversy

Pson Notebooks vols and

Hsto and Memory

ememberng n Van The aus Barbe Ta and

Cmes Agast Humanty

Natos Wthout Natonasm

The ed of Cutura Producton

Assasss of Memory Essays on the Dena of the

Hoocaust

Ctque of the German Integentsa

What Is Phosophy?

Suddenness On the Moment of Aesthetc

Appearance

me and S

The Defeat of the Mnd

New Maades of the Sou

X On Mascune Identty

Martn Hedeer and European Nhsm

Negotatons

TheJews Hstory Memory and the Present

GINZBURG, Carlo. Wooden Eyes - Nine Reflections on Distance

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Transcript of GINZBURG, Carlo. Wooden Eyes - Nine Reflections on Distance