1

Getting Started with Yeast

By Fred Sherman

Modified from: F. Sherman, Getting started with yeast, Methods Enzymol. 350, 3-41 (2002).———————————————————————————————————————

• Contents •Yeast is a Model System............................................2Information on Yeast..................................................3Strains of S. cerevisiae ..............................................3The Genome of S. cerevisiae .....................................4Genetic Nomenclature

Chromosomal Genes.......................................6Mitochondrial Genes.......................................9Non-Mendelian Determinants.......................10

Growth and size .......................................................10Growth and Testing Media .......................................11Testing of Phenotypes and Gene Functions ...............16Strain Preservation...................................................17Micromanipulation and Micromanipulators................17Microneedles...........................................................23Dissection of Asci

Digestion of the Ascus Sac ............................29Separation of Ascospores..............................29Isolation of Cells ...........................................32

Tetrad Analysis ........................................................32Gene Mapping.........................................................33Other Techniques for Genetic Analysis......................34

Replica Plating ..............................................34Mating and Complementation ......................34Random Spores..............................................36

Acknowlegdments....................................................36References...............................................................36

———————————————————————————For inquires:

Fred ShermanDepartment of Biochemistry and Biophysics, Box 712University of Rochester Medical SchoolRochester, NY 14642E-mail: Fred_Sherman@urmc.rochester.eduhttp://dbb.urmc.rochester.edu/labs/sherman_f/StartedYeast.html August 22, 2003

2

Yeast is a Model SystemThe yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is now recognized as a model system representing a simple

eukaryote whose genome can be easily manipulated. Yeast has only a slightly greater geneticcomplexity than bacteria, and they share many of the technical advantages that permitted rapid progressin the molecular genetics of prokaryotes and their viruses. Some of the properties that make yeastparticularly suitable for biological studies include rapid growth, dispersed cells, the ease of replicaplating and mutant isolation, a well-defined genetic system, and most important, a highly versatile DNAtransformation system.1 Being nonpathogenic, yeast can be handled with little precautions. Largequantities of normal bakers’ yeast are commercially available and can provide a cheap source forbiochemical studies.

Strains of S. cerevisiae, unlike most other microorganisms, have both a stable haploid and diploidstate, and are viable with a large number of markers. Thus, recessive mutations are convenientlymanifested in haploid strains, whereas complementation tests can be carried out with diploid strains.The development of DNA transformation has made yeast particularly accessible to gene cloning andgenetic engineering techniques. Structural genes corresponding to virtually any genetic trait can beidentified by complementation from plasmid libraries. Plasmids can be introduced into yeast cells eitheras replicating molecules or by integration into the genome. In contrast to most other organisms,integrative recombination of transforming DNA in yeast proceeds exclusively via homologousrecombination. Cloned yeast sequences, accompanied with foreign sequences on plasmids, cantherefore be directed at will to specific locations in the genome.

In addition, homologous recombination coupled with high levels of gene conversion has led to thedevelopment of techniques for the direct replacement of genetically engineered DNA sequences intotheir normal chromosome locations. Thus, normal wild-type genes, even those having no previouslyknown mutations, can be conveniently replaced with altered and disrupted alleles. The phenotypesarising after disruption of yeast genes has contributed significantly toward understanding of the functionof certain proteins in vivo. Many investigators have been shocked to find viable mutants with little orno detrimental phenotypes after distrupting “essential” genes. Genes can be directly replaced at highefficiencies in yeasts and other fungi, but only with difficulty in other eukaryotic organisms. Also uniqueto yeast, transformation can be carried out directly with short single-stranded synthetic oligonucleotides,permitting the convenient productions of numerious altered forms of proteins. These techniques havebeen extensively exploited in the analysis of gene regulation, structure–function relationships of proteins,chromosome structure, and other general questions in cell biology.

S. cerevisiae was the first eukaryote whose genome was completely sequenced.2 Subsequently,yeast became one of the key organisms for genomic research,3 including extensive use of DNAmicroarrays for investigating the transcriptome4-9as well as genome-wide analysis of gene functions bygene disruption,10 of serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE),11 of protein localization,12 of 2-Dprotein maps,13,14 of enzymatic activities,15,16 of protein-protein interactions by two-hybrid analysis,17,18

and of functional analysis synthetic lethality.19 Furthermore, the genomic sequences of related speciesimproved the assignment of genes and regulatory motifs in S. cerevisiae.20,21

The overriding virtues of yeast are illustrated by the fact that mammalian genes are routinely beingintroduced into yeast for systematic analyses of the functions of the corresponding gene products.Many human genes related to disease have orthologues in yeast,22 and the high conservation ofmetabolic and regulatory mechanisms has contributed to the wide-spread use of yeast to as a modeleukaryotic system for diversed biological studies. Furthermore, the ability of yeast to replicate artificial

3

circular and linear chromosomes has allowed detailed studies of telomeres, centromeres, lengthdependencies, and origins of replication. Mitochondrial DNA can be altered in defined ways bytransformation,23 adding to the already impressive genetic and biochemical techniques that have alloweddetailed analysis of this organelle. The ease with which the genome of yeast can be manipulated is trulyunprecedented for any other eukaryote.

Information on YeastAn elementary introduction to yeast genetics is available in a book chapter by Winston.24. A

general introduction to a few selected topics on yeast can be found in the book chapters “Yeast as theE. coli of Eucaryotic Cells” and “Recombinant DNA at Work”.25 A popular introduction to thegenetics and molecular biology of S. cerevisiae is presented on the Internet in a review by Sherman.26

A series of introductory course lectures from Göteborg University is available on the Internet.27

Comprehensive and excellent reviews of the genetics and molecular biology of S. cerevisiae arecontained in three volumes entitled “Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces”.28,29,30 Animportant source for methods used in genetics and molecular biology of yeast is contained in a twovolume “Methods of Enzymology” series,31,32 as well as in an earlier volume,33 all edited by Guthrie andFink. Overviews of numerous subjects are also covered in other sources,28,29,30,34,35 including protocolsapplicable to yeasts36 and introductory material.37 The “Methods in Yeast Genetics: A Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory Course Manual”38 contains useful elementary material and protocols, and isfrequently updated. The use of yeast as an instructional tool at the secondary school level has beenprovided by Manney and others,39 including classroom guides and kits.40 Information on yeast for thegeneral public is available from several souces.41-45 A more comprehensive listing of earlier reviews canbe found in an article by Sherman.46 Interesting and amusing accounts of developments in the field arecovered in “The Early Days of Yeast Genetics”.47 A collection of landmark papers, along withhistorical commentaries, is scheduled to appear in December 2003.48 The journal “Yeast” publishesoriginal research articles, reviews, short communications, sequencing reports, and selective lists ofcurrent articles on all aspects of Saccharomyces and other yeast genera.49 A journal, “FEMS YeastResearch”, began publication in 2001.50 Current, frequently-updated information and databases onyeast can be conveniently retrieved on the Internet, including the “Saccharomyces Genomic InformationResource” 51,52 and linked files containing DNA sequences, lists of genes, home pages of yeastworkers, and other useful information concerning yeast. From the MIPS page53 one can access theannotated sequence information of the genome of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and view thechromosomes graphically or as text, and more. The YPD page54,55,56 contains a protein database withemphasis on the physical and functional properties of the yeast proteins.

Strains of S. cerevisiaeAlthough genetic analyses have been undertaken with a number of taxonomically distinct varieties

of yeast, extensive studies have been restricted primarily to the many freely interbreeding species of thebudding yeast Saccharomyces and to the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe. Although“Saccharomyces cerevisiae” is commonly used to designate many of the laboratory stocks ofSaccharomyces used throughout the world, it should be pointed out that most of these strains originatedfrom the interbred stocks of Winge, Lindegren, and others who employed fermentation markers notonly from S. cerevisiae but also from S. bayanus, S. carlsbergensis, S. chevalieri, S. chodati, S.diastaticus, etc.57,58 Nevertheless, it is still recommended that the interbreeding laboratory stocks ofSaccharomyces be denoted as S. cerevisiae, in order to conveniently distinguish them from the more

4

distantly related species of Saccharomyces; these can be designated, for example, as S. cerevisiaevar. bayanus, S. cerevisiae var. carlsbergensis, S. cerevisiae var. chevalieri, and S. cerevisiae var.chodati.

Care should be taken in choosing strains for genetic and biochemical studies. Unfortunately thereare no truly wild-type Saccharomyces strains that are commonly employed in genetic studies. Also,most domesticated strains of brewers’ yeast and probably many strains of bakers’ yeast and true wild-type strains of S. cerevisiae are not genetically compatible with laboratory stocks. It is often notappreciated that many “normal” laboratory strains contain mutant characters. This condition arosebecause these laboratory strains were derived from pedigrees involving mutagenized strains, or strainsthat carry genetic markers. Many current genetic studies are carried out with one or another of thefollowing strains or their derivatives, and these strains have different properties that can greatly influenceexperimental outcomes: S288C; W303; D273–10B; X2180; A364A; Σ1278B; AB972; SK1; andFL100. The haploid strain S288C (MATα SUC2 mal mel gal2 CUP1 flo1 flo8-1 hap1) is oftenused as a normal standard because the sequence of its genome has been determined, because manyisogenic mutant derivatives are available58,59, and because it gives rise to well-dispersed cells.However, S288C contains a defective HAP1 gene,60 making it incompatible with studies ofmitochondrial and related systems. Also, in contrast to Σ1278B, S288C does not form pseudohyae.While true wild-type and domesticated bakers’ yeast give rise to less than 2% ρ– colonies (see below),many laboratory strains produce high frequencies of ρ– mutants. Another strain, D273–10B, has beenextensively used as a typical normal yeast, especially for mitochondrial studies. One should examine thespecific characters of interest before initiating a study with any strain. Also, there can be a high degreeof inviability of the meiotic progeny from crosses among these “normal” strains.

Many strains containing characterized auxotrophic, temperature-sensitive, and other markers canbe obtained from the Yeast Genetics Stock Culture Center of the American Type Culture Collection,61

including an almost complete set of deletion strains.62 Currently this set consists of 20,382 strainsrepresenting deletants of nearly all nonessential open-reading-frames (ORFs) in different geneticbackgrounds. Deletion strains are also availabe from EUROSCARF63 and Research Genetics.64 Othersources of yeast strains include the National Collection of Yeast Cultures,65 the Centraalbureau voorSchimmelcultures,66 and the Culture Collection of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (DGUB, Bratislava,Slovak Republic). 67 Before using strains obtained from these sources or from any investigator, it isadvisable to test the strains and verify their genotypes.

The Genome of S. cerevisiaeS. cerevisiae contains a haploid set of 16 well-characterized chromosomes, ranging in size from

200 to 2,200 kb. The total sequence of chromosomal DNA, constituting 12,052 kb, was released in19962, from which a total of 6,183 ORFs of over 100 amino acids long were reported. Subsequently,comparions to sequences of related Saccharomyces species indicated that S. cerevisiae contains5,77320 or 5,72621 protein-coding genes. In contrast to the genomes of

5

Table 1 Inheritable Systems of a Diploid Saccharomyces cerevisiae Cell—————————————————————————————————————————————————————————

Inhertiance |—— Mendelian ——| |———————————————— Non-Mendelian —————————————|System |————————————————Nucleic acid genomes———————————————| |—–Prion–—|

Molecular basis |——————— Double-stranded DNA ————————| |—— Double-stranded RNA ———| |— Protein—|Location |—————— Nucleus ——————| |———————————— Cytoplasm —————————————|

Genetic determinant Chromosomes 2-µm plasmid Mitochondrial DNA ——–—— RNA virus —–——— PrionL-A M L-BC T W

Relative amount 85% 5% 10% 80% 10% 9% 0.5% 0.5% Number of copies 2 sets of 16 60 - 100 ~50 (8 - 130) 103 170 150 10 10 Various

Size (kb) 13,500 (200 - 2,200) 6.318 70 - 76 4.576 1.8 4.6 2.7 2.25

Deficiencies in mutants All kinds None Cyto. a·a3, b Killer toxin None All kindsWild-type YFG1+ cir+ ρ+ KIL-k1 [ yfg1–]

Mutant or variant yfg1-1 ciro ρ– KIL-o [YFG1+]––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––———––––––––––––A wild-type chromosomal gene is designated as YFG1+ (Your Favorite Gene) and the mutation as yfg1-1. Although cir+ and ciro strains arephenotypically the same in most strains, the presence and absence of the 2-µm plasmid are inherited in a non-Mendelian manner. T and W RNA viruses,also designated 20S and 23S dsRNAs, encode RNA polymerases.68. The Table does not include the Ty1-Ty5 retroviruses, which are generally inheritedas integrated Mendelian elements, nor does it include extrachromosomal circular rDNA, which arise from chromosomal rDNA. Adapted from ref. 69-72

6

multicellular organsims, the yeast genome is highly compact, with genes representing 72% of the totalsequence. The average size of yeast genes is 1.45 kb, or 483 codons, with a range from 40 to 4,910codons. A total of 3.8% of the ORFs contain introns. Approximately 30% of the genes already havebeen characterized experimentally. Of the remaining 70% with unknown function, approximately onehalf either contain a motif of a characterized class of proteins or correspond to genes encoding proteinsthat are structurally related to functionally characterized gene products from yeast or from otherorganisms.

Ribosomal RNA is coded by approximately 120 copies of a single tandem array on chromosomeXII. The DNA sequence revealed that yeast contains 262 tRNA genes, of which 80 have introns. Inaddition, chromosomes contain movable DNA elements, retrotransposons, that vary in number andposition in different strains of S. cerevisiae, with most laboratory strains having approximately 30.

Other nucleic acid entities, presented in Table I, also can be considered part of the yeast genome.Mitochondrial DNA encodes components of the mitochondrial translational machinery andapproximately 15% of the mitochondrial proteins. ρo mutants completely lack mitochondrial DNA andare deficient in the respiratory polypeptides synthesized on mitochondrial ribosomes, i.e., cytochrome band subunits of cytochrome oxidase and ATPase complexes. Even though ρo mutants are respiratorydeficient, they are viable and still retain mitochondria, although the mitochondria are morphologicallyabnormal.

The 2-µm circle plasmids, present in most strains of S. cerevisiae, apparently function solely fortheir own replication. Generally ciro strains, which lack 2-µm DNA, have no observable phenotype.However, a certain chromosomal mutation, nib1, causes a reduction in growth of cir+ strains, due to anabnormally high copy number 2-µm DNA.73,74

Similarly, almost all S. cerevisiae strains contain intracellular dsRNA viruses that constitutesapproximately 0.1% of total nucleic acid. RNA viruses include three families with dsRNA genomes, L-A, L-BC, and M. Two other families of dsRNA, T and W, replicate in yeast but so far have not beenshown to be viral. M dsRNA encodes a toxin, and L-A encodes the major coat protein andcomponents required for the viral replication and maintenance of M. The two dsRNA, M and L-A, arepackaged separately with the common capsid protein encoded by L-A, resulting in virus-like particlesthat are transmitted cytoplasmically during vegetative growth and conjugation. L-B and L-C(collectively denoted L-BC), similar to L-A, have a RNA-dependent RNA polymerase and are presentin intracellular particles. KIL-o mutants, lacking M dsRNA and consequently the killer toxin, arereadily induced by growth at elevated temperatures, and chemical and physical agents.

Yeast also contains a 20S circular single-stranded RNA (not shown in Table I) that appears toencode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, that acts as an independent replicon, and that is inheritedas a non-Mendelian genetic element.

Only mutations of chromosomal genes exhibit Mendelian 2:2 segregation in tetrads after sporulationof heterozygous diploids; this property is dependent on the disjunction of chromosomal centromeres.In contrast, non-Mendelian inheritance is observed for the phenotypes associated with the absence oralteration of other nucleic acids or prions described in Table I.

Genetic NomenclatureChromosomal Genes

The accepted genetic nomenclature for chromosomal genes of the yeast S. cerevisiae is illustratedin Table II, using ARG2 as an example. Whenever possible, each gene, allele, or locus is designated bythree italicized letters, e.g., ARG, which is usually a describer, followed by a number, e.g., ARG2.

7

Unlike most other systems of genetic nomenclature, dominant alleles are denoted by using uppercaseitalics for all letters of the gene symbol, e.g., ARG2, whereas lowercase letters denote the recessiveallele, e.g., the auxotrophic marker arg2. Wild-type genes are designated with a superscript “plus”(sup6+ or ARG2+). Alleles are designated by a number separated from the locus number by a hyphen,e.g., arg2-9. The symbol ∆ can denote complete or partial deletions, e.g., arg2-∆1. (Do not use thesymbols ∆arg2 or arg2∆ for deletions.) Insertion of genes follow the bacterial nomenclature by usingthe symbol :: . For example, arg2::LEU2 denotes the insertion of the LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, inwhich LEU2 is dominant (and functional), and arg2 is recessive (and defective).

Phenotypes are denoted by cognate symbols in Roman type and by the superscripts + and –. Forexample, the independence and requirement for arginine can be denoted by Arg+ and Arg–,respectively. Proteins encoded by ARG2, for example, can be denoted Arg2p, or simply Arg2 protein.However, gene symbols are generally used as adjectives for other nouns, for example, ARG2 mRNA,ARG2 strains, etc. Resistance and sensitivity phenotypes are designated by superscript R and S,respectively. For example, resistance and sensitivity to canavanine sulphate are designated CanR andCanS, respectively.

Although most alleles can be unambiguously assigned as dominant or recessive by examining thephenotype of the heterozygous diploid crosses, dominant and recessive traits are defined only withpairs, and a single allele can be both dominant and recessive. For example, because the alleles CYC1+,cyc1-717 and cyc1-∆1 produce, respectively, 100%, 5% and 0% of the gene product, the cyc1-717allele can be considered recessive in the cyc1-717/CYC1+ cross and dominant in theCYC1-717/cyc1-∆1 cross. Thus, it is less confusing to denote all mutant alleles in lower case letters,especially when considering a series of mutations having a range of activities.

Wild-type and mutant alleles of the mating-type locus and related loci do not follow the standardrules. The two wild-type alleles of the mating-type locus are designated MATa and MATα. Thewild-type homothallic alleles at the HMR and HML loci are denoted, HMRa, HMRα, HMLa andHMLα. The mating phenotypes of MATa and MATα cells are denoted simply a and α, respectively.The two letters HO denote the gene encoding the endonuclease required for homothallic switching.

Auxiliary gene symbols can be used to further describe the corresponding phenotypes, including theuse of superscript R and S to distinguish genes conferring resistance and sensitivity, respectively. Forexample, the genes controlling resistance to canavanine sulphate (can1), copper sulphate (CUP1) andtheir sensitive alleles could be denoted, respectively, as canR1, CUPR1, CANS1, and cupS1.

Dominant and recessive suppressors are designated, respectively, by three uppercase or threelowercase letters, followed by a locus designation, e.g., SUP4, SUF1, sup35, suf11, etc. In someinstances UAA ochre suppressors and UAG amber suppressors are further designated, respectively, oand a following the locus. For example, SUP4-o refers to suppressors of the SUP4 locus that inserttyrosine residues at UAA sites; SUP4-a refers to suppressors of the same SUP4 locus that inserttyrosine residues at UAG sites. The corresponding wild-type locus that encodes the normal tyrosinetRNA and that lacks suppressor activity can be referred to as sup4+. Intragenic mutations thatinactivate suppressors can be denoted, for example, sup4– or sup4-o-1. Frameshift suppressors aredenoted as suf (or SUF), whereas metabolic suppressors are denoted with a variety of specializedsymbols, such as ssn (suppressor of snf1), srn (suppressor of rna1-1), and suh (suppressor ofhis2-1).Capital letters are also used to designate certain DNA segments whose locations have beendetermined by a combination of recombinant DNA techniques and classical mapping procedures, e.g.,RDN1, the segment encoding ribosomal RNA.

8

The general form YCRXXw is used to designate genes deduced from the sequence of the yeastgenome, where Y designates yeast; C (or A, B, etc.) designates the chromosome III (or I, II, etc.); R(or L) designates the right (or left) arm of the chromosome; XX designates the relative position of thestart of the open-reading frame from the centromere; and w (or c) designates the Watson (or Crick)strand. For example, YCR5c denotes CIT2, a previously known but unmapped gene situated on theright arm of chromosome III, fifth open reading-frame from the centromere on the Crick strand.

E. coli genes inserted into yeast are usually denoted by the prokaryotic nomenclature, e. g., lacZ.A current list of gene symbols can be found on the Internet.75

TABLE IIGENETIC NOMENCLATURE, USING ARG2 AS AN EXAMPLE

Genesymbol Definition

ARG+ All wild-type alleles controlling arginine requirementARG2 A locus or dominant allelearg2 A locus or recessive allele confering an arginine requirementarg2– Any arg2 allele confering an arginine requirementARG2+ The wild-type allelearg2-9 A specific allele or mutationArg+ A strain not requiring arginineArg– A strain requiring arginineArg2p The protein encoded by ARG2Arg2 protein The protein encoded by ARG2ARG2 mRNA The mRNA transcribed from ARG2arg2-∆1 A specific complete or partial deletion of ARG2ARG2::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and ARG2 remains

functional and dominantarg2::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and arg2 is or

became nonfunctionalarg2-10::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and the specified

arg2-10 allele which is nonfunctionalcyc1-arg2 A fusion between the CYC1 and ARG2 genes, where both are nonfunctionalPCYC1-ARG2 A fusion between the CYC1 promoter and ARG2, where the ARG2 gene is

functional

9

TABLE IIIMITOCHONDRIAL GENES AND MUTATIONS WITH EXAMPLES

Wild- Mutationtype (with examples) Mutant phenotype or gene product

Nuclear genes PET+ pet – Nfs–

pet1 Unknown functioncox4 Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IVhem1 δ-Aminolevulinate synthasecyc3 Cytochrome c heme lyase

Mitochondrial DNAGross aberrations

ρ+ ρ– Nfs–ρo ρ– mutants lacking mitochondrial DNA

Single-site mutations ρ+ mit – Nfs-, but capable of mitochondrial translation [COX1] [cox1] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [COX2] [cox2] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II [COX3] [cox3] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit III [COB1] [cob1] or [box] Cytochrome b [ATP6] [atp6] ATPase subunit 6 [ATP8] [atp8] ATPase subunit 8 [ATP9] [atp9] or [pho2] ATPase subunit 9 [VAR1] Mitochondrial ribosomal subunit ρ+ syn– Nfs–, deficient in mitochondrial translation

tRNAAsp or M7-37 Mitochondrial tRNAAsp (CUG)ant R Resistant to inhibitors

[ery S] ery R or [rib1] Resistant to erythromycin, 21S rRNA [cap S] cap R or [rib3] Resistant to chloramphenical, 21S rRNA [par S] par R or [par1] Resistant to paromomycin, 16S rRNA [oli S] oli R or [oli1] Resistant to oligomycin, ATPase subunit 9———————————————————————————————————————Nfs– denotes lack of growth on nonfermentable substrates.———————————————————————————————————————

Mitochondrial GenesSpecial consideration should be made of the nomenclature describing mutations of mitochondrial

components and function that are determined by both nuclear and mitochondrial DNA genes. Thegrowth on media containing nonfermentable substrates (Nfs) as the sole energy and carbon source (suchas glycerol or ethanol) is the most convenient operational procedure for testing mitochondrial function.Lack of growth on nonfermentable media (Nfs– mutants), as well as other mitochondrial alterations, canbe due to either nuclear or mitochondrial mutations as outlined in Table III. Nfs– nuclear mutations are

10

generally denoted by the symbol pet; however, more specific designations have been used instead ofpet when the gene products were known, such as cox4, hem1, etc.

The complexity of nomenclatures for mitochondrial DNA genes, outlined in Table III, is due in partto complexity of the system, polymorphic differences of mitochondrial DNA, complementation betweenexon and intron mutations, the presence of intron-encoded maturases, diversed phenotypes of mutationswithin the same gene, and the lack of agreement between various workers. Unfortunately, thenomenclature for most mitochondrial mutations do not follow the rules outlined for nuclear mutations.Furthermore, confusion can occur between phenotypic designations, mutant isolation number, allelicdesignations, loci, and cistrons (complementation groups).

Non-Mendelian DeterminantsWhere necessary, non-Mendelian genotypes can be distinguished from chromosomal genotypes by

enclosure in brackets, e.g., [KIL–o] MATa trp1–1. Although it is advisable to employ the above rulesfor designating non-Mendelian genes and to avoid using Greek letters, the use of well-known andgenerally accepted Greek symbols should be continued; thus, the original symbols ρ+, ρ–, ψ+, and ψ–or their transliterations, rho+, rho–, [PSI+] and [psi–], respectively, have been retained.

TABLE IVSOME NON-MENDELIAN DETERMINANTS OF YEAST

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Mutant or

Wild- polymorphic type variant Genetic element Mutant phenotype––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––ρ+ ρ– Mitochondrial DNA Deficiency of cytochromes a·a3, b, and respirationKIL-k1 KIL-o RNA plasmid Sensitive to killer toxincir+ ciro 2-µm circle plasmid None[psi –] [PSI +] Sup35p prion Decreased efficiency of certain suppression[ure3–] [URE3] Ure2p prion Ureidosuccinate uptake not repressible[PIN –] [PIN +] Rnq1p prion Required for [PSI +] induction

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Adapted from ref. 70,71,72,76,77,78,79 Other non-Mendelian determinants have been reported.74

In addition to the non-Mendelian determinants described in Table I (2 µm plasmid, mitochondrialgenes, and RNA viruses), yeast contains prions, i.e., infectious proteins. The nomenclature of theseprions, representing alternative protein states, are presented in Table IV, along with other non-Mendelian determinants.

Growth and Size“Normal” laboratory haploid strains have a doubling time of approximately 90 min in YPD medium

(see below) and approximately 140 min in synthetic media during the exponential phase of growth.However, strains with greatly reduced growth rates in synthetic media are often encountered. Usuallystrains reach a maximum density of 2 x 108 cells/ml in YPD medium. Titers 10 times this value can be

11

achieved with special conditions, such as pH control, continous additions of balanced nutrients, filtered-sterilized media and extreme aeration that can be delivered in fermentors.

The sizes of haploid and diploid cells vary with the phase of growth80 and from strain to strain.Typically, diploid cells are 5 x 6 µm ellipsoids and haploid cells are 4 µm diameter spheroids.81 Thevolumes and gross composition of yeast cells are listed in Table V. During exponential growth, haploidcultures tend to have higher numbers of cells per cluster compared to diploid cultures. Also haploidcells have buds that appear adjacent to the previous one; whereas diploid cells have buds that appear atthe opposite pole.82

TABLE VSIZE AND COMPOSITION OF YEAST CELLS

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Characteristic Haploid cell Diploid cell

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Volume (µm3) 70 120Composition (10–12 g)

Wet weight 60 80Dry weight 15 20DNA 0.017 0.034RNA 1.2 1.9Protein 6 8

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Growth and Testing MediaFor experimental purposes, yeast are usually grown at 30°C on the complete medium, YPD (Table

VI), or on synthetic media, SD and SC (Tables VII83and VIII). For industrial or certain specialpurposes when large amounts of high titers are desirable, yeast can be grown in cheaper media with highaeration and pH control.84 The ingredients of standard laboratory media are presented in Tables VII-VIII. Synthetic media83 are conveniently prepared with Bacto-yeast nitrogen base without amino acids(Difco Laboratories, Detroit, MI), containing the constituents presented in Table VIII. Nutritionalrequirements of mutants are supplied with the nutrients listed in Table VI. Growth on nonfermentablecarbon sources can be tested on YPG medium (Table VI), and fermentation markers can bedetermined with indicator media (Table IX), on which acid production induces color changes.

S. cerevisiae strains can be sporulated at 30°C on the media listed in Table X ; most strains willreadily sporulate on the surface of sporulation medium after replica plating fresh cultures from a YPDplate.85

Media for petri plates are prepared in 2-liter flasks, with each flask containing no more than 1 literof medium, which is sufficient for approximately 40 standard plates. Unless stated otherwise, allcomponents are autoclaved together for 15 minutes at 250°F (120°C) and 15 pounds pressure. Theplates should be allowed to dry at room temperature for 2-3 days after pouring. The plates can bestored in sealed plastic bags for over three months at room temperature. The agar is omitted for liquidmedia.

Different types of synthetic media, especially omission media, can be prepared by mixing andgrinding dry components in a ball-mill.

TABLE VICOMPLEX MEDIA

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––

12

Medium Components Composition–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––YPD (for routine growth) 1% Bacto-yeast extract 10 g

2% Bacto-peptone 20 g2% Dextrose 20 g2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 1000 ml

–—–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––––––YPG [containing a nonfermentable carbon 1% Bacto-yeast extract 10 g source (glycerol) that does not support the 2% Bacto-peptone 20 g growth of ρ– or pet mutants] 3% (v/v) Glycerol 30 ml

2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 970 ml

–—–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––––––YPDG (used to determine the proportion of ρ– 1% Bacto-yeast extract 10 g cells; ρ+ and ρ– colonies, appear, respectively, 2% Bacto-peptone 20 g large and small on this medium) 3% (v/v) Glycerol 30 ml

0.1% Dextrose 1 g2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 970 ml

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––YPAD (used for the preparation of slants; 1% Bacto-yeast extract 10 g adenine is added to inhibit the reversion of 2% Bacto-peptone 20 g ade1 and ade2 mutations)a 2% Dextrose 20 g

0.003% Adenine sulfate 40 mgDistilled water 1000 ml2% Bacto-agar 20 g

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––a The medium is dissolved in a boiling water bath and 1.5 ml portions are dispensed with an automatic

pipetter into 1-dram (3-ml) vials. The caps are screwed on loosely, and the vials are autoclaved.After autoclaving, the rack is inclined so that the agar is just below the neck of the vial. The capsare tightened after 1 to 2 days.

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––——————–––––––––––

13

TABLE VIISYNTHETIC MINIMAL GLUCOSE MEDIUM (SD) a

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Component Composition

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––0.67% Bacto-yeast nitrogen base 6.7 g (without amino acids)2% Dextrose 20 g2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 1000 ml––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Amount per liter––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Carbon source:

Dextrose 20 gNitrogen source:

Ammonium sulfate 5 gVitamins:

Biotin 20 µgCalcium pantothenate 2 mgFolic acid 2 µgInositol 10 mgNiacin 400 µgp-Aminobenzoic acid 200 µgPyridoxine hydrochloride 400 µgRiboflavin 200 µgThiamine hydrochloride 400 µg

Compounds supplying trace elements:Boric acid 500 µgCopper sulphate 40 µgPotassium iodide 100 µgFerric chloride 200 µgManganese sulphate 400 µgSodium molybdate 200 µgZinc sulphate 400 µg

Salts:Potassium phosphate monobasic 850 mgPotassium phosphate dibasic 150 mgMagnesium sulphate 500 mgSodium chloride 100 mgCalcium chloride 100 mg

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––aThis synthetic medium is based on media described by

Wickerham83 and is marketed, without dextrose, by DifcoLaboratories (Detroit, MI) as “Yeast nitrogen base without

14

TABLE VIIISYNTHETIC COMPLETE MEDIA (SC)a

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Final Amount of

concentration Stock stock (ml) for Constituent (mg/L) per 100 ml 1 liter––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Adenine sulfate 20 200 mgb 10Uracil 20 200 mgb 10L-Tryptophan 20 1 g 2L-Histidine-HC1 20 1 g 2L-Arginine-HC1 20 1 g 2L-Methionine 20 1 g 2L-Tyrosine 30 200 mg 15L-Leucine 60 1 g 6L-Isoleucine 30 1 g 3L-Lysine-HC1 30 1 g 3L-Phenylalanine 50 1 gb 5L-Glutamic acid 100 1 gb 10L-Aspartic acid 100 1 gb,c 10L-Valine 150 3 g 5L-Threonine 200 4 gb,c 5L-Serine 400 8 g 5

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––aSC contains synthetic minimal medium (SD) with various additions. It is convenientto prepare sterile stock solutions which can be stored for extensive periods. All stocksolutions can be autoclaved for 15 min at 250°F. The appropriate volume of thestock solutions (see below) is added to the ingredients of SD medium and sufficientdistilled water is added so that the total volume is one liter. The threonine andaspartic acid solutions should be added separately after autoclaving. Given above arethe concentrations of the stock solutions (amount per 100 ml). Some stock solutionsshould be stored at room temperature in order to prevent precipitation, whereas theother solutions may be refrigerated. It is best to use HCl salts of amino acidswherever applicable.

bStore at room temperature.cAdd after autoclaving the media.

15

TABLE IXINDICATOR MEDIA

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Indicator medium Components Composition––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––MALa 1% Bacto-yeast extract 10 g

2% Bacto-peptone 20 g2% Maltose 20 gBrom-cresol purple solution (0.4% stock) 9 ml2% Agar 20 gDistilled water 1000 ml

GALb 1% Yeast extract 10 g2% Peptone 20 g2% Galactose 20 g2% Agar 20 gBrom-thymol blue (4 mg/ml stock) 20 mlDistilled water 880 ml

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––aMaltose Indicator Medium (MAL) is a fermentation indicator medium used to distinguish strainswhich ferment or do not ferment maltose. Owing to the pH change, the maltose-fermenting strainswill produce a yellow halo on a purple background. A 0.4% brom-cresol purple solution isprepared by dissolving 20 mg of the indicator in 50 ml of ethanol.

bGalactose Indicator Medium (GAL) is a fermentation indicator medium used to distinguish strainswhich ferment or do not ferment. The galactose-fermenting strains will produce a yellow halo on ablue background. After autoclaving, add 100 ml of a filter-sterilized 20% galactose solution.

16

TABLE XSPORULATION MEDIA

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Sporulation medium Components Composition––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Presporulationa 0.8% Bacto-yeast extract 0.8 g

0.3% Bacto-peptone 0.3 g10% Dextrose 10 g2% Bacto-agar 2 gDistilled water 100 ml

Sporulationb 1% Potassium acetate 10 g0.1% Bacto-yeast extract 1 g0.05% Dextrose 0.5 g2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 1000 ml

Minimal sporulationc 1% Potassium acetate 10 g2% Bacto-agar 20 gDistilled water 1000 ml

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––aStrains are grown one or two days on Presporulation Medium before transferring to sporulationmedium. This is only necessary for strains that do not sporulate well when incubated on sporulationmedium directly.

bStrains will undergo several divisions on Sporulation Medium and then sporulate after 3 to 5 daysincubation. Sporulation of auxotrophic diploids is usually increased by adding the nutritionalrequirements to the sporulation medium at 25% of the levels given above for SD complete meduim.

cDiploid cells will sporulate on Minimal Sporulation Medium after 18-24 hrs without vegetativegrowth. Nutritional requirements are added as needed for auxotrophic diploids as for sporulationmedium described above (25% of level for SD complete meduim).

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Practical information on the preparation of media has been presented by Styles.86

Small batches of liquid cultures can be grown in shake flasks using standard bacteriologicaltechniques with high aeration. High aeration can be achieved by vigorously shaking cultures havingliquid volumes less than 20% of the flask volume.

Testing of Phenotypes and Gene FunctionsHampsey87has compiled a useful list of phenotypes that can be conveniently scored or selected,

including the use media for testing a sensitivity and resistance to a large number of different chemical andphysical agents. Furthermore, known mutant genes corresponding to each of the phenotypes have beentabulated.88 An international project, designated EUROFAN 2 (European Network for the FunctionalAnalysis of Yeast Genes Discovered by Systematic DNA Sequencing), is dedicated to the thefunctional analysis of all 6000 yeast ORFs by using gene disruptants.89 The phenotypic analysis includesthe testing for the sensitivity and resistance to toxic compounds on 300 different types of growthconditions.90

17

Strain PreservationYeast strains can be stored for short periods of time at 4°C on YPD medium in petri dishes or in

closed vials (slants). Although most strains remain viable at 4°C for at least one year, many strains failto survive even for a few months.

Yeast strains can be stored indefinitely in 15% (v/v) glycerol at -60°C or lower temperature.(Yeast tend to die after several years if stored at temperatures above –55°C.91

Many workers use 2-ml vials (35 x 12 mm) containing 1 ml of sterile 15% (v/v) glycerol. Thestrains are first grown on the surfaces of YPD plates; the yeast is then scraped-up with sterileapplicator sticks and suspended in the glycerol solution. The caps are tightened and the vials shakenbefore freezing. The yeast can be revived by transferring a small portion of the frozen sample to a YPDplate.

Micromanipulation and MicromanipulatorsThe separation of the four ascospores from individual asci by micromanipulation is required for

meiotic genetic analyses and for the construction of strains with specific markers. In addition,micromanipulation is used to separate zygotes from mass-mating mixtures and, less routinely, forpositioning of vegetative cells and spores for mating purposes and for single-cell analyses, such as usedin aging studies. The relocation and transfer of ascospores, zygotes and vegetative cells are almostexclusively carried out on agar surfaces with a fine glass microneedle mounted in the path of amicroscope objective and controlled by a micromanipulator. Although specialized equipment and someexperience is required to carry out these procedures, most workers can acquire proficiency within a fewdays of practice.

Micromanipulators used for yeast studies operate with control levers or joysticks that can translatehand movements into synchronously reduced movements of microtools.92,93,94 Most of the instrumentswere designed so that movement of the tool in the horizontal (x and y) plane is directly related to themovement of the control handle, whereas the vertical (z plane) tool movement is controlled by rotating aknob, located either on or near the horizontal control handle. Other designs have other combinations inwhich the joystick controls the x and z planes, a screw controls the z plane. The main commerciallyavailable micromanipulators that have single control levers and that are commonly used for yeast studiesare listed in Table XI, along with the distributors.

Transmission of hand motions to the tool with the de Fonbrune micromanipulator is based onpneumatic principles, whereas the other units rely on several ingenious mechanical principles involvingdirect coupling to sliding components.

The Zeiss Tetrad “Advanced Yeast Dissection Microscope” (Table XI, Fig. 1),95 and the TDM400 E “Tetrad Dissection System” (Table XI),96 are based on the design described by Sherman98, andare primarily intended for dissection of asci.

The Zeiss Tetrad Microscope incorporates a modified Zeiss Axioskop fixed-stage microscope anda stable stage-mounted micromanipulator, with joystick control and adjustable y-z movement rangingfrom 0.1 to 5 mm. Stage movement incorporates clickstops at 5 mm intervals in both x and ydirections, and an engraved x-scale on the

18

TABLE XICOMMERCIALLY AVAILABLE MICROMANIPULATORS WITH SINGLE-LEVER CONTROLS

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Distributor and Micromanipulator Ref.––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––Carl Zeiss, Inc. (Thornwood, NY)

TetradTM Microscope (Cat. No. 4509079902K) 95

Schütt Labortechnik GmbH (Göttingen, Germany)Tetrad Dissection Microscope, TDM 400 E, Type I 96, 97

Tetrad Dissection Microscope, TDM 400 E, Type IISinger Instrument Co. Ltd. (Watchet, Somerset, U. K.)

Singer MSM System Series 200 99

Singer MSM ManualTechnical Products International (St. Louis, MO)

TPI de Fonbrune-type micromanipulator (with or without Olympus microscope) 101

––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

holder for an inverted petri dish facilitates the systematic relocation of spores. The stage assembly fortetrad dissection is easily removed, allowing the microscope to be used for general purposes. Also, themanipulator can mounted on either the left or right hand side of the stage.

Similarly, the TDM 400 E system incorporates the Nikon Eclipse E 400 microscope and includes ajoystick micromanipulator, a holder for 100 mm petri dishes, and a calibrated stage. The microscope iscomplete with long working distance optics for viewing through the inverted dish containing spores orvegetative cells. The micromanipulator is normally mounted on the left side of the stage and both movein concert when the microscope is focussed, thus eliminating the need for a fixed stage. A joystickcontrols the y and z motion, whereas a knurled knob is rotated for movement along the x-axis. Themechanical stage has coaxial control knobs, which are tension adjustable, and the stage is indexed withclick-stops every 5 mm on the x and y-axes. Ten cm petri dishes can be accommodated on the stage.The Nikon Eclipse E 400 Microscope is designed with a 25 degree binocular body, and options areavailable to adjust the height of the eyepieces for abnormally tall operators. Focussing andmicromanipulation can be done with both arms resting on the benchtop. The one-side fine focus allowsfor the operation of the stage and the fine focus with one hand. The TDM 400 E is offered in twoversions, type I and type II, having, respectively, 150x and 200x maximum magnification. Both typescome with an Abbe condenser which has been modified so that it will provide proper Köhlerillumination over the extended distance to the specimen. Stand and stage are built for right-handedoperation but left-handed models are optional.

The Singer MSM System series 200 (Table XI, Fig. 2)99 is a complete, computer-controlledworkstation for micromanipulation in yeast genetics, including tetrad dissection, pedigree analysis, celland zygote isolation. Repetitive movements can be automated with a resolution of 4 µm, a repeatabilityof 2 µm, and an overall movement of 15 cm x 10 cm, using a computer-controlled motorized stage thataccepts standard Petri dishes. The workstation includes a integral trinocular microscope having 15xwidefield eyepieces, 4x and 20x XLWD objectives, electronically controlled fine focusing from thejoystick, and a

19

FIG. 1. The Zeiss Tetrad “Advanced Yeast Dissection Microscope”, showing the micromanipulatormounted on a Zeiss Axioskop fixed-stage microscope modified for tetrad dissection

20

FIG. 2. The Singer MSM series 200 System, showing the microscope with a motor-driven stage,the micromanipulator, the control console, the joystickand, and the optional accessories, a CCD CCTVcamera and monitor, and video printer.

21

FIG. 3. Singer MSM Manual, which incorporates a stage-mounted micromanipulator and amanually operated stage and microscope. The fine focus is operated by knobs positioned on each side,underneath the stage at the bench height, whereas a pendant stage handle controls the x-y movement ofthe petri dish.

22

FIG. 4. The de Fonbrune-type micromanipulator. The control unit (right) and the receiver (left) areinterconnected by flexible tubing on opposite sides of a Leitz Laborlux II microscope. The completeassembly is on a vibration eliminator (Vibration Damping Mount, Vibrasorb® , Cat. No. 67120-01,Electron Microscopy Sciences, Fort Washington, PA).

23

hinged overarm to conveniently clear petri dishes. A television camera can be conveniently attached tothe unit. The MSM Micromanipulator can be locked by a single handle to either side of the sub-stagefor right or left hand operation. Horizontal movements (x and y) of the needle are controlled by apendant joystick, whereas the the vertical (z) drive is controlled by a coaxial ring. Coarse adjustmentsof the needle are also convenient. The Singer MSM System series 200 is supplied with a needle holderand needles.

The manually operated Singer MSM Manual (Table XI, Fig. 3)99 includes the same microscopeand stage-mounted manipulator as the Singer MSM System series 200 unit. Spring loaded stops allowthe detection of matrix grid points along the y axis, whereas a incrementing stop contols stage movementalong the y axis, thus allowing the rapid positioning of the petri dish in a 6 mm grid, which is ideallysuited for asci dissection. In addition, the y axis in the area of the inoculum streak is resticted, and a trimscrew enables the operator to return to certain positions in the x axis, making the search for asciconvenient. 4

The de Fonbrune micromanipulator, shown in Fig. 4, pneumatically transmits a fine degree ofmotion from a single joystick.100,101 The micromanipulator consists of two free-standing units: (1) ajoystick controlling three piston pumps that is connected by tubing to (2) three diaphragms or aneroidsthat actuates a lever holding the micro-tool. Lateral movement of the joystick controls the x and yhorizontal movements, whereas rotation of the joystick controls vertical z movement. A moveable collaron the joystick provides simple ratio adjustment control that can be varied from 1:50 to 1:2500. Thus,the movement of the microtool can be adjusted to correspond to the magnification of the optical systemor to increase or decrease the control sensitivity. In addition, mechanical controls on the receiver unitprovide fast and coarse adjustments. The de Fonbrune micromanipulator, which is not directly attachedto the stage, should be used in conjunction with various microscopes having fixed stages and tubefocusing, Fine mechanical stages with graduations are essential with all micromanipulators. It isconvenient to have long working distance objectives for magnifications in the range of 150-300x. Longworking distances can be achieved with 10x and 15x objectives, and the appropriate magnificationswith 20x or 25x eye pieces.

Because of the low cost and compactness, the Tetrad Microscopes, or Tetrad DissectionMicroscopes, are the most commonly used models and are highly recommended. Although it has beenour experience that the skill of asci dissection can be taught more quickly with the de Fonbrune-typemicromanipulator, this and other micromanipulators not attached directly to the microscope stagerequire more space, and in some instances heavy base plates or vibration eliminators (see Fig. 4). TheSinger MSM System series 2000, although expensive, is the ultimate apparatus for dissection of asci.

MicroneedlesThe separation of ascospores, zygotes, and vegetative yeast cells can be carried out with simple

glass microneedles attached to any one of the micromanipulators described above. Microneedles canbe made from a stock of commercial glass fibers102,103 or glass fiber strands with polished ends,104,105

they can be made individually from glass rods,94 or they can be obtained from the Singer InstrumentCo.99

24

FIG. 5. Use of glass fibers for constructing microneedles. (A) a glass fiber approximately 40 mm indiameter is broken into segments approximately 1 cm long with a razor blade and examined with amicroscope. (B) The segments containing flat ends are attached at a right angle to a mounting rod withcyanoacrylic “Super-Glue”.94

25

FIG. 6. Construction of microneedles. Microneedles required for the separation of ascospores canbe made by first drawing out a 2-mm glass rod to a fine tip and then drawing out the end to an evenfiner tip at a right angle.94

FIG. 7. The relative positions of the microneedle, a rig for holding a petri dish, and the microscopeobjectives.94

26

FIG. 8. A field of sporulated culture. (A) A four-spored cluster is seen at the right of themicroneedle tip. (B) The cluster was picked up on the microneedle, which was lowered beneath thefocal plane. The ascospores and the tip of the microneedle are, respectively, approximately 5 and 50mm in diameter.94

27

FIG. 9. The transfer of four spores from the surface of agar to the platform of a microneedle, byway of a water miniscus.94

FIG. 10. The steps for sequentially separating the cluster of four ascospores approximately 5 mmapart on petri dishes.94

28

Microneedles are commonly constructed from glass fibers by a procedure that involves two steps:(1) the preparation of a stock of glass fibers; and (2) the gluing of a short segment of glass fiberperpendicular to a glass or metal mounting rod (Fig. 5). The glass mounting rod is made by first heatinga 2 mm rod in a burner and pulling slowly to form a taper. When the rod has sufficient taper, the end ispulled quickly at right angles, similar to the procedure shown in Fig. 6; the end is broken so that the rightangle projection is approximately 2 mm. The mounting rod should be cut with a file to approximatelythe size required to fit on the microscope stage, taking into account the distance from the manipulator tothe center of the microscope field of view. The microneedle is attached to the micromanipulator andpositioned under the microscope objective as shown in Fig. 7.

Most researchers use optical glass fibers,103 which are commercially-available (0.002 inchdiameter, cat. no. F31.735, Edmund Scientific [101 East Gloucester Pike, Barrington, NJ 08007]),and which have a uniform size. However, glass fibers can be made by drawing thin filaments from a 2mm glass rod.102 The glass fibers can be broken with the fingers or cut with scissors or cover slips. Thesegments are placed on a microscope slide for examination under a dissecting microscope (Fig. 5).Segments of about 1 cm are usually desired for dissection on a petri dish with a standardmicromanipulator. The exact length is not too important at this point, because the microneedleeventually can be cut to size with a cover slip.

The segments of glass fibers are examined under a low-power dissecting microscope to determinewhich of them will make a good needle, i.e., which have tips with a flat surface perpendicular to the longaxis of the needle and no burrs or cracks in the tip (Fig. 5). However, a needle with minorimperfections, (e.g., a half circle) sometimes will work if it has a flat working surface.

The glass-fiber segment with the best tip is moved down on the slide so that the good end is on theslide and the end to be glued is hanging off the edge. A small drop of Super Glue (cyanoacrylic) (PacerTechnology, Rancho Cucamonga, CA) is applied to the mounting rod and the glass fiber is glued to theend as shown in Fig. 6. The easiest way to apply the glue is to place a drop on a microscope slide andthen to dip the whisker of the mounting rod into the drop. After contact, the glass fiber will usuallycome off the slide and stick to the mounting rod without any coaxing. If the glass fiber is notperpendicular to the stock, one may quickly adjust the angle before the glue sets.

Microneedles can be more conveniently prepared from commercially-available glass fiber segmentswith polished ends.104,105 The use of these polished glass fibers is highly recommended for thepreparation of glass microneedle.

The preparation of individual glass microneedle from glass rods requires more skill and patience,but allows the construction of microneedle with different diameters. The individually-prepared glassmicroneedle can be made with the small flame from the pilot light of an ordinary bunsen burner. A 2-mm-diameter glass rod is drawn out to a fine tip with the bunsen burner; by using the pilot flame, aneven finer tip is drawn out at a right angle with an auxiliary piece of glass rod as illustrated in Fig. 6. Theend is broken off so that the tip has a diameter of 10 to 100 µm and a length of a few millimeters. Thedrawn-out tip can be cut with a razor blade or broken between the surface and edge of two glass slides.It is critical that the microneedles have a flat end, which sometimes requires several attempts. The exactdiameter is not critical, and various investigators have different preferences. Spores are more readilypicked up and transferred with microneedles having tips of larger diameters, whereas manipulations incrowded areas having high densities of cells are more manageable with microneedles having smallerdiameters. An approximately 40-µm-diameter microneedle is an acceptable compromise. Someinvestigators prefer larger diameters for picking up zygotes. The length of the perpendicular end shouldbe compatible with the height of the petri dish or chamber; too short an end may result in optical

29

distortions from the main shank of the microneedle. Longer microneedles are required for manipulationson the surfaces of petri dishes.

The needle is mounted into the micromanipulator and centered in the field. The adjustment of theneedle is made most easily first at low magnification and then at higher magnification. As recommendedabove, asci are usually dissected at 150x or greater magnification.

Dissection of Asci94

Digestion of the Ascus SacSporulated cultures usually consist of unsporulated vegetative cells, four-spored asci, three-spored

asci, etc. Dissection of asci requires the identification of four-spored asci and the relocation of each ofthe four ascopores to separate positions where they will form isolated spore colonies. The procedurerequires the digestion of the ascus wall with Zymolyase, or another enzyme, without dissociating the fourspores from the ascus.106 (With very unusual strains that are particularly sensitive to enzyme treatments,the separation of ascospores can be carried out by rupturing the ascus wall with a microneedle.)57,107

Sporulated cells from the surface of sporulation medium are suspended in 50 µl of a stock solutionof Zymolyase T100 (ICN) (50 µg/ml in 1 M sorbitol), and the suspension is incubated at 30ºC forapproximately 10 minutes. The exact time of incubation is strain dependent and the progress of thedigestion can be followed by removing a loopful of the digest to a glass slide and examining it underphase contrast at 400x magnification. The sample is ready for dissection when the spores in most of theasci are visible as discrete spheres, arranged in a diamond shape. Typical digestsed asci are seen in Fig.8A. If a majority of the asci are still arranged in tightly-packed tetrahedrons or diamond shapes inwhich the spores are not easily resolved, digestion is incomplete and the spores will not be easilyseparated by micro dissection. It is convenient to use a Zymolyase concentration that will digest theascus wall in approximately 10 minutes. The digestion is terminated by placing the tube on ice andgently adding 150 µl of sterile water. Extensive treatment sometimes can decrease the viability anddissociate the clusters of four spores. The culture is suspended by gently rotating the tube; an aliquot istransferred with a wire loop to the surface of a petri plate or agar slab. It is important not to agitate thespores once they have been treated. If the treated spores are vortexed or shaken, the integrity of theascus cannot be assured since the contents of one ascus may disperse and reassemble with the contentsof another.

The digestion can also be carried out with snail juice, which can be obtained commercially asGlusulase (NEN Research Proucts, catalogue no. NEE-154) or Suc d’Helix pomatia (L’IndustrieBiologique Francaise, Genevilliers, France), or which can be prepared from snails, Helix pomatia orHelix aspersa.106

Separation of AscosporesMicromanipulation can be implemented directly on the surfaces of ordinary petri dishes filled with

nutrient medium or in special chambers on thin agar slabs. The petri dish (or chamber) is positioned sothat the inoculum is in the microscope field over the microneedle. Examination of the streak shouldreveal the presence of the desired four-spored clusters as well as smaller clusters and vegetative cells.A typical preparation is shown in Fig. 8. A cluster of four spores is picked up on the microneedle bypositioning microneedle tip next to the four-spored cluster on the surface of the agar. The microneedleis moved in a sweeping action, first touching the agar surface and then lowering the microneedle with asingle motion. The absence of the four spores from the agar surface indicates that they have beentransferred to the microneedle. Several attempts may be required to pick up all four ascospores. The

30

microneedle can be considered a platform to which the spores are transferred. It is obvious from therelative sizes of the microneedle and spores (Fig. 8) that the microneedle does not “poke” the tetrad ofspores to pick them up. The flat surface of the microneedle does not interact with the sporesthemselves, but rather with the water layer on the surface of the agar. When the microneedleapproaches the surface of the agar, a miniscus forms and often a halo of refracted light can be seenaround the shadow of the microneedle. At this time a column of water connects the microneedle andthe agar (Fig. 9). The spores disappear from view into the miniscus. The combined sideways anddownward sweeping motion is an attempt to coax the spores into the half of the miniscus that remainson the microneedle surface as it breaks away. Success in this endeavor is assayed by thedisappearance of the spores from the visual field in the microscope. At the new position the process isrepeated, this time with the hope that spores go from the microneedle miniscus to the surface of theagar.

Once the four spores have been transferred to the first position, it is necessary to separate at leastone spore from the rest so that it can be left behind. A simple technique for achieving this goal is tomove the microneedle onto the surface of the agar, forming the crisp image and halo, directly next to thecluster of spores and to vibrate the microneedle by gently tapping on the table near the microscope oron the microscope stage. The spores will often be separated by several microneedle diameters by thisaction. Three spores can be collected by sweeping the surface of the agar with the needle tip, and theprocess is repeated at the next three stops.

Note the position on the mechanical stage and place the four spores on the surface of the agar atleast 5 mm from the streak. Pick up three spores and move the dish away from the streak another 5mm (Fig. 10). Deposit the three spores and pick up two spores. Move the chamber an additional 5mm; deposit the two spores and pick up one spore. Move the chamber 5 mm more and plant theremaining spore. Move the chamber 5 mm from the line of the four spores and select another four-spore cluster. Separate the spores as before at 5 mm intervals. Continue until a sufficient number of asciis dissected or until the entire dish is covered.

After picking up the four spores from an ascus, it is often convenient to set the stage micrometer sothat each group of four spore colonies falls on cardinal points such as 15, 20, 25, etc. This makes iteasier to keep track of progress and prevents the spore colonies from growing too close together.Likewise, positions on the y axis can be marked on the stage micrometer so that the four spore coloniesfrom each ascus are evenly spaced. Take care are not to break the microneedle when removing thedish or chamber from the stage. The thin agar slab is transferred from the chamber to the surface of anutrient plate, which is then incubated for three days until the spore colonies are formed. Petri dishescontaining separated spores are similarily incubated. As shown in Fig. 11, colonies derived fromascospores that were separated directly on a petri dish can be replica plated directly to media for testingnutritional requirements.

Although considerable patience is required to master ascus dissection, most workers are able tocarry out this procedure after a few days of practice.

31

FIG. 11. Spore colonies derived from asci separated on the surface of a petri dish (Top). Thecentral area of the dish, containing a streak of the sporulated culture, was cut out and removed afterdissection. The spore colonies were replica plated to a synthetic medium lacking a nutrient (Bottom).The 2:2 segregation of a heterozygous marker is revealed by the growth pattern on the seletivemedium.The complete viability and uniform colony size shown in this figure is not typical of the meiotic progenyfrom most diploids; however, these properties can be choosen during the course of strain construction.94

32

Isolation of CellsIn addition to ascus dissection, micromanipulation is occasionally required for separating zygotes

from mating mixtures, for pairing vegetative cells and spores for mating, and for separating mother cellsand daughter cells during vegetative growth. Zygotes usually can be picked up on microneedles,although vegetative cells usually cannot. However, vegetative cells can be separated simply by draggingthem across the agar surface with microneedles. The use of microneedles is rather effective, since thecells usually follow closely in the wake of the microneedle as it is moved along the liquid surface film ofthe agar.

Tetrad AnalysisMeiotic analysis is the traditional method for genetically determining the order and distances

between genes of organisms having well-defined genetics systems. Yeast is especially suited for meioticmapping because the four spores in an ascus are the products of a single meiotic event, and the geneticanalysis of these tetrads provides a sensitive means for determining linkage relationships of genespresent in the heterozygous condition. It is also possible to map a gene relative to its centromere ifknown centromere-linked genes are present in the cross. Although the isolation of the four spores froman ascus is one of the more difficult techniques in yeast genetics, requiring a micromanipulator andpractice, tetrad analysis is routinely carried out in most laboratories working primarily with yeast. Eventhough linkage relationships are no longer required for most studies, tetrad analysis is necessary fordetermining a mutation corresponds to an alteration at a single locus, for constructing strains with newarrays of markers, and for investigating the interaction of genes.

There are three classes of tetrads from a hybrid which is heterozygous for two markers, AB x ab:PD (parental ditype), NPD (non-parental ditype) and T (tetratype) as shown in Fig. 12. The followingratios of these tetrads can be used to deduce gene and centromere linkage:

PD NPD T�����������AB aB ABAB aB Abab Ab abab Ab aB�����������

Random assortment 1 : 1 : 4Linkage >1 : <1

Centromere linkage 1 : 1 : <4

There is an excess of PD to NPD asci if two genes are linked. If two genes are on differentchromosomes and are linked to their respective centromeres, there is a reduction of the proportion of Tasci. If two genes are on different chromosomes and at least one gene is not centromere-linked, or iftwo genes are widely separated on the same chromosome, there is independent assortment and the PD :NPD : T ratio is 1 : 1 : 4. The origin of different tetrad types are illustrated in Fig. 12.

33

FIG. 12. Different tetrad types originating from a AB x ab heterozygous cross after either nocrossover or single or double crossovers between the A-B interval. The fractions of the different tetradtypes reveal whether A and B are linked and the values can be used to calculate the map distance.

The frequencies of PD, NPD, and T tetrads can be used to determine the map distance in cM(centimorgans) between two genes if there are two or lesser exchanges within the interval:108

� �100 � T + 6NPD �

cM = — �—————— � 2 �PD + NPD + T �

� �

The equation for deducing map distances, cM, is accurate for distances up to approximately 35cM. For larger distances up to approximately 75 cM, the value can be corrected by the followingempirically-derived equation:109

(80.7)(cM) - (0.883)(cM)2cM (corrected) = ———————————

83.3 - cM

Similarly, the distance between a marker and its centromere cM′, can be approximated from thepercentage of T tetrads with a tightly-linked centromere marker, such as trp1:

� �100 � T �

cM′ = — �—————— � 2 �PD + NPD + T �

� �

Gene MappingRecombinant DNA procedures have by-and-large replaced traditional genetic methods for

determining the chromosomal positions of genes and subsequently their identification. The cloning of aDNA segment corresponding to a mutation, and the sequence of the complementing fragment is a rapidmethod for identifying the mutant gene. The chromosomal position can be easily determined from thedatabase.51

Tetratype(T)

Tetratype(T)

Tetratype(T)

Non-parentalditype(NPD)

Parentalditype(PD)

Parentalditype(PD)

A

B

a

b

AB

AB

AB

AB

AB

Ab

AB

Ab

AB

Ab

Ab

Ab

ab

aB

ab

aB

aB

aB

ab

ab

ab

ab

ab

aB

Nocrossover

Singlecrossover

Double crossovers

2-strand 3-strand 3-strand 4-strand

34

However, there are rare occasions that a mutation can not be identified by complementation withplasmid libraries. A new recessive mutation should be first tested by genetic complementation, involvingcrossing the unknown mutant to known, characterized mutants and examining the phenotype of thediploid. New mutants should be crossed to a series of known mutants having the same or similarphenotypes. Lack of complementation of two recessive mutations is almost always indicative ofallelism. Meiotic analysis of the presumed homozygous diploid should reveal complete linkage andtherefore identity. However, complementation of recessive mutations does not establish that theycorrespond to different genes. A meiotic analysis could be carried out when allelic complementation issuspected, especially when the diploid appears to have a partial mutant phenotype.

The second step in characterizing an unknown mutation should involve a meiotic analysis todetermine if the mutant phenotype is controlled by a single gene. This is particularly critical when themutant was derived from heavily mutagenized cells, such as those commonly used to obtaintemperature-sensitive mutations and related defects. There have been numerous examples wheretemperature-sensitive growth and a particular enzyme deficiency segregated independently from eachother, indicating mutations of two separate genes.

The mutant haploid strain should be crossed to a strain carrying at least one centromere-linkedmarker, such as trp1. Thus, a meiotic analysis would reveal both single-gene segregation andcentromere linkage. The diploid should then be sporulated, the asci dissected and the haploidsegregants tested according to the methods outlined above A 2:2 segregation of the mutant phenotypeis indicative of a single-gene mutation. Less than 2/3 second division segregation (less than 2/3 tetratypeasci relative to trp1) is indicative of centromere linkage of the unmapped gene. If centromere linkage issuspected, the mutant should be crossed to a set of centromere-tester strains that have markers near thecentromeres of each of the 16 chromosomes.61 The unmapped gene should exhibit linkage to one of thecentromere-linked markers and should be further analyzed with additional markers on the assignedchromosome.

If the mutant gene is not centromere-linked, it is advisable to next determine on which chromosomeit resides, using the 2 µm mapping or other procedures.110

Other Techniques for Genetic AnalysisIn addition to the major techniques used for genetic analysis that are covered above in this chapter

and elsewhere in this and the previous33 volume, there are other simple procedures worthy of mention.

Replica PlatingTesting of strains on numerous media can be carried out by the standard procedure of

replicaplating with velveteen.111 However, subtle differences in growth are better revealed bytransferring diluted suspensions of cells with specially–constructed spotting apparatuses. An array ofinoculating rods, fastened on a metal plate, is dipped into microtiter or other compartmentalized dishes,containing yeast suspensions. Small and uniform aliquotes can be repetively tranferred to different typesof media. Furthermore 1/10 serial dilutions of cell suspensions are often tested to better revealdifferences

Mating and ComplementationA few crosses can be simply carried out by mixing equal amounts of the MATa and MATα strains

on a YPD plate and incubating at 30°C for at least 6 hours and preferably overnight. Prototrophicdiploid colonies can then be selected on appropriate synthetic media if the haploid strains contain

35

complementing auxotrophic markers. Similarily, testing mating types or other markers of meioticprogenies, requiring the selection of numerous diploid hybrids, can be carried out by replicaplating, usingany one of a number techniques such as cross-steaking, spotters, etc. Prototrophic diploids also can beselected by overlaying a mixture of the two haploid strains directly on minimal plates, although thefrequencies of matings may be slightly reduced. If the diploid strain cannot be selected, zygotes can beisolated from the mating mixture with a micromanipulator. Zygotes, which can be identified by theircharacteristic thick zygotic neck, are best isolated 4-6 hrs after mixing, when the mating process has justbeen completed;112 diploids isolated by micromanipulation should be verified by sporulation and thelack of mating.

Formation of prototrophic diploids, indicative of complementation, is used to test MATa andMATα mating types and to determine unknown markers in new mutants and meiotic segregants.Mating type tests are best carried out with MATa and MATα tester strains, each containing markersnot in the strains to be tested.

Complementation analysis consists of testing diploid strains that were constructed from two haploidmutants which have the same mutant phenotype, such as a specific amino acid requirement, sensitivity toUV, etc. If the mutant character is found in the diploid and if the two mutant genes are recessive, it canbe concluded that the two mutant genes are allelic, i.e., the lesions are in genes controlling the samefunction, or in most cases, the same polypeptide chain. In rare and special instances, a doubleheterozygous diploid strain may exhibit the phenotype of the recessive marker, confusing this test ofcomplementation.

However, because of allelic (or intragenic) complementation, the growth of double heterozygousdiploids does not always indicate that the two mutations are in different genes. Some cases of alleliccomplementation occur when the normal enzyme is composed of two or more identical subunits. Theenzymes formed by allelic complementation are mutant proteins containing two different alteredpolypeptides, in which each of the mutant polypeptides compensates for each other's defects toproduce a catalytically active protein. Allelic complementation can be pronounced when the enzymecontains separate domains carrying out different catalytic functions, such as the HIS4A, HIS4B andHIS4C regions. Allelic complementation is frequent in yeast. For example, mutations in five of the tengenes controlling histidine biosynthesis show extensive allelic complementation. Because of alleliccomplementation, frequencies of meiotic recombination are required to determine if two complementingmutants are alleles of the same gene. The frequencies of recombination are extremely low if themutations are in the same gene, while the frequencies of normal meiotic segregants can be as high as25% if the mutations are in different genes.

Complementations test are required for scoring meiotic progeny from hybrids heterozygous for twoor more markers controlling the same character. For example, a HIS3+ his4– X his3– HIS4+ diploidwill produce tetratype tetrades having the following genotypes:

HIS3+ HIS4+HIS3+ his4–his3– HIS4+his3– his4–

Intergenic complementation tests are required to determine the segregation of the his alleles in theHIS3+ his4–, his3– HIS4+, and his3– his4– segregants. These tests are carried out with MATa andMATα tester strains having either HIS3+ his4– or his3– HIS4+ markers. Diploids homozygous foreither his3– or his4– will not grow on histidine deficient medium, as indicated below:

36

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––X HIS3+ his4– X his3– HIS4+

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––HIS3+ HIS4+ + + +HIS3+ his4– – – +his3– HIS4+ – + –his3– his4– – – –

–––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––

Random SporesAlthough dissection of asci and recovery of all four ascospores is the preferred procedure for

obtaining meiotic progeny, random spores can be used when isolating rare recombinants, or whenanalyzing a large number of crosses. Several techniques have been devised for eliminating or reducingunsporulated diploid cells from the culture. The proportion of random spores can be increased bysporulating the diploid strain on a medium containing a high concentration of potassium acetate (2%),which kills vegetative cells of many sporulated strains.113 The sporulated culture is treated withZymolyase, as described above, the spores separated by a minimal level of sonication, and variousdilutions are plated for single colonies. Alternatively, the spores of Zymolyase treated culture can bedispersed vortexing with 0.5 mm glass beads. Furthermore, vegetative cells can be preferentially killedby treating a sporulated culture with an equal volume of diethyl ether.114 Another convenient method forproducing random spores relies on the selection against vegetative diploid cells that are heterozygous forcanR1, the recessive marker confirming resistance to canavanine sulfate.115 If the canR1/+ diploid issporulated and the spores are separated and plated on canavanine medium, one–half of the haploidspores will germinate and grow, while the other half of the haploids and all of the diploids will not.

Tong et al.19 developed a series of robotic procedures that allowed large numbers of matings andrecovery of meiotic recombinants for generating haploid double mutants in a genome-wide syntheticlethal analysis. This procedure included the use of the PMFA1-HIS3 reporter, that is only expressed inMATa cells and allows for germination of MATa meiotic progeny, but that prevents the growth onmeduim lacking histidine of the his3/his3 diploid parental strain and of diploid strains arising by matingof cells decending from meiosis.

AcknowlegdmentsWe thank Carl Zeiss, Inc. (Thornwood, NY) and Singer Instrument Co. Ltd. (Watchet, Somerset,

U. K.) for photographs of micromanipulators. The writing of this chapter was supported by the U. S.Public Health Research Grant GM12702 from the National Institutes of Health.

References1 R. D. Gietz and R. A. Woods, Methods Enzymol. 350, 87, (2002).2 A. Goffeau, B. G. Barrell, H. Bussey, R. W. Davis, B. Dujon, H. Feldmann, F. Galibert, J. D.

Hoheisel, C. Jacq, M. Johnston, E. J. Louis, H. W. Mewes, Y. Murakami, P. Philippsen, H.Tettelin, and S. G. Oliver, Science 274, 546 (1996).

3 A. Kumar and M. Snyder, Nature Rev. Genetics 2, 302(2001).4 R. J. Cho, M. J. Cambell, E. A. Winzeler, L. Steinmetz, A. Conway, L. Wodicka, T. G. Wolfsberg,

A. E. Gabrielian, D. Landsman, D. J. Lockhart, and R. W. Davis, Mol. Cell 2, 65 (1998).

37

5 J. L. DeRisi, V. R. Iyer, and P. O. Brown, Science 278, 680 (1997).6 P. O. Brown and D. Botstein, Nature Genetics 21, 33 (1999).7 P. Marc, F. Devaux, and C. Jacq, Nucleic Acid Res. 29, e63 (2001)8 http://transcriptome.ens.fr/ymgv/9 A. P. Gash, Methods Enzymol. 350, 393, (2002)10 S. Oliver, Nature 379, 597 (1996).11 V. E. Velculescu, L. Zhang, W. Zhou, J. Vogelstein, M. A. Basrai, D. E. Bassett, Jr., P. Hieter, B.

Vogelstein, and K. W. Kinzler, Cell 88, 243 (1997).12 P. Ross-Macdonald, A. Sheehan, C. Friddle, G. S. Roeder, and M. Snyder, Meth. Enzymo. 303,

512, (1999).13 J. I. Garrels, C. S. McLaughlin, J. R. Warner, B. Futcher, G. I. Latter, R. Kobayashi, B. Schwender,

T. Volpe, D. S. Anderson, R. Mesquita-Fuentes, and W. E. Payne, Electrophoresis 18, 1347(1997).

14 A. Blomberg, Methods Enzymol. 350, 559, (2002).15 M. R. Martzen, S. M. McCraith, S. L. Spinelli, F. M. Torres, S. Field, E. J. Grayhack, and E. M.

Phizicky, Science 286, 1153 (1999).16 E. M. Phizicky, M. R. Martzen, S. M. McCraith, S. L. Spinelli, F. Xing, N. P. Shull, C. Van Slyke,

R. K. Montagne, F. M. Torres, S. Fields, and E. J. Grayhack, Methods Enzymol. 350, 546,(2002).

17 P. Uetz, L. Giot, G. Cagney, T. A. Mansfield, R. S. Judson ,J. R. Knight, D. Lockshon, V. Narayan,M. Srinivasan, P. Pochart, A. Qureshi-Emili, Y. Li, B. Godwin, D. Conover, T. Kalbfleisch, G.Vijayadamodar, M. Yang, M. Johnston, S. Fields, and J. M. Rothberg, Nature 403, 623 (2000).

18 T. Ito, K. Tashiro, S. Muta, R. Ozawa, T. Chiba, M. Nishizawa, K. Yamamoto, S. Kuhara, and Y.Sakaki, Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97, 1143 (2000).

19 A. H. Y. Tong, M. Evangelista, A. B. Parsons, H. Xu, G. D. Bader, N. Pagé, M. Robinson, S.Raghibizadeh, C. W. V. Hogue, H. Bussey, B. Andrews, M. Tyers, and C. Boone. Science 294,2364 (2001).

20 P. Cliften, P. Sudarsanam, A. Desikan, L. Fulton, B. Fulton, J. Majors, R. Waterston, B. A. Cohen,and M. Johnston, Science 301, 71 (2003).

21 M. Kellis, N. Patterson, M. Endrizzi, B. Birren and E. S. Lander, Nature 423, 241 (2003).22 R. Ploger, J. Zhang, D. Bassett, R. Reeves, P. Hieter, M. Boguski, and F. Spencer, Nucleic Acids

Res. 28, 120, (2000).23 N. Bonnefoy and T. Fox, Methods Enzymol. 350, 97, (2002).24 F. Winston, “Yeast Genetics”; requires registration;

http://www.ergito.com/index.jsphttp://www.ergito.com/toc-lcd.jsp?book_abbrev=genetics&chap_aso=7

38

25 J. D. Watson, N. H. Hopkins, J. W. Roberts, J. A. Steitz, and A. M. Weiner, “Molecular Biology ofthe Gene”, Chapters 18 and 19. Benjamin/Cummings Pub., Menlo Park, CA, 1987.

26 http://dbb.urmc.rochester.edu/labs/sherman_f/yeast/Index.html27 http://www.gmm.gu.se/courses/MolMicro/lectures_yeast.htm28 J. R. Broach, E. W. Jones, and J. R. Pringle (eds.), “The Molecular and Cellular Biology of the Yeast

Saccharomyces,” Vol. 1. Genome Dynamics, Protein Synthesis, and Energetics. Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 1991.

29 E. W. Jones, J. R. Pringle, and J. R. Broach, (eds.), “The Molecular and Cellular Biology of theYeast Saccharomyces,” Vol. 2. Gene Expression. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, ColdSpring Harbor, New York, 1992.

30 J. R. Pringle, J. R. Broach, and E. W. Jones, (eds.), “The Molecular and Cellular Biology of theYeast Saccharomyces,” Vol. 3. Cell cycle and Cell Biology. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 1997.

31 C. Guthrie and G. R. Fink, (eds.), Methods Enzymol. 350 (2002).32 C. Guthrie and G. R. Fink, (eds.), Methods Enzymol. 351 (2002).33 C. Guthrie and G. R. Fink, (eds.), Methods Enzymol. 194 (1991).34 A. J. P. Brown and M. F. Tuite (eds). Yeast Gene Analysis. Methods in Microbiology, Vol. 26,

Acad. Press, New York, 1998.35 A. E. Wheals, A. H. Rose, and J. S. Harrison, (eds.): The Yeast, Volume 6, Second edition, Yeast

Genetics. Academic Press, London, 1995.36 S. Fields and M. Johnson (eds.),Yeast Methods for Analyzing Proteins from Other Organisms.

Methods, A companion to Methods Enzymol. 5, 77 (1993).37 G. M. Walker, Yeast Physiology and Biotechnology. John Wiley and Son, Chichester, 1998.38 D. Burke, D. Dawson, and T. Stearns, Methods in Yeast Genetics: A Cold Spring Harbor

Laboratory Course Manual Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York,2000.

39 http://www.phys.ksu.edu/gene/chapters.html; http://www.phys.ksu.edu/gene/strains.html40 https://www3.carolina.com/onlinecatalog/Templates/Default/mainscreen2frame.asp?

workspace=home&41 http://www.barrelhouse.com/yeast.html42 http://www.dakotayeast.com/yeast_what.html#Top43 http://www.dakotayeast.com/yeast_history.html44 http://www.cofalec.com/sciee.htm45 http://www.yeastgenome.org/VL-yeast.html46 F. Sherman, Methods Enzymol. 194, 3 (1991).47 M. N. Hall and P. Linder (eds.), “The Early Days of Yeast Genetics” Cold Spring Harbor

Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 1992.

39

48 P. Linder, D. Shore, and M. N. Hall (eds.), “Landmark Papers in Yeast Biology” Cold SpringHarbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 2003.

49 http://www.interscience.wiley.com/jpages/0749-503X/50 http://www.elsevier.nl/locate/femsyr51 http://www.yeastgenome.org/52 L. Issel-Tarver, K. R. Christie, K. Dolinski, R. Andrada, R. Balakrishnan, C. A. Ball, G. Binkley, S.

Dong, S. S. Dwight, D. G. Fisk, M. Harris, M. Schroeder, A. Sethuraman, K. Tse, S. Weng, D.Botstein and J. M Cherry, Methods Enzymol. 350, 329 (2002).

53 http://mips.gsf.de/genre/proj/yeast/index.jsp54 P. E. Hodges, A. H. McKee, B. P. Davis, W. E. Payne, and J. I. Garrels, Nucl. Acids. Res. 27, 69

(1999).55 C. Csank, M. C. Costanzo, J. Hirschman, P. Hodges, J. E. Kranz, M. Mangan, K. O'Neill, L. S.

Robertson, M. S. Skrzypek, J. Brooks and J. I. Garrels, Methods Enzymol. 350, 347 (2002).56 http://www.incyte.com/bioknowledge; requires registration.57 C. C. Lindegren, “The Yeast Cell. Its Genetics and Cytology,” Educational Publishers, St. Louis,

Missouri, 1949.58 R. K. Mortimer and J. R. Johnson, Genetics 113, 35 (1986).59 A. Rogowska-Wrzesinska, P. Mose Larsen, A. Blomberg, A. Görg, P. Roepstorff, J. Norbeck, and

S. J. Fey, Comparative and Functional Genomics 2, 207 (2001).60 M. Gaisne, A.-M. Bécam, J. Verdière, and C. J. Herbert, Current Genet. 36, 195 (1999).61 http://www.atcc.org/SearchCatalogs/YeastGeneticStock.cfm.62 http://www-deletion.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/deletion/search3.pl.atcc.63 http://www.uni-frankfurt.de/fb15/mikro/euroscarf/col_index.html.64 http://www.resgen.com/products/YEASTD.php3.65 http://www.ncyc.co.uk/Sacchgen.html.66 http://www.cbs.knaw.nl/yeast/WebC.ASP67 http://www.natur.cuni.cz/fccm/federacs.htm#dgub.68 M. Wesolowski and R. B. Wickner. Mol. Cell Biol. 4, 181 (1984)69 G. F. Carle and M. Olson, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 82, 3756 (1985).70 J. R. Broach, Methods Enzymol. 101, 307 (1983).71 B. Dujon, in “Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces", Vol. I, Life Cycle and Inheritance”

(J. N. Strathern, E. W. Jones and J. R. Broach, eds.), p. 505. Spring Harbor Laboratory, ColdSpring Harbor, NY, 1981.

72 R. B. Wickner, FASEB 3, 2257 (1989).73 C. Holm, Cell 29, 585 (1982).74 R. Sweeny and V. A. Zakian, Genetics 122, 749 (1989).

40

75 ftp://ftp.yeastgenome.org/yeast/data_download/gene_registry/registry.genenames.tab76 M. Aigle and F. Lacroute, Mol. Gen. Genet. 136, 327 (1975).77 M. F. Tuite, P. M. Lund, A. B. Futcher, M. J. Dobson, B. S. Cox, and C. S. McLaughlin, Plasmid

8, 103 (1982).78 R. B. Wickner and Y. O. Chernoff, in “Prion Biology and Diseases” (S. Prusiner, ed.), p. 229, Cold

Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, 1999.79 M. E. Bradley, H. K. Edskes, J. Y. Hong, R. B. Wickner, and S. W. Liebman, Proc. Natl. Acad.

Sci 99, 16392 (2002).80 A. E. Wheals, in “The Yeast”, Vol. 1, Biology of Yeasts, second edition (A. H. Rose and J. S.

Harrison, eds.), p. 283, Academic Press, New York, 198781 R. K. Mortimer, Radiation Res. 9, 312 (1958).82 D. Freidfelder, J. Bacteriol. 80, 567 (1960).83 L. J. Wickerham, U. S. Dept. Agric. Tech. Bull., No. 1029 (1951).84 J. White, “Yeast Technology”, J. Wiley and Sons Inc., New York, 1954.85 R. R. Fowell, Nature (London) 170, 578 (1952).86 C. Styles, Methods Enzymol. 350, 42, (2002).87 M. Hampsey, Yeast 13, 1099 (1997).88 http://www.mips.biochem.mpg.de/proj/yeast/catalogues/phenotype/index.html.89 http://www.mips.biochem.mpg.de/proj/eurofan/90 K. J. Rieger, M. El-Alama, G. Stein, C. Bradshaw, P. P. Slonimski, and K. Maundrell, Yeast 15,

973 (1999).91 A. M. Well and G. G. Stewart, Appl. Microbiol. 26, 577 (1973).92 F. Sherman, Methods Cell Biol. 11, 189 (1975).93 H. M. El-Badry, “Micromanipulators and Micromanipulation,” Academic Press, New York, 1963.94 F. Sherman and J. B. Hicks, Methods Enzymol. 194, 21 (1991).95 Carl Zeiss, Inc., Microscopy Divison, One Zeiss Drive, Thornwood, NY 10594.96 http://www.schuett-

labortechnik.de/Produkte/TDM_400_E_Tetrad_Dissection_Mi/tdm_400_e_tetrad_dissection_mi.html

97 http://www.mvi-inc.com/TDM400.htm98 F. Sherman, Appl. Microbiol. 26, 829 (1973).99 http://www.singerinst.co.uk/system.html.100 P. de Fonbrune, “Technique de Micromanipulation,” Masson, Paris, 1949.101 http://www.harvardapparatus.com/pdffiles/b2k_m094.pdf102 K. E. Scott and R. Snow, J. Gen. Appl. Microbiol. 24, 295 (1978).103 D. J. Eichinger and J. D. Boeke, Yeast 6, 139 (1990).

41

104 http://www.corastyles.com/105 http://www.yeastgenome.org/needle.shtml.106 J. R. Johnston and R. K. Mortimer, J. Bacteriol. 78, 292 (1959).107 Ö. Winge and O. Lausten, C. R. Trav. Lab Carlsberg, Ser. Physiol. 22, 99 (1937).108 D. D. Perkins, Genetics 34, 607 (1949).109 C. Ma and R. K. Mortimer, Mol. Cell. Biol. 3, 1886 (1983).110 F. Sherman and L. P. Wakem, Methods Enzymol. 194, 38 (1991).111 J. Lederberg and E. M. Lederberg, J. Bacteriol. 63, 399 (1952).112 E. P. Sena, D. N. Radin, and S. Fogel, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 70, 1373 (1973).113 R. J. Rothstein, R. E. Esposito, and M. S. Esposito, Genetics 85, 35 (1977).114 B. Rockmill, E. J. Lambie, and S. G. Roeder, Methods Enzymol. 194, 110 (1991).115 F. Sherman and H. Roman, Genetics 48, 255 (1963).

1

An Introduction to the Genetics and Molecular Biology of theYeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae

FRED SHERMANDepartment of Biochemistry and Biophysics

University of Rochester Medical School, Rochester, NY 14642• 1998 •

Modified from: F. Sherman, Yeast genetics. •The Encyclopedia of Molecular Biology and Molecular Medicine, •pp. 302-325, Vol. 6. Edited by R. A. Meyers, VCH Publisher, Weinheim, Germany, 1997.•

The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae is clearly the most ideal eukaryotic microorganism forbiological studies. The “awesome power of yeast genetics” has become legendary and is theenvy of those who work with higher eukaryotes. The complete sequence of its genome hasproved to be extremely useful as a reference towards the sequences of human and other highereukaryotic genes. Furthermore, the ease of genetic manipulation of yeast allows its use forconveniently analyzing and functionally dissecting gene products from other eukaryotes.

Key WordsAscus,

(plual asci) is a sac-like structure containing a tetrad of four spores (or ascospores).Heterothallic,

strains of yeast have cross-compatible mating types and are stable both as haploids anddiploids.

Homothallic,strains of yeast give rise to tetrads containing four potentially self-fertile members, becausethe transient haploid cells switch their mating types, and thus have only a stable diplophase.

Plasmid shuffle,is a procedure for screening of mutations, derived from a mutagenized plasmid, requiringthe loss of a second plasmid to assay for the recessive mutations.

Shuttle vectors,are vectors that can be propagated in both yeast and E. coli.

Tetrad,is the four products of meiosis.

Two-hybrid system,is a genetic assay used in yeast for detection of protein-protein interactions.

encyclo2.doc

2

• 1 Yeast as a Model Eukaryote• 2 Information on Yeast• 3 Yeast Strains• 4 Growth and Life Cycles• 5 The Yeast Genome• 6 Genetic Nomenclature

6.1 Chromosomal Genes6.2 Mitochondrial Gene6.3 Non-Mendelian Determinants

• 7 Genetic Analyses7.1 Overviews with Examples7.2 Tetrad Analysis7.3 Non-Mendelian Inheritance

• 8 Transformation8.1 Yeast Vector and DNA Fragments8.2 Synthetic Oligonucleotides8.3 Mitochondrial Transformation

• 9 Yeast Vectors9.1 YIp Vectors9.2 YEp Vectors9.3 YCp Vectors

• 10 Genes Important for Genetic Studies10.1 URA3 and LYS210.2 ADE1 and ADE210.3 GAL1 Promoter10.4 lacZ and Other Reporters

• 11 Manipulating the Genome In Vitro with Plasmids11.1 Cloning by Complementation11.2 Mutagenesis In Vitro11.3 Two-step Gene Replacement11.4 Gene Disruption and One-step Gene Replacement11.5 Plasmid Shuffle11.6 Recovering mutant alleles

• 12 Interactions of Genes12.1 Heterozygosity and Dominant-negative Mutations12.2 Intragenic Complementation12.3 Nonallelic Non-complementation12.4 Suppressors12.5 Synthetic Enhancement and Epistatic Relationships

• 13 Genomic Analysis• 14 Analyses with Yeast Systems

14.1 Two-hybrid Systems14.2 Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)14.3 Expression of Heterologous Protein in Yeast

3

1 Yeast is a Model EukaryoteThis chapter deals only with the yeast S. cerevisiae, and related interbreeding species. The

fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe, which is only distantly related to S. cerevisiae, hasequally important features, but is not as well characterized. The general principles of thenumerous classical and modern approaches for investigating S. cerevisiae are described, and theexplanation of terms and nomenclature used in current yeast studies are emphasized . Thisarticle should be particularly useful to the uninitiated who are exposed for the first time toexperimental studies of yeast. Detailed protocols are described in the primary literature and in anumber of reviews in the books listed in the Bibliography. The original citations for the materialcovered in this chapter also can be found in these comprehensive reviews.

Although yeasts have greater genetic complexity than bacteria, containing 3½ times moreDNA than Escherichia coli cells, they share many of the technical advantages that permittedrapid progress in the molecular genetics of prokaryotes and their viruses. Some of the propertiesthat make yeast particularly suitable for biological studies include rapid growth, dispersed cells,the ease of replica plating and mutant isolation, a well-defined genetic system, and mostimportant, a highly versatile DNA transformation system. Unlike many other microorganisms,S. cerevisiae is viable with numerous markers. Being nonpathogenic, yeast can be handled withlittle precautions. Large quantities of normal bakers’ yeast are commercially available and canprovide a cheap source for biochemical studies.

Unlike most other microorganisms, strains of S. cerevisiae have both a stable haploid anddiploid state. Thus, recessive mutations can be conveniently isolated and manifested in haploidstrains, and complementation tests can be carried out in diploid strains. The development ofDNA transformation has made yeast particularly accessible to gene cloning and geneticengineering techniques. Structural genes corresponding to virtually any genetic trait can beidentified by complementation from plasmid libraries. Plasmids can be introduced into yeastcells either as replicating molecules or by integration into the genome. In contrast to most otherorganisms, integrative recombination of transforming DNA in yeast proceeds exclusively viahomologous recombination. Exogenous DNA with at least partial homologous segments cantherefore be directed at will to specific locations in the genome. Also, homologousrecombination, coupled with yeasts’ high levels of gene conversion, has led to the developmentof techniques for the direct replacement of genetically engineered DNA sequences into theirnormal chromosome locations. Thus, normal wild-type genes, even those having no previouslyknown mutations, can be conveniently replaced with altered and disrupted alleles. Thephenotypes arising after disruption of yeast genes has contributed significantly towardunderstanding of the function of certain proteins in vivo. Many investigators have been shockedto find viable mutants with little of no detrimental phenotypes after disrupting genes that werepreviously assumed to be essential. Also unique to yeast, transformation can be carried outdirectly with synthetic oligonucleotides, permitting the convenient productions of numerousaltered forms of proteins. These techniques have been extensively exploited in the analysis ofgene regulation, structure-function relationships of proteins, chromosome structure, and othergeneral questions in cell biology. The overriding virtues of yeast are illustrated by the fact thatmammalian genes are being introduced into yeast for systematic analyses of the functions of thecorresponding gene products.

In addition, yeast has proved to be valuable for studies of other organisms, including the useof the two-hybrid screening system for the general detection of protein-protein interactions, the

4

use of YACs for cloning large fragments of DNA, and expression systems for the laboratory andcommercial preparation of heterologous proteins. Many of these techniques are describedherein.

During the last two decades, an ever-increasing number of molecular biologists have takenup yeast as their primary research system, resulting in a virtually autocatalytic stimulus forcontinuing investigations of all aspects of molecular and cell biology. Most significantly, aknowledge of the DNA sequence of the complete genome, which was completed in 1996, hasaltered the way molecular and cell biologist approach and carry out their studies. In addition,plans are under way to systematically investigate the possible functions of all yeast genes byexamining the phenotypes of strains having disrupted genes.

2 Information on YeastA general introduction to a few selected topics on yeast can be found in the book chapters

“Yeast as the E. coli of Eucaryotic Cells” and “Recombinant DNA at Work” (1).Comprehensive and excellent reviews of the genetics and molecular biology of S. cerevisiae arecontained in three volumes entitled “Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces” (2-4). Animportant source for methods used in genetics and molecular biology of yeast is contained in thebook edited by Guthrie and Fink (5). Overviews of numerous subjects are also covered in othersources (6, 7, 8, 9), including protocols applicable to yeasts (10) and introductory material (11).A more comprehensive listing of earlier reviews can be found in Sherman (12). Interesting andamusing accounts of developments in the field are covered in The Early Days of Yeast Genetics(13). The journal Yeast publishes original research articles, reviews, short communications,sequencing reports, and selective lists of current articles on all aspects of Saccharomyces andother yeast genera.

Current and frequently-updated information and databases on yeast can be convenientlyretrieved on the Internet through World Wide Web, including the “Saccharomyces GenomicInformation Resource” (http://genome-www.stanford.edu/Saccharomyces/) and linked filescontaining DNA sequences, lists of genes, home pages of yeast workers, and other usefulinformation concerning yeast.

3 Yeast StrainsAlthough genetic analyses and transformation can be performed with a number of

taxonomically distinct varieties of yeast, extensive studies have been limited primarily to themany freely interbreeding species of the budding yeast Saccharomyces and to the fission yeastSchizosaccharomyces pombe. Although “Saccharomyces cerevisiae” is commonly used todesignate many of the laboratory stocks of Saccharomyces used throughout the world, it shouldbe pointed out that most of these strains originated from the interbred stocks of Winge,Lindegren, and others who employed fermentation markers not only from S. cerevisiae but alsofrom S. bayanus, S. carlsbergensis, S. chevalieri, S. chodati, S. diastaticus, etc. Nevertheless, itis still recommended that the interbreeding laboratory stocks of Saccharomyces be denoted as S.cerevisiae, in order to conveniently distinguish them from the more distantly related species ofSaccharomyces.

Care should be taken in choosing strains for genetic and biochemical studies. Unfortunatelythere are no truly wild-type Saccharomyces strains that are commonly employed in geneticstudies. Also, most domesticated strains of brewers’ yeast and probably many strains of bakers’yeast and true wild-type strains of S. cerevisiae are not genetically compatible with laboratory

5

stocks. It is usually not appreciated that many “normal” laboratory strains contain mutantcharacters, a fact not too surprising since they were derived from pedigrees involvingmutagenized strains. The haploid strain S288C is often used as a normal standard because itgives rise to well-dispersed cells, it is widely used, and because many isogenic mutantderivatives are available. However, S288C contains mutations making it undesirable to use inmitochondrial studies. An other strain, D273-10B, has been extensively used as a typical normalyeast, especially for mitochondrial studies. (These laboratory strains should be denoted as“normal” or “standard”, but not “wild-type”.) One should examine the specific characters ofinterest before initiating a study with any strain.

Many strains containing characterized auxotrophic, temperature-sensitive, and other markerscan be obtained from the Yeast Genetics Stock Culture Center (Department of Molecular andCell Biology, 229 Stanley Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3206; (510) 642-0815; Fax (510) 642-8589; E-mail ygsc@violet.berkeley.edu). Other sources of yeast strainsinclude: American Type Culture Collection (12301 Parklawn Drive, Rockville, MD 20852;(301) 881-2600; (800) 638-6597; E-mail request@atcc.org; http://www.atcc.org/); NationalCollection of Yeast Cultures (Food Research Institute, Colney Lane, Norwich NR4 7UA, U.K.);Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (Yeast Division, Julianalaan 67a, 2628 BC Delft,Netherlands); Slovak Collection of Yeasts (Institute of Chemistry, Slovak Academy of Sciences,Dubravaska cesta, 809 33 Bratislava, Slovak Republic).

4 Growth and Life CyclesVegetative cell division of yeast characteristically occurs by budding, in which a daughter is

initiated as an out growth from the mother cell, followed by nuclear division, cell-wallformation, and finally cell separation. The sizes of haploid and diploid cells vary with the phaseof growth and from strain to strain. Typically, diploid cells are 5 x 6 µm ellipsoids and haploidcells are 4 µm diameter spheroids. The volumes and gross composition of yeast cells are listedin Table 1. During exponential growth, haploid cultures tend to have higher numbers of cells percluster compared to diploid cultures. Also haploid cells have buds that appear adjacent to theprevious one; whereas diploid cells have buds that appear at the opposite pole. Each mother cellusually forms no more than 20-30 buds, and it age can be determined by the number of bud scarsleft on the cell wall.

In addition, certain diploid strains of S. cerevisiae can assume a markedly different cell andcolony morphology, denoted pseudohyphae, when grown on agar medium limiting for nitrogensources. These pseudohyphal cells are significantly elongated, and mother-daughter pairsremain attached to each other. This characteristic pseudohyphal growth causes extended growthof

6

Table 1. Size and composition of yeast cells—————————————————————Characteristic Haploid cell Diploid cell—————————————————————Volume (µm3) 70 120Composition (10-12 g)

Wet weight 60 80Dry weight 15 20DNA 0.017 0.034RNA 1.2 1.9Protein 6 8

7

branched chains outward from the center of the colony, and invasive growth under the surface ofagar medium.

“Normal” laboratory haploid strains have a doubling time of approximately 90 min. incomplete YPD (1% yeast extract, 2% peptone, and 2% glucose) medium and approximately 140min. in synthetic media during the exponential phase of growth at the optimum temperature of30°C. However, strains with greatly reduced growth rates in synthetic media are oftenencountered. Usually strains reach a maximum density of 2 x 108 cells/ml in YPD medium.Titers 10 times this value can be achieved with special conditions, such as pH control,continuous additions of balanced nutrients, filtered-sterilized media and extreme aeration thatcan be delivered in fermenters.

S. cerevisiae can be stably maintained as either heterothallic or homothallic strains, asillustrated in Figure 1. Both heterothallic and homothallic diploid strains sporulate underconditions of nutrient deficiency, and especially in special media, such as potassium acetatemedium. During sporulation, the diploid cell undergoes meiosis yielding four progeny haploidcells, which become encapsulated as spores (or ascospores) within a sac-like structure called anascus (plural asci). The percent sporulation varies with the particular strain, ranging from no orlittle sporulation to nearly 100%. Many laboratory strains sporulate to over 50%. The majorityof asci contains four haploid ascospores, although varying proportions asci with three or lessspores are also observed.

Because the a and α mating types are under control of a pair of MATa/MATα heterozygousalleles, each ascus contains two MATa and two MATα haploid cells. Upon exposure to nutrientcondition, the spores germinate, vegetative growth commences and mating of the MATa andMATα can occur. However, if the haploid spores are mechanically separated bymicromanipulation, the haplophase of heterothallic strains can be stably maintained, thusallowing the preparation of haploid strains. In contrast, the presence of the HO allele in

Figure 1. Life cycles of heterothallic and homothallic strains of S. cerevisiae. Heterothallicstrains can be stably maintained as diploids and haploids, whereas homothallic strains are stableonly as diploids, because the transient haploid cells switch their mating type, and mate.

MATa

MATa

MAT MATa/ α MAT MATa/ α

MATα

MATα

Haplophase

Mating-typeswitching

and Mating

Diplophase Diplophase

Mating

Sporulation Sporulation

HETEROTHALLIC HOMOTHALLIC

GerminationGermination

8

homothallic strains causes switching of the mating type in growing haploid cells, such thatMATa cells produce MATα buds and MATα cells produce MATa buds. As a consequence,mating occurs and there is only a transient haplophase in homothallic strains (Figure 1).

Controlled crosses of MATa and MATα haploid strains are simply carried out by mixingapproximately equal amounts of each strain on a complete medium and incubating the mixture at30°C for at least 6 hr. Prototrophic diploid colonies can then be selected on appropriatesynthetic media if the haploid strains contain complementing auxotrophic markers. If the diploidstrain cannot be selected, zygotes can be separated from the mating mixture with amicromanipulator. Zygotes are identified by a characteristic thick zygotic neck, and are bestisolated 4 to 6 hr after incubating the mixture when the mating process has just been completed.

5 The Yeast GenomeS. cerevisiae contains a haploid set of 16 well-characterized chromosomes, ranging in size

from 200 to 2,200 kb. The total sequence of chromosomal DNA, constituting 12,052 kb, wasreleased in April, 1996. A total of 6,183 open-reading-frames (ORF) of over 100 amino acidslong were reported, and approximately 5,800 of them were predicated to correspond to actualprotein-coding genes. A larger number of ORFs were predicted by considering shorter proteins.In contrast to the genomes of multicellular organsims, the yeast genome is highly compact, withgenes representing 72% of the total sequence. The average size of yeast genes is 1.45 kb, or 483codons, with a range from 40 to 4,910 codons. A total of 3.8% of the ORF contain introns.Approximately 30% of the genes already have been characterized experimentally. Of theremaining 70% with unknown function, approximately one half either contain a motif of acharacterized class of proteins or correspond to genes encoding proteins that are structurallyrelated to functionally characterized gene products from yeast or from other organisms.

Ribosomal RNA is coded by approximately 120 copies of a single tandem array onchromosome XII. The DNA sequence revealed that yeast contains 262 tRNA genes, of which 80have introns. In addition, chromosomes contain movable DNA elements, retrotransposons, thatvary in number and position in different strains of S. cerevisiae, with most laboratory strainshaving approximately 30.

Other nucleic acid entities, presented in Figure 2, also can be considered part of the yeastgenome. Mitochondrial DNA encodes components of the mitochondrial translational machineryand approximately 15% of the mitochondrial proteins. ρo mutants completely lackmitochondrial DNA and are deficient in the respiratory polypeptides synthesized onmitochondrial ribosomes, i.e., cytochrome b and subunits of cytochrome oxidase and ATPasecomplexes. Even though ρo mutants are respiratory deficient, they are viable and still retainmitochondria, although morphologically abnormal.

The 2-µm circle plasmids, present in most strains of S. cerevisiae, apparently function solelyfor their own replication. Generally ciro strains, which lack 2-µm DNA, have no observablephenotype. However, a certain chromosomal mutation, nib1, causes a reduction in growth ofcir+ strains, due to an abnormally high copy number 2-µm DNA.

Similarly, almost all S. cerevisiae strains contain dsRNA viruses, that constitutesapproximately 0.1% of total nucleic acid. RNA viruses include three families with dsRNAgenomes, L-A, L-BC, and M. Two other families of dsRNA, T and W, replicate in yeast but sofar have not been shown to be viral. M dsRNA encodes a toxin, and L-A encodes the major coatprotein and components required for the viral replication and maintenance of M. The two

9

Figure 2. The genome of a diploid cell of S. cerevisiae (see the text). A wild-type chromosomalgene is depicted as YFG1+ (Your Favorite Gene) and the mutation as yfg1-1.dsRNA, M and L-A, are packaged separately with the common capsid protein encoded by L-A,resulting in virus-like particles that are transmitted cytoplasmically during vegetative growth andconjugation. L-B and L-C (collectively denoted L-BC), similar to L-A, have a RNA-dependentRNA polymerase and are present in intracellular particles. KIL-o mutants, lacking M dsRNAand consequently the killer toxin, are readily induced by growth at elevated temperatures, andchemical and physical agents.

Yeast also contains a 20S circular single-stranded RNA (not shown in Figure 2) that appearsto encode an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, that acts as an independent replicon, and that isinherited as a non-Mendelian genetic element.

Only mutations of chromosomal genes exhibit Mendelian 2:2 segregation in tetrads aftersporulation of heterozygous diploids; this property is dependent on the disjunction ofchromosomal centromeres. In contrast, non-Mendelian inheritance is observed for thephenotypes associated with the absence or alteration of other nucleic acids described in Figure 1.

6 Genetic Nomenclature

6.1 Chromosomal GenesThe genetic nomenclature for chromosomal genes of the yeast S. cerevisiae is now more-or-

less universally accepted, as illustrated in Table 2, using ARG2 as an example. Wheneverpossible, each gene, allele, or locus is designated by three italicized letters, e.g., ARG, which isusually a describer, followed by a number, e.g., ARG2. Unlike most other systems of geneticnomenclature, dominant alleles are denoted by using uppercase italics for all letters of the genesymbol, e.g., ARG2, whereas lowercase letters denote the recessive allele, e.g., the auxotrophicmarker arg2. Wild-type genes are designated with a superscript “plus” (sup6+ or ARG2+).Alleles are designated by a number separated from the locus number by a hyphen, e.g., arg2-9.The symbol ∆ can denote complete or partial deletions, e.g., arg2-∆1. Insertion of genes followthe bacterial nomenclature by using the symbol :: . For example, arg2::LEU2 denotes theinsertion of the LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, in which LEU2 is dominant (and functional), andarg2 is recessive (and defective).

InheritanceNucleic acid

Location

Genetic determinant

Relative amountNumber of copies

Size (kb)Deficiencies in mutants

Wild-typeMutant or variant

Chromosomes

85%2 sets of 16

13,500 (200-2,200)

All kinds+YFG1

yfg1-1

2- m plasmid

µ

5%60-1006.318

Nonecircir

+

o

MitochondrialDNA

10%~50 (8-130)

70-76Cytochromes

& a.a b3ρρ

+

-

L-A80%103

4.576

M10%1701.8

L-BC9%1504.6

T0.5%

102.7

W0.5%

102.25

Killer toxin NoneKILKIL

-k-

1

o

RNA Viruses

Nucleus CytoplasmDouble-stranded DNA Double stranded RNA

Mendelian Non-Mendelian

10

Table 2. Genetic nomenclature, using ARG2 as an example

Genesymbol Definition

ARG+ All wild-type alleles controlling arginine requirementARG2 A locus or dominant allelearg2 A locus or recessive allele confering an arginine requirementarg2- Any arg2 allele confering an arginine requirementARG2+ The wild-type allelearg2-9 A specific allele or mutationArg+ A strain not requiring arginineArg- A strain requiring arginineArg2p The protein encoded by ARG2Arg2 protein The protein encoded by ARG2ARG2 mRNA The mRNA transcribed from ARG2arg2-∆1 A specific complete or partial deletion of ARG2ARG2::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and ARG2 remains

functional and dominantarg2::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and arg2 is or

became nonfunctionalarg2-10::LEU2 Insertion of the functional LEU2 gene at the ARG2 locus, and the specified

arg2-10 allele which is nonfunctionalcyc1-arg2 A fusion between the CYC1 and ARG2 genes, where both are nonfunctionalPCYC1-ARG2 A fusion between the CYC1 promoter and ARG2, where the ARG2 gene is

functional

Phenotypes are sometimes denoted by cognate symbols in roman type and by thesuperscripts + and -. For example, the independence and requirement for arginine can bedenoted by Arg+ and Arg-, respectively. Proteins encoded by ARG2, for example, can bedenoted Arg2p, or simply Arg2 protein. However, gene symbols are generally used as adjectivesfor other nouns, for example, ARG2 mRNA, ARG2 strains, etc.

Although most alleles can be unambiguously assigned as dominant or recessive byexamining the phenotype of the heterozygous diploid crosses, dominant and recessive traits aredefined only with pairs, and a single allele can be both dominant and recessive. For example,because the alleles CYC1+, cyc1-717 and cyc1-∆1 produce, respectively, 100%, 5% and 0% ofthe gene product, the cyc1-717 allele can be considered recessive in the cyc1-717/CYC1+ crossand dominant in the CYC1-717/cyc1-∆1 cross. Thus, sometimes it is less confusing to denote allmutant alleles in lower case letters, especially when considering a series of mutations having arange of activities.

Although superscript letters should be avoided, it is sometimes expedient to distinguishgenes conferring resistance and sensitivity by superscript R and S, respectively. For example,the genes controlling resistance to canavanine sulphate (can1) and copper sulphate (CUP1) andtheir sensitive alleles could be denoted, respectively, as canR1, CUPR1, CANS1, and cupS1.

Wild-type and mutant alleles of the mating-type locus and related loci do not follow thestandard rules. The two wild-type alleles of the mating-type locus are designated MATa andMATα. The wild-type homothallic alleles at the HMR and HML loci are denoted, HMRa, HMRα,

11

HMLa and HMLα. The mating phenotypes of MATa and MATα cells are denoted simply a andα, respectively. The two letters HO denotes the gene encoding the endonuclease required forhomothallic switching.

Dominant and recessive suppressors should be denoted, respectively, by three uppercase orthree lowercase letters, followed by a locus designation, e.g., SUP4, SUF1, sup35, suf11, etc. Insome instances UAA ochre suppressors and UAG amber suppressors are further designated,respectively, o and a following the locus. For example, SUP4-o refers to suppressors of theSUP4 locus that insert tyrosine residues at UAA sites; SUP4-a refers to suppressors of the sameSUP4 locus that insert tyrosine residues at UAG sites. The corresponding wild-type locus thatencodes the normal tyrosine tRNA and that lacks suppressor activity can be referred to as sup4+.Intragenic mutations that inactivate suppressors can denoted, for example, sup4- or sup4-o-1.Frameshift suppressors are denoted as suf (or SUF), whereas metabolic suppressors are denotedwith a variety of specialized symbols, such as ssn (suppressor of snf1), srn (suppressor ofrna1-1), and suh (suppressor of his2-1).

Capital letters are also used to designate certain DNA segments whose locations have beendetermined by a combination of recombinant DNA techniques and classical mapping procedures,e.g., RDN1, the segment encoding ribosomal RNA.

The general form YCRXXw is now used to designate genes uncovered by systematicallysequencing the yeast genome, where Y designates yeast; C (or A, B, etc.) designates thechromosome III (or I, II, etc.); R (or L) designates the right (or left) arm of the chromosome;XX designates the relative position of the start of the open-reading frame from the centromere;and w (or c) designates the Watson (or Crick) strand. For example, YCR5c denotes CIT2, apreviously known but unmapped gene situated on the right arm of chromosome III, fifth openreading-frame from the centromere on the Crick strand.

E. coli genes inserted into yeast are usually denoted by the prokaryotic nomenclature, e. g.,lacZ.

A list of gene symbols are tabulated in the book edited by Wheals et al. (6), whereas acurrent list can be found in the Internet filehttp://genome-www.stanford.edu/cgi-bin/dbrun/SacchDB?find+locus

6.2 Mitochondrial GenesSpecial consideration should be made of the nomenclature describing mutations of

mitochondrial components and function that are determined by both nuclear and mitochondrialDNA genes. The growth on media containing nonfermentable substrates (Nfs) as the sole energyand carbon source (such as glycerol or ethanol) is the most convenient operational procedure fortesting mitochondrial function. Lack of growth on nonfermentable media (Nfs- mutants), as wellas other mitochondrial alterations, can be due to either nuclear or mitochondrial mutations asoutlined in Table 3. Nfs- nuclear mutations are generally denote by the symbol pet; however,more specific designations have been used instead of pet when the gene products were known,such as cox4, hem1, etc.

The complexity of nomenclatures for mitochondrial DNA genes, outlined in Table 3, is duein part to complexity of the system, polymorphic differences of mitochondrial DNA,complementation between exon and intron mutations, the presence of intron-encoded maturases,diversed phenotypes of mutations within the same gene, and the lack of agreement betweenvarious workers. Unfortunately, the nomenclature for most mitochondrial mutations do notfollow the rules outline for nuclear mutations. Furthermore, confusion can occur between

12

Table 3. Mitochondrial genes and mutations with examples

Wild- Mutationtype (with examples) Mutant phenotype or gene product

Nuclear genes PET+ pet- Nfs-

pet1 Unknown functioncox4 Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IVhem1 δ-Aminolevulinate synthasecyc3 Cytochrome c heme lyase

Mitochondrial DNAGross aberrations

ρ+ ρ- Nfs-ρo ρ- mutants lacking mitochondrial DNA

Single-site mutations ρ+ mit- Nfs-, but capable of mitochondrial translation [COX1] [cox1] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit I [COX2] [cox2] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II [COX3] [cox3] Cytochrome c oxidase subunit III [COB1] [cob1] or [box] Cytochrome b [ATP6] [atp6] ATPase subunit 6 [ATP8] [atp8] ATPase subunit 8 [ATP9] [atp9] or [pho2] ATPase subunit 9 [VAR1] Mitochondrial ribosomal subunit ρ+ syn- Nfs-, deficient in mitochondrial translation

tRNAAsp or M7-37 Mitochondrial tRNAAsp (CUG)ant R Resistant to inhibitors

[ery S] ery R or [rib1] Resistant to erythromycin, 21S rRNA [cap S] cap R or [rib3] Resistant to chloramphenical, 21S rRNA [par S] par R or [par1] Resistant to paromomycin, 16S rRNA [oli S] oli R or [oli1] Resistant to oligomycin, ATPase subunit 9

Nfs- denotes lack of growth on nonfermentable substrates.

phenotypic designations, mutant isolation number, allelic designations, loci, and cistrons(complementation groups).

6.3 Non-Mendelian DeterminantsIn addition to the non-Mendelian determinants described in Figure 2 (2 µm plasmid,

mitochondrial genes, and RNA viruses) and discussed in Section 5 (The Yeast Genome), yeastcontains elements that have been proposed to be prions, i.e., infectious proteins, on the bases oftheir genetic properties. The nomenclature of these putative prions, representing alternativeprotein states, are presented in Table 4.

13

Table 4. Nomenclature of presumptive prions exhibiting non-Mendelian inhertance

Putative Prion state genePositive Negative product Phenotype of negative state

ψ+ ψ - Sup35p Decreased efficiency of certain suppressionξ + ξ - Sup35p Decreased efficiency of certain suppression

[URE3] [ure3-] Ure2p Deficiency in ureidosuccinate utilization

7 Genetic Analyses7.1 Overviews with Examples

There are numerous approaches for the isolation and characterization of mutations in yeast.Generally, a haploid strain is treated with a mutagen, such as ethylmethanesulfonate, and thedesired mutants are detected by any one of a number of procedures. For example, if Yfg- (YourFavorite Gene) represents an auxotrophic requirement, such as arginine, or temperature-sensitivemutants unable to grow at 37°C, the mutants could be scored by replica plating. Once identified,the Yfg- mutants could be analyzed by a variety of genetic and molecular methods. Three majormethods, complementation, meiotic analysis and molecular cloning are illustrated in Figure 3.

Genetic complementation is carried out by crossing the Yfg- MATa mutant to each of thetester strains MATα yfg1, MATα yfg2, etc., as well as the normal control strain MATα. Theseyfg1, yfg2, etc., are previously defined mutations causing the same phenotype. The diploidcrosses are isolated and the Yfg trait is scored. The Yfg+ phenotype in the heterozygous controlcross establishes that the Yfg- mutation is recessive. The Yfg- phenotype in MATα yfg1 cross,and the Yfg+ phenotype in the MATα yfg2, MATα yfg3, etc., crosses reveals that the originalYfg- mutant contains a yfg1 mutation.

Meiotic analysis can be used to determine if a mutation is an alteration at a single geneticlocus and to determine genetic linkage of the mutation both to its centromere and to othermarkers in the cross. As illustrated in Figure 3, the MATa yfg1 mutant is crossed to a normalMATα strain. The diploid is isolated and sporulated. Typically, sporulated cultures contain thedesired asci with four spores, as well as unsporulated diploid cells and rare asci with less thanfour spores. The sporulated culture is treated with snail extract which contains an enzyme thatdissolves the ascus sac, but leaves the four spores of each tetrad adhering to each other. Aportion of the treated sporulated culture is gently transferred to the surface of a petri plate or anagar slab. The four spores of each cluster are separated with a microneedle controlled by amicromanipulator. After separation of the desired number of tetrads, the ascospores are allowedto germinate and form colonies on complete medium. The haploid segregants can then be scoredfor the Yfg+ and Yfg- phenotypes. Because the four spores from each tetrad are the product of asingle meiotic event, a 2:2 segregation of the Yfg+:Yfg- phenotypes is indicative of a singlegene. If other markers are present in the cross, genetic linkage of the yfg1 mutation to the othermarkers or to the centromere of its chromosome could be revealed from the segregation patterns.

The molecular characterization of the yfg1 mutation can be carried out by cloning the wild-type YFG1+ gene by complementation, as illustrated in Figure 3 and described below (Section11.1 Cloning by Complementation).

14

Figure 3. General approaches for genetic analysis. As an example, a MATa strain ismutagenized and a hypothetical trait, Yfg- (Your Favorite Gene) is detected. The Yfg- mutant isanalyzed by three methods, complementation, meiotic analysis and molecular cloning (see thetext).

7.3 Tetrad analysisMeiotic analysis is the traditional method for genetically determining the order and

distances between genes of organisms having well-defined genetics systems. Yeast is especiallysuited for meiotic mapping because the four spores in an ascus are the products of a singlemeiotic event, and the genetic analysis of these tetrads provides a sensitive means fordetermining linkage relationships of genes present in the heterozygous condition. It is alsopossible to map a gene relative to its centromere if known centromere-linked genes are present inthe cross. Although the isolation of the four spores from an ascus is one of the more difficulttechniques in yeast genetics, requiring a micromanipulator and practice, tetrad analysis isroutinely carried out in most laboratories working primarily with yeast. Even though linkagerelationships are no longer required for most studies, tetrad analysis is necessary for determininga mutation corresponds to an alteration at a single locus, for constructing strains with new arraysof markers, and for investigating the interaction of genes.

Mutant Isolation Mutagenesis of a

haploid strainMATa

Detection of Yfg-

Yfg-

Yfg+ ComplementationCross the Yfg mutant

to tester strains.Isolate diploid strains.

Score for Yfg and Yfg

-

-

MATMAT

aα

+

Meiotic Analysis Cross mutant to

Isolate a diploid strain and Sporulate

Digest ascus walls

Dissect 4 spores of each tetrad

MAT YFGα +

Score for Yfg and Yfg+ -MAT YFGMAT yfg1MAT yfg2MAT yfg3 etc.

αααα

+

MAT yfg1 a x

Cloning the Wild-type Gene

by ComplementationTransform a

strain with a

YCp50 library.

MAT yfg1 ura3-52a

Isolate Ura transformantsand score for Yfg

++

Recover the YCp-plasmid in

YFG1E. coli

+

Analyze the plasmid by digestionwith restriction endonucleases and

DNA sequencing

YFG1

URA3 CEN4 ARS1

15

Figure 4. Origin of differenttetrad types. Different tetradtypes (left) are produced withgenes on homologous (center) ornonhomologous (right) chrom-osomes from the cross AB x ab.When PD > NPD, then the genesare on homologous chrom-osomes, because of the rarity ofNPD, which arise from fourstrand double crossovers. Thetetratype (T) tetrads arise fromsingle crossovers. See the textfor the method of converting the%T and %NPD tetrads to mapdistances when genes are onhomologous chromosomes. Ifgene are on nonhomologouschromosomes, or if they greatlyseparated on the same chrom-osome, then PD = NPD, becauseof independent assortment, ormultiple crossovers. Tetratypetetrads of genes on nonhom-ologous chromosomes arise bycrossovers between either of thegenes and their centromere, asshown in the lower right of thefigure. The %T can be used todetermine centromere distancesif it is known for one of thegenes (see the text).

There are three classes of tetrads from a hybrid which is heterozygous for two markers, AB xab: PD (parental ditype), NPD (non-parental ditype) and T (tetratype) as shown in Figure 4.The following ratios of these tetrads can be used to deduce gene and centromere linkage:

PD NPD T───────────AB aB ABAB aB Abab Ab abab Ab aB───────────

Random assortment 1 : 1 : 4Linkage >1 : <1

Centromere linkage 1 : 1 : <4There is an excess of PD to NPD asci if two genes are linked. If two genes are on different

chromosomes and are linked to their respective centromeres, there is a reduction of the

A BA ba Ba b

A bA ba Ba B

A BA Ba ba b

Tetratype(T)

Non-parentalditype(NPD)

Parentalditype(PD)

Tetradtype

A BA Ba ba b

A BA Ba ba b

A BA Ba ba b

or

Genes on homologous

chromosomes

Genes onnonhomologouschromosomes

No crossover No crossover

No crossoverDouble crossover

Single crossover Single crossovers

AA a a

BBbb

AA a a

BBbb

AA a a

AA a a

BBbb

bbBB

16

proportion of T asci. If two genes are on different chromosomes and at least one gene is notcentromere-linked, or if two genes are widely separated on the same chromosome, there isindependent assortment and the PD : NPD : T ratio is 1 : 1 : 4. The origin of different tetradtypes are illustrated in Figure 4.

The frequencies of PD, NPD, and T tetrads can be used to determine the map distance in cM(centimorgans) between two genes if there are two or lesser exchanges within the interval:

┌ ┐100 │ T + 6NPD │

cM = — │—————— │ 2 │PD + NPD + T │└ ┘

The equation for deducing map distances, cM, is accurate for distances up to approximately 35cM. For larger distances up to approximately 75 cM, the value can be corrected by the followingempirically-derived equation:

(80.7)(cM) - (0.883)(cM)2cM (corrected) = ———————————

83.3 - cMSimilarly, the distance between a marker and its centromere cM', can be approximated from

the percentage of T tetrads with a tightly-linked centromere marker, such as trp1:

┌ ┐100 │ T │

cM’ = — │—————— │ 2 │PD + NPD + T │└ ┘

7.3 Non-Mendelian InheritanceThe inheritance of non-Mendelian elements can be revealed by tetrad analysis. For

example, a cross of ρ+ MATa and ρ- MATα haploid strains would result in ρ+ MATa/MATα andρ- MATa/MΑΤα diploid strains, the proportion of which would depend on the particular ρ-strain. Each ascus from a ρ+ diploid strain contains four ρ+ segregants or a ratio of 4:0 forρ+:ρ-. In contrast, a cross of pet1 MATa and PET1+ MATα strains would result in aPET1+/pet1 MATα/MATa diploid, which would yield a 2:2 segregation of PET1+/pet1. Similar,the other non-Mendelian determinants also produce primarily 4:0 or 0:4 segregations aftermeiosis.

Another means for analyzing non-Mendelian elements is cytoduction, which is based on thesegregation of haploid cells, either MATa or MATα, from zygotes. Haploid cells arise fromzygotes at frequencies of approximately 10-3 with normal strains, and nearly 80% with kar1crosses, such as, for example, kar1 MATa x KAR1+ MATα. While the haploid segregants from akar1 cross generally retains all of the chromosomal markers from either the MATa or MATαparental strain, the non-Mendelian elements can be reassorted. For example, a MATa canR1kar1 [ρ- ψ- kil-o] x MATα CANS1 [ρ+ ψ+ kil-k] cross can yield MATa canR1 kar1 haploidsegregants that are [ρ+ ψ+ kil-k], [ρ- ψ+ kil-k], etc. In addition, high frequencies of 2 µmplasmids and low frequencies of chromosome can leak from one nucleus to another.

Also, the mating of two cells with different mitochondrial DNAs results in a heteroplasmiczygote containing both mitochondrial genomes. Mitotic growth of the zygote usually isaccompanied by rapid segregation of homoplasmic cells containing either one of the parentalmitochondrial DNAs or a recombinant product. The frequent recombination and rapid mitotic

17

segregation of mitochondrial DNAs can be seen, for example, by mating two different mit-strains, and observing both Nfs- parental types as well as the Nfs+ recombinant (see Table 3).

8 Transformation

8.1 Yeast Vector and DNA FragmentsIn general, transformation is the introduction into cells of exogenously added DNA and the

subsequent inheritance and expression of that DNA. The most important advances in themolecular characterization and controlled modification of yeast genes have relied on the use ofshuttle vectors which can be used to transform both yeast and E. coli.

The following three main methods are currently used to transform yeast: (i) those usingspheroplasts; or (ii) cells treated with lithium salts; and (iii) the use of electroporation.

Spheroplasts for transformations are prepared by the action of hydrolytic enzymes to removeportions of the cell wall in the presence of osmotic stabilizers, typically 1 M sorbitol. Cell-walldigestion is carried out either with a snail-gut extract, usually denoted Glusulase, or withZymolyase, an enzyme from Arthrobacter luteus. DNA is added to the spheroplasts, and themixtures is co-precipitated with a solution of polyethylene glycol (PEG) and Ca2+.Subsequently, the cells are resuspended in a solution of sorbitol, mixed with molten agar andthen layered on the surface of a selective plate containing sorbitol. Although this protocol isparticularly tedious, and efficiency of transformation can vary by over four orders of magnitudewith different strains, very high frequencies of transformation, over 104 transformants/µg DNA,can be obtained with certain strains.

Most investigators use cells treated with lithium salts for transformation. After treating thecells with lithium acetate, which apparently permeabilizes the cell wall, DNA is added and thecells are co-precipitated with PEG. The cells are exposed to a brief heat shock, washed free ofPEG and lithium acetate, and subsequently spread on plates containing ordinary selectivemedium. Increased frequencies of transformation are obtained by using specially-preparedsingle-stranded carrier DNA and certain organic solvents.

A commonly-used method for transforming a wide range of different species of cells isbased on the induced permeability to DNA by exposure to electrical fields. The interaction of anexternal electric field with the lipid dipoles of a pore configuration is believed to induce andstabilize the permeation sites, resulting in cross membrane transport. Freshly-grown yeastcultures are washed, suspended in an osmotic protectant, such as sorbitol, DNA is added, and thecell suspension is pulsed in an electroporation device. Subsequently, the cells are spread on thesurface of plates containing selective media. The efficiency of transformation by electroporationcan be increased over 100-fold by using PEG, single-stranded carrier DNA and cells that are inlate log-phase of growth. Although electroporation procedures are simple, the specializedequipment and the required cuvettes are costly.

8.2 Synthetic OligonucleotidesA convenient procedure has been described for producing specific alterations of

chromosomal genes by transforming yeast directly with synthetic oligonucleotides. Thisprocedure is easily carried out by transforming a defective mutant and selecting for at leastpartially functional revertants. Transformation of yeast directly with synthetic oligonucleotidesis thus ideally suited for producing a large number of specific alterations that change acompletely nonfunctional allele to at least a partially functional form. The oligonucleotide

18

should contain a sequence that would correct the defect and produce the desired additionalalterations at nearly sites. The method is apparently applicable to all mutant alleles whosefunctional forms can be selected. Although it is a general procedure, so far it has beenextensively used only with mutations of CYC1, that encodes iso-1-cytochrome c, and CYT1 thatencodes cytochrome c1. The transformation is carried out by the usual lithium acetateprocedure, using approximately 50 µg of oligonucleotides that are approximately 40 nucleotideslong.

8.3 Mitochondrial TransformationStandard methods for transformation of nuclear genes are ineffective for mitochondrial

DNA genes. However, DNA can be delivered to the mitochondrial matrix by high-velocitybombardment of yeast cells with tungsten microprojectiles carrying mitochondrial DNA.Several high-velocity microprojectile bombardment devices are commercially available, andthese are powered by gunpowder charge or compressed gas.

This method was used to demonstrated that ρo strains can be converted to stable “syntheticρ-” strains by transformation with bacterial plasmids carrying mitochondrial genes (see Table 3).Similar to natural ρ- mitochondrial DNA, the synthetic ρ- mitochondrial DNA can recombinewith ρ+ mitochondrial DNA, thus providing means to replace ρ+ wild-type genes with mutationsgenerated in vitro.

Synthetic ρ- strains are isolated by bombarding a lawn of ρo cells on the surface of a petriplate with YEp or YCp plasmids carrying both a selectable marker, such as URA3, and themitochondrial gene of interest. The nuclear and mitochondrial genes may either be on separateor the same plasmid. Ura+ colonies, for example, are then screen for the presence of themitochondrial gene by crossing the colonies to an appropriate mit- tester strain and scoring thediploids for Nfs+ (see Table 3). The efficiency of mitochondrial transformation varies fromexperiment to experiment, and can be from 2 x 10-3 to less than 10-4 mitochondrialtransformants per nuclear transformant.

9 Yeast VectorsA wide range of vectors are available to meet various requirements for insertion, deletion

alteration and expression of genes in yeast. Most plasmids used for yeast studies are shuttlevectors, which contain sequences permitting them to be selected and propagated in E. coli, thusallowing for convenient amplification and subsequent alteration in vitro. The most commonyeast vectors originated from pBR322 and contain an origin of replication (ori), promoting highcopy-number maintenance in E. coli, and the selectable antibiotic markers, the β-lactamase gene,bla (or AmpR), and sometime to tetracycline-resistance gene, tet or (TetR), conferring resistanceto, respectively, ampicillin and tetracycline.

In addition, all yeast vectors contain markers that allow selection of transformantscontaining the desired plasmid. The most commonly used yeast markers include URA3, HIS3,LEU2, TRP1 and LYS2, which complement specific auxotrophic mutations in yeast, such asura3-52, his3-∆1, leu2-∆1, trp1-∆1 and lys2-201. These complementable yeast mutations havebeen chosen because of their low-reversion rate. Also, the URA3, HIS3, LEU2 and TRP1 yeastmarkers can complement specific E. coli auxotrophic mutations.

The URA3 and LYS2 yeast genes have an additional advantage because both positive andnegative selections are possible, as discussed below (Section 10.1, URA3 and LYS2).

19

Table 5. Components of common yeast plasmid vectors

YIp YEp YRp YCp

PlasmidE. coli genes or segments

ori, bla; tet + + + +Yeast genes or segments

URA3; HIS3; LEU2; TRP1; LYS2; etc. + + + +leu2-d 0 + + 02 µm; 2 µm-ori REP3; 0 + 0 0ARS1; ARS2; ARS3; etc. 0 0 + +CEN3; CEN4; CEN11; etc. 0 0 0 +

Host (yeast) markersura3-52; his3-∆1; leu2-∆1; trp1-∆1; lys2-201; etc. + + + +

Stability ++ + ± +

Although there are numerous kinds of yeast shuttle vectors, those used currently can bebroadly classified in either of following three types as summarized in Table 5: integrativevectors, YIp; autonomously replicating high copy-number vectors, YEp; or autonomouslyreplicating low copy-number vectors, YCp. Another type of vector, YACs, for cloning largefragments are discussed in Section 13.2 (Yeast Artificial Chromosomes).

9.1 YIp VectorsThe YpI integrative vectors do not replicate autonomously, but integrate into the genome at

low frequencies by homologous recombination. Integration of circular plasmid DNA byhomologous recombination leads to a copy of the vector sequence flanked by two direct copiesof the yeast sequence as illustrated in the top of Figure 5. The site of integration can be targetedby cutting the yeast segment in the YIp plasmid with a restriction endonuclease and transformingthe yeast strain with the linearized plasmid. The linear ends are recombinogenic and directintegration to the site in the genome that is homologous to these ends. In addition, linearizationincreases the efficiency of integrative transformation from 10- to 50-fold.

The YIp vectors typically integrate as a single copy. However multiple integration do occurat low frequencies, a property that can be used to construct stable strains overexpressing specificgenes. YIp plasmids with two yeast segments, such as YFG1 and URA3 marker, have thepotential to integrate at either of the genomic loci, whereas vectors containing repetitive DNAsequences, such as Ty elements or rDNA, can integrate at any of the multiple sites withingenome. Strains constructed with YIp plasmids should be examined by PCR analysis, or othermethods, to confirm the site of integration.

Strains transformed with YIp plasmids are extremely stable, even in the absence of selectivepressure. However, plasmid loss can occur at approximately 10-3 to 10-4 frequencies byhomologous recombination between tandemly repeated DNA, leading to looping out of thevector sequence and one copy of the duplicated sequence as illustrated in Figure 5 and discussedbelow in Section 11.2 (Two-Step Gene Replacement).

20

Figure 5. Two-step gene replacement. The wild-type chromosomal YFG1+ allele can bereplaced by the mutant yfg1-1 allele from a YIp integrating plasmid. The plasmid is firstintegrated in the chromosome corresponding to the site on the plasmid that was cleaved by arestriction endonuclease. Strains that have excised the URA3 marker in vivo by homologousrecombination are selected on FOA medium. Either the original YFG1+ allele, or the yfg1-1allele remains in the chromosome, depending on the site of the cross-over.

9.2 YEp VectorsThe YEp yeast episomal plasmid vectors replicate autonomously because of the presence of

a segment of the yeast 2 µm plasmid that serves as an origin of replication (2 µm ori). The 2 µmori is responsible for the high copy-number and high frequency of transformation of YEpvectors.

YEp vectors contain either a full copy of the 2 µm plasmid, or, as with most of these kindsof vectors, a region which encompasses the ori and the REP3 gene. The REP3 gene is requiredin cis to the ori for mediating the action of the trans-acting REP1 and REP2 genes which encodeproducts that promote partitioning of the plasmid between cells at division. Therefore, the YEpplasmids containing the region encompassing only ori and REP3 must be propagated in cir+hosts containing the native 2 µm plasmid (Figure 2).

Most YEp plasmids are relatively unstable, being lost in approximately 10-2 or more cellsafter each generation. Even under conditions of selective growth, only 60% to 95% of the cellsretain the YEp plasmid.

The copy number of most YEp plasmids ranges from 10-40 per cell of cir+ hosts. However,the plasmids are not equally distributed among the cells, and there is a high variance in the copynumber per cell in populations.

Several systems have been developed for producing very high copy-numbers of YEpplasmids per cell, including the use of the partially defective mutation leu2-d, whose expressionis several orders of magnitude less than the wild-type LEU2+ allele. The copy number per cell

URA3

YFG1

YFG1

YFG1yfg1-1

yfg1-1

FOA Selection (Ura )-

URA3

Ura+

21

of such YEp leu2-d vectors range from 200-300, and the high copy-number persists for manygenerations after growth in leucine-containing media without selective pressure. The YEpleu2-d vectors are useful in large-scale cultures with complete media where plasmid selection isnot possible. The most common use for YEp plasmid vectors is to overproduce gene products inyeast.

9.3 YCp VectorsThe YCp yeast centromere plasmid vectors are autonomously replicating vectors containing

centromere sequences, CEN, and autonomously replicating sequences, ARS. The YCp vectorsare typically present at very low copy numbers, from 1 to 3 per cell, and possibly more, and arelost in approximately 10-2 cells per generation without selective pressure. In many instances, theYCp vectors segregate to two of the four ascospore from an ascus, indicating that they mimic thebehavior of chromosomes during meiosis, as well as during mitosis. The ARS sequences arebelieved to correspond to the natural replication origins of yeast chromosomes, and all of themcontain a specific consensus sequence. The CEN function is dependent on three conserveddomains, designated I, II, and III; all three of these elements are required for mitoticstabilization of YCp vectors. YRp vectors, containing ARS but lacking functional CENelements, transform yeast at high frequencies, but are lost at too high a frequency, over 10% pergeneration, making them undesirable for general vectors.

The stability and low copy-number of YCp vectors make them the ideal choice for cloningvectors, for construction of yeast genomic DNA libraries, and for investigating the function ofgenes altered in vivo. ARS1, which is in close proximity to TRP1, is the most commonly usedARS element for YCp vectors, although others have been used. CEN3, CEN4 and CEN11 arecommonly used centromeres that can be conveniently manipulated. For example, the vectorYCp50 contains CEN4 and ARS1.

10 Genes Important for Genetic StudiesSeveral genes and promoters are commonly employed for genetic manipulations and studies

with yeast. Some of these genes have special properties, whereas others were originally choosenarbitarily and are conveniently available in strains and plasmids. Several of the genes mostcommonly used for a variety of purposes are described below.

10.1 URA3 and LYS2The URA3 and LYS2 yeast genes have a marked advantage because both positive and

negative selections are possible. Positive selection is carried out by auxotrophiccomplementation of the ura3 and lys2 mutations, whereas negative selection is based on specificinhibitors, 5-fluoro-orotic acid (FOA) and α-aminoadipic acid (αAA), respectively, that preventgrowth of the prototrophic strains but allows growth of the ura3 and lys2 mutants, respectively.

URA3 encodes orotidine-5’phosphate decarboxylase, an enzyme which is required for thebiosynthesis of uracil. Ura3- (or ura5-) cells can be selected on media containing FOA. TheURA3+ cells are killed because FOA appears to be converted to the toxic compound 5-fluorouracil by the action of decarboxylase, whereas ura3- cells are resistant. The negativeselection on FOA media is highly discriminating, and usually less than 10-2 FOA-resistantcolonies are Ura+. The FOA selection procedure can be used to produce ura3 markers inhaploid strains by mutation, and, more importantly, for expelling URA3-containing plasmids,including YCp and YEp replicating plasmids, and integated YIp plasmids, as discussed below

22

for a number of genetic strategies (Section 11). Because of this negative selection and its smallsize, URA3 is the most widely used yeast marker in yeast vectors. The specfic allele, ura3-52,which is the most commonly used host marker, contains a Ty1 insertion, is not revertible, anddoes not allow integation of YIp-URA3 plasmids at the URA3 chromosomal locus in most, butnot all strains.

LYS2 encodes α-aminoadipate reductase, an enzyme which is required for the biosynthesisof lysine. Lys2- and lys5- mutants, but not normal strains grow on a medium lacking the normalnitrogen source, but containing lysine and αAA. Apparently, lys2 and lys5 mutations cause theaccumulation of a toxic intermediate of lysine biosynthesis that is formed by high levels of αAA,but these mutants still can use αAA as a nitrogen source. Numerous lys2 mutants and lowfrequencies of lys5 mutants can be conveniently obtained by simply plating high densities ofnormal cells on αAA medium. Similar with the FOA selection procedure, LYS2-containingplasmids can be conveniently expelled from lys2 hosts. Because of the large size of the LYS2gene and the presence of numerous restriction sites, the FOA selection procedure with URA3plasmids are more commonly used.

10.2 ADE1 and ADE2The ADE1 and ADE2 yeast genes encode phosphoribosylamino-imidazole-

succinocarbozamide synthetase and phosphoribosylamino-imidazole-carboxylase, respectively,two enzymes in the biosynthetic pathway of adenine. Ade1 and ade2 mutants, but no other ade-mutants, produce a red pigment that is apparently derived from the polymerization of theintermediate phosphoribosylamino-imidazole (denoted AIR). Furthermore, the formation of AIRis prevented by blocks preceding the ADE1 and ADE2 steps. For example ade2 strains are red,whereas ade3 and the double mutant ade2 ade3 are both white, similar to the color of normalstrains. Red colonies and red-white sectored colonies are easily detected by visual inspection.

The ade1 and ade2 red pigmentation, and the prevention of the coloration by ade3 or otherade- mutation has been incorporated as a detection scheme in a number of diversed geneticscreens. Also, the ade2-1 UAA mutation, and the suppression of formation of the red pigmentby the SUP4-o suppressor has been used in a variety of genetic screens. Most of the screens arebased on the preferential loss, or the required retention of a plasmid containing a componentinvolved in the formation of the red pigment.

Examples of ade- red genetic screens include the detection of conditional mutations (Section11.5, Plasmid Shuffle), isolation of synthetic lethal mutations (Section 12.5, SyntheticEnhancement and Epistatic Relationships), detection of YAC transformants (Section 13.2, YeastArtificial Chromosomes [YACs]), and the isolation of mutations that effect plasmid stability.

10.3 GAL1 PromoterCloned genes can be expressed with constitutive or regulatable promoters. The most

commonly-used regulated promoter for yeast studies is PGAL1.There are two regulatory proteins, Gal4p and Gal80p, which effect the transcription of the

following structural genes: GAL1, a kinase; GAL2, a permease; GAL7, a transferase; GAL10, anepimerase; and MEL1, a galactosidase. Gal3p appears to be required for the production of theintracellular inducer from galactose. In presence of the inducer, Gal4p binds to sites in the UAS(upstream activation sequence), and activates transcription. In the absence of the inducer, suchas when cells are grown in media containing nonfermentable carbon sources, Gal80p binds to thecarboxyl terminal region of Gal4p, masking the activation domain. Expression is repressed in

23

cells exposed to glucose-containing media for several reasons in addition to the absence of theinducer, including the action of repressors at sites between the UAS and the TATA box and theinhibition of galactose uptake. Therefore, the addition of glucose to cells growing in galactosemeduim causes an immediate repression of tramscription. The UAS of galactose structuralgenes contains one or more 17 base-pair palidromic sequences to which Gal4p binds, with thedifferent levels of transcription determined by the number and combinations of the palidromes.

The UAS of the divergently transcribed GAL1 and GAL10 is contained within a 365-bpfragment, denoted PGAL1, that is sufficient for maximal galactose induction and thoroughglucose repression. PGAL1 can rapidly induce the expression of downstream fused-genes over1000-fold after the addition of galactose to cells growing in media with a nonfermentable carbonsource. Furthermore, PGAL1 can be turned off by the addition of glucose to the galactosecontaining medium.

PGAL1 has been used in a wide range of studies with yeast, including the overproduction ofyeast proteins as well as heterologous proteins (Section 13.3). Most importantly, the strongglucose repression of PGAL1 has been used to investigate the terminal phenotype of essentialgenes, in much the same way that temperature shifts are used to control the activity oftemperature-sensitive mutations (see Section 11.2). Also, the PGAL1 system has been used toinvestigate suppression (Section 12.4) and growth inhibition by over expressed normal or mutantgenes (dominant-negative mutations, Section 12.1). PGAL1 is also an important component ofone of the two-hybrid systems (Section 13.1).

10.4 lacZ and Other ReportersActivities of promoters, and protein-protein and protein-DNA interactions involving

promoter regions can be readily converted into selectable and quantifiable traits by fusing thepromoter regions to reporter genes. Reporter genes can be used to determine the levels oftranscription, or the levels of translation of the transcript, under various physiological conditions.The most common use of reporter genes has been to identify elements required for transcriptionby systematically examining series of mutations in promoter regions. Similarly, reporter geneshave been used to identify trans acting factors that modulate expression by transcription ortranslation.

The Escherichia coli lacZ gene, which encodes β-galactosidase, is the most commonly usedreporter with yeast and other systems, because its activity can assayed semiquantitatively onplates and fully quantitatively by enzyme assay of liquid cultures. Rare events can be detectedby the differental staining of colonies using X-gal (5-bromo-4-chloro-3-indolyl-β-D-galactoside).

For positive selection, the reporter gene could include, for example, the translated region ofthe HIS3 gene, lacking a UAS (upstream-activating sequence). His+ colonies arise when activepromoters are formed, such as in the cloning of heterologous components required for theactivation of a defined DNA segment. Combining the HIS3 selection with a lacZ screen is acommomly used strategy; this approch of using two different reporters in parallel with the samepromoter region is an efficient means for identifying trans-acting factors.

24

11 Manipulating the Genome In Vitro with PlasmidsThe greatest virtues of using yeast has been the ease with which genes can be retrieved,

deleted, inserted and modified in a controlled manner. These methods rely on the combined useof recombinant DNA techniques, transformation and classical yeast genetics procedures.Overviews of some of these major approaches are described in the following sections.

11.1 Cloning by ComplementationMolecular cloning and DNA analysis is the most definitive way of characterizing a gene that

corresponds to a mutation. Cloning by complementation is usually carried out with a library of aYCp vector containing inserts of a more-or-less random series of genomic fragments, asillustrated in Figure 3 with the hypothetical yfg1 mutation.

The yfg1 strain is transformed with the YCp library, and the transformants are examined forthe Yfg+ trait. YCp vectors are generally used because each transformant contains a single oronly few plasmids per cell. The method of screening transformants for complementation variesaccording to the specific phenotype that is to be scored. Direct selection can be used in someinstances. However, if the original mutation reverts, as is often the case, a high frequency offalse positives occurs among the transformants. Thus, an alternative method of indirect selectionby replica-plating is preferred. Thus, by this method, the transformant containing the desiredYCp-YFG1+ plasmids appear as homogeneous Yfg+ colonies, whereas the colonies containingyfg1 revertants appear as heterogeneous Yfg+ and Yfg- mixtures after replica-plating. Mostimportantly, the true transformants will be dependent on the YCp-YFG1+ plasmid for the Yfg+phenotype. In almost all studies, plasmid dependency is conveniently determined with the ura3system and usually with the non-reverting allele ura3-52. Because ura3 mutants can be selectedon FOA (5-fluoro-orotic acid) medium, plasmid-free strains therefore can be recovered andsubsequently tested for the loss of complementation. For example, the yfg1 ura3 YCp-YFG1+strain would be Yfg+ Ura+, while the yfg1 ura3 strain, lacking the plasmid, would be Yfg- Ura-.Furthermore, the authenticity of the plasmid can be confirmed by first recovering the plasmid inE. coli and retransforming the yfg1 strain.

It is also desirable to confirm that the cloned segment truly encompasses the YFG1+ gene.Even though the transformants may contain only a single copy of the putative gene, there areexamples in which two wild-type copies of a gene, one on the chromosome and the other on theplasmid, may suppress a mutation situated at a different locus. An independent test, based onhomologous recombination, relies on YIp vector containing the insert. If the insert contains aunique restriction site, cleavage at this site will enhance integration of the plasmid at thehomologous chromosomal site. Without cleavage, the plasmid could integrate at the site of otheryeast markers on the plasmid, as well as at the YFG1+ locus. After the integrant has beenobtained, the site of integration can be investigated by meiotic analysis. For example,integration of the p[YFG1+ URA3+] plasmid at the site of YFG1+ locus would result in aYFG1+::[YFG1+ URA3+] ura3 strain. After crossing to a yfg1 ura3 strain and carrying out ameiotic analysis, the segregants should show a 2:2 segregation for both Yfg+/Yfg- andUra+/Ura- and both markers would segregate as parental ditypes. On the other hand, if theplasmid integrated at a site other than the YFG1 locus, an excessive number of Yfg+ segregantswould be recovered, indicating that the normal chromosomal YFG1+ allele and the integratedplasmid YFG1+ allele were not linked, or were at least not in close proximity.

25

If the sequence of the YFG1 gene and flanking regions are known, the site of integrationcould be confirmed solely by PCR analysis.

After the desired plasmid has been demonstrated to encompass the YFG1 gene, restrictionfragments can be analyzed to narrowed down the region of the locus, which can be subsequentlysequenced and studied by a variety of other methods.

11.2 Mutagenesis In VitroTwo common experimental goals are to produce either specific or “random” mutations

within a gene. DNA alteration are required for investigating, for example, structure-functionrelationships and essential regions of proteins, and for producing conditional mutations, such astemperature-sensitive mutation. Specific alterations are carried out by the general procedure ofoligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis that is applicable to any cloned DNA segment, includingthose used for yeast studies. Oligonucleotide-directed mutagenesis has been used tosystemically replace amino acids within proteins, especially the replacement of charged aminoacids with alanine residues. Such alanine replacements have resulted in a multitude of effects,including proteins that were unaffected, inactive and temperature sensitive.

Also, numerous general procedures for producing “random” point mutations are available,including treating plasmid DNA with hydroxylamine and misincorporation by PCR mutagenesis.Most importantly, a simple procedure has been developed for the localized mutagenesis of yeastgenes, as illustrated in Figure 6B. The region to be altered is first amplified under mutagenicPCR conditions, resulting in the generation of fragments containing “random” yfg1-x mutations.A yfg1-∆ strain is then cotransformed with these PCR products and with a gapped YCp plasmidcontaining homology to both ends of the PCR products. Repair of the gap with the PCRproducts (see Section 11.6) results in a series of strains with YCp plasmids containing the alteredyfg1-x alleles. The yeast strains containing the yfg1-∆ chromosomal deletion can then beindividually scored for the phenotype of each of the yfg1-x mutants. This procedure isparticularly effective for targeting “random” mutations in specific regions, and does not requiresubcloning steps in E. coli.

11.3 Two-step Gene ReplacementAfter a gene has been cloned, the most efficient means for obtaining mutations in the gene is

by mutagenesis in vitro of the cloned DNA segment as described above. The effects of themutations can then be examined in vivo by introducing the altered gene in yeast bytransformation. A simple and the most common procedure is to transform a yeast strain, whichlacks a functional copy of the chromosomal gene, with a YCp plasmid, which contains thealtered gene. This can be accomplished directly in a single step if the gene in question is notessential. However, the best procedure, eliminating the problems of copy number and vectorsequences, is to replace the chromosomal copy of the gene with the altered plasmid copy. Thiscan be accomplished by the two-step gene replacement procedure illustrated in Figure 5. A YIpplasmid, containing the altered yfg1-1 gene is integrated in the chromosome in the regioncontaining the YFG1+ normal gene. Homologous recombination results in two copies of thegene, yfg1-1 and YFG1+, separated by the plasmid sequences. The second step involveshomologous crossing over in the repeated DNA segment to loop-out the plasmid, along with theURA3 gene. Such desired Ura- strain can be selected on FOA medium. The resulting plasmid islost during growth of the cells because the plasmid lacks an origin of replication.

26

Figure 6. (A) Retrieval of a chromosomal yfg1-1 mutation by transforming a mutant with agapped plasmid. Only the repaired circular plasmid containing the mutation is stably maintainedin yeast. (B) Generation of a series of yfg1-x mutations by PCR mutagenesis and gap repair.The yfg1-∆ mutant is cotransformed with the mutagenized PCR fragments and the gappedplasmid. The phenotypes of the yfg1-x mutants can be directly assessed in the strain containingthe yfg1-∆ deletion.

27

The second cross-over can occur in either of two regions as depicted in Figure 6, the regioneither to the left or to the right of the yfg1-1 alteration. The cross-over at the left results in theregeneration of normal YFG1 allele, whereas a cross-over at the right results in the introductionof only the desired yfg1-1 mutation.

The position of the cross-over in the second step is approximately random, resulting inrecovery of both YFG1 and yfg1-1 strains. However, the relative frequencies of cross-overs inthe two regions are probably related to their lengths. In order to recover the altered yfg1-1 allele,the second cross-over must occur at the opposite side of the site of integration. Therefore, it isdesirable to force the initial integration at the smaller region by cutting the plasmid in this regionwith a restriction endonuclease.

In addition to the URA3 marker, the LYS2 can be also used for both positive and negativeselection (see Section 10.1, URA3 and LYS2). However, if neither URA3 or LYS2 can be used,loop-out recombination is often sufficiently high, 10-3 to 10-4, making it possible to detect theloss of the marker by replica-plating. If a sufficiently large number of altered replacements arecontemplated, an additional marker could be introduced into the YFG1+ locus, allowing for theconvenient scoring of the desired loop-out.

11.4 Gene Disruption and One-step Gene ReplacementOne of the most important and widely used methods to characterize yeast genes is gene

disruption. The complete disruption of a gene unambiguously reveals its function and can behelpful for generating additional mutations. Several methods can be used to produce deletionsand null mutations, including the two-step gene replacement described above.

The one-step gene disruption procedure is usually preferred because of its simplicity. Thisprocedure is based on the use of a linear fragment of DNA containing a selectable markerflanked by 5’ and 3’ homologous regions as illustrated in Figure 7A. The free ends of thefragment, prepared by digestion with restriction endonucleases, are recombinogenic, resulting inthe integration of URA3 marker and the loss of wild-type YFG1 allele.

It should be noted that the transformation must be carried out in a diploid strain if the geneencodes an essential function. Also, the disruption of the desired genes should be verified byPCR or Southern blot analysis. The fragment required for single step disruptions can be alsoconveniently generated by PCR, alleviating the need to clone the YFG1 gene.

Because the one-step gene disruption procedure results in a URA3+ strain, the method hasbeen modified as illustrated in Figure 7B. In this method, URA3 is flanked by identical copies ofthe bacterial hisG gene (or any non-yeast DNA segment). The hisG-URA3-hisG is first used toproduce the gene disruption; subsequently, recombination between the direct repeats andselection on FOA produces a single copy of hisG at the site of the disruption. Thus, multiplerounds of gene disruption can be carried out in the same strain.

A similar procedure has also been developed for conveniently replacing mutant alleles in asingle step, as illustrated in Figure 7C. The YFG1 gene is first disrupted with the URA3 gene asdescribed above. Replacements of the disrupted YFG1 by altered alleles can be selected on FOAmedium among transformants or after minimal growth of transformants on complete medium.This and related procedures are particularly useful when large numbers of replacements arerequired.

Another method for producing gene disruptions, as well as simultaneously testing for thepromoter activity, have been based on a dominant resistant module consisting almost entirely ofheterologous DNA. Transformants resistant to geneticin (G418) are selected and examined for

28

Figure 7. Gene disruption and single-stepgene replacement. (A) The YFG1+ gene isdisrupted by transforming the strain with alinear fragment containing a URA3 selectablemarker flanked by homologous sequences.The chromosomal segment is replaced by thisURA3 containing fragment after integration byhomologous recombination at the two ends.(B) The URA3 marker introduced in the YFG1locus, can be excised if URA3 is also flankedby direct repeats of DNA, preferably notoriginating from yeast. Homologousrecombinants, selection on FOA medium, lackthe URA3 marker and retain a single copy ofthe repeated DNA. (C) Single-step genereplacement of mutant alleles, such as yfg1-1,can be carried out by first replacing the YFG1gene by URA3, transforming the strain withlinear fragment encompassing the yfg1-1mutation, and selecting transformants on FOAmedium, in which URA3 is replaced by yfg1-1.

lacZ activity. To allow for repeated use of the G418 selection, the module is flanked by shortdirect repeats, promoting excision in vivo.

11.5 Plasmid ShuffleAs mentioned above (Section 11.2), the most common procedure for isolating and

characterizing a series of altered alleles, yfg1-x, is simply to transform a strain lacking the gene,yfg1-∆, with YCp plasmids containing the altered forms and to examine the phenotype of thetransformants, yfg1-∆ p[yfg1-x]. However, the characterization of mutations of an essential geneposes an additional technical difficulty because of the inviability of strains containing the yfg1-∆null mutation, as well as of those containing nonfunctional yfg1-x alleles.

yfg1-∆

yfg1::URA3

FOA Selection (Ura )-

FOA Selection (Ura )-

Ura+

Ura+

YFG1

YFG1

URA3

URA3

yfg1-1

yfg1-1

(A)

(B)

(C)

29

Figure 8. Plasmid shuffle.The chromosomal copy ofYFG1 is replaced by the yfg1-∆deletion, but the Yfg+ phen-otype is maintained by the YCpplasmid containing YFG1 andURA3. The strain is trans-formed with a mutagenizedLEU2 plasmids having theYFG1 gene. Recessive yfg1-xmutations are manifested byselecting for strains on FOAmedium. The strain will notgrow on FOA medium if YFG1is an essential gene and if theyfg1-x mutation is notfunctional.

Although the two-stepgene replacement procedure(Section 11.3) could be used togenerate condition yfg1-xmutations of an essential gene,a method that more clearlyreveals the nature of the yfg1-xmutation has been developed,the so-called “plasmid shuffle”procedure as illustrated inFigure 8.

A haploid strain is firstprepared, which contains aYCp plasmid with the URA3+and YFG1+ gene and in whichthe chromosomal copy of theYFG1+ gene has been deletedor disrupted (yfg1-∆). Such astrain could be prepared bytransforming a diploid strainthat is hemizygous

(YFG1+/yfg1-∆) and choosing the appropriate meiotic segregant with the plasmid.The YFG1+ gene on YCp-LEU2 plasmid, for example, is mutagenized and the resulting

p[yfg1-x LEU2] plasmids containing the yfg1-x alterations are introduced into the yfg1-∆ p[YFG1URA3] strain by transformation. Test on FOA medium then can be used to determine the natureof the yfg1-x mutation. If the yfg1-x allele was not altered or was completely functional, thep(YFG1 URA3) plasmid can be lost without preventing growth of the strain, which would appearto be FOA resistant (see Section 10.1, URA3 and LYS2). On the other hand, if the yfg1-x allele

30

was completely nonfunctional, the strain will not grow on FOA medium. Furthermore, if theyfg1-x allele was conditional, the growth on FOA medium would correspond to the condition.For example, a temperature-sensitive mutation would be revealed by growth of the replica-platedcolony on FOA medium at 22°C but not 37°C; whereas the strain would grow at bothtemperatures on complete medium lacking FOA.

The major disadvantage of the plasmid shuffle procedure, and other procedures using YCpplasmid, is that the copy number varies from one to three or possibly more copies per cell. Thus,different phenotypes may arise because of the different levels of expression of the altered geneproduct. Overexpression of some altered alleles can produce a nearly wild-type phenotypealthough a single copy produces a mutant phenotype. A more exact evaluation of a mutant allelemay require the integration of a single copy with a YIp plasmid.

Several variations of the plasmid shuffle procedure have been developed, and these rely onthe production of a red pigment by certain adenine mutations. Strains having mutations in theADE2 gene (for example, ade2-1) accumulate a red pigment and form red colonies. However, ifthe strain also contains the ade3-∆ deletion, then the adenine biosynthetic pathway is blockedbefore the step encoded by ADE2 and the strain is white (see Section 10.2, ADE1 and ADE2). IfADE3 is carried by a YFG1+ plasmid, then the ade2-1 ade3-∆ strains are red, but produce whitesectors when the ADE3 plasmid is lost. The procedure does not require replica-plating and isuseful for detecting rare events. However, there are numerous other mutations that also producewhite colonies, including ρ- mutations, resulting in relatively high numbers of false positives.

11.6 Recovering Mutant AllelesA convenient method for recovering chromosomal mutations involves transformation with

gapped YCp plasmids, as illustrated in Figure 5A. A double-stranded gap is produced bycleavage at two restriction sites within the cloned segment. The gapped plasmid is then used totransform a strain containing the desired mutation that is encompassed in the chromosomalregion corresponding to the gap. The gapped plasmid is repaired with the homologouschromosomal region, resulting in the capture of the yfg1-1 mutation by the plasmid. The gappedplasmid is preferentially maintained, because only the circular form is replicated. The plasmidwith the yfg1-1 mutation can be subsequently recovered by transforming E. coli with DNA fromthe yeast strain. As little as 100 base-pairs of homology on either side of the gap is sufficient toallow gap repair, although larger regions increase the efficiency of the process.

12 Interaction of GenesYeast genetics has been particularly amenable for identifying and characterizing gene

products that directly or indirectly interact with each other, especially when two mutationsalleviate or enhance each otherïs defects. Information on a protein sometimes can be inferredsimply by examining the phenotypes of haploid and diploid strains containing two or moremutations. In addition, these genetic properties can be used for isolating novel genes whoseproducts interact. The genetic terms used to denote the interaction of genes are summarized inTable 6, using YFG1+, etc., as hypothetical examples.

12.1 Heterozygosity and Dominant-negative MutationsWhen two recessive mutants are crossed in a standard complementation test, the phenotype

of the resulting diploid strain usually reveals if the two mutations are allelic and encode the samegene product. For example, if the yfg1-1 and yfg1-2 mutations produce inactive Yfg1 proteins,

31

Table 6. Interactions of YFG (Your Favorite Gene) genes

Pheno-Genotype Ploidy type Description

YFG1+ 1n Yfg+ Wild-type dominant alleleyfg1-1 1n Yfg- Nonfunctional, recessive mutation

YFG1+——— 2n Yfg+ Heterozygous diploidyfg1-1

yfg1-1——— 2n Yfg- Heteroallelic diploidyfg1-2

yfg1-1——— 2n Yfg- Hemizygous diploidyfg1-∆1

———————————————————————————————————————YFG1+——— 2n Yfg± Dominant-negative yfg1-4 mutationyfg1-4YFG1+ p[yfg1-4]N 1n Yfg- Dominant-negative overexpressed yfg1-4 mutation———————————————————————————————————————yfg1-1——— 2n Yfg± Intragenic complementationyfg1-3

———————————————————————————————————————YFG1+ yfg2-1—————— 2n Yfg+ Double heterozygous diploidyfg1-1 YFG2+

YFG1+ yfg3-1—————— 2n Yfg± Non-complementation of a double heterozygous diploidyfg1-1 YFG3+

———————————————————————————————————————suy1-1 1n Yfg+ Suppressor of yfg1-1yfg1-1 suy1-1 1n Yfg+ Suppression of yfg1-1 by suy1-1yfg1-1 p[YFG2+]N 1n Yfg+ Suppression of yfg1-1 by overexpression of YFG2+

yfg1-1 PGAL1-YFG2+ 1n Yfg+ Suppression of yfg1-1 by overexpression of YFG2+

—————————————————————————————————————––—yfg1-4 1n Yfg± Partially functional mutation of YFG1+

yfg2-2 1n Yfg± Partially functional mutation of YFG2+

yfg1-4 yfg2-2 1n Yfg- Synthetic enhancement

the diploid cross will be Yfg-. On the other hand, if the two recessive mutations, yfg1-1 andyfg2-1, are in two different genes, encoding two different polypeptide chains, then the diploidcross, yfg1-1 YFG2+ x YFG1+ yfg2-1 would be Yfg+, because both Yfg1p and Yfg2p areproduced by the wild-type alleles in the doubly heterozygous diploid strain.

32

As expected, mutations that inactivate a function are usually recessive. However, rarenonfunctional mutations can be dominant. Such dominant-negative mutations are particularlyimportant because they can be used to identify nonfunctional forms of the protein that retaintheir proper structure and associate with other cellular components.

As illustrated in Table 6, dominant-negative mutations can be revealed either byoverexpressing the mutation in a haploid (or diploid) strain, such as YFG1+ p[yfg1-4]N, or by asingle copy in heterozygous strains, such as YFG1+/yfg1-4. Most studies use multicopy YEpplasmids for overexpressing mutations to uncover dominant-negative mutations. Similarly, thePGAL1 promoter fused to mutant alleles, PGAL1-yfg1-4, could be used for the controlledoverexpression in tests for dominant-negative mutations (see Section 10.3, GAL1 promoter).

Dominant-negative mutations act by a variety of mechanisms. For example, a mutationally-altered transcriptional activator that retains DNA-binding activity, but lacks the ability totransactivate, could complex with the DNA-binding sites and displace the wild-type protein.While most recessive missense mutations produce an overall misfolding of proteins, dominant-negative mutations retain at least portions of the structure, thus revealing specific criticalregions.

Dominant-negative mutations can also act in heterozygous diploid strains with one copy ofeach allele. Such mutant proteins generally have a higher than normal affinity for a cellularcomponent, and displace the wild-type protein. For example, numerous nonfunctional CYC7mutations were at least partially dominant because the altered forms of cytochrome c werearrested at one of the steps in mitochondrial import or heme attachment, and prevented entry ofthe normal form.

12.2 Intragenic ComplementationOne common exception in which heteroallelic diploid have a wild-type or near wild type

phenotype is intragenic complementation (also denoted allelic or intracistroniccomplementation) (Table 6). If large numbers of pairwise crosses of independent mutations of agene are analyzed, complex complementation patterns are often encountered, with some allelesshowing complementation while others do not. For example, a yfg1-∆ deletion would not showintragenic complementation with other yfg1-1 and yfg1-3, although the yfg1-1/yfg1-3 crosscould. Also, intragenic complementation does not always restore the activity to the normal leveland heteroallelic diploid strains even can have conditional phenotypes.

There are at least two mechanisms for intragenic complementation, one involving proteinswith two or more functional domains, and the other involving proteins composed of two or moreidentical polypeptide chains.

If a protein has two or more functional domains that act independently, then a missensemutation (an amino acid replacement) could inactivate one domain without greatly effecting theothers. Thus, partial or complete restoration could be observed in crosses of two such mutations,when each affected a different functional domain. As expected, intragenic complementation ofthis type is often observed with missense mutations, not with deletions, and only with specialsubsets of nonsense mutations. Numerous examples of intragenic complementation of this typeoccurs with genes encoding amino acid biosynthetic enzymes, including HIS4, which has threefunctional domains.

Intragenic complementation is also observed with genes encoding proteins that arecomposed of two or more identical polypeptide chains. A haploid mutant could produce anabnormal polypeptide that assembles into an inactive homomultimeric protein. On the other

33

hand, if two different abnormal polypeptide chains are produced in a heteroallelic diploid strain,the abnormal peptides could assemble in certain combination to produce a catalytically activemultimeric protein. In such cases, the abnormal polypeptide chains in some way mutuallycompensates for each otherïs defect. Intragenic complementation of genes encoding multimericproteins is surprisingly frequent among missense mutations of certain genes. For example, 5 outof 10 genes controlling histidine biosynthesis show extensive complementation, and the natureof the genetic complementation maps suggest that multimeric proteins may be involved.

12.3 Non-allelic Non-complementationThere are rare exceptions to the complementation of non-allelic genes, and these exceptions

are denoted “non-allelic non-complementation” or “unlinked non-complementation”. Asillustrated in Table 6, certain recessive mutations of two different genes, yfg1-1 and yfg3-1 fail tocomplement in the doubly heterozygous diploid, YFG1+/yfg1-1 yfg3-1/YFG3+, even thoughthey are clearly functional in each of the singly heterozygous diploid strains YFG1+/yfg1-1 andYFG3+/yfg3-1. Non-complementation of recessive non-allelic mutations is only rarelyencountered and may be the property of only certain proteins.

Several explanations can account for non-allelic non-complementation. One can considertwo proteins Yfg1p and Yfg3p, that carrying out related functions, and that are at near limitingconcentration in the cell. In normal strains, both Yfg1p and Yfg2p are, by definition, at thenormal 100% level, producing 100 units of each of the hypothetical proteins, with a total of 200units; in singly heterozygous strains, the total would be 150 units, whereas, in doublyheterozygous strains the total would be 100 units. If the total level of 100 units for both proteinsis below a critical threshold, than a mutant phenotype would be manifested in the doublyheterozygous strains. Non-complementation of non-allelic gene has been observed for mutantgene encoding cytoskeletal proteins whose cellular concentrations are critical for normal growth.

The lack of complementation of non-allelic genes has also been explained by the formationof inactive heteroligomers or protein complexes, in which, for example, both altered Yfg1p andYfg3p independently assemble and inactivate the same protein complex, reducing its level belowa critical concentration. Also, although recessive by themselves, these mutations may act likedominant-negative mutation when in the doubly heterozygous condition, and encode abnormalproteins that actively compete or replace wild-type subunits.

12.4 SuppressorsA suppressor is generally defined as a mutation that completely or partially restores the

mutant phenotype of another mutation. In the example given in the bottom of Table 6, the Yfg-phenotype of yfg1-1 mutation is restored by the suppressor suy1-1. Suppressors can either haveor not have a phenotype by themselves.

Suppressors an be broadly assigned to two major groups, informational suppressors andmetabolic suppressors. Informational suppressors encode either altered tRNAs or othercomponents of the translational machinery, and act by misreading mRNAs. For example, thenonsense suppressor, SUP4-o encodes an altered tyrosine tRNA that inefficiently inserts tyrosineresidues at UAA chain terminating codons because of an altered anticodon. Another class ofinformational suppressors are the so-called omnipotent suppressors which cause ribosomalmisreading because of alterations in any one of a number of proteins of the translationalapparatus, including ribosomal proteins, elongation factors and release factors. Informational

34

suppressors characteristically act on certain mutations of most, if not all genes, i.e., they areallele specific but not gene specific.

On the other hand, metabolic suppressors usually act on genes common to the same pathwayor to a single metabolic function. While there are many possible mechanisms for metabolicsuppression, these suppressors are now routinely isolated and investigated as a means foridentifying novel gene products of a pathway and for identifying proteins that directly interactwith each other.

The suppressors that act by direct physical interactions between two mutant proteins areexpected to be both gene and allele specific, i.e., the suppressors should act on only one or a fewgenes, and on only a restricted subclass of mutants. For example, a temperature-sensitivemutation of actin gene was used to identify a suppressor that was subsequently shown to encodean actin-binding protein.

In contrast, the suppressors that act indirectly on the same pathway are expected to be genespecific, but allele non-specific, i.e., the suppressor could act on any allele, including nullmutations, of a specific group of genes. Some of these are denoted as “bypass” suppressor ifthey replace the function of the initial mutation. For example, cyc1-∆ mutations, which causethe deficiency of the major isocytochrome c, can be replaced by CYC7-H mutations, which act assuppressors by overproducing the minor isocytochrome c, and allows growth on lactate medium.Another mechanism for pathway suppression involves the loss of regulation of successive steps,such as is encountered, for example, in amino acid biosynthesis or the signal transductionpathways. If an upstream gene, that normally causes the activation of a downstream gene, isdestroyed by mutation, then mutant forms of the downstream gene can act as suppressors byrendering it independent of signalling from the upstream gene.

Another often-used means for uncovering interacting components of common functions issuppression by overexpression of wild-type alleles. As in the case for suppression caused bymutation, suppression caused by overexpression can occur by many different mechanisms.Overexpression can be brought about with YEp multicopy plasmids, denoted as yfg1-1p[YFG2+]N in Table 6; or by fusion to a strong inducible promoter such as PGAL1, denoted asyfg1-1 PGAL1-YFG2+ in Table 6. Furthermore, PGAL1 has the advantage that the activity can beconveniently turned off by the addition of glucose to the galactose containing medium, resultingin the loss of suppression (see Section 10.3, GAL1 Promoter).

12.5 Synthetic Enhancement and Epistatic RelationshipsIn some instances, the combination of two different mutant genes in a haploid strain can

enhance the severity of the phenotype more than when either of the mutant genes are bythemselves. This exacerbation by the combination of two genes, illustrated in the bottom ofTable 6 with the yfg1-4 and yfg2-2 alleles, have been denoted by a variety of terms in the earlyliterature of genetics; currently, this phenomenon is denoted “synthetic lethality” when cellgrowth is involved, or more generally, as “synthetic enhancement” or “synthetic phenotypes”.For example, two different mutant genes individually could cause temperature-sensitive growth,but the double mutant would be inviable at any temperature.

Synthetic enhancement is conceptually identical to epistatic relationships. If two mutantgenes in a haploid condition confers a phenotype that is quantitatively identical as that conferredby each of the single mutant genes alone, the two genes are defined as being epistatic withrespect to one another. If, however, the doubly mutant strain has an enhanced phenotype, thetwo genes are defined as being in two separate epistasis groups. For example, detailed epistatic

35

relationships of over thirty UV or ionizing radiation sensitive mutants has revealed three non-overlapping epistasis groups.

Figure 9. Synthetic enhancement and synthetic lethality. Novel chromosomal genes mutations,yfg2-1, etc., that enhance the phenotype of a yfg1-1 mutations can be uncovered by mutagenizinga yfg1-1 strain containing a YCp plasmid p[YFG1 URA3], and subsequently selecting for the lossof the plasmid. If yfg1-1 yfg2-1 strain are inviable, they will not grow on FOA medium.

As with suppression, synthetic enhancement can be caused by a number of mechanisms, butoften the genes are associated with parallel or related pathways controlling the same function,and some encode proteins that physically interact with each other.

There are numerous examples when synthetic lethality arise when two proteins arefunctionally redundant, such that neither nonfunctional form cause inviability, but both togetherare inviable. Synthetic enhancement of redundant genes is illustrated with strains havingdeletions of either of the CYC1 or CYC7 genes encoding, respectively, the two isocytochromes c;single deletion strains are respiratory competent, while strains carrying both deletions arerespiratory deficient. Synthetic enhancement can be indirect, as exemplified with mutations ofARG4, encoding an arginine biosynthetic enzyme and CAN1, encoding the arginine permease;the arg4 can1 double mutant does not grow on synthetic medium containing arginine, while eachof the arg4 and can1 single mutants do grow.

As with suppressors, genes causing synthetic enhancement are commonly isolated as meansto identify genes in the same or related pathways and ones encoding interacting proteins.Several methods have been devised for this aim, and one method is illustrated in Figure 9. Ayfg1-1 ura3-52 strain, carrying a YCp plasmid, p[YFG1+ URA3+], is mutagenized and tested onFOA medium. A mutation, yfg2-1, causing synthetic enhancement is manifested in the Ura-strain because of the loss of the YFG1+ allele; in contrast, the other Ura- strains would showonly the yfg1-1 phenotype. If the yfg2-1 mutation causes synthetic lethality and the yfg1-1 yfg2-

URA3 URA3

YFG1 YFG1

yfg1-1

yfg1-1

yfg1-1

yfg1-1

ura3-52

ura3-52

ura3-52

ura3-52

YFG2

YFG2

yfg2-1

yfg2-1

Mutagenesis

FOA Selection (Ura )-

Synthetic enhancement (yfg1-1 yfg2-1)(yfg1-1)

(YFG1 yfg1-1)/ (YFG1 yfg1-1 yfg2-1)/

36

1 double mutant is inviable, the colony would not grow on FOA medium (see Section 10.1,URA3 and LYS2).

Other methods have been developed for isolating mutations that confer synthetic lethality,similar to the detection schemes used with the plasmid shuffle procedures (Section 11.5). One ofthese other methods relies on the ade2 ade3 host mutations and a YFG1 ADE3 plasmid, thatresults in red sectoring when lost (see Section 10.2, ADE1 and ADE2). Another method is basedon fusion of the GAL1 promoter, and screening PGAL1-YFG1 colonies for those that grow ongalactose but not on glucose medium, presumably because of the presence of the desired yfg2-1mutations (see Section 10.3, GAL1 Promoter).

13 Genomic analysisMany diverse studies require the determination of the abundance of large numbers of

specific DNA or RNA molecules in complex mixtures, including, for example, the determinationof the changes in mRNA levels of many genes. While a number of techniques have been used toestimate the relative abundance of two or more sets of mRNA, such as differential screening ofcDNA libraries, subtractive hybridization, and differential display, far more superior methodshave been recently developed that are particularly amenable to organisms whose entire genomesequences are known, such as S. cerevisiae. It is now practicable to investigate changes ofmRNA levels of all yeast ORFs in one experiment.

Numerous companies and academic groups have developed novel approaches to DNAsample preparation, probe synthesis, target labeling and readout of arrays. The followingprocedures have been successfully used for determining mRNA levels in yeast: (i) the DNAMicroarray System; (ii) the Oligonucleotide Microarray System; (iii) the Low-density DNAArray System; and (iv) the kRT-PCR System.

The DNA Microarray System. As a general means to address such problems as thedifferential expression of an entire genome, Brown (14) and his colleagues developed a systemfor making microarrays of DNA samples on glass slides, probing the DNA micro-spots byhybridization with fluorescent-labeled probes, and using a laser-scanning microscope to detectthe fluorescent signals corresponding to hybridization. Fluorescent labeling allows forsimultaneous hybridization and separate detection of the hybridization signal from two probes,thus allowing accurate determinations of the relative abundance of specific sequences in twocomplex samples. For example, with the DNA Microarray System, the entire 6,400 ORFs of theyeast S. cerevisiae can be placed on one slide. The mRNA levels of all ORFs (open readingframes) can be determined after, for example, metabolic shifts or in strains deleted for a singlegene (15).

The use of DNA Microarray System requires the following basic steps for investigating geneexpression of two related cell types or conditions: (i) preparation of the large set of DNAelements, usually consisting of ORFs amplified by PCR with sets of primer pairs specific foreach ORF; (ii) preparation of DNA microarrays consisting of these ORFs spotted on glass slidesby a robotic printing device, the Arrayer; (iii) preparation of two related mRNAs derived fromcells that differ in the trait that is to be investigated; (iv) preparation from the mRNAs offluorescently labeled cDNA by reverse transcription in the presence of Cy3 (green) or Cy5 (red)labeled dUTP; (v) hybridization of the fluorescently labeled cDNAs to the ORFs of the DNAmicroarrays printed on the glass slide; and (vi) quantitative analysis of the relative abundance ofthe mRNAs from the degree of hybridization, using the Scanner.

37

The DNA Microarray System requires two machines, the Arrayer and the Scanner. TheArrayer prints DNA samples robotically onto a glass slide. After hybridization, the Scanneranalyzes the two colored fluorescence of the array with a specially designed scanning confocalmicroscope.

The Oligonucleotide Microarray System. Modern photolithographic techniques are beingused to generate miniaturized arrays of densely packed oligonucleotide probes. Theseoligonucleotide microarrays, or DNA chips, can then be used, for example, for comparing twosets of cDNAs, similar to the DNA Microarray System described above. Also, as with the DNAMicroarray System, the hybridization pattern of fluorescently labeled cDNAs is detected byepifluorescence microscopy. This technology was developed by the Affymax Research Institute(16), and the oligonucleotide microarrays can be produced only by the company.

Using this technology, approximately 6,200 or almost all ORFs of the entire S. cerevisiaegenome were probed for differential mRNA expression in two growth conditions (16).Approximately 12% of the ORFs, or approximately 750, showed appreciable differentialexpression rates in the two growth conditions.

The Low-density DNA Array System. In addition to dotting on glass at high densities, asdescribed above for the DNA Microarray System, sets of PCR-generated ORFs can be spotted onnylon membranes, and hybridization to the dot blots can be carried out with 32P-labeled cDNAfor detection of the relative levels of mRNAs. In some procedures, 1,536 dots were prepared ona single 9 x 13 cm positively charged nylon membrane. The lower density arrays on nylonmembranes can be achieved by automatic robotic and hand-held devices. No special equipmentis required to process the membranes once they are prepared.

The kRT-PCR system. In addition to screening for the differential expression of genes by themethods described above, many investigations also require more accurate determinations oflarge number of mRNA levels. While in the past, Northern blot analysis has been by far themost common means to quantitate mRNA levels, new methods have been developed that arecapable of producing more accurate estimations of large number of samples. Some of these arebased on the automatic monitoring of reverse transcriptase initiated PCR (or kinetic monitoredreverse transcriptase initiated PCR, “kRT-PCR”) (17). Several instruments are commercial-available, such as the LightCycler™ and the ABI Prism™ 7700 Sequence Detection System, andsome are under development.

Kang et al. (17) have developed and evaluated kinetically monitored, reverse transcriptaseinitiated PCR (kRT-PCR) as a method for transcript level determinations in total unfractionatedyeast cellular RNA. This kRT-PCR method supports fully automated quantitation of transcriptabundance using total cellular RNA as template and transcript-specific primer pairs. Thesensitivity, accuracy, and reproducibility of kRT-PCR are remarkably high. The results showthat the kRT-PCR assay quantitates transcript level differences between two physiological orgenetic states within a factor of 20%. Absolute mRNA levels are quantitated by kRT-PCR assaywithin a factor of two. The results show that kRT-PCR assays readily quantitate S. cerevisiaetranscripts ranging from 367 to 0.00075 copies per cell, providing sufficiently accuratemeasurements to investigate subtle genetic interactions.

14 Analyses with Yeast SystemsThe accessibility of the yeast genome for genetic manipulation and the available techniques

to introduce exogenous DNA into yeast cells has led to the development of methods foranalyzing and preparing DNA and proteins not only from yeast itself, but also from other

38

organisms. For example, many mammalian homologs of yeast genes have been cloned by usingheterologous cDNA expression libraries in yeast expression vectors. Also, yeast is being used toinvestigate the detailed functions of heterologous proteins, such as mammalian transcriptionfactors and nuclear hormone receptor. In fact, like E. coli, yeast has become a standardmicroorganism for carrying out special tasks, some of which are described in this section.

14.1 Two-hybrid SystemsPowerful methods, denoted two-hybrid systems, have been designed for screening and

investigating interacting proteins. Because of the ease of the assay, exploratory two-hybridscreens are usually the first method of choice when information of interacting proteins aredesired.

Figure 10. The two-hybrid system. (A) Normally, theGal4 transcription activator binds to DNA at the Gal4pbinding sites and activates transcription of the lacZreporter gene. (B) A hybrid of the Gal4 activationdomain with the Yfg2 protein does not activatetranscription because it does not localize at the Gal4binding site. (C) A hybrid of the Gal4 DNA-bindingsite domain with the Yfg1 protein does not activatetranscription of the reporter gene because of the lack ofthe transcriptional activation domain. (D) Protein-protein interaction between Yfg1p and Yfg2preconstitutes Gal4p function and activates transcriptionof the reporter gene.

Some of these two-hybrid systems are based onthe properties of certain eukaryotic transcriptionfactors, usually Gal4p, that have two separate domains,one for DNA binding and the other for transcriptionalactivation. While the two domains are normally on thesame polypeptide chain, the transcription factor alsofunctions if these two domains are brought together bynoncovalent protein-protein interactions. In practice,gene fusions are constructed so that the DNA-bindingdomain is linked to one protein, Yfg1p, and theactivation domain is linked to another protein, Yfg2p,as illustrated in Figure 10. Interactions of Yfg1p andYfg2p brings the DNA-binding and activation domainsclose together, leading to the expression of a reportergene that is regulated by the transcription factor.

Another two-hybrid system is based on the use of the lexA repressor protein and the lexAoperator sequences from E. coli. These assays are almost always carried out in yeast, althoughmammalian cells have been used.

Yeast plasmid vectors are available, in which the GAL4 DNA-binding domain and the GAL4activation domain are on separate plasmids with convenient restrictions sites and with selectableyeast markers. These plasmids are used in conjunction with reporter yeast strains, in whichupstream activation sequences from the GAL1-GAL10 region are used to promote transcription

(A)

(B)

(C)

(D)

lacZ Reporter gene

lacZ Reporter gene

lacZ Reporter gene

lacZ Reporter gene

Gal4pbinding sites

Gal4pbinding sites

Gal4pbinding sites

Gal4pbinding sites

DNAbindingdomain

DNAbindingdomain

DNAbindingdomain

Activationdomain

Activation

domain

ActivationdomainYfg2p

Yfg2p

Yfg1p

Yfg1p

39

of the E. coli lacZ gene (the PGAL1-lacZ reporter gene) (see Section 10.3, GAL1 Promoter, andSection 10.4, lacZ and Other Reporters). Complete or partial genes are fused in frame with theGAL4 DNA-binding domain and the GAL4 transcription activation domains. If these two hybridproteins interact, then the lacZ reporter gene is transcribed, leading to the blue color of the strainon medium contain the chromogenic substrate X-gal (Figure 10). In addition, yeast strainshaving not only the PGAL1-lacZ but also the PGAL1-HIS3 reporter genes are also available. It isadvantageous to select directly for expression of the PGAL1-HIS3 reported gene, followed by ascreen for PGAL1-lacZ expression.

Another version of the two-hybrid system uses the lexA operator sequence and the DNA-binding domain from the E. coli lexA repressor protein. In this system, the activator domain is asegment of E. coli DNA that expresses an acidic peptide, which acts as a transcriptional activatorin yeast when fused to a DNA-binding domain. As with the GAL4 system, lexA transcriptionalactivator also contains a nuclear localization signal that directs the protein into the nucleus.Yeast strains having lexA operators upstream of both the E. coli lacZ and yeast LEU2 gene haveserved as reporter genes.

In addition, epitope tags have been built into the constructs of both the GAL4 and lexAsystems, allowing for the detection of expressed hybrid proteins. Although false-positive andfalse-negative results can be obtained, a substantial number of protein combinations have provedto be successfully uncovered with the two-hybrid system and its use has become widelyaccepted.

Because of its sensitivity, relatively low-affinity interactions can be detected. Also, thecloned genes encoding proteins that interact with the target protein becomes immediatelyavailable when the two-hybrid system is used in a screen with libraries of fused genes.

The two hybrid-system has been mainly used for the following three applications: testingproteins that are believed to interact on the basis of other criteria; defining domains or aminoamino acids critical for interactions of proteins that are already known to interact; and screeninglibraries for proteins that interact with a specfic protein. The two hybrid-system has beensuccessfully used to identify diversed sets of interacting proteins in yeast and mammalian cells,and it has been particularly successful in studies of oncogenes, tumor suppressors, proteinkinases, and cell-cycle control. Some examples of interacting proteins uncovered with the twohybrid-system in mammalian cells include Jun and Fos; Ras and the protein kinase Raf; theretinoblastoma protein or p53 and the SV40 large T antigen; and other oncoproteins.

14.2 Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs)The initial step in the molecular characterization of eukaryotic genomes generally requires

cloning of large chromosomal fragments, which is usually carried out by digestion withrestriction endonucleases and ligation to specially developed cloning vectors. Usually 200 to800 kb fragments are cloned as Yeast Artificial Chromosomes (YACs), and 100-200 kbfragments are cloned as Bacterial Artificial Chromosomes (BACs or PACs). The importance ofYAC technology has been heightened by the recently developed methods for transferring YACsto cultured cells and to the germline of experimental animals.

YAC cloning systems are based on yeast linear plasmids, denoted YLp, containinghomologous or heterologous DNA sequences that function as telomeres (TEL) in vivo, as well ascontaining yeast ARS (origins of replication) and CEN (centromeres) segments. ManipulatingYLp linear plasmids in vitro is complicated by their inability to be propagated in E. coli.

40

However, specially developed circular YAC vectors have been developed for amplification in E.coli. For example, a circular YCp vector, containing a head-to-head dimer of Tetrahymena or

Figure 11. A yeastartificial chromosome(YAC) cloningsystem. The YACvector containstelomeric ends thatare denoted by blackarrow heads. Thevector also contains aunique SmaI cloningsite flanked by SfiIand NotI 8-base-pairrestriction sites. Thevector can be used toclone 50 to 500 kbrestriction fragments(see the text).

yeast telomeres, is resolved in vivo after yeast transformation into linear molecules with the freeends terminated by functional telomeres. One common type of YAC vector that can bepropagated in E. coli, contains telomeric sequences in inverted orientation, which flank a DNAcassette containing the HIS3 gene (Figure 11). After amplification in E. coli and beforetransforming yeast the plasmid is digested with a restriction endonuclease, usually BamHI,which excises the HIS3 cassette and generates a linear form in vitro. Yeast are transformed bythis linear structure at high frequencies, although the transformants are unstable. Despite thepresence of a CEN sequence, the YLp is present at high copy numbers and is lost at highfrequency because of its small size. Increasing the size of the YLp by homologous integration invivo or by ligation in vitro increases the stability of the plasmid and reduces the copy number toapproximately one per cell.

The developed highly-efficient YAC cloning vectors also contain TRP1 and URA3 markersand a SUP4-o gene flanked by the NotI and SfiI rare restriction sites as shown in Figure 11. TheSUP4-o suppressor also harbors a naturally occurring SmaI site. The host strain contains theade2-1 UAA mutation, causing the formation of a red pigment, unless the mutation is suppressedby SUP4-o (see Section 10.2, ADE1 and ADE2). The YAC vector is cleaved with BamHI and

URA3

URA3

URA3

HIS3

TRP1

TRP1 ARS1 CEN4

TRP1 ARS1 CEN4

ARS1 CEN4

TEL

TEL

SUP4-oAmpR

ori

BamHI

BamHI

Bam SmaHI, I, Phosphatase

Sfi , NotI I

Sfi , NotI ISma I Cloning site

Restriction fragment

Ligase

41

SmaI, treated with alkaline phosphatase and the two arms are ligated to the exogenous DNAfragments desired to be cloned. A ade2-1 ura3-52 trp1-∆ host strain is transformed with the

Figure 12.Recombinationaltargeted cloning withYAC vectors. A yeaststrain is transformedwith a mixture of thetwo YAC vector armsand large fragments ofDNA. Recombinationin vivo results in theformation of a specificYAC clone. The twoYAC vector arms arederived from linearizedplasmids that contain

targeting segments that are homologous to the termini of the DNA segment that is to be cloned.

ligated mixture. Both arms are anticipated to be present in Ura+ and Trp+ transformants andinserts should be present in the Ura+ Trp+ Ade- (red) transformants. YACs present in thesetransformants are then subjected to pulse-field electrophoresis in order to estimate the size of theinserts.

The potential to use YAC cloning technology has been enhanced by the ability to usehomologous recombination for manipulating exogenous DNA in the yeast host. Inrecombinationally-targeted YAC cloning, YACs are assembled in vivo, by recombination, andnot by ligation in vitro. Recombination takes place between a target segment of the exogenousDNA, and the YAC vector that contain sequences homologous to these targets as illustrated inFigure 12. Transformation of the two YAC vectors arms and the exogenous segment, flanked bythe target segments, followed by recombination, results in the formation of the desired stableYACs. The specific target DNA segments for the YAC vector can be obtained from theexogenous DNA as restriction fragments or PCR products.

Also YACs can be modified after cloning by “retrofitting”, using homologousrecombination with yeast plasmids having targeting sequences. For example, a neomycinresistant gene has to be incorporated into a YAC that will be transferred to mammalian cellsusing selection, as was done for transfering the entire human β-globin gene in embryonic stemcells. Also, overlapping YAC clones can be recombined, resulting in larger clonesencompassing more extensive regions. Furthermore, special YAC vectors have designed forgenerating terminal and internal deletions of cloned YAC inserts.

YACs have been useful for not only cloning genes but also mammalian telomeric andcentromeric regions, and chromosomal origins of replication.

14.3 Expression of Heterologous Proteins in YeastAlthough E. coli is still the first choice for the producer of heterologous proteins, the yeast

S. cerevisiae has some attractive features. Proteins produced in yeast, unlike those produced inE. coli, lack endotoxins. In certain special cases, such as hepatitis B core antigen, the products

URA3 ARSH4 TRP1 ARS1 CEN4TEL TEL

Targetsegments

42

produced in yeast have higher activity than those produced in E. coli. In contrast with using E.coli, several posttranslational processing mechanisms available in yeast have allowed theexpression of several human or human pathogen-associated proteins with appropriate authenticmodifications. Such posttranslational modifications include particle assembly, amino terminalacetylation, myristylation and proteolytic processing. In addition, heterologous proteins secretedfrom specially engineering strains are correctly cleaved and folding and are easily harvestedfrom yeast culture media. The use of either homologous or heterologous signal peptides hasallowed authentic maturation of secreted products by the endogenous yeast apparatus.

The importance of yeast for production of protein products by recombinant DNA methods isillustrated by the fact that the first approved human vaccine, hepatitis B core antigen, and thefirst food product, rennin, were produced in yeast.

The cloning of specific cDNAs from other organisms and the study of their function usingyeast as a surrogate does not necessarily require high-level expression of the foreign protein. Inthese instances, the aim is just to produce physiological quantities of the protein in a form that iscorrectly modified and localized in the cell such that the activity accurately reflects the activityin the original organism. However, commercial and laboratory preparations of proteinsgenerally require high expression vectors.

There are numerous varieties of expression vectors currently available for producingheterologous proteins in yeast, and these are derivatives of the YIp, YEp and YCp plasmidsdescribed above in Section 9. The cDNA, synthetic DNA or genomic DNA lacking introns areinserted in the vector. Promoters used in expression vectors includes a transcription initiationsite and variable amounts of DNA encoding the 5’untranslated region. Because most of theyeast expression vectors do not contain an ATG in the transcribed region of the promoter, theheterologous gene must provide an ATG that establishes the correct reading frame correspondingto the amino-terminus of the protein. It is essential that this ATG corresponds to the first AUGof the mRNA, because translation almost always initiates at the first AUG on mRNAs from yeastas well as from other eukaryotes. The 5’untranslated region of the vector also should be similarto the naturally-occurring leader region of abundant mRNAs by lacking secondary structures andbeing A-rich, and G-deficient, and by having an A at position -3 relative to the ATG translationalinitiator codon.

Many of the expression vectors include a known signal for 3’ end formation of yeastmRNA, although vectors lacking such defined signals synthesize transcripts until encountering a3’-end forming signal from another gene or a fortuitous signal on the plasmid.

Numerous normal and altered yeast promoters have been used, and these are chosen becauseof their high activity and some times because of their regulatory properties. Some of thepromoters have been derived from genes encoding alcohol dehydrogenase I, enolase,glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, phosphoglycerate kinase, triose phosphateisomerase, galacokinase (PGAL1, see Section 10.3, GAL1 Promoter), repressible acidphosphatase, α mating factor, etc. These promoters almost always produce high levels oftranscription of heterologous gene, but there is a wide variation in the amount of thecorresponding proteins that is finally produced in the yeast strain, depending on the specificheterologous gene.

43

Bibliography 1. Watson, J. D., Hopkins, N. H., Roberts, J. W., Steitz, J. A., and Weiner, A. M.: Molecular

Biology of the Gene, Chapters 18 and 19, Benjamin/Cummings Pub., Menlo Park, CA(1987).

2. Broach, J. R., Jones, E. W. and Pringle, J. R. (Eds.): The Molecular and Cellular Biology ofthe Yeast Saccharomyces, Vol. 1. Genome Dynamics, Protein Synthesis, and Energetics.Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1991).

3. Jones, E. W., Pringle, J. R. and Broach, J. R. (Eds.): The Molecular and Cellular Biology ofthe Yeast Saccharomyces, Vol. 2. Gene Expression. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press,Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1992).

4. Pringle, J. R., Broach, J. R. and Jones, E. W. (Eds.): The Molecular and Cellular Biology ofthe Yeast Saccharomyces, Vol. 3. Cell cycle and Cell Biology. Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1997).

5. Guthrie, C. and Fink, G. R. (Eds.): Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 194, Guide to YeastGenetics and Molecular Biology. Acad. Press, NY, (1991).

6. Wheals, A. E., Rose, A. H. and Harrison, J. S. (Eds.): The Yeast, Volume 6, Second edition,Yeast Genetics. Academic Press, London (1995).

7. Johnston, J. R. (Ed.): Molecular Genetics of Yeast, a Practical Approach. IRL Press,Oxford (1994).

8. Fields, S. and Johnson, M. (Eds.): Yeast Methods for Analyzing Proteins from OtherOrganisms. Methods 5, 77-187 (1993).

9. Heslot, H. and Gaillardin, C.: Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering of Yeast. CRCPress, Boca Raton, FL (1992).

10. Evans, I. H. (Ed.): Yeast Protocols, Methods in Cell and Molecular Biology. HumanaPress, Totowa, NJ (1996)

11. Walker, G. M.: Yeast Physiology and Biotechnology. John Wiley and Son, Chichester(1998)

12. Sherman, F.: Getting started with yeast, pp. 3-21. In: Guthrie, C. and Fink, G. R. (Eds.).Methods in Enzymology, Vol. 194, Guide to Yeast Genetics and Molecular Biology. Acad.Press, NY, (1991).

13. Hall, M. N. and Linder, P. (Eds.): The Early Days of Yeast Genetics. Cold Spring HarborLaboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, NY (1992).

14. Brown, P. O. http://cmgm.stanford.edu/pbrown/array.html (1998)15. DeRisi, J. L., V. R. Iyer and P. O. Brown. Exploring the metabolic and genetic control of

gene expression on a genomic scale. Science 278, 680-686 (1997).16. Wodicka, L., H. Dong, M. Mittmann, M. H. Ho and D. J. Lockhart. Genome-wide

expression monitoring in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Nature Biotechnol. 15, 1359-1367(1997).

17. Kang, J. J., R. M. Watson, M. E. Fisher, R. Higuchi, D. H. Gelfand and M. J. HollandTranscript Quantitation in total yeast cellular RNA using kinetic PCR.. Proc. Natl. Acad.Sci. (in press) (1998).

Brown, A. J. P., and M. F. Tuite (Eds): Yeast Gene Analysis. Methods in Microbiology, Vol. 26.Acad. Press, NY, (1998).