HI136 The History of HI136 The History of GermanyGermanyLecture 6Lecture 6

The First World The First World WarWar

The July CrisisThe July Crisis 28 June:28 June: Archduke Franz Ferdinand Archduke Franz Ferdinand

assassinated at Sarajevo.assassinated at Sarajevo. 5 July:5 July: Kaiser Wilhelm II offers Kaiser Wilhelm II offers

Germany’s unconditional support (the Germany’s unconditional support (the ‘blank cheque’) to Austria-Hungary.‘blank cheque’) to Austria-Hungary.

23 July:23 July: Austria issues her ultimatum Austria issues her ultimatum to Serbia.to Serbia.

28 July:28 July: Austria-Hungary declares war Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. Russia orders ‘partial on Serbia. Russia orders ‘partial mobilisation’ of her armed forces.mobilisation’ of her armed forces.

30 July:30 July: Russia orders general Russia orders general mobilisation. Austria orders general mobilisation. Austria orders general mobilisation.mobilisation.

1 August:1 August: Germany declares war on Germany declares war on Russia. France orders mobilisation.Russia. France orders mobilisation.

2 August:2 August: Germany issues an Germany issues an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding to ultimatum to Belgium, demanding to be allowed to move troops through be allowed to move troops through Belgian territory.Belgian territory.

3 August:3 August: Germany declares war on Germany declares war on France. Italy proclaims her neutrality.France. Italy proclaims her neutrality.

4 August:4 August: German troops cross the German troops cross the Belgian frontier. Britain declares war Belgian frontier. Britain declares war on Germany.on Germany.

InterpretationsInterpretations Government (Chancellor Bethmann-Hollweg): wage a limited war

to stabilise alliance system and political system, taking the risk of a major war but not wanting it. Playing with fire.

Army (Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke): wage a preventive war as early as possible before military strength of Russia and France becomes overwhelming (expected to be the case in 1916) .

Right-wing nationalists, conservatives and some industrialists: fear of revolution or victory of Social Democrats in next election. Either revocation of universal male suffrage, suppression of Social Democracy and dictatorial rule or end of old political and social order, universal suffrage for Prussian Landtag, responsibility of government to the Reichstag, perhaps social revolution.

Intellectuals, some of the middle class: cultural pessimism, expectation of war, rejuvenation of nation, new exciting time.

Victorious war = best way to solve the stalemate, would have a stabilising effect and help foster national unity.

InterpretationsInterpretations War was forced upon Germany – traditional German

view All nations were equally responsible, pessimistic view of

inevitability of war widespread, fatal automatism of alliance systems – alternative German view

Germany and Austria-Hungary were alone responsible – view of Allies

German government, military & economic elites were preparing for war at least since 1912 – aim: world power and territorial gains in the east and the west (Fritz Fischer) ‘Fischer Controversy’

Social imperialism – traditional elites feel under pressure to change social and political order to prevent reform – wage war to divert attention from domestic problems, overcome polarisation of German society (Hans-Ulrich Wehler)

Popular enthusiasm and support for

Austria (Berlin, 4 August 1914)

August 1, 1914, in Berlin (1914) by ArthurKampf

““I thank all of you for the love I thank all of you for the love and loyalty that you have and loyalty that you have shown me these past days. shown me these past days. These were serious days, like These were serious days, like seldom before. Should it now seldom before. Should it now come to a battle, then there come to a battle, then there will be no more political will be no more political parties. I, too, was attacked by parties. I, too, was attacked by the one or the other party. the one or the other party. That was in peace. I forgive That was in peace. I forgive you now from the depths of my you now from the depths of my heart. I no longer recognize heart. I no longer recognize any parties or any confessions; any parties or any confessions; today we are all German today we are all German brothers and only German brothers and only German brothers. If our neighbours brothers. If our neighbours want it no other way, if our want it no other way, if our neighbours do not grant us neighbours do not grant us peace, then I hope to God that peace, then I hope to God that our good German sword will our good German sword will see us through to victory in see us through to victory in these difficult battles.”these difficult battles.”Wilhelm II (1 August 1914)Wilhelm II (1 August 1914)

BurgfriedeBurgfriede A political truce called by the parties in the Reichstag for A political truce called by the parties in the Reichstag for

the duration of hostilities.the duration of hostilities. Even the SPD agreed to this and voted for War Credits.Even the SPD agreed to this and voted for War Credits. The SPD supported the war because:The SPD supported the war because:

They had been convinced that this was a defensive war against They had been convinced that this was a defensive war against autocratic Russia.autocratic Russia.

Many Socialists were also patriots and were proud of Germany Many Socialists were also patriots and were proud of Germany and her achievements.and her achievements.

The party leadership hoped to gain political legitimacy through The party leadership hoped to gain political legitimacy through supporting the nation in its hour of need.supporting the nation in its hour of need.

The Schlieffen PlanThe Schlieffen Plan Drawn up by General Alfred Drawn up by General Alfred

von Schlieffen (1833-1913), von Schlieffen (1833-1913), chief of the general staff from chief of the general staff from 1891 to 1905.1891 to 1905.

Designed to cope with the Designed to cope with the prospect of a war on two prospect of a war on two fronts.fronts.

Its objective was to quickly Its objective was to quickly knock out France, leaving the knock out France, leaving the German army free to face German army free to face Russia.Russia.

Several flaws in the plan, Several flaws in the plan, which were compounded by which were compounded by unexpected reverses once unexpected reverses once operations commenced. operations commenced.

German troops charging into battle (above) and diggingin to defensive positions (below) in the west, 1914

Failure of the Schlieffen Plan

The invasion of Belgium made Germany seem like the aggressor and brought Britain into the War.

The plan had not been updated to take recent Russian and French military reforms into account.

Moltke weakened the thrust through Belgium by diverting troops to Alsace and Lorraine and East Prussia.

The Germans faced stiffer resistance than anticipated – in particular they had not expected to have to fight the British Expeditionary Force (BEF).

The German advance halted at the First Battle of the Marne (4-10 Sept. 1914) and the Battle of the Aisne (15-18 Sept. 1914).

September-December: The ‘race for sea’.

By December 1914 the front had stagnated into a 400 mile system of trenches running from the Swiss border to the North Sea.

The War in the East, The War in the East, 1914-151914-15

Russia mobilised her troops more quickly than anticipated and Russia mobilised her troops more quickly than anticipated and invaded East Prussia.invaded East Prussia.

General von Prittwitz ordered a retreat to the Vistula on 20 August.General von Prittwitz ordered a retreat to the Vistula on 20 August. Displeased with this timid response, Moltke replaced Prittwitz with Displeased with this timid response, Moltke replaced Prittwitz with

Paul von Hindenburg.Paul von Hindenburg.

Paul von Hindenburg Paul von Hindenburg (1847-1934)(1847-1934)

1847: Born at Poznan in Prussian 1847: Born at Poznan in Prussian Poland, the son of an East Poland, the son of an East Prussian landowner.Prussian landowner.

Educated at cadet schools in Educated at cadet schools in Wahlstadt and Berlin.Wahlstadt and Berlin.

Fought at KFought at Königgrätz (1866) and öniggrätz (1866) and in the Franco-Prussian War.in the Franco-Prussian War.

1878: Joined the General Staff.1878: Joined the General Staff. 1905: Promoted to the rank of 1905: Promoted to the rank of

General.General. 1911: Retired from active service.1911: Retired from active service. 22 August 1914: Brought out of 22 August 1914: Brought out of

retirement to command the retirement to command the German Eighth Army in East German Eighth Army in East Prussia.Prussia.

Victory at Tannenberg and the Victory at Tannenberg and the Masurian Lakes made him a Masurian Lakes made him a national hero.national hero.

In many ways the archetypal In many ways the archetypal Prussian Prussian JunkerJunker..

The War in the East, The War in the East, 1914-151914-15

Russia mobilised her troops more quickly than anticipated and Russia mobilised her troops more quickly than anticipated and invaded East Prussia.invaded East Prussia.

General von Prittwitz ordered a retreat to the Vistula on 20 August.General von Prittwitz ordered a retreat to the Vistula on 20 August. Displeased with this timid response, Moltke replaced Prittwitz with Displeased with this timid response, Moltke replaced Prittwitz with

Paul von Hindenburg.Paul von Hindenburg. The Russians defeated at the Battle of Tannenburg (26-31 August The Russians defeated at the Battle of Tannenburg (26-31 August

1914) and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes (9-14 September 1914).1914) and the Battle of the Masurian Lakes (9-14 September 1914). Hindenburg became a public hero, promoted to Field Marshal and Hindenburg became a public hero, promoted to Field Marshal and

placed in command of the whole Eastern Front.placed in command of the whole Eastern Front. Further campaigns in 1915 penetrated deep into Russian territory, Further campaigns in 1915 penetrated deep into Russian territory,

driving into Poland and the Baltic States and capturing Warsaw and driving into Poland and the Baltic States and capturing Warsaw and Vilna.Vilna.

The Schlieffen Plan turned on its head – a war of movement in the The Schlieffen Plan turned on its head – a war of movement in the east, while the western front stagnated.east, while the western front stagnated.

The ‘Easterners’:Hindenburg, Ludendorff, Hoffmann and Mackensen by Oskar Bruch

Trench WarfareTrench Warfare

Postcard: Resting in the Trenches,c. 1914

The Battlefield in the Argonne Forest (1916)

Trench WarfareTrench Warfare

German troops attacking, July 1916 (Top Left), posedphotograph of a ‘Storm Trooper’ (Bottom Left), German soldier wearing First World War trench armour (Above)

Ernst JErnst Jüngerünger “In battle, the animal ascends

as the secret horror at the soul’s base, shooting high as a consuming flame, an irresistible rapture that intoxicates the masses, a godhead enthroned above the hosts...”

“We’ve been harnessed and chiselled, but we are also such as swing the hammer and guide the chisel, we are at once the smith and the flashing steel.”

In Stahlgewitten (‘Storm of Steel’, 1920)

Erich Maria RemarqueErich Maria Remarque

The Home FrontThe Home Front The world’s first ‘total war’.The world’s first ‘total war’. Banks and export industries badly disrupted, while the Banks and export industries badly disrupted, while the

Allied blockade made it difficult for Germany to import Allied blockade made it difficult for Germany to import food and vital raw materials.food and vital raw materials.

Occupation of industrial areas of northern France and Occupation of industrial areas of northern France and Belgium offset this to some extent,Belgium offset this to some extent,

But still severe shortages.But still severe shortages. Necessitates state intervention in the economy.Necessitates state intervention in the economy.

State InterventionState Intervention 1915: 1915: KreigsrohstoffabteilungKreigsrohstoffabteilung

(Raw Materials Department, KRA) (Raw Materials Department, KRA) – ensures the acquisition, storage – ensures the acquisition, storage and distribution of materials vital to and distribution of materials vital to the war effort.the war effort.

1915: Bread rationing introduced.1915: Bread rationing introduced. 1916: 1916: Zentral-Einkaufs-Zentral-Einkaufs-

GesellschaftGesellschaft (Central Purchasing (Central Purchasing Company) – acquisition of goods Company) – acquisition of goods from neutral countries.from neutral countries.

1916: 1916: ReichsgetreidstelleReichsgetreidstelle (Imperial (Imperial Gain Office) – controlled food Gain Office) – controlled food supplies and issued ration cards .supplies and issued ration cards .

Hindenburg Programme (1916) – Hindenburg Programme (1916) – Intended to concentrate industry Intended to concentrate industry on the production of munitions.on the production of munitions.

Auxiliary Service Law (1916): Auxiliary Service Law (1916): Government could conscript Government could conscript workers and decide where they workers and decide where they should work.should work.

Walter Rathenau (1867-1922), industrialist and founder of the Kreigsrohstoffabteilung

War FinanceWar Finance Germany already had a large budget deficit before 1914.Germany already had a large budget deficit before 1914. Taxation not sufficient to finance the war, and proposals Taxation not sufficient to finance the war, and proposals

to raise taxes vetoed on political grounds and the fiscal to raise taxes vetoed on political grounds and the fiscal privileges of Junkers continued unabated.privileges of Junkers continued unabated.

Only 16% of the cost of the war met by taxation.Only 16% of the cost of the war met by taxation. War financed by printing money and war loans.War financed by printing money and war loans. This led to massive inflation – by 1918 the mark had lost This led to massive inflation – by 1918 the mark had lost

75% of its value.75% of its value. Also a fall of real wages (20% in war industry, 40% in Also a fall of real wages (20% in war industry, 40% in

other branches). other branches).

Food Shortages Food Shortages By the autumn of 1916 food shortages,Inflation and mounting casualties beginning to effect the public mood.

1916-17: The ‘Turnip Winter’ – exceptionally cold weather and a poor potato harvest lead to a severe food and fuel crisis.

Between 1916 and 1917 deaths from hypothermia and starvation rose from 121,000 to 293,000.

Infant Mortality at 50% by 1918.

Above Left: The first mobile kitchen (Gulaschkanone) in Berlin, c. 1916. Below Left: Queuing for food, 1917.

Mobilisation for ‘total Mobilisation for ‘total war’war’

Measures: Measures: Failures:Failures: War Raw Materials Office: War Raw Materials Office:

coordination of industrial coordination of industrial products.products.

Food rationing in 1915.Food rationing in 1915. War Food Office 1916.War Food Office 1916. Substitutes – clothes with paper Substitutes – clothes with paper

fibres.fibres. Gaps in the labour force filled by Gaps in the labour force filled by

women (emancipation – double women (emancipation – double burden).burden).

Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Auxiliary Labour Law (1916): Government could conscript Government could conscript workers and decide where they workers and decide where they should work.should work.

‘‘Dictatorship’ of Dictatorship’ of Oberste Oberste HeeresleitungHeeresleitung (OHL) – (OHL) – Hindenburg and Ludendorff – loss Hindenburg and Ludendorff – loss of influence for civil government – of influence for civil government – strengthening of army influence.strengthening of army influence.

Scarcity of clothing, soap, food.Scarcity of clothing, soap, food. Agricultural production fell, meat Agricultural production fell, meat

consumption only 12% of pre-war consumption only 12% of pre-war level.level.

Malnutrition and starvation – Malnutrition and starvation – ‘turnip winter’ 1916/17 ‘turnip winter’ 1916/17 (consequence: up to 750,000 (consequence: up to 750,000 dead).dead).

Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ Polarisation: pro ‘Siegfrieden’ (victorious peace) with far (victorious peace) with far reaching war aims, pro peace reaching war aims, pro peace without contributions and without contributions and annexations.annexations.

Middle Classes: pauperisation, Middle Classes: pauperisation, living conditions closer to working living conditions closer to working class – but many now more class – but many now more nationalist, angst (loss of status) .nationalist, angst (loss of status) .

Working Class: spontaneous Working Class: spontaneous strikes in 1916 and 1917.strikes in 1916 and 1917.

PropagandaPropaganda

PropagandaPropaganda

“Help us to Triumph: Buy War Bonds!”Poster by Fritz Erler (1916)

Poster showing Wilhelm II and his assertionthat he had never sought war (1915)

“French and Russian, they matter not,A blow for a blow, a shot for a shot,We fight the battle with bronze and steel,And the time that is coming Peace will seal.You we will hate with a lasting hate,We will never forego our hate,Hate by water and hate by land,Hate of the head and hate of the hand,Hate of the hammer and hate of the crown,Hate of seventy millions choking down.We love as one, we hate as one,We have one foe and one alone--ENGLAND!”Ernst Lissauer, Hassgesang gegan England (1914)(1914)

1916

Breaking the StalemateBreaking the Stalemate No agreement over how the stalemate in the west should No agreement over how the stalemate in the west should

be ended and the war won.be ended and the war won. Hindenburg & Ludendorff – pushed for an all-out Hindenburg & Ludendorff – pushed for an all-out

offensive in the east to knock Russia out of the war offensive in the east to knock Russia out of the war before turning their attention to the west.before turning their attention to the west.

Falkenhayn – believed the war could be won in the west Falkenhayn – believed the war could be won in the west and put his faith in an attack on sections of the front held and put his faith in an attack on sections of the front held by the French.by the French.

Influential voices in the Admiralty pushing for the Influential voices in the Admiralty pushing for the introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare (sinking introduction of unrestricted submarine warfare (sinking all shipping entering Allied waters).all shipping entering Allied waters).

Verdun (1916)Verdun (1916)Offensive against the fortress of Verdun intended to ‘bleed the French white.’Feb.-June 1916: 315,000 French and 281,000 Germans killed, but the French held on.

The ‘Silent Dictatorship’The ‘Silent Dictatorship’ The Kaiser increasingly sidelined in political and military The Kaiser increasingly sidelined in political and military

matters.matters. By 1916 Bethmann-Hollweg under pressure from the By 1916 Bethmann-Hollweg under pressure from the

right and struggling to maintain the political consensus.right and struggling to maintain the political consensus. The increasingly unpopular Falkenhayn dismissed in The increasingly unpopular Falkenhayn dismissed in

August 1916.August 1916. Replaced by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff, Replaced by Hindenburg as Chief of the General Staff,

with Ludendorff as Quartermaster General.with Ludendorff as Quartermaster General. They have huge popular support and use this to They have huge popular support and use this to

increasingly control political and economic, as well as increasingly control political and economic, as well as military, affairs.military, affairs.

Thus, from the summer of 1916 onwards, Germany was Thus, from the summer of 1916 onwards, Germany was ruled by a military dictatorship. ruled by a military dictatorship.

1917

19171917 January: Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed.January: Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed. Growing war-weariness amongst the population.Growing war-weariness amongst the population. July: Peace resolution passed by the Reichstag.July: Peace resolution passed by the Reichstag.

“The Reichstag strives for a peace of understanding and a lasting reconciliation of peoples. Any violations of territory, and political, economic, and financial persecutions are incompatible with such a peace. . . . However, as long as the enemy governments refuse to agree to such a peace, as long as they threaten Germany and her allies with conquest and domination, so long will the German people stand united and unshaken, and they will fight until their right and that of their allies are made secure.”Matthias Erzberger, speech to the Reichstag, 19 July 1917

19171917 January: Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed.January: Unrestricted submarine warfare resumed. Growing war-weariness amongst the population.Growing war-weariness amongst the population. 19 July: Peace resolution passed by the Reichstag.19 July: Peace resolution passed by the Reichstag. July: Bethmann-Hollweg resigns as Chancellor, replaced July: Bethmann-Hollweg resigns as Chancellor, replaced

by George Michaelis and then Count Hertling.by George Michaelis and then Count Hertling. Feb./March: First Russian Revolution.Feb./March: First Russian Revolution. 6 April: The USA declared war on Germany.6 April: The USA declared war on Germany. May-June: Mutinies in the French Army.May-June: Mutinies in the French Army. Oct./Nov.: Second Russian Revolution – Bolsheviks Oct./Nov.: Second Russian Revolution – Bolsheviks

come to power promising to end the war.come to power promising to end the war.

The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk The Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (1918)(1918)

Source: G. Layton, From Bismarck to Hitler: Germany, 1890-1933

19181918 January: 400,000 Berlin workers go on strike.January: 400,000 Berlin workers go on strike. March: Spring Offensive launched.March: Spring Offensive launched.

The Kaiserschlacht (‘Kaiser’s Battle’),March-July 1918Source: P. J. Haythornthwaite, The WorldWar One Sourcebook

19181918 January: 400,000 Berlin workers go on strike.January: 400,000 Berlin workers go on strike. March: Spring Offensive launched.March: Spring Offensive launched. July: Allied counter-attack July: Allied counter-attack →→ collapse of the western collapse of the western

front.front. September: September:

Peace feelers sent out to the AmericansPeace feelers sent out to the Americans Prince Max von Baden appointed ChancellorPrince Max von Baden appointed Chancellor

26 October: Reform of the Constitution.26 October: Reform of the Constitution. 3 November: Naval Mutiny at Kiel.3 November: Naval Mutiny at Kiel. 7 November: German plenipotentiaries cross enemy 7 November: German plenipotentiaries cross enemy

lines.lines. 9 November: Republic proclaimed in Berlin.9 November: Republic proclaimed in Berlin. 11 November: Armistice signed.11 November: Armistice signed.

CASUALTIES OF THE WORLD WAR

  Known dead Seriously wounded

Otherwise wounded

Prisoners or missing

Russia 2,762,064 1,000,000 3,950,000 2,500,000

Germany 1,611,104 1,600,000 2,183,143 772,522

France 1,427,800 700,000 2,344,000 453,500

Austria-Hungary 911,000 850,000 2,150,000 443,000

Great Britain 807,451 617,714 1,441,394 64,907

Serbia 707,343 322,000 28,000 100,000

Italy 507,160 500,000 462,196 1,359,000

Turkey 436,924 107,772 300,000 103,731

Rumania 339,117 200,000 ...... 116,000

Belgium 267,000 40,000 100,000 10,000

United States 107,284 43,000 148,000 4,912

Bulgaria 101,224 300,000 852,339 10,825

Greece 15,000 10,000 30,000 45,000

Portugal 4,000 5,000 12,000 200

Japan 300 ........ 907 3

Total 9,998,771 6,295,512 14,002,039 5,983,600

Lasting Consequences of Lasting Consequences of the Warthe War

Loss of life = changes to the labour force, lower birth rate Loss of life = changes to the labour force, lower birth rate etc.etc.

Psychological effects:Psychological effects: ‘‘War Neuroses’War Neuroses’ The The Dolchstoßlegende (‘Stab in the Back’ Myth)Dolchstoßlegende (‘Stab in the Back’ Myth)

The Stab in the Back The Stab in the Back MythMyth

““At this time, the secret At this time, the secret intentional mutilation of intentional mutilation of the fleet and the army the fleet and the army began as a continuation began as a continuation of similar occurrences in of similar occurrences in peacetime. . . . An peacetime. . . . An English general said English general said with justice: ‘The with justice: ‘The German army was German army was stabbed in the back,’ No stabbed in the back,’ No guilt applies to the good guilt applies to the good core of the army. Its core of the army. Its achievements are just as achievements are just as admirable as those of admirable as those of those of the officer those of the officer corps. Where the guilt corps. Where the guilt lies has clearly been lies has clearly been demonstrated.” demonstrated.”

Paul von HindenburgPaul von HindenburgElection poster for the DNVP

(1924)

Lasting Consequences of Lasting Consequences of the Warthe War

Loss of life = changes to the labour force, lower birth rate Loss of life = changes to the labour force, lower birth rate etc.etc.

Psychological effects:Psychological effects: ‘‘War Neuroses’War Neuroses’ The DolchstoThe Dolchstoßlegende (‘Stab in the back’ myth)ßlegende (‘Stab in the back’ myth)

Split in the left.Split in the left. Germany a revisionist power.Germany a revisionist power. Economy: Inflation and reparations, loss of industrial Economy: Inflation and reparations, loss of industrial

territory.territory.

Bad starting point for first German democracy!Bad starting point for first German democracy!