German Winter Warfare

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u 1 UNCLASrFIED15U635no.18c.4 4IAL SERIES, NO. 18 15 DECEMBER 1943

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GERMANZ-_WINTER WARFARENIMCLASSIfIED A'. A;oeLQJMBIP 02 :-3j

PREPARED BYMIITARY INTLLIGENCE DIVISION

WAR DEPARTMIENT

UNCLASSIFIED


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MILITARY INTELLIGENCE DIVISION SPECIAL SERIESWNVaEPARTMENT No. 1S

WASlIoGTON 25, D. C., 15 December 1943 MID 401NOTICE

j. Publication of Special Series is for the purpose of providing officers withreasonably confirmed information from official and other reliable sources.2. In order to meet the specill requirements of certain headquarters, orin order to conserve shipping space, the distribution of any particular issuemay be modified from the standard of 150 copies to a division, 30 to anondivisional group or regiment, 6 to an independent squadron or battalion,and 2 to an independent troop or company. In an infantry division organ-ized according to T/O & E 7 (15 July 1943), redistribution should beeffected as follows:

Div Hq ............. q ...... .......... 4Dir Ilq Co .......... 2 Hq Btry ............. 2P Ilat............ 1 .......... 24Rcn Tp ........... ).. 22Ord Co ............ 2 1QM Co .. [ .RgtlH qQNI g.............. 2 Regil ILI ... 4Sig Co. ....... 2 Regtl Hq Co . .......Engr 11 ............ Serv Co ..............Mled a ............. I Cn Co ...............Div Arty .......... 30 AT Co ..............Irt Regts (3)..... ... 90as (3 S............ I

TOTAL, Ir rDIV.. 150 TOTAL, IlF REGL. 303. In addition to Special Series, publications of the Military IntelligenceD)ivision include Tactical and Technical Tr'ends (biweekly), IntelligenceBuIlletin (monthly), and Military Jeports onl the United NXations (monthly).Distribution to AAF units anlld installations is made by the AssistantChief of Air Staff, Intelligence, Army Air Forces, and quantities sentto AGF addresses Ire recommended by the Commanding General, ArmyGround Forces. Requests for additiollal copies of any MID publicationshould be made through chmanels.4. Every command should circulate available copies among its officers.Rleproduction within the militlry service is permitted provided that (1) thesource is stated, (2) the classification is mmnnintaoled, and (3) one copy ofthe publication in whlih the material is reproduced is forwarded to theDissemination Unit, Military Intelligence Division, War Department,Washington 25, D. C. Comments on this publication and suggestions forfuture issues may be sent directly to the same address.

UNCLASSIFIED


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PREFACE OF U.-- ARMYThis work is substantially a translation of an enemydocunlent which has been edited in the style and format ofWar Department publications and rearranged in order topresent the material in a more logical order than in the

original text. All of the illustrations, which were roughsketches in the original, have been redrawn, and have beenimproved as much as possible.The handbook was based on the experiences of the Ger-man Army during the first two winters of the war in Rus-sia. Essentially it tells a story of efforts to solve two vitalproblems of winter warfare: mobility and shelter. Thehandbook was published by the German High Command on5 August 1942, apparently in a great hurry, in order to helpthe German forces to prepare for a third rigorous winter on

the invaded territory of a formidable foe. The material,evidently collected from the various branches of the Ger-man Armed Forces, was put together badly and in someplaces was almost unintelligible. A considerable portionof the material was in the form of appendices under head-ings that duplicated section captions in the main text.These appendices have been merged into their logicalplaces. Some material which had no special application towinter warfare was eliminated.While the handbook was badly arranged, the materialitself is considered to be valuable for the insight that itgives into the experiences of an Army under conditions ofextreme cold and for its reflection of the degree of improvi-sation to which the German Army was compelled to resort.The nuillerous references to "nlakesbifts," "expedients,"and "'improvisations point to the lesson that the problemsof winter warfare must be considered and solved long

III


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IV PREFACE

before a force is committed to winter combat. In the manualthe German High Command repeatedly emphasizes thelesson that equipment, methods, techniques, and clothingmust be specially designed for the struggle against snow,ice, mud, moisture, and bitter cold. Above all, it emphasizesthe lesson that the individual soldier must be specially ac-climated, tained, and toughened to fight in winter and thathe must develop the will to resist its hardships as deter-minedly as he should resist the enemy.

In paragraph 4, "Preparation for Winter Warfare,"the manual asserts:. "In building up endurance against therigors of the Russian winter, mental discipline is the deter-mining factor." Again in paragraph 6, "Ml[orale," themanual states: "The coming winter will again severely taxthe spiritual stamina of the soldier. All suitable means,commensurate with the situation and combat conditions,will be employed to bolster his inner resilience.''It will be noted that the German High Command does notconsider winter as a fixed season of snow and low tem-peratures. Before and after the winters in Russia therewere periods which in most respects raised practically thesame problems as snow and cold. The rains of autumn andthe thaw in spring brought floods and mud; which, like deepsnow, tended to immobilize the German forces on the longEastern Front.The text of the Taschelnbuch ffir den Winterk7rieg beginsin Section I. The "Foreword" and other preliminary mat-ter of the German original are also included in order toemphasize the fact that this publication is a translation ofa German manual intended for German troops. It is not amanual for U. S. troops, but must be read as an enemydocument which is intended to convey information aboutthe enemy's doctrine, techniques, and methods.


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Title poge of original.


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Verso of title page of original.


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Supplement 2 to Army Manual laPage 18a, Current No. 17

HANDBOOKON

WINTER WARFARE

5 August 1942

(Translation of title page of original)VIT


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Army High CommandArmy General Staff/Training Section (II)No. 2300/42

Hlq, Army High Command, 5 August 1942

The Hanfdbool; o0 WTiter War/frc, a compilation of experiences glenned/rom the Winter War of 1941-1942, is hereby authorized.It will serve as a suggestion for tnlining.

By command of:HIALI)EII.

(Translotion of verso f title page of original)VITI


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FOREWORD 1This handbook is a compilation of practical experience in

winter warfare. It is intended to facilitate adaptation towinter conditions in Russia.Section I gives a general idea of conditions during thewinter and the muddy period and of the inferences whichmay be drawn therefrom. It is intended chiefly for officersof all grades.The information in this handbook must become the com-mon property of the troops, and a detailed study of it mustbe made the duty of all officers and instructors. 5Most ofthe subjects are suitable for the instruction of noncommis-sioned officers.For the more intensive study of the subject of winterwarfare, other training publications as well as trainingfilms will be used extensively.'Translation of foreword of original.

Ix


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CONTENTSPage

Section I. WINTER, MUD, AND THAW. ..-... 1..-.... . I1. INFLUENCE OF WINTER__------------------------- - 12. DURATION AND NATURE OF SNOW -.. ---------- ------ 23. SEASONS OF MUD AN D THAW\ -. -------------------- 34. PREPARATION FOR WINTER WARFARE -------- ------- - 45. WINTER COMBAT METHODS - ----------- -------- 76. MORALE ----------- --------------------- 12

a. General - _------------------------- ------ - 12b. Recreational Aids -_------------------ ----- - 13

(1) Reading material-.............. 13(2) Lectures ........................... 13(3) Radio-_......................... 13(4) AlMovies 14(5) Employment of "Strength throogh Joy" groups-_ 14(6) Competitions ............ _........... 14(7) Improvement of quarters -----------. -. _ __ 14(8) Organizationof spare time- ........ 2 15(9) Service centers-_ .-. . .....................5

(10) Front convalescentcamps-_..... _.... 1511.MARCHES AND ORIENTATION -...................... 16

7. MARCHES - -----..-------- ---------------- 16a. Reconnaissance- ----------------------------- 16b. Preparation for Marches. .-....- -- 17c. March Discipline ------------------------------ 18d. Halts and Rest Periods --------------------- 19

S. ORIENTATION IN SNOW-COVERED TERRAIN ..-- . ..--- 20a. General .----------------------------------20b. Fundamentals of Orientation -.-.--- _._-_-... . .. 21c. Methods of Orientation --...-... ..-_-__- _ 22d. Controlling March Direction ----.... ---- __-_... _ 25e. Conduct Whea Lost. .......................... 27

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XII CONTENTSPage

III. ROADS--...................... 289. ROAD MARKING_ ....................-- . .....8

10. ROAD MAKING ------------------------- --------- - 30a. General -------------------- 8----------30b. Methods .....--------------------- 3111. WINTER ROAD SERVICE---------- _------------- 37i. General --------------------------------- - 37b. Preparations ........................ 38(1) Weather conditions on the road . ........8

(2) State of repair - - -. 38(3) Capacityof roads- 38C. Clearing Roads ------------------------------ 40d. Snow Fences - ._... 41e. Treatment of Slippery Surfaces .... ...--... 44i. Transition from Snow to Mud ------ ----.----- 4512. ICE CROSSINGS ................--.......... 46a. Capacity of lee --------------------------- - 46b. Preparations and Safety Measures -- ---- 47e. Crossing ................--......... 49d. Reinforcement of Ice Surfaces and Ice-Bridge Con-struction-....-.......-...... 50

IV. RAILROAD MOVEMENTS -. . 5313. GENERAL- ................................. 5314. PREPARATIONS FOR A TRAIN MOVEMENT .- ....... 5315. PROTECTIVE MEASURES EN ROUTE 54

V. WINTER BIVOUACS AND SHELTER -............... 5716. BIVOUrACS --------------------------------- - 57a. General -................................ 57b. Snow Shelters .-........................... 6017. SNOUW HOLD .................--.............. 6018. SNow CAv _ ..................--.............. 6319. SNow PIT - -6520. SNow HOUSE ...............---..... 6521. IG4oo, ESKIMO TYPE - .. ..---.------------ 66a. General _--------------------6

b. Building Equipment-.-----------. 67c. Condition of Snow- 67d. Preparation for Building-.. ....................8e. Cutting the Blocks -. . .--- 69f. Building the First Four Tiers .-..- - 70


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CONTENTS XIII

V. WINTER BIVOUACS AND SHELTER-Continued.21. IGLOO, ESKIMO TYPE-Continued. Page

g. Completing the Dome-_.. ........ _.._.._ ._2h. Finishing Touches-_ .-.................. 74i. Furnishings_ ....................... 75j. Building of Large Igloos_ .............. 7522. PLYWOOD SHELTERS-_...... _;- .........--.. _ 75

23. TENTS______................-- --------- 7924. CIRCULAR TENTS, FINNISH TYPE - ------------------ _ 8325. LEAN-TOS AN D OTHER IMPROVISED SHELTERS -------- _ 8326. SHELTERS FOR HORSES AN D MOTOR VEHICLES .--..... 8627. PERMANENT BILLETS -__------------------- ---.-- _ 87

a. General ...........--- - 87b. Factors Governing Construction ---------------- 91(1) Type of construction _ . ..- - 91(2) Planningconstruction -------------------- 92c. Improvement of Existing Buildings ---------... 93

d. Water Supply_------------------------- -- 93VI. CONSTRUCTION OF WINTER POSITIONS .....--.--- 9428. GENERAL -_-------------------------------........ 94

29. CONSTRUCTION OF SIMPLE POSITIONS-- .-...... 9530. IMPROVED POSITIONS--------------------..- 9731. OBSTACLES---------------------------------------- 100

VII. HEATING FACILITIES ....................------------- 10 532. GENERAL-_.................................... 10533. FIRES -_ ................................... 10534. MAXING CHARCOAL-_ ......................... 11135 . DANGER OF CARBON-MONOXIDE POISONING-- . . ........13

VIII. CAMOUFLAGE, CONCEALMENT, AND IDENTIFICATION 11 536. GENERAL ---------------------------- ------- - 11537. CAMOUFLAGE MATERIALS - _---------------------- - 115

a. Prepared Camouflage Materials-__---- -----..-- 115b. Improvised Camouflage M aterials-_-.---------- 116

38. UTILIZATION OF CAMOUFLAGE - - _-_.. _.-------- 117a. Individual Camouflage - _ _--------------------- - 117b. Means of Identification -_------------..- ------- 118

(1) Brassards ......................... 118(2) Manner of wearing belt . .......... 118


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XIV CONTEN'S

VIII. CAMOUFLAGE, CONCEALMENT, AND IDENTIFICA-TION-Continued.

38.UTILIZATION OF CAMOUFLAGE-Contilled.b. Means of Identification-Continued. Page

(3) Groundflags and signals ................. 118(4) Passwordsand blinker signals .- .........119

e. Camouflage of Field Positions - _--------------_-_ 120d. Camouflage of Trails .-- _ _-_-_--..-----.. 123e. Dummy Installations.._ ....- _...-..._._ ___ .126

IX . PROTECTION AGAINST COLD, SNOW, AND THAW-- 12739. GENERAL .-................................. 12740. CLOTHING AND EQUIPMENT .-. . . .......- 128

a. Regulations for Fitting Winter Clothes - ---------- 128b. Emergency Precautions against Cold-. _-_._.. 131G. Care of Clothing and Equipment-_-........... 133

(1) On the march and in combat ..........- 133(2) Procedure duringrestin permanentbillets .- 134(3) Careof footgear duringmud and thaw period --. 134

X. RATIONS IN WINTER ..--------..........- --.......- 13741. GENERAL ----------------------------------- - 13742. FIELD RATIONS IN EXTREME WEIATiER ------------ 13843. EMERGENCY RATIONS .---..--..--- _-----..-- 138a. Frozen Meats -..-.... .__.- _-_-._..- 139b. Raw Fish .--------------------------------- 139c. Food from the Woods 8.-._-_-_-_._._._._._.__ ] 39d. Sawdust Flour--..-.-.---.. . ...........40e. Baking Bread in Mess Kit -.--- __..------- 140

44. EFFECT OF COLD WEATHER ON FOOD --....----------- 14145. TRANSPORTATION AND STORAGE OF FOOD --------.-. _. 14146 . FREEZING AND STORAGE OF POTATOES ........---.....-- 142

XI. WINTER HEALTH MEASURES ..- ....... 14447. HYGIENE IN BILLETS--............-........... 144

a. Hygiene -------------------------------------- 144(1) Cleanlinessand rest .....----------------- 144(2) Preventionof disease 144

b. Sauna (Finnish steam bath)--------------------- 146


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CONTENTS XVPage

XII. EVACUATION OF WOUNDED --------------- -. 14948. GENERAL ...................... 14 949. MExNS OF EVACUATING WOUNDED -----------.-------- 150a. General -..... .. 150

b. Hand Sleds and Improvised Means .--------------5150. EQJUIPMENT OF VEHICLES FOR WOUNDED --------------. 153

XIII. CARE AND US E OF WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT--.. 15451. GENERAL--.-------------------- - - - - 15452. LUBRICANTS ------------------------------- - 15553. RECOIL LIqUIDs ---------------------------- 15654. CARE OF WEAPONS --------------------------- - 157

a. Rifles and Carbines .----------------------------57b. Semiautomatic Rifles _------........... 157c. Pistols------------------- --------------- 157d. Submachine Guns .-..................... 158e. Machine-Gun Equipment .--.. ........... 59f. Machine Gun (M.G.84)------------------------- 159g. Antitank Rifles .-.......................... 160ih. Tank Guns .-................................. 160i. Antiaircraft Guns (2-cm Flak 30 and 38) .- ... 161j. Artillery . .............. . .............61k. Chemical Mortars and Heavy Projectors ---------. 162

(1) 105-mm chemical mortars35 and 40---------- 162(2) Heavy projectors 40 (wooden model) and 41

(metal model) -.................... 16355. FIRING OF INFANTRY WEAPONS .-. . ................64a. General ..............---- 164

b. Rifle .................--............. 164c. Light Machine Gun --------------.----------- 1)d. Heavy Machine Gun ...........--... .65c. 50-mm Light Mortar 36 (5-cm I.Gr.W. 36) --------- 166f. 81-mm Heavy Mortar 34 (8-cm s.Gr.W. 34) -------- 167g. Infantry Howitzer ---------- ------- - 167h1. Antitank Weapons --------------..--------- - 167

05. STORAGE AND HANDLING OF MUNITIONS IN WINTER --- 168a. Storage--------------------------------- 168b. Ammunition in Combat Positions -_-.---_-- --- - 170c. Handling of Shell Cases ------------------- - 170d. Ammunition of Chemical Troops ------- - -- - 171e. Special Experiences - ----- 171


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XVI CONTENTS

XIII. CARE AND USE OF WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT-Continued. Page

57. ARTILLERY FIRE IN WINTER_--..-. ----.--.. . ........72a. Effect of Weather -........................... 172b. Artillery Reconnaissance -..................... 173c. Firing of Chemical Mortars. 173

58. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS .----------.--- 17459. CHEMICAL-WARFARE EQUIPMENT---------.--... ... 175

a. Gas Masks -................................ 175b. Horse Respirators -.... -- 176c. Protective Clothing -....-- -. 177d. Gas Detectors -.----..-----. 177e. Decontamination Materials ..- ...... 177f. Smoke-Producing Agents 178

XIV. SIGNAL COMMUNICATION ----------------. 17960. PROTECTION OF SIGNAL EQUIPMENT ..--------------- 179

a. HouSing .-.................................... 179b. Heating and Insulation ------------.------ - 179c. Lubrication .-----------. 181d. Grounding ...............--.............. 181e. Protection of Crew -_.................. 181

61. PROTECTION OF POWER SOURCES ----------- 182a. Storage Batteries .-...................- 182b. Dry Batteries -...................... 183c. Converters, Vibrators, and Generators- . ......83d. Power Units--...------ 184e. Network Markings and Safeguards- . ......84f. Protecting Lines against Frost, ice, and Snow -... .84g. Laying of Cables ..................... 185

62. TELEPHONE, RADIO, AND MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT ... 187a. Telephone -..........................- 187b. Radio Equipment and Sound Locators- . .......88

(1) Transmitters, receivers, and cipherequipment _ 188(2) Aerials and accessories.......... 188

c. Teletype Equipment - -189d. Blinker and Heliograph Equipment ..- - 190e. Pyrotechnic Equipment .--------------------- 190f. Supply of Equipment . .......--------------- 190


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CONTENTS XVIIPage

XV. SKIS, SNOWSHOES, AND SNOW VEHICLES_---.--_._ -_ 19263. GENERAL - - - -----------. 19 264. SKIS, ACCESSORIES, AND SNOWSHOES----.. .. .......----93a. Skis ..................--................... 193

b. Ski Shoes ------------------------------------ 193c. Army Flat-Terrain Ski Binding ------------------ 19 4d. Overboot -------------------------------- - 196e. Ski Kit --------------------------------------- 197f. Snowshoes ---------------------------- - 197

65. IHAND SLEDS --------- - -- ----------- 197a. General -------------------------------------- 197b. Akjas ..................--................. 198c. Construction of Light Akja ------------------ - 200d. Construction of Hand Sled ------------------- - 20 0

66. HOnsE-DRAWN SLEDS--------------------- - ----- - 20 3a. General --------------------------------- - 203b. Army Sleds ------------------------ 205c. Loading Army Sleds --------------.------- - 20 9d. Toboggan Type of Sled ------------------------ 210e. Runners and Sliding Troughs ----------...- 210(1) Runners-------------------------------- 210

(2) Sliding troughs -- --- -- - -- - -- - - 212f. Drags -------------------------------.. 213g. Harnessing ----.-.-.-- 213

67. PACK HARNESS -............----....... 213

ILLUSTRATIONSFigure Page1. Sleds cutting trails and roads in an assembly area--.............. 82. Prepared trails in a defensive position- .....-.. 103. Circular trail for the security of a winter position ---------------. 114. Shadow-casting as an aid in following a weak trail ................ 235. Example of a march table-. . ......................... 266. Snow-man type of road marker -.-.-. . .... 287. Functions of the trail detail .......................... 328. Organization and disposition of a road-making detachment - . ....39. Sequence of snow plows for clearing roads ------------------- 3410. Improvised snow plow ------------------............. . 35

11. Improvised snow roller -....... 3612. St. Andrew's cross used to mark by-passes ----------------------- 39


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XVIII CONTENTSFigure Page13. Snowdrift factors affecting roads- .... 42, 4314. Types of snow fences .-............................... 4415. Ice-measuring stick ........................... 4616 . Load capacity of ice surfaces- .. . ............817 . Ice-crossing frame for guns and heavy vehicles 4918. Ice reinforced with layers of twigs and straw 5019. Ice bridge for crossing open channels in partially frozen bodies of

water -................................. 5120. Making a snow hole without tools- 6121. Types of snow holes- -----........................... 6222. Cave in snowdrift -...... 6323. Snow pit for several men 6324. Snow pit in deep snow -6425. Snow pit in shallow snow -............................. 6526. Snow house with walls of ice blocks-................ 6627. Cutting snow blocks- ... ....................828. Pattern formed in cutting snow blocks-.................... 6929. Part of the first tier of the igloo -7030. Cross section of the igloo, with snow cover, showing lines radiating

to the center-............................... 7131. Installing support blocks .-. ............. 7232. Tunnel entrance and anteroom of the igloo_ 7433. Measurements of wooden forms for making snow blocks -. .7634. Plywood shelter for 20 men-.......................... 7735. The 16-man tent - ----------. 7936. Layout of the 16-man tent - ------------------------------ 8037. Method of tubing a stove chimney underground -..... 8138. Circular tent, Finnish-type - 8239. Shelter built around a fir tree-------------------------------- 8340. Circular hut made of branches -.-------------------- 8441 . Earth hut for 6 men -.............................. 8542. Foliage shelter for 10 men .-....... 8643. Hut erected against a hillside -................................ 8744. Shelters for hones --------------------------------- 8845. Tank shelter built against a slope ...............---...... 8946. Heated shelter for motor vehicles ........................ 9047. Sandbag position- 0----- 9648. Log position in Snow ------ ....-- 9649. Cross section of covered snow trench ------------------- 9750. Cross section of vaulted dugout- ------------------------------ 9851. Shelter made of "ice-concrete" -- 100


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CONTENTS XIX

Figure Page52. Antitank obstacle of packed snow -.... .... -.......... . 10053. Barbed-wire fence pickets in snow -.............-.... 10154. Tripod trestle fo r barbed-wire fence ....... .-. - 10255. Barbed-wire roll for use in snow -........ ... J0356. Antitank trap in frozen body of water -------------....- 10457. Long-burning fir-log fire ................--............ 10658. Various types of fires, showing (1) pit fire; (2) hunter's fire; (3) star-

shaped fire; (4) "invisible fire". -- 10759. Fireplace fo r emplacements and caves --------------.-.-.- . .. 10860. Insulated trench stove "--- -.-----......10861. Bricked-in stove .............................. 10962. Brick stove with two ovens-........... 11063. Cross section of two-layer charcoal pile ..-..-..... 11264. Camouflaging trenches with willow frames---------------------- 12065. Concealment of installations in a trench system . ..............2166. Antitank ditch camouflaged to resemble an ordinary trench -.--- 12167. Tank concealed under snow-covered canvas -.................. 12268. Flat-top camouflage of tank in gully .-....- 12369. Supplies concealed under trees and snow.... . ..................2570. Method of wrapping foot cloths - .-.-... . 13071. Improvised protector for shoes and boots 13272. Prefabricated rations hut installed underground for potato storage _ 14273. Sauna (Finnish steam bath) in log cabin-..... 14774. Some methods of evacuating the wounded, showing (1) skier dragging

an akja, or boat sled; (2) skier dragging a wounded man froma field of fire; (3) akja used for evacuation under fire; (4) methodof evacuation in difficult terrain ...-. .----- 15275. Snow plates for machine-gun mounts.-..--. 16676. Padded and heated box for a portable radio .-.. --- 180

77. Flat-terrain ski binding and the overboot- . ................. 19578. Types of akjas: (1) weapons akja; (2) boat akja; (3) light akja .--- 19979. Construction of a light akja.---.------ 19980. Construction of a hand sled ...---.-----.---- 20181. Hauling accessories for the hand sled...-...--- 20282 . Siberian type of sled -------------------- 20383. Table of specifications for issued sleds ..-.----- 20484. Army sled No. 1, with side walls in place-. ------ 20585. Army sled No. 3, showing (1) the sled withl the body in place; (2) an

antitank gun mounted on the sled; (3) a light field kitchen loadedon the sled----- ------------------------------ 20686. Improvised horse-drawn toboggan type of sled - .. ..-- - 207


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XX CONTENTSFigure Page87. Antitank gun mounted on ski runners --------- _----------___ 20888. 105-mm ho\witzer mounted on sled runners ------------------- _-_ 20989. Sliding trough for hadling heavy loads .-. . ..........._..... 21190. Drag made of naturally curved tree branches -------- -.- - -_ 21291. Improvised wooden pack saddle - - 21492. Pack saddle consisting of a back pad and basket------- --------- 215


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Section I. WINTER, MUD, AND THAW

1. INFLUENCE OF WINTERThe Russian winter brings long-lasting, severe cold (-40to -58 degrees F.) punctuated by short periods of thaw,snowfalls, storms, and fogs. During the cold months day-light often amounts to but a few hours a day.In winter, variations in temperature and precipitationsexert great influence on the nature of terrain and the mo-bility of troops. During the early part of winter, severefrosts, before snow begins to fall, make it possible to crossotherwise impassable terrain. Rivers and lakes freeze andmay be crossed by vehicles, but swamps which are under ablanket of snow usually have only a thin and weak ice sur-

face. The effect of snow and freezing temperatures varieswith local conditions, but generally snow can immobilizewheeled and tracked vehicles of all kinds except on first-class roads.Even a light snowfall, piled into snowdrifts by the wind,may lead to serious traffic difficulties. Drifts may begin toform early in winter and they may pile very high, especiallyon the great steppes. Visibility is usually good in clear,frosty weather, and noises carry to great distances. Anovercast sky makes observation difficult. Exact terrainappreciation and target designation may become impossi-ble, because elevations and depressions show up onlyslightly and serious errors occur in estimating distances.


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2 GERMANr WINTER WARFARE

2. DURATION AND NATURE OF SNOWIn European Russia, snow blankets the terrain for about4 months in the south (the Ukraine and the lower Volga);4 to 6 months in the central region (Moscow area); and 6 to

7 months in the north (Archangel). The first frosts appearat the beginning of October. The depth of the snow varieswith the terrain. The wind sweeps the snow away fromopen and flat surfaces and heaps it up in front of obstaclesand in hollows. In woods it is distributed evenly in depth.An average of 4 to 16 inches may be expected in southernRussia; in the central region and in northern Russia, 20 to39 inches. Local snowdrifts 6 feet 6 inches to 9 feet 10inches high are not rare.The soldier who is unaccustomed to winter conditions,particularly the conditions of winter warfare in Russia,ought to know not only the disadvantages of snow, but alsothe advantages which it affords and which he may exploit.Snow, when properly employed, provides shelter againstcold and wind, yet it is porous enough to permit ventilationin snow shelters. When it is packed sufficiently thick (3meters, or 9 feet 10 inches), snow affords protection againstenemy fire. It is also good camouflage.

In slightly cold weather falling snow consists of largecrystals or flakes and forms a loose surface, but in severecold it falls in fine grains. Wind packs snow hard. A hardcrust on deep, soft snow assures mobility; but if the crustis not strong, it becomes a disadvantage. Breaking throughsuch a crust is strenuous for foot soldiers and often danger-ous for skiers. Horses may injure their hoofs and dogstheir paws. The carrying capacity of snow crusts varieswith the temperatures at different times of the day; onsunny days it is likely to weaken considerably.


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WINTER, MUD, AND THAW 33. SEASONS OF MUD AND THAW

Heavy autumn rains or snowfalls and the melting snowand floods of the spring thaw also make roads virtuallyimpassable. The first period of mud begins about the mid-dle of October and is frequently terminated by biting frost(in the winter of 194142 by a temperature of -31 degreesF.) or by snowfalls. The spring thaw period, beginning inMarch in southern Russia and progressing northward,brings another spell of mud. In some parts of the countrythe thaw causes gigantic floods. Temperature, wind, andground consistency as well as rain and snow are factorswhich determine the extent to which roads vanish. Lightsoil, especially sand, permits water to drain off, but the darkhumus of the Ukraine turins into well-nigh untraversable,sticky mud.Wheeled and tracked vehicles are unable to use unpavedroads and highways while the ground is mired. Pavedroads which cross depressions, as well as combat positionswith deep foundations, may be flooded temporarily. Allbridges which are not sufficiently anchored may be damagedor destroyed by floods and floating ice. Airplanes may belimited to airdromes with concrete runways.

It is just as important to maintain the mobility of troopsduring thaws as it is while snow is on the ground. Positionsmust be improved and made mud-proof, and they must bestocked to make them independent of supply lines for ex-tended periods (3 to 4 weeks). Unpaved roads must not beused until they have thoroughly dried out. The possiblegain in traveling time is out of proportion to the long timeand considerable labor that is necessary to recondition suchroads. Special roads must be constructed for use during


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4 GERMAN WINTER WARFAIIEthe muddy period, and measures must be taken to make thenormal road net serviceable as soon as possible.Wheeled motor vehicles should be prohibited on muddyroads, and tracked vehicles should be employed only inemergencies. Heavy wheeled vehicles or sleds should bereplaced by light carts, high two-wheeled vehicles, boatsleds, or pack animals. If it is impracticable to securebridges against floating ice and floods, they should be dis-mantled and supplanted by a ferry service.

Where necessary, units should move to positions free ofmud, or construction material should be stocked for theimprovement of existing positions. Drainage ditches andseepage shafts should be dug within them. Wounded menand unserviceable lljounts must be evacuated promptly. Am-munition, rations, fodder, and heating and illuminatingequipment must be stored in advance in dry places. Theheavy winter clothing and footgear of the troops must bereplaced by articles suitable for wet weather.4. PREPARATION FOR WINTER WARFARE

Experiefice teaches us that the Germanl soldier knows howto master the difficulties of the Russian winter, and that heis superior to the enemy even in winter. He is capable notonly of defending himself against the Russian but also anni-hilating him in attack.Prerequisites for this superiority are as follows: psycho-logical preparation for the hardships of winter warfare,appropriate training and adaptation, familiarity with win-ter combat methods, and proper equipment and employmentof expedients.In building up endurance against the rigors of the Rus-sian winter, mental discipline is the determining factor.


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VWINTEII, MUD, AND T' IAW 5A[any cases of freezing are caused by a slackening of at-tention and by indifference. The danger of freezing is espe-cially great when one is exhausted after great exertion orafter a long period on guard. Then the soldier must sum-mon all his will power in order to keep awake and alert.The code of comradeship demands that soldiers must assisteach other in this effort and in stimulating the will to live.The most serious danger begins when confidence in one'sown strength is extinguished.

The aiim of training must be to convey to the soldier allthe knowledge he will need for survival and combat in win-ter. His field training must condition him to endure ex-tremes of cold, moisture, and snow. His training will in-clude the followin.g important subjects:

a. Protection of the soldier, horse, vehicle, weapons, and equipment:gainst cold and snow.

b. Traliling-hlardening and conditioning that will enable the soldier tolive ill the silpilest types of bivouac structunres and improvised sheltersof his'oown constrnction instead of peranullent shelters.

c. Mobility--traiining in skiing: Conversion of wheeled vehicles into sleds(w-inter mioldility of antitank glunls is especially important); clearing exist-ing roads or building whiter roads, and Iaking ice crossings; movementsin wvinter terrilin oll foot I skis, anld sleds, and in motor vehicles.d. Construction of positions and obstacles in frozen ground and snow.

e. Firing and colnllrt in severe cold and deep snow, combat on skis,scouting, patrolling, and camouflage.

There are no special "winter tactics." The hamperingeffect of deep snow, however, greatly influences the combatmethods of normally organized and equipped troops. Skitroops and troops equipped with light sleds take over themissions assigned in temperate seasons to mobile troops(motorized, mounted, and bicycle troops). (The specialcharacteristics of combat in winter are discussed in par. 5,"Winter Combat Methods," p. 7.)


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6 GERMAN WINTER WARFARE

The clothing and equipment intended for winter warfaremust afford not only comfort but freedom of movement forcombat, and especially for attack in severe cold, deep snow,and strong wind. If supplies issued to the unit are not suffi-cient, they must be augmented by improvisations and sub-stitutes of all kinds. The ingenuity of the individual soldierand of the leader in contriving makeshifts keeps the unitefficient and reduces casualties.The following are basic requirements for clothing, equip-ment, and weapons in winter:a. Clothing should not be too warm, but it must be'windproof. It should

permit quick movements (jumping, creeping, shooting). Extra underwearfor changing after sweatinlg, and additional warm clothing (such as aslipo0-er s\veater), should be carried for wear during rest periods andbivouacs.

b. Camouflage suits should be supplied at least to patrols and sentries.If such suits are not available they must be improvised.c. Footgear is especially important. Felt boots are best, but they mustbe kept dry. Keep the uppers of leather boots from freezing hard by

wearing overboots or cloth covers over them. In addition, paper and footcloths (see par. 40b) should be wrapped on the feet in addition to socks.Footgear must be roomy enough to permit moving the toes.

d. Bivouac eqluipment makes one independent of permanent shelters. Clothtents of the Finnish type (see par. 24) are the best, but in emergencies,shelter halves (which may also be used as ground sheets) will do. Theequipment should also include plywood shelters, portable stoves, and in-dividual cooking utensils so that the men can cook their own food.e. Skis should be provided for ski troops, scouts, messengers, and signaland medical personnel of all ranks. These classes of personnel should alsobe provided with felt boots and orerboots if possible, otherwise with lacedshoes. Snowshoes may be used as expedients.

f. Sleds must be substituted for most wheeled vehicles. The sleds mustbe light, and of standard width, and horses should be harnessed one behind

i Canvas covers which fit over German leather boots (see par. 64d, P. 196).Oversized pairs are often worn so that straw can be packed in for addedwarnthll-EDIToR.


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WINTER, MiUD, AND THAW 7the other (tandem). Field kitchens and heavy weapons must be loadedon sleds or runners (see pars. 65 and 66).

g. Snow-clearing equipment is needed to facilitate movement, especiallyoff the roads. Snow plows should be provided or improvised.h. Weapons must be mobile, and therefore their weight and caliber must

be limited. They must be in condition to fire in any weather. Forclose combat, many automatic wveapons are needed, but it is better tohave an anblldance of anmmlunitilnll rather than a large number of weaponswith only a limited supply of ammunition.

i. Individual motor vehicles. tanks, and assault guns are often valuableaids in winter comba.t, and must be ready for operation in any kind ofweather. Snow must be cleared to facilitate their movement.

j. Medical equipment must be provided in greater quantities than in otherseasons. Provision must be made for adequate transportation of thewounded, even in front lines, and for protecting them against cold.

5. WINTER COMBAT METHODSTroops must not be deprived of their freedom of action in

winter, no matter how inclement the weather. They musttry in every possible manner to attack the enemy, to dam-age his installations, and to destroy him. Mobility on thebattlefield and the ability to deceive and outwit the enemygive even a numerically weaker force a feeling of superi-ority.

The ability to carry out a march in winter may be thebasis for the successful outcome of a battle. If possible,the enemy must be surprised, and surprise is more likely ifthe troops avoid highways and roads and move across ter-rain which is considered impassable. Experience has shownthat enemy resistance is weakest in terrain that he considersinaccessible, and that cross-country marches frequently per-mit envelopment of his position.

The enemy is particularly susceptible to attack on hisflanks and rear. A frontal attack is very difficult in deepsnow, even when it is executed on skis.


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8 GERMAN WINTERI WAAIFARE

In winter the systematic preparation and disposition offorces for combat are even more important than in summer,and require more than twice the time. All heavy-weaponvehicles and tanks must be employed to cut roads (see fig. 1).Probable weather conditions must be taken into considera-tion in preparing for these activities. Continuous attacksare a proved method of winter combat. They deprive theenemy of breathing spells, throttle his supply lines, preventhim from making fires to warm himself, and force him to

75 75nhFigure l.-Sleds cutting trails and roads in an assembly area.(Sequence of activities: (1) make trails and roads to positionsatthe line of departure (LD); (2) bring heavy weapons, includ-

ing artillery, into position; (3) move up the infantry as far aspossible on skis or on foot along the trails.)


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WINTERI, MUD, AND THIAV 9make frequent counterthrusts. Thus the fighting strengthof the enemy is sapped without appreciably weakening ourown forces, and he will be incapable of employing his ownnumerical superiority.

For this purpose, even weak but mobile forces may beemployed. They may be specially formed units, patrols, orraiding parties. It is their mission to attack the enemy onall sides and to harass him during the night and in mistyweather, and in terrain in which observation is difficult, par-ticularly in wooded areas.As a breakthrough into enemy lines and close combat arevery difficult and costly, especially in deep snow or in ter-rain which cannot be reconnoitered easily, it is advanta-geous to isolate enemy forces by cutting their external com-munications. The enemy then must attack in order toextricate himself, and this action compels him to move intodeep snow from quarters which protect him from fire andcold.

Troops must frequently dig in rapidly, even in deep snowand hard ground, after they have advanced their attack topoints within range for machine-gun and rifle fire. Thusthey will have cover against fire and protection againstcold and will be able to install themselves adequately fordefensive action against counterthrusts. -If they lie aroundunprotected in open terrain for long periods, they willsuffer heavy casualties from enemy fire and the coldweather.Organizing for defense in frozen ground -or deep snowrequires much time and labor in order to construct obstaclesand prepare for the commitment of reserves along tracksleading into the probable operation areas (see fig. 2).Experience has proved that the main line of resistance must


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10 GERMAN WINTER WAIRFARE

be held as an uninterrupted line, particularly at night andin hazy weather, in order to prevent infiltration by the Rus-sians. It is necessary, however, to establish several strong-points. Active reconnlaissance and aggressive conduct ofoperations serve as protection against surprises. Theenemy who has broken through is repulsed by counterattackbefore he can gain a foothold. The Russian is.very fast atdigging into the snow.

Figure 2.-Prepared trails in a defensive position. (The strong-points are connected by communication trenches; strong reservesare held back for a thoroughly rehearsed counterattack on theprepared trails.)


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WINTER, MUD, AND THAW 11Valleys and ravines, which the Russians favor as ap-proaches, must be blocked with obstacles and must be

secured by adequate forces. Steep slopes must be utilizedas tank obstacles. Terrain which is impassable during thesummer months, swampland, and bodies of water lose theireffectiveness as obstacles in winter. This point must beespecially considered in laying out defensive positions atthe beginning of winter.Branches placed to obstruct * . Ski trails constantlythe outer trail in order to - - guarded by shuttlingdetermine f the eney uses -- security patrols

100 to 225 yds from 4

I Track to outpost Spotr to 5_~miles from Hq

\ , 4 iW

Patrols and messengers -A -may cross the outer trailonly on prescribed cross-trails. * ouble sentry post ieThe troops are alerted and an investigation heated tent or availableis made when new trails, suspected to be houseof enemCy origin, are discovered.Figure 3.-Circulor trail for the security of a winter position.

"--~~~~~~~~~~a w-


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12 GERMAN WINTER WARF'AB:Wide fronts and troops in rest camps are protected bystrongpoints or stationary patrols, as well as by a great

number of light mobile patrols (if possible, on skis).Around billets and bivouacs a circular trail is the mosteffective security measure (fig. 3). 86. MORALEa. General

The coming winter will again severely tax the spiritualstamina of the soldier. All suitable means commensuratewith the situation and combat conditions will be employedto bolster his inner resilience. The example of the soldier,especially the officer who has proved himself in all situa-tions, is a determining factor in maintaining the morale ofthe troops. Eagerness for action and good discipline mustbe maintained, especially behind the lines. Prerequisitesin assuring morale are consideration for the welfare oftroops, tolerable shelter, and adequate provisions. Winterequipment, lighting facilities, and fuel must be procured inadvance or substitutes provided. Important! Stimulatethe initiative of troops. Shows should be staged andsoldiers encouraged to participate in them. Intelligentorganization of spare time is the best means of preventinguseless brooding, rumor-mongering, and disciplinary of-fenses.The welfare of troops in the lines-has priority. Morale-building supplies for the front must actually reach the frontlines. There must be no pigeonholing in depots, railroadstations, headquarters, or orderly rooms. Checks againstdelay must be made continually. Commanders and head-


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WINTEII, MIUD, AND THAWV 13quarters must be in constant commlunication with fieldoffices of the Higlh Command of the Armed Forces.b. Recreational Aids

(1) Readinig material.-Do not leave newspapers lyingaround. Newspapers, bulletins, and magazines must reachthe front fast. There the soldier is waiting for recent news.Papers of occupied territories should be sent forwardbecause they do not have to be transported far. Frontpapers of field armies also serve the purpose of inculcatingcombat doctrine in troops.Exchange of library kits between battalions and regi-ments should be encouraged. Field library kits of the ArmyBook Service (Jleeresblicherei)are exclusively for front-line troops. Rear echelons and higher headquarters arenormally equipped with Rosenberg libraries.

''Information for Troops'' (Mitteilungei f1fr die Trlppe)continues to be distributed through the Army Postal Serv-ice (Feldpost) to divisions, two copies per unit. Reportimnmediately any failure to receive copies. This also appliesto "Information for the Officer Corps" (Mlitteilungen fiirdas Oflfzierkorps).

(2) Lectlure.s.-Important lectures by speakers from theHigh Command of the Armed Forces are possible only underquiet conditions and after long preparation. Lectures bymembers of units on general cultural subjects (history,geography, travel, economics, engineering, fine arts) havebeen successful even in small units. The units themselveshave good men for this purpose!

(3) Radio.-The Army radio receiving set has workedeven in winter on the Eastern Front. The further issue of


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14 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREsets and spare parts, on the basis of current production, isconfined to front-line troops and is carried out only throughhigher signal officers of signal regiments. Production anddistribution of additional sets and spare parts is beingstressed. Rear installations and welfare organizations areequipped with commercial receivers.(4) Movies.-Theaters are improvised behind the frontlines on the basis of experience. The increase of availablemachines, especially of the projector unit with direct-cur-rent generator for localities without power supply, is de-sirable. Pictures shown are coordinated by the divisionG-2 (Ic der Division).(5) Employment of "Strength through Joy" groups.-On the Eastern Front only tours by small acting troupes aireordinarily possible. Transportation and shelter must beconsidered. When constructing new motion-picture thea-ters, provide stage facilities for acting troupes. The stageswill also be used for official business (lectures, instruction,briefing, schools, etc.).It is important to employ "Strength through Joy" groups(KdF.-Grulppen) according to plan. Provide them withtransportation facilities, cooperate with them, pay atten-tion to their'welfare, and provide for their security inguerrilla territory.

(6) Competitions.-Competitions are particularly valu-able in all respects. New facilities have been provided forthe winter of 1942-43. Important activities in this field areinventions and improvements of arms and equipments.(7) Improvement of quarters.-The troops should beurged to improve their quarters by their own handiwork.Arts and crafts have a place in the construction of shelters.In view of the bare-minimum shelter conditions in the cast,


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WINTER, MUD, AND THAW 15this is particularly importalnt. Eneourage by competitionsthe improvement of quarters, moving-picture halls, theaters,kitchens, storerooms, stables, and gardens.(8) Organization of spare ticne.-In organizing sparetime, schools for choir leaders are particularly valuable.Train choir leaders for the units of divisions and regiments.Also encourage hobbies, crafts, and amateur theatrical per-formances by and for the troops. Occupational aid throughcorrespondence courses and civilian work groups is alsosuccessful. This kind of instruction has practical valuefor the future of the soldier.(9) Service centers.--Servicecenters should be especiallypromoted. Unattractive living conditions and the lack of"places to go" and restaurants on the Eastern Front mustbe remembered. The establishment of numerous servicecenters is necessary. At larger service centers a seniorhostess and several junior hostesses of the German RedCross (DRK) must be assigned.(10) Front convalescent camps.-These are successfulwithout exception. Convalescent camps behind front linesmeet an urgent need of troops. In large areas and broadfront sectors the establishment of small convalescent campsfor regiments has been successful.


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Section II. MARCHES ANDORIENTATION

7. MARCHESa. Reconnaissance

For every winter march, early and tlborough reconnais-sance is required. Road reconnaissance should furnish theanswers to the following questions:

(1) Whalt is the depth and type of snow (wet, crusted, etc.)?(2) flow is the subsoil of the roldbeil?(3) How wide is the avalilable road? Is it ratted? WhaVt is the con-

dition of its sholilders? Is the COnlsiiIc'tiioll of ia I: lfic ]illlln oreCpractical ?

(4) Where are the gradlellts. curvIes, illl nlarr s ctiols?(5) Where is there dallnger of avalallches anl of falling rocks?(d) What sectionsslre illmaillsshi! owing to ic lIlti sl owdrifts? How

Cllt they be relnd(eleI passaile? (Estimate thie ltlianpower, niterials, a adtime required.)

(7) Is there material ill the vicinity for strewing on icy roads to pro-vent skidding?

(S ) WhIlt possilfilities a trecre for detouring alroulld obstlacles andiI bladsections of roaid?

(9) Which sections permit two-way trlfflec? Where can by-passes beconstructed ?(10) What is the carrying capacity of bridges (consider that they may

have been weakened by drifting pack ice), and of the frozen surface ofbodies of water?

(11) Are the roads easily found at night and in fog? Are markersnecessary?

(12) Where are wind-protected resting places and facilities for shelter?(13) Where are the watering points?

1G6


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MARCHES AND ORIENTATION 17b. Preparation for Marches

Endurance in marching may be maintained and increasedby intensive preparations. The clothing and equipment ofeach man must be examined so that ill effects from the coldduring the marches may be avoided. Shaving in the morn-ing must be prohibited in severe cold weather. Ointmentsfor the prevention of frostbite must be issued. Marchrations must be ready for consumption, wrapped in paperand carried close to the body or in the trouser pockets.Warm rations in adequate quantities must be issued beforemarches. Warm drinks may be taken along for distributionen route. On marches through sparsely wooded terrain, itmay become necessary to take along fuel for bivouac fires.Weapons and weapon parts which are not to be used im-mediately (especially rifle bolts) must be protected withcovers against snow and moisture.Winter equipment of all vehicles must be examined.Towropes for hauling vehicles which bog down, as well asplanks and material to provide traction on icy roads, mustbe kept within easy reach. A sufficient number of assistantdrivers or escorts must be assigned to vehicles proceedingsingly on missions. In deep snow it is advisable to load onsleds or. other vehicles single motorcycles which are notequipped with snow runners.Calks intended to prevent horses from slipping mustbe examined. Spare calks and calk wrenches must be keptin readiness.All measures for clearing roads must be initiated well inadvance so that advance detachments can maintain theirdistance ahead of the mlain body. Men assigned to haulvehicles, as well as special towing details with traction


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18 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREmachinery or horses, must be incorporated in the marchcolumn or held in readiness at places where traction isdifficult. (For instruction in making trails and clearingroads, see pars. 10 and 11.) Reconnoitered roads must bemarked for the troops which are to use them (for direc-tions, see par. 9). To regulate passing and two-way traffic,by-passes must be prepared.c. March Discipline

Troops who are to be organized into a march columnshould be kept in motion during severe cold. Standingaround, especially in a biting wind, must be avoided. Har-nessing must be done at the last possible moment. Onthe other hand, the time allowed for the preparation ofmotor vehicles must be ample. Motors must be warmed upbefore the march is started.

At the beginning of the march the pace must be slow. Insevere cold and strong wE id it is advisable to cover longdistances at a slow pace, interrupted only by short reststops. It is recommended that short distances be coveredentirely without halts: Existing trails must be utilized; ifneed be, even relatively large formations must be marchedin file or in column of twos. In deep snow, severe cold, andstrong wind, the front ranks or those marching against thewind must be relieved frequently. Horsemen usually mustdismount and proceed on foot.

Regulations on wearing the uniform, or special measuresfor protection against cold, must be revised and adapted tofit local conditions. Rifles are carried slung so that the menmay warm their hands in their pockets. The most effectivemeasure against freezing is mutual observation for first


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MARCHES AND ORIENTATION 19signs of frostbite. Men riding in automobiles will be allowedapproximately one brief stop every hour for the purpose ofalighting and warming themselves. Drivers of open carsmust be relieved frequently.

In case of interruptions, the march column must halt atwide intervals. Special pushing details from all haltedvehicles must be sent forward to deal with cases of diffi-cult traction, if hauling details have not already beenassigned along the road. Special detachments equippedwith vehicles must be assigned to the rear of the column topick up exhausted men and horses, and motor vehicles thatbreak down.d. Halts and Rest Periods

Short halts of 5 to 10 minutes are the most effective.They afford the men necessary rest without exposing themtoo long to the cold. Squads must be sent ahead to recon-noiter and prepare rest areas. Their tasks are essentiallythe following:(1) Arrangement of facilities for arrival nnd departure.(2) Preparations for sheltering men, horses, vehicles, weapons, equip-

]nret, and slkis.() Cleaning arid warming existing shelter facilities.(4) Preparation (of hot drinks if field kitchens are not available.(5) Arrangements for inedicll-treatmient arells and for repair of auto-

lolbiles, skis, al/rd other elquiplllent.Areas protected from the wind are the most suitable for

resting places. Protection against the wind may be in-creased rapidly by constructing windbreaks made ofbranches or snow. Whether fires may be started for warm-ing the men depends upon the situation. For extended restperiods, simple tents must be pitched or snow caves dug.


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20 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREGuards must be detailed to wake up all the men, individually,at specified intervals to prevent them from freezing. (Fordetails of tent pitching and the construction of snow houses,see sec. V, "' 'inter ivouacs and Shelter," p. 57.)

Troops need warmer clothing while resting than whilemarching. Overcoats must be put on. Alen should alsodrape themselves with shelter halves or blankets. Duringlonger rest periods the changing of sweaty underwear mustbe enforced by specific orders and must be supervised. Ifpossible, warm rations and, above all, hot beverages must beissued. Alcoholic drinks are prohibited.Horses must be sheltered from the wind and placed closetogether for warmth. They must be warmly covered, theirblankets strapped to their bodies, and they should be beddeddown on fir boughs for protracted rests. Precautions mustbe taken when the horses are watered. The water shouldbe warmed, or hay should be placed in it to prevent thehdrses from drinking too fast.The proper temperature of motors and the water in theircooling systems must be maintained by all means. If therest is a long one, motors must be started several times tokeep them warm.8. ORIENTATION IN SNOW-COVERED TERRAINa. General

The appearance of a landscape is changed considerablywhen it is under a cover of snow. In the east the broadplains appear even more monotonous in winter than in sum-mer. Outstanding orientation points often are completelylacking. The nature of the terrain is also changed by snowand cold. New roads frequently come into existence, while


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IARCHES AND ORIENTATION 21others which are passable in summer become useless orvanish under snowdrifts. Road designations on maps aretherefore not dependable reference points in snow-coveredterrain. On the other hand, ridges, gorges, woods, in-habited localities, structures, and telephone lines becomemore prominent.Orientation in snow-covered terrain is made more difficultby unusual climatic conditions. Extreme cold, for example,affects the accuracy of the lensatic compass. Fog and snow-storms may make visibility negligible, even over short dis-tances, hence it is all the more important that the soldiermaintain his energy and attentiveness in order to be able toexploit all means of orientation. Experience and trainingplay a determining role. Theoretical instruction may sup-plement field training, but will never replace it.The use of existing trails must be undertaken with greatcare because they often lead in the wrong direction. Theymay have been made by the enemy for purposes of deceptionand may lead into an ambush. Snowstorms and snowdriftsquickly obliterate trails. On skis, bearings are very easilylost at the start of a march. Therefore, in terrain whereobservation is difficult, and in hazy weather, only one manshould start while the others observe his route.b. Fundamentals of Orientation

A fundamental principle for determining direction andlocation is the knowledge of one's own position. It is im-portant to check one's location repeatedly, even whilemarching. In fog or snowstorm, when the danger of losingone's direction is greatest, this may become necessary every100 meters (328 feet). A complete picture of the vicinityshould be obtained, after one's own position.has been fixed,


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22 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREby comparing the terrain with the map. The orientation ofthe map is accomplished by means of a lensatic type of com-pass, the stars, or conspicuous terrain features. Methodsof determining cardinal directions, the time of day, andtime factors for the distance to be covered are also necessaryfor orientation in the field.In place of a map, a road sketch may be employed as anauxiliary means of orientation. It should contain data oncardinal directions, distances, azimuths, and special terrainfeatures. Elevations and natural obstacles must be indi-cated. The drawing of road sketches and their use onmarches must be thoroughly practiced.The most important means of orientation is the lensaticcompass. Every unit marching independently and everyreconnaissance squad must, if possible, have several coin-passes of this type.c. Methods of Orientation

The method selected for getting oriented depends onvisibility. By day, of course, the most favorable conditionsusually prevail. The cardinal directions mav be determinedby the position of the sun. It indicates due east at 0600,due south at 1200, and due west at 1800 (valid for the armiesof the Eastern Front).If the sun is not visible, an idea of the cardinal directionsmay be deduced from the fact that in snow-covered terrainthe lee side of trees, poles, and sheds is grown over withmoss and lichen. In European countries the weather sideusually is toward the west, but in Russia it may also be inother directions. (Do not lely entirely on this phenlomlenon,but orient yourself as soon as possible by means of a com-pass.) In winter there generally is more snow on the


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MARCHES AND ORIENTATION 23weather side. However, if the weather side does not indi-cate a cardinal point of the compass beyond doubt, it never-theless is useful for reference in relationship to the direc-tion of march. Similarly the parallel formation of snow-drifts on great plains, and of the courses of ridges andstreams, is also useful. In taking bearings, note the anglewhich the line of march makes with the general trend ofthese terrain features. Then, during the march, maintaindirection by keeping the features always in the same rela-tive position.

Figure 4.-Shadow-casting as an aid in following a weak trail.Direction may also be determined by one's own shadow,but the changing position of the sun must be taken into conl-sideration. In diffused light, shadows are weak and it isadvisable to observe them closely. In such light a poorlydefined snow trail will be difficult to follow but it can bemade easier by casting a shadow on it constantly. Oneman, pulling a small sled, walks on the edge of the trail,

on the side from which shadows fall. His shadow, weakthough it may be, will bring out in relief the slight depres-


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24 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREsion in the snow on the trail. It is necessary for anotherman to walk on the trail about 6 feet behind the shadow.This man will keep watching for the outline of the trackand will give directions which will keep the shadow of thefirst man constantly on it (see fig. 4).

A cloudy sky, during periods of clear visibility, reflectsthe color of the terrain over considerable distances. Theclouds over snow-covered ground are bright; over a pineforest or open water they are dark.By night in clear weather, cardinal and march directionsare fixed by the North Star and by a knowledge of the posi-tion of the moon and such a prominent constellation asOrion.At night, also, ground lights are perceptible over consid-erable distances and may be useful for orientation (automo-bile headlights, burning villages, muzzle flashes, flashlights,etc.).Fog reduces visibility. Therefore, the other senses mustbe applied all the more intensely, especially the sense ofhearing. Sound travels very far over snow-covered terrain,frozen ground, and vast lonely areas. For better hearing,it is advisable to halt frequently and listen, to wear the fieldcap instead of the steel helmet, and (if the temperature per-mits) to uncover the cars temporarily. The terrain must bestudied carefully when relying on sound for orientation inorder to determine whether the sound is heard directly or isan echo from the edge of a forest, slope, or wall of a house.The sense of smell serves as an additional aid in case offog. The wind disperses odors over large areas. Thus, forexample, newly cut timber, a factory, or a stable may beidentified by their characteristic odors at a considerabledistance. A dog's sense of smell may be successfully used


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MARCHES AND ORIENTATION 25(to stay on trails and to detect habitations and fires). Asnowstorm almost completely eliminates perception bysmell. The lensatic type of compass, therefore, must alwaysbe used in fogs and snowstorms. The wind sometimes fur-nislles assistance. When there is a steady wind, its pres-sure on the face can be useful in following a prescribeddirection.d. Controlling March Direction

Experience proves that where observation is difficult (forinstance, in extensive wooded areas), it is necessary toemploy special measures for controlling the direction ofiarch. The leader of the unit or patrol is responsible fororientation. Under difficult conditions he may require thehelp of several men. One man will make checks with alensatic compass, another will use a map and watch, andIwo illen will count paces. If additional men are detailedfor marking the route, they may be organized to form adirection squad (Finnish method) under a special leader.The length and time factors of the distance covered mustbe carefully checked. Guessing always results in errors.Exact knowledge of the length of one's own pace is neces-sary. At night and during snowstorms, measurementstaken with a string or a length of old telephone wire aremore accurate. The distance covered, the time required,azimuths, and similar data are best recorded on a roadsketch, or in a march table as shown in figure 5. This pro-cedure must be carefully practiced by patrols and raidingparties.

In case orientation is impossible as a result of an encoun-ter with the enemy, it must be determined latbr by allavailable means. If this proves impossible because of


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26 GERMAN WINTER WARFARE

4~~

R @t i K K

o~ E ; :

;+~~~~~~~~~~~d4 . c' |Ri2

.X~,~ . I_| -v~

x

4 oQ. ^. | ^ew

'v . --W


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MARCHES AND ORIENTATION 27nightfall, it may, in particularly uncertain situations, benecessary to stop marching and await daybreak. If thenight must be spent alongside the road, the point lastmarked at nightfall must be noted so that it may be locatedwith certainty in the morning. During a heavy fog, itmay be avisable to wait on a known road until it lifts ratherthan to proceed into unknown terrain. An effort shouldbe made, so far as the situation and terrain permit, tomaintain the straightest possible direction. After detour-ing around obstacles, the original direction must be re-sumed.e. Conduct When Lost

When one is lost, calm and composure are necessaryabove all. Hlasty and ill-considered searches generallylead to no result and increase the possibility of accidentsand exhaustion. It is therefore best to think over the situ-ation calmly, to retrace mentally the route already cov-ered, and to recall occurrences during the march. Menalready exhausted must be left behind under guard in a pro-tected spot while the leader and selected men search forthe right way. Anyone who is not participating in thesearch is not permitted to leave his place.If the way back cannot be found, it must be decidedwhether a continuation of the march will serve any pur-pose-whether, within a reasonable distance, it will leadto identifiable terrain such as roads, railroads, or a rivervalley, which will further aid orientation. If, however,even such an effort proves futile, it is advisable to awaita change of weather which will make orientation possible.Cover against the wind must then be sought, and stepstaken to ensure security and protection against freezing.


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Section III. ROADS

9. ROAD MARKINGIn winter, snowfalls and snowdrifts frequently make

roads unrecognizable. Therefore, careful road marking isessential. If possible, through roads must be uniformlymarked prior to the first snowfall. Road designations mustbe known to troops who will use the routes. The removalof markers and the use of them as firewood is sabotage.Permanent routes should be designated by durable markers.In open country, poles, about 8 feet high, with directionmarkers, "snow men" (Schlneevminner), wisps of straw,brushwood, cairns, and flags serve the purpose best. Snowmarkers may be rendered even more visible by stainingthem (for instance, with urine or coffee grounds; yellow isthe most conspicuous color).

In areas where heavy snowfalls, fog, and other condi-tions make it difficult to recognize terrain features, numer-

Figure 6.-Snow-man type of road marker.28


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1ROA.DS 29ous road markers are necessary. Orientation is facilitatedif the markers are numbered in the direction of march, andif they are placed at equal distances from each other.''Snow men" have proved to be especially effective. Theyare constructed of small blocks of snow, 39 to 47 inches tall,with an opening at a height of about 31 inches in the direc-tion of march. In the opening is placed a very thin paneof ice, through which refracted rays of light can be seenover relatively great distances even when visibility is poor(see fig. 6).Road markers must be erected at least 3 feet off the trailin order to avoid damage to them by traffic. In woodedterrain, tree trunks are marked with placards or paint;branches are bent; boards, paper, or cloth remnants arefastened to trees. If complete road marking is impossible,arrow signposts must be erected at prominent points to in-dicate the direction of march and distance to the objective.For shorter distances, direction arrows will be sufficient.Road markers which have been in use for long periodsmust be watched, because the enemny may move them. Ifroutes are changed, the distances indicated on the markersmust be revised.

Simple marks in the snow (for instance, three impres-sions made close to each other with the ring of a ski pole),snow men, and similar signs are adequate for the markingof temporary roads, such as those used by patrols. Ifstrange trails cross the route, they must be obliteratedwithin the immediate' vicinity of our own tracks so thatthe troops will not go astray. It is frequently advisableto leave guards at such points in order to keep units on theproper route.


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30 GERMAN WINTER WARIIAIE1310. ROAD MAKINGa. GeneralThe construction of roads in winter is not the specialtask of the engineers but is the duty of all troops and armsof the service. In snowy terrain it is frequently easierto construct new roads at favorable locations (for instance,to by-pass defiles) and to maintain them than to clear ex-isting roads. It also will be necessary to cut new cross-country roads frequently (for evading marches, bringingheavy weapons into position, etc.). Roads in snow-covered,pathless terrain are cut by small trail details which speedahead on skis to mark the route and by larger road-con-struction detachllents on foot. In winter warfare the for-mation, equipment, and training of trail details and road-construction detachments are indispensable in all units.

In establishing routes for tactical and technical pur-poses the following types of terrain and approaches aremost suitable: flat country, plateaus, sparsely wooded land,forest paths protected from the wind, frozen rivers, lakes,swamps, and existing field paths. Across open country,trails should be laid preferably along telegraph lines, fences,and similar installations. Terrain which is exposed tosnowdrifts is less suitable. Therefore, routes should beestablished from 100 to 150 meters (328 to 492 feet) fromthe edges of woods, and in clearings at the narrowestpoints. Heavily wooded terrain is difficult and should beby-passed whenever possible. This also applies to insuffi-ciently frozen swamps, patches of melting ice, snow-filledhollows, deep ravines, gorges, defiles, and steep slopes.Obstacles around which snowdrifts may form (for in-

stance, farm buildings, piles of stones, and brushwood)


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ROADS 31must be removed or by-passed at a distance equal to 10times their height. On inclines steeper than 10 percentit is necessary to cut the trail in serpentine fashion, obliqueto the slope. Curves must be made as wide as possible,because sharp curves are more difficult for sleds than forwheeled vehicles.When trails are being reconnoitered and plotted, thequestion whether the roadway is to be a one-lane or a two-lane artery must be considered. At first only a one-lanesection is constructed. (The standard width of sleds is ap-proximately 9 feet 10 inches.) By-passes wide enough fortwo sleds are later added; they should be at least 15 meters(about 49 feet) long. Finally the road may be enlargedto make a two-lane artery. A double lane is preferableto two separate lanes because the latter are less efficient incase of traffic janms and snowdrifts.b. Methods

The method of making roads depends upon the type oftraffic the roads will have to bear, upon the depth of thesnow, and the equipment available. Ski- trails cut by atrail detail will suffice for small ski detachments which useonly man-hauled sleds. Larger units with animal-drawnsleds and wheeled vehicles will require a road-constructiondetachment. Trail details must start about 1 hour aheadof a marching colunlt. Road-construction detachmentsneed a start of several hours, depending upon the length ofthe road to be cut.A trail detail usually is composed of one noncommis-sioned officer and 6 to 12 men on skis. Several trail de-tails form a trail troop. It is advisable to attach rulers toski poles for measuring the depth of snow. The trail detail


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32 GERMAN WINTER WVARFARElays several ski trails to facilitate the movement of thefollowing unit. If possible, it removes minor obstacles anderects simple road markers. In case the unit uses maln-hauled sleds, two men of the trail detail ski behind eachother in such a manner that the rear man uses only one skitrack of the front man in order to cut a third track, thusmaking a trail for the sleds (see fig. 7).

Light sleds loaded only with shovels and picks travel atthe head of the column. They are followed by others whichdrag coniferous trees or logs. Next in the column come

I-- - s- a Tin s

Figure 7.-Functions of the trail detail. ((I) The leading pair cutsthe first track; (2) he second pair clears the curves; (3) he squadleader maintains the direction of march; (4) this pair removesobstacles; (5) these men cut a third track (triple ski trail) forlight sleds; (6) this pair levels the trail; (7) these men postroad signs and improve the sled trail.)


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ROADS 33Designation Stren ith Miit tsit Equipmett

Under cOila nd of all exper- Compass, wire-ctters, ice-ienced Offcer, the detail drill, crou-hwr, ie measur-Trailr 1 I, ots the trail, straightens ing stick. 2 axes. markingO ing detail C EMi curves ald grades rolgh equipment, skis.

s,,kis spots, einoves sllall obsta-O O rle sch, as branches, andO 0 marks the route.

e JaIcks down srow on trail. re- 1 or 2 LMG., aind portableo o orail-as- moves obstacles and cuts entrenching tools. Othero o o inggroup 2 NCO's, way obstructing brush- eqtipnlent is loaded on0 0 0 without IS EM wood and trees, strengthens sleds.0 0 o skis weak sections of trail, re-0o o lieves trail-blazing detail.

4 shovels. 2 axes. 4 pick-I.ightly 2 EhM, Cuts the first sled traeck. I crowbar, 1 saw, de-loaded 2 horses nolitions naterial, I ice-sled drill, instruments for meas-Ilring ce capacity.

6 shovels, 8 axes, 6 pick-Heavily 2 or 3 )eesens arll solidifies the sled axes, 3 crowbars, 3 saws,loaded E1M, 2 track. I pair of wire-cutters, 4sled hoiers Finnish hoes, 1 hammer,1 pair of pliers, demolitions

material, construction nsa-

' iled with I NCO. Clears snow frora foot ,d I axe, 1 pickaxe, I snowled wth I NCO. Cl .r.. ftoil.. ftld et,, I I pickto, I ovt ee I EM, vehicular trails. shovel, 5 t-ee hooks ortknks 2bosses .lia..s.

Sled with 2 EM, Clarft a-axe picktxc, Isnowlittee 2 horses vehicular trais. shovel, 5 tree hook or

Figure 8.-Organization and disposition of a road-makingdetachment.


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34 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREanimal-drawn sleds to cut a roadway and pack it down.Supply sleds and wheeled vehicles form the rear. The effectof this sequence of sleds with varying loads is to produce aroad for the main body of the unit. (For details, see fig. 8.)The men in the march column pack the snow solid and re-move obstacles. If the snow is deep, skiers are sent aheadof foot troops. MTen and draught animals at the head of thecolumn must be relieved frequently.

Horse plow Advance plow Widening plow Side plow

1 ydS 100 -yds100 yds 100 Y 100 yds

Figure 9.-Sequence of snow plows for clearing roads.Since newly cut roads are soon damaged at many points

by large bodies of marching men, it is advisable to assign aroad-construction detachment to the head of each columnfor the purpose of makihg repairs. The detachment is gen-erally composed of a reinforced platoon under the commandof a commissioned officer.Snow about 20 inches deep can be cleared with snowplows. For this purpose, the following types are used insequence: horse plows, advance plows, widening plows, andside plows (fig. 9). The horse plow is not drawn but ispushed by horses. A strong detachment of men mustalways be allotted to each plow section. They must be


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ROADS 35equipped with shovels, axes, and pickaxes for the removal.of obstacles. An improvised snow plow is shown in fig-ure 10.

2 3

SECTION

Angl iron, withpoint formed toring

PLAN

Figure 10.-Improvised snow plow.


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36 GERMAN WINTER WARFARERoads with 20 inches or more of snow which will be used

by heavy traffic can be packed solid with snow-rollers. Therollers are preferable to snow plows because they do notcreate earth banks at the roadside. (Rollers are not in-cluded in tables of basic allowances. It is desirable to havethem made by construction troops for issuance to combattroops. A suggested improvised type is shown in fig. 11.)

Figure 11.-Improvised snow roller.Another method of hardening roads is to freeze them. Thismethod was very successful in Finland and northern Russiaand depends upon the availability of water. Only sleds withwooden water tanks are required. The tanks must haveseveral openings on the bottom, at the rear, for sprayingthe water. To prevent the freezing of the water while it isbeing transported, the tanks must be heated with hot stonesor by other means.


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ROADS 3711. WINTER ROAD SERVICEa. GeneralContinuous and safe travel on all thoroughfares of mili-tary importance must be assured in the winter as well as inother seasons.

Various types of vehicles can negotiate, on level ground,the depths of snow listed below:Horse-drawn vehicles ........................................ 12 inches.Commercial-type passenger cars .............................. 8 inches.Commercial-type trucks ...................................... 12 inches.Cross-country-type passenger cars with chains ................. 14 inches.Cross-country type trucks with chains ........................ 16 inches.Prime movers and tanks (for instance, an 8-ton prime mover

with a trailed gun) ......................................... 22 inches.Icy roads, especially on grades, can hardly be used with-

out special maintenance. Roads must be cleared after everysnowfall, and icy surfaces must be sanded. This procedurerequires special road service in winter, and such service isthe duty of all troops. Natives with horse teams, prisonersof war, and, especially, municipal road services, will be usedas auxiliary forces as much as possible. (For this reason,it is often advisable, in regions with many settlements likethe Ukraine, to use roads which lead through the villages.)Regulating and supervising traffic is an essential part ofthe winter road service, which should be linked with theexisting communication net. In case of a block system oftraffic, communications must be installed between blockpoints. Every individual using the road, especially thedrivers of motor vehicles, must, for the common good,adhere to strict road discipline, observe all traffic signs,obey all orders which may be issued, and help in a comradelymanner in case of traffic jams and accidents.


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38 GERMAN WINTER WARFAFAREb. Preparations

With the beginning of cold weather, a winter road servicemust be started on all important roads and paths. Postsfor road guards must be established along the road, andcommunication between the posts and headquarters must beprovided.The road guards reconnoiter certain sections of the roadbefore the first snowfall, and after the beginning of freezingweather and snow, they travel over these sections and checktheir condition. They report immediately the depth ofsnowfalls, snowdrifts, and icy surfaces.A simplified system for reporting road conditions, whichwas used successfully by an army group in the cast duringthe winter of 1941-42, is given below:

(1) Weather conditions on the road.-Free of snow 11111ce .................................... 0Muddly ..................................... ... 1Slush of snow or ice .................................... 2Slippery ........................................ 3IHard snow crust ........................................ 4Soft during the day, frozen iat night ...................... 5In the process of drying ................................. 6Dry ................... ..................... 7Snowdrifts ........................................ 8

(2) State of repair.-No repairs in progress at the moment .................... 0Work illnprogress on roall ................................ 1Single-lhie 1old ......................................... 2Single-lane road with by-passes . .......................... 3Double-lanle roat ........................................ 4

(3) Capacity of roads.-For vehicles of all kinds ................................. 0For trucks up to 3-ton capacity ............................ 1


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ROADS 39For trucks up to 1.%-ton capacity and for tnnks ........... 2For tilanls anll animal-drawn vehicles only ................. 3For one-horse sleds only ................................ 4For pack animals only .................................. 5Closed to all vehicles and for all purposes ................. 6

For example, if in a reconnaissance report the conditionof tile thoroughfare was reported as 433, it would be inter-preted as follows: the street is covered with a hard snowcrust, has a single lane with by-passes, and is suitable fortanks and animal-drawn vehicles.

Figure 12.-St. Andrew's cross used .to mark by-passes.All personnel and auxiliary forces available in billets

along the road, including reliefs and reserves, must beequipped and organized with foresight. Proper equipmentmust be furnished them. The equipment should consist ofweatherproof clothing, good footgear, nmittens, knitted woolcaps, snow goggles, wide shovels, spades, pickaxes, andpicks. The road must be cleared of everything that mightimpede traffic.

Shortly before the first frost sets in, the surface of softroads is made even by the use of graders, agricultural


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40 GERMAN WINTER WARFAREequipment, and heavy harrows. Later snow-clearing workis considerably facilitated by these measures.

Markers are placed at the edge of the road, on both sidesif possible. They are attached to milestones, to trees, andto fence rails at points where material for road constructionis stocked, and are also put up at passages and obstacles ofall kinds. By-passes are especially marked by St. Andrew'scrosses (schrdge Kreuze) (see fig. 12). Snow fences andantiskid material are stored alongside the road.c. Clearing Roads

Troops will use all available equipment-shovels, rollers,and horse-drawn, motorized, and centrifugal plows-forclearing roads. (AMotor-equipped snow-clearing troops areusually army troops.) After a h6avy snowfall, a mass em-ployment of manpower is always required. Clearing mustbe started immediately after the first snowfalls and mustbe repeated continually. Waiting makes 'the work moredifficult.If possible, the road must be cleared down to its surface.If some snow is to be left for sled traffic, only a depth of1 to 4 inches is needed. It is desirable, for the protection ofroad surfaces, to retain a firm snow cover on the central and'northern fronts until the end of freezing'weather.Snow cleared from roads must be widely scattered awayfrom road ditches. It must not be piled up, as piling wouldcause new snowdrifts (heavy work done once is worthwhile).Deep-rutted snow which has been hardened by traffic orfreezing and has an uneven surface can be leveled with agri-cultural plows and heavy harrows. Loose snow is packedinto the ruts. Melting snow must be drained far off to theside, and mud must be removed. All traffic signs, especially


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RIOA&DS 41warnings at railroad crossings, must be shoveled clear andchecked continuously.d. Snow Fences

Snow fences of two types have proved effective in pre-venting snowdrifts on roads. When an "accumulationfence" (Ablagerungszaun) is used, snow piles up on eitherside of it. "Guide fences" (Leitzadune) cause the snowto be swept by the wind at an oblique angle to the road anddeposited at a distance from the thoroughfare where it willnot interfere with traffic (see fig. 13).Snow-fence protection where the prevailing wind blowsapproximately parallel to the axis of the road is shown infigure 13 (7) and (8). All fences must be set at an angleof 25 to 30 degrees to the axis of the prevailing wind, andthey must be erected 65 to 80 feet from the edges of the road.Additional fences must be erected 100 to 130 feet from theedges.Snow fences are made of poles and slats in sections 3 to 7feet square. Rigid or flexible sections may be made anderected (fig. 14).. They must be prepared in advance anderected before the first snowfall (often even before thefrosts begin). Fences must be used where the natural con-tours of the terrain may cause snowdrifts. They should beerected at a distance from the edge of the road which is10 to 20 times the height of the fence. They must be verticaland, if possible, at right angles to the prevailing directionof wind. Natives must be asked for information on windconditions and drift spots. If wood is lacking, timber fencesmay be replaced by snow walls made of snow blocks. Theserequire constant repair, but they have proved their useful-ness in sparsely wooded regions, such as the Ukraine.


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42 GERMAN WINTER WABIFAIIE

Weather side Lee side

A road which Is on a level with the surrounding area() generally remains free of snowdrifts.

A Snow banks left by snow plows create suction andpressure, which will cause snow to pile on theroad again; Snow banks must be leveled promptly.

@ A road with a gently sloped profile remainsgenerally free of snow.

Pressure and suction develop on a road with amoderate slope and it will eventually getblocked with snow. Protective drift fencesare necessary.

Figure

German Winter Warfare

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