GeoSpace 2012

Annual Geo-ICT Journal of GES Volume - 1, 2012

ISSN 2091-198X

Team GeoSpace 2012

Editor-in-ChiefMr. Shital Upamanyu Dhakal

EditorsMr. Bishrant AdhikariMr. Ganesh Prasad SigdtelMs. Florencia Matina TuladharMs. Laxmi Thapa

MarketingMr. Niroj KarmacharyaMr. Shivajee KCMr. Surendra Pokharel

TechnicalMr. Amrit KarmacharyaMr. Bikesh TwanabasuMr. Dinesh LamichhaneMr. Dinesh Shrestha

GeoSpaceAnnual Geo-ICT Journal of GES

Volume - 1, 2012

Geomatic Engineering Society (GES)Kathmandu University,Department of Civil and Geomatics EngineeringLand Management Training CentreDhulikhel, KavreEmail : [email protected] right © : GESISSN 2091-198X

Published by :

GeoSpaceAnnual Geo-ICT Journal of GES

Nothing defines this Journal more eloquently than its title‘GeoSpace’. Every word written in it by the professional and studentsof Geo-information domain narrates their individual journey toresearch, aspirations, progress, and achievements. Within the pagesof this magazine are the cherished collection of knowledge, wisdomand intelligence, hand-picked by a successful batch that commencedwith a newborn hope of producing Geomatics engineers to solvethe ongoing demand for spatial problems and solutions.

‘Geomatics’ is in its path from being ‘brand-new’ to a ‘new’ domainin the country. Full-fledged geo-problems are evolving and are alsobeing addressed using corresponding techniques and scientific know-how. Geo-spatial industry is in its phase of expansion and as faras the academia is concerned, the fresh second batch of GeomaticsEngineering is almost ready to test their potential in the marketinside the border and abroad. Thus, realizing the need fordocumentation of our knowledge and experiences, we have created‘GeoSpace.’

Primarily, this journal shall serve two purposes: first, increase awarenessabout the ‘Geo-Information’ and scope of ‘Geomatics Engineering’.Secondly, it shall act as knowledge sharing platform between thestudents, specialist and professionals related. We genuinely hopethat GeoSpace bridges the existing gap between end users ofgeospatial data effectively.

‘Strike a flint and it flashes out sparks of fire! Gentle stroking andthere is nothing to admire.’ Precious stones may sparkle and dazzle,yet it is the ubiquitous greystone covered with dust that ignited thehuman civilization. This is the similarity between the vain soul anda persevering mind. The attitude of the latter is prerequisite tosucceed. To succeed, one does not require the qualities of a gemstonebut rather the perseverance of a flint. By publishing this first issue,we have ignited the sparkles of fires, we have set on a journey thatcan only be defined by the pace and eminence of the travel, neverby its destination. We shall reserve the future days for apprasingthe efforts we have presently made. We thank our well-wishers,Seniors from batch 2007, writers and financial contributors for yourassistance.

Editorial

Message

KATHMANDU UNIVERSITYDhulikhel.PO Box 6250, Kathmandu Nepal

Tel : (011)661399, Fax : 977-1-5533543, 977-11-661443 E-mail : info @ku.edu.np

Dear Reader,

Geomatics Engineering is an interdisciplinary subject. This includesGIS, Survey, Remote Sensing, Photo-grammetry, Cartography, ComputerScience and other relevant subjects. Its study allows for an integratedapproach to acquire, anlyze and administer geo-informationforsustainable develpment.

The field of Geomatics is still in its state of infancy in Nepal's context.To maximize the benefit of this field, there is a need to continue itsactivities. To promote these activites the students of GeomaticsEngineering of Kathmandu University have been, from time to time,organizing programs through the Geomatics Engineering Society (GES)In addition to this GES is attempting to publish its first journal focusedon the domain of Geo-information. I am happy to announce thepublication of GeoSpace.

I am confident that by this very first issue, the GI community will bebenefitted at large by the sharing of scientific and professional articles.I also look forward to future issues of the journal. I believe that thiseffort will boost networking among the students and professionals.I extend my hearty congratulations to GES for bringing the GeoSpace.I wish them all the best for continued endeavor.

Prof. Dr. Suresh Raj SharmaVice Chancellor

Kathmandu Universtiy

Message

It has been very difficult to trace the dynamics of Geo-information(GI) technology. Partnership, Co-operation and sharing have been themainstay for rapid development in the filed of GI science. Keepingthis aspect in point of view, I would like to express my best wishes Ibelieve, that this publication will assist to further boost up GI activitiesin Nepal. This journal, which has arisen from the pool of knowledgeof GI veterans will ultimately help to enhance the sight of the readerswho have keen interest on the GI discipline. I would like to expressmy sincere gratitude for the effort applied to materialize the publicationwork in terms of this journal.

Thank you,

Government of Nepal

Ministry of Land Reform and ManagementLand Management Tranining Centre

Dhulikhel Kavre

Tel No : 011-66455Fax No : 011-662078

Date : 2069/01/22

Ref No : 068/069Dep No :-

Nagendra JhaThe Executive Director

SN. Aritcles Authors Page No.

1 GIS In Age of Internet Abhash Joshi 1-2

2 Shaping the Future GeospatialInformation Through GeomaticsEngineers

Baburam Acharya 3-6

3 Need for Land Information System inNepal

Bishrant Adhikari 7-7

4 Impact of GIS on OrganizationalPerformance

Nab Raj Subedi 8-13

5 Study of the Ocean Mesosacle FeaturesUsing Sea Surface Temperature (SST):A case Study of Gulf Stream

Nawaraj Shrestha 14-16

6 Planetary Mapping Punya Prashad Oli 17-20

7 An Approach to Improve InstructionalMethod of Training

Rabin K. Sharma 21-25

8 Dissecting Web Coverage Service (WCS)and its Clients

Shashish Maharjan 26-30

9 Land Cover Change and UrbanSettlement Extraction in KathmanduValley using Remote Sensing: AProposition

Shital Dhakal 31-33

10 Methodology for Assessing the Role ofLand Tenure in HydropowerDevelopment

Subash Ghimire 34-39

11 Prefeasibility Study of Mini-Hydropower at Eastern Part ofSagarmatha Region

Abhishek Manadhar,Prashant Ghimire, NishchalAryal, Prof. Dr. RameshKumar Maskey, AnthonyCarvalho

40-42

Contents

GeoSpace , Journal of Geomatics Engineering Society, Kathmandu University. 2012 : Vol-1.

1

GIS In Age of InternetAbhash JoshiWeb GIS DeveloperSoyan Mega Soft Pvt. [email protected]

In year 1854 central London was hit by massivecholera outbreak which has killed more than 120people in three days. The officials were unable tofind out its cause, thus unable to control theepidemic. Then Dr. John Snow depicted its source,a contaminated water pump by plotting location ofthe death and water pump in map, thus helping toend the disease. Many believe this was earliest useof GIS analysis. However maps have been used forcenturies for sharing geographic information andunderstanding pattern between human and nature.The development of the computer hardware andsoftware technologies accounts for the developmenttrue Geographic Information System and now ithas become an integral part of the informationinfrastructure in many organizations. The adventof web based GIS is major new trend in evolutionof GIS. Developments of wired and wirelesscommunication technologies and media in past fewyears have revolutionized the way our mappingand analysis activities function.

Wikipedia has defined Web GIS as the process ofdesigning, implementing, generating and deliveringmap on the World Wide Web. In this chapterWebGIS, web mapping, distributed GIS and cloudcomputing are used synonymously to define serverbased mapping and analysis technique though thereactual meaning is not exactly same. The basic ideaof this system is data is stored in database server.The data is processed and converted to desiredinformation in mapserver which are then accessedby the clients. These heterogeneous and distributedsystems are connected by communicationtechnology such as Internet, Intranet,WAN or LAN.Different commercial and open source technologyare developing in WebGIS field. Open source webmapping technologies such are Geoserver,Mapserver, Openlayer, Scalable Vector Graphics etcare developed by communities and can be used forfree. It is being developed rapidly with theinvolvement of large number of people. But theyhave poor documentation. Commercial vendors arealso focusing more on developing web basedtechnologies. Erdas Apollo servers, ArcGIS server,Smart Client, Geomedia etc are few examples ofcommercial technologies. Commercial technologieshave more functionality, easy to use, have lessbugs and more documentation but the price forthem is high. Databases are also becoming moreGIS friendly these days. Postgresql/Postgis andOracle not only support spatial data but also provide

basic GIS functionalities. Public API of Google maps,Yahoo maps, Bing maps and MapQuest have alsomade web mapping piece of a cake. Developmentof additional complex GIS function in addition todata dissemination is also possible in recent dayswith development of technology like AJAX.Web GIS has demonstrated stellar performanceever since its inception. The user and applicationhave grown at incredibly rapid rate. Web map hasincreased public demand and awareness for themap. The evolution leads GIS away from databrowsing, analyzing and managing for individualdecision making, more towards group participationand communicating on social decision issues. Itscapability to combine data from different sourceand create, query, update and delete data has madeit a robust system. It opens the possibility of realtime mapping, more frequent map update andcheaper data sharing. Since we do not needsophisticated hardware and software also cost ofthe GIS is dramatically reduced in web basedsystem. Web mapping also enables collaborativemapping. Since data can be acquired from distributedusers data update is very efficient. Open street mapand google earth, Ushahidi project of Africa are itsexamples. Excellent application can be made byintegrating Management Information System (MIS)and GIS which enable better decision making.National Informatics Center India is very goodexample where this technology is well functioning.Google earth and World Wind developed by NASAare virtual globe and provide high interaction. Theyare good source of data and can be used to studyour environment.

In Nepal few organizations including ICIMOD, LandUse Mapping Project, Survey Department etc talready using web mapping. In Nepal it can befurther applied on real estate business, foremergency management, security agencies,environment department, meteorology andhydrology department, Tourism department, ForestDeprtment, Central Bureau of Statistics, Departmentof Land Information and Archive (DOLIA) amongothers. For instance DOLIA can develop LIS tomanage its spatial and aspatial data. DOLIA hasgenerated large volume of Cadastre and Landregistration data. Now DOLIA need to manage,update and disseminate this data. The only solutionis developing a distributed GIS network. They canstore the data securely in central server. The datacan be accessed and updated by survey office and


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land revenue office but only of their jurisdiction.Technology is available which allow transaction totake place offline also and database on centralserver is updated whenever the connection isavailable. This functionality has special benefit incountries like Nepal where steady connection arenot available. View only access of the data can alsobe easily given to unlimited number of users. Thiswill make the system more transparent.

While WebGIS is gaining popularity some importantissues such as Interoperability, Speed and Datasecurity should be considered. Sharing andinteroperability of heterogeneous spatial data oncomplex web based system become a challenge.The emergence of Web Services provides a newWebGIS framework for dealing with this issue. WebServices can package data, message and behaviorbased on unified standards, without consideringthe specific application environment. The Open GISConsortium (OGC) defines the standard servicesaimed to solve the problem of heterogeneity at thespatial data modeling level. OGC is an associationlooking to define a set of requirements, standardsand specif ications that wil l support GISinteroperability. The objective is technology thatwill enable an application developer to use anygeodata and any geoprocessing function or processavailable on ‘the net’ within a single environmentand a single workflow. OGC is also successful to

facilitate data sharing and increase interoperabilityamong automated geospatial information systems.The disadvantages like long transmission times andnon-uniform user interfaces can be overcome bymore efficient code and a better bandwidth of theNet. Map Tiling and Image pyramid strategies arealso solution of the slow response of web basedmapping technology. ECWP protocol developed byIntergraph provides the fastest image delivery onweb. Image seeding is even faster than manydesktop based systems using this protocol. Someorganizations are reluctant to use this systembecause of lack of policy and data security issueswhich needs to be solved.

The development of the internet technology isredefining the collection management anddissemination of spatial information. Making GISapplications available through the World Wide Webwill lead to an enormous increase of the usage andaccessibility of spatial data. This new internetcomputing environment is bringing GIS out of specialniche into broader information technology marketand thus this technology has enormous potentialsand possibilities. The demand for web based GIsystem is going to increase worldwide in near future.Nepal need to develop clear data sharing policy,good communication network and sound manpowerto take advantage of this technology.

Survey DepartmentGeodetic Survey Branch

Minbhawan, Baneshwor, Kathmandu, Tel : 4622547, 4622314

Description

w 1st Order Trig Point

w 2nd Order Trig Points

w 3rd Order Trig Points

w 4 th Order Trig Points

w 1st & 2 nd Order Bench Marks

w 3rd Order Bench Marks

w Gravity points

Prices Per Point (In Rs)

3000.002500.001500.00250.001000.00250.001000.00

w The geodetic data produced by this branch can be applied to different engineering works.The geodetic data are available on official request with voucher of Nepal Rastra Bank9A/C No 1-1-12-25) against the payment of listed below

w In addition to provide the geodetic data this branch also provides instruments on hirefor control survey in different surveying and maping activities. For detail instrument hirerates, contact the office.

Price list of Gedetic Data

Available services


3

IntroductionNepal is in dire need of infrastructure developmentfor sustainable socio-economic and environmentaldevelopment. This obligation must be guided bynational policies well backed by accurate & reliablegeo-spatial information which solely depends onGeomatics. In Nepal, the sensible use of geo-spatialinformation in development processes has not beenemerged. Therefore this is the opportunity topersuade geomatics engineers to make comprehendthe state, business communities, producers andusers in shaping future geo-information towardssustainable development perspective. And for it,concerning all geo-communities including geo-spatial world forum, universities and UN communitieshave to take lively initiation. This is the age ofinformation, so numbers of technologies are evolvingday by day. Among them, geo-spatial informationtechnology holds the potentiality of depictingsignificant contribution on policy-making, formulatingplans, infrastructure development, resourcemanagement and others. Though Nepal has difficultterrain, it has great geographical diversity, plentyof natural resource and large potentiality foreconomic development which are neither explorednor envisioned. Nepal has already experienced itsmore than five decades of structured planninghistory, the country is still facing the major challengeson basic services, safe drinking water, road access,health facilities, education, electricity, emergencyservice, income opportunity etc connecting withthe vicious circle of poverty. This is because of thelack of quality geo-spatial data, the techniques andmethods used in structured planning process ordesigning programs and decision making.Geomatics development in Nepal is noteworthy.Land surveys were done by Dangol caste in Mallaera (1324). Military compass school called “compase”after first great world war and later, Amin (surveyor)training school was established under army. In1964, land reform program was announced andsurveying training had conducted under UNDP’sassistance and Colombo plan. In February 1965,Mr. J. R.G. Harrop, became the Director of SurveyDepartment and Survey Training Center, at themoment, Land Management Training center (LMTC)was established in 1967. In the changing context,the center’s single efforts could not be sufficient tocop up growing academic needs. As a result, aprivate institution 'School of Geomatics' has emergedin 2000 to produce basic surveyors and diploma ingeomatics engineering. Similarly in the challengingenvironment, the government institution LMTC and

Kathmandu University have started Bachelor inGeomatics Engineering in a partnership model since2007. Indeed, this is a milestone for the fulfillmentof academic human resources on geomatics

Rationale of the PaperGeomatics science is an ever-evolving technologyand its application is spreading rapidly to offer thegreat functionality for using and disseminating geo-spatial information. As an interdisciplinary nature,Geomatics has become so far a platform for all kindof disciplines. Also, geo-information as the servingdiscipline needs to explore and evaluate applicationsfor sustainable development. Otherwise, it will bevalueless and nowhere. Therefore, the younggeomatics engineers have to make generous uphillstruggle and promise efficient performance, costbenefits, efficiency gains, resources allocation andefficient management of geo-spatial services. Theymust focus on spatially enabling systems to caterpresent and future challenges of planning anddecision making processes of sustainable socio-economic and environmental developments. Thewriter focuses his view for encompassing the qualityservices and move with hand in hand for shapingfuture geo-spatial information within nation buildingperspective. The paper also highlights to delivermessage for planners, decision makers and businesscommunities on the potentiality to work togetherfor the advancement of geo-spatial industry inNepal. Finally, it concludes with its necessity andpotential areas to shape and reinforce geo-spatialservices through quality geomatics engineers. Inturn, it may incorporate serving the South Asianregion as a potential geo-market.

GeomaticsGeomatics, the mathematics of the earth, the scienceof the collection, analysis and interpretation of data,especially instrumental data, relating to the earth'ssurface (Oxford English Dictionary).

Geomatics Engineering is a modern discipline,which integrates acquisition, modeling, analysis,and management of spatially referenced data, i.e.data identified according to their locations. Basedon the scientific framework of geodesy, it usesterrestrial, marine, airborne, and satellite-basedsensors to acquire spatial and other data.

Geomatics science includes the process oftransforming spatially referenced data from differentsources into common information systems with

Baburam Acharya (Mr), MSc , [email protected]

Shaping the Future Geospatial InformationThrough Geomatics Engineers


4

well-defined accuracy characteristics. A GeomaticsEngineer uses knowledge coming from severaldisciplines, such as:

w Geodesy (terrestrial, celestial, and orbitalcoordinate systems measurements)

w Positioning and Navigation (e.g. with GPS,GNSS), Engineering surveys (e.g. planning,design, construction)

w Digital Imaging (how to extract usefulinformation from images according to theapplication, e.g. environmental studies oragricultural studies) and Mapping (how to makethe maps of tomorrow) using Photogrammetry(airborne photographs) or Remote Sensing(images taken by satellite sensors)

w Geographical Information Systems (computersystems capable of assembling, storing,manipulating, and displaying geographicallyreferenced information)

w Land Tenure Systems (land informationmanaging, land surveying, land right, land useand land value).

Geomatics as a science of visualization or expressionof all kind of information provide and maintains thetriangular relation between geospatial data to itsproducer and end users. In many engineering works,ignorance of spatial information, various projectsare hanging or unsuccessful which were madefeasible but technically failed. The examples canbe taken as, there is a canal but no irrigation; thereis a pipeline but no water; there is a land in a mapbut not in a ground; there is a bridge but not acrossthe flow of water; there is urban and regionalplanning but traffic jam, slums, solid waste andpollution etc. are mounting. Similarly, geographyand earth sciences rely more and more on spatialdata. Geomatics application helps to acquire, manageand interpret such data by providing digital mapsand images of resources and infrastructures fromdifferent technologies; field surveys, GPS, remotelysensed images which are analyzed and visualizedon different formats and styles through geographicinformation system (GIS). Moreover, the blendingof ICT with Geomatics is providing new insights intoglobal issues such as the patterns and degradationof forests, monitoring of crops, home land securityand prevention of cultural heritages, war strategiesand conflict management activities. At present,various applications of space technology are usedin the country. The highly developed Internetmapping and the wireless based geospatial datadissemination to the vast array of users acceleratethe space technology as seamless disciplines. Inreal life, there are many multi-disciplinary or potentialcross-disciplinary applications and usefulness withother disciplines. One must be aware on theintegration and holistic orientation of suchapplications through a separate academic discipline.That is not anything else, except geomatics. In thiscontext,

According to the Rio Conference in 1992,sustainability has been the central principle ofinternational development. Also, the World Summiton Sustainable Development (WSSD) 2002, inJohannesburg had unconditionally recognized"Geomatics" as a significant part of the worldsustainability. It focuses on place, people andinformation as the key elements of the development.

Potential Intervention AreasGeomatics engineers are likely to move towardsnation building making socio-economic andenvironmental developments sustainable. Therefore,the following potential intervention areas, amongothers are put together:

1 . Establish the role of measurement science orgeomatics or geo-spatial information discipline,and rigidity to maintain professional integrity,code of conduct and responsibilities ofgeomatics engineers in the society as a whole.

2 . Develop geomatics and geo-spatial professionalsocieties, consortium and relevant forum toadvocate the importance of geomatics andspatial knowledge. Encourage the government,especially the decision makers about theenormous value of geospatial data fromplanning to implementation stage of thedevelopment programs such as in roadconstruction, housing and settlements, trafficmanagement, pollution reduction, disastermanagement, land use planning, monitoringnatural resources and environment protectionetc.

3 . Widen strong base on Geodesy because itserves society by providing reference framefor the navigation on land, sea and in thebuilding of infrastructure and determination ofreliable boundaries for real estate propertiesor even maritime zones. Geodesy has becomemore concerned with the changes in 'geometry'and 'gravimetry' of features on, beneath orabove the surface of the solid Earth and oceanthan it was previously. It also serves allgeosc iences inc lud ing geophys ica l ,oceanographic, atmospheric, hydrological andenvironmental science communities. Geodeticproducts serve disaster prevention andmitigation, prevention of the biosphere andthe environment, security, a better use ofnatural resources for sustainable development.It serves for:

w Monitoring the solid earth, variations in theearth's rotation, the atmosphere with satellitegeodetic techniques and the temporal variationsin the earth's gravity field.

w Determining the satellite orbits, and positions


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4 . Make understanding on land rights, land useand land value to the professionals, users,producers and general public. Create immenseawareness towards the development of cadastreand geo-spatial data infrastructure becausethe value of a cadastre cannot be limited tohuman rights and legal certainty. Also, convincepeople that cadastre gathers, manages andshare information that defines and reinforcesproperty rights. In turn, the property rightstranslate directly into economic development,social stability, good governance, physical wellbeing and value of life. Drive geo-spatialtechnology to leap towards the modernizationof cadastre as a milestone to supportsustainable development.

w Enhance adjudication process in cadastre assimple and transparent.

w Adapt fixed boundary principle (coordinated)for accurate parcel measurements.

w Compel existing land administration systemtowards the title registration systems.

w Initiate and make substantial efforts to establishscientific land valuation systems.

w Initiate and create massive efforts to integrateland registration and survey office, and todevolve the land services to the localadministrative unit e.g VDC level.

w Convince decision makers to adapt geomaticseducation to all cadastre professionals.

w Make generous efforts to change the existingmismanagement situation on land into desiredland management process.

w Identify the attributes of some 'best practices'in land administration from the world wheresustainable economic development concernedto Nepal.

5 . Role of geospatial data is dynamically increasing,so convince business communities that geo-spatial data can generate signif icantimprovements in their business.

w Define the interrelation of geospatial industryand economy. Link geospatial techniques, tolocation based services (LBS), contingencyplanning, preserving historic or cultural heritageand structures, urban and regional planning,rural-urban linkages, food security, monitoringof big constructions (such as dams, high-risebuildings) seismic acquisition, early warningand alarm functions, disaster managementand security etc.

w Persuade vivid technology geo-ICT as a publicgood for good governance, the rules, processand structures for decision making in land andits resources.

w Initiate to bridge the gap between the publicand private entities who are key stakeholdersof PPP model for spatial data infrastructure.Also identify steps with benefits to invite orencourage private sector participation.

w Identify energy sector using geo-spatialtechnology for asset management and gridanalysis, power market assessments, tools forassessing renewable energy potential,monitoring big hydro-dams, planning andmanagement of right-of-way activities, propertyappraisal and property acquisition etc.

w Make extensive use of geo-spatial technologies(RS, GPS & GIS) for watershed management,water supply, drainage systems, modeling ofrecharge zones and water quality monitoring,hydrologic & hydraulic analysis and vulnerabilityanalysis.

w Keep up fine knowledge in area selection,fieldwork planning, project designing,subsurface investigation and spatial modelingin mining and exploration.

w Build trust upon surveyors and emphasizesustainability of geo-spatial systems.

6 . In the context of the complexity of infrastructureand value of buildings, move towards 3D RRRsregistration (rights, restrictions andresponsibilities) not only for cadastre but alsofor planning, crisis management, taxation,environmental impact assessment and manyother land and resources managementactivities.

7 . Encourage mastery in engineering surveys andlearn to carryout large scale integration ofadvanced survey-sensor raw data and dataprocessing results. This process it is very difficultdue to complexi ty of data formatstandardization. In big projects, project itself,corporate IT groups and vender technologyexperts like ESRI, Leica, Trimble etc. accomplishthe tasks. Therefore, essentially educatesurveyors and field engineers to fulfill knowledgegap between surveyors and constructionmanagers (Joseph Betit, Bechtel Corporation,USA).

8 . Make understanding on the wider use of Earthobservation technology and develop consortiumand forums of various stakeholders Earthobservation community.

w Capacity development for utilization anddeployment of Earth observation projects andprograms.

w Advocacy for maximizing benefits of Earthobservation in nation building. Elucidate therole of photogrammetry and imaging forapplication in car navigation, disastermanagement and monitoring of fast growingurban centers by GIS ready geo-information.

w Make realization on the needs and benefits ofr e a l - t i m e g e o - i n f o r m a t i c s a n dTelegeoinformatics.

w Keep up, up-to-date knowledge on thedevelopment of latest sensors technologies,positioning and tracking technologies, CCD


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cameras, GPS/INS systems/map matchingalgorithms. Also, integrating GNSS positioningdata to detect rapid motion and long-termmovement trends.

w Develop awareness on mobile mapping withUAV (unmanned aerial vehicle) technology,integrated mobile mapping systems, mobile3D laser mapping, mobile multi-sensor systems,mobile mapping applications and on-line mobilemapping services.

w Initiate on the principle of 5D modeling, fullintegration of 3D space, time and scale. Alsothe applications in practical situation of 5Dmodels.

w Prepare yourself to keep up with modelingspatial geometry, making observations andestimating spatial positions, and theiruncertainty, as a key component of theGeomatics Engineering education.

9 . Calculate the current limitations and prospectsof future developments by identify the needof human resources in geomatics and geospatialindustry.

w Identify the constraints on capacity buildingand continuing professional development (CPD)in the geo-industry.

w Introduce Geomatics education in schools andside-by-side, including Geomatics science asan extensive academic degree program inuniversity level as a collective discipline appliedto independent fields of study such ascartography, photogrammetry, remote sensing,geodesy, GIS and other mapping sciences.Also, conduct awareness program to geo-information stakeholders; engineers, real estatebrokers, geo-consultants, notary public, ITinstitutions and others.

w Make exchange of ideas between industry andinstitutions leading to relevance andmarketability of the trained human resources.And foster the importance and usefulness ofthe spatial information to the end users in theirdaily activities.

w Make efforts to establish sister relation withthe foreign institutions for the expansion ofgeospatial technology and collaboration

b e tween organizations through education exchangeprograms. Take initiation to expand RICSprofessional in the country.

10. Maintain Surveyor's role as Geo-data Managerand encourage innovations for good landgovernance. Make efforts to cop up with globalgeo-industrial market covering the vast gamutof technology for foreseeable future which ison the horizon.

11. Initiate to adapt Seoul Declaration on GlobalGeo-spatial Information Management (GGIM),24-26 October 2011 as; Geo-information toaddress global challenges.

12. Othersw Lead to make appropriate legal arrangements

in geomatics and geo-spatial industry.w Initiate open source legal, technical and

business perspectives.w Fostering natural and real estate property

through rule of law.w Initiate for Cyber infrastructure and social

networking.w Geomatics world is constantly evolving, so

essentially keep up with the rapid growth ofthe know-how, methods and tools of this multi,cross and interdisciplinary field.

ConclusionSpatial information, which has its base on Geomaticsscience, provides essential and adequate groundsfor planning overall development activities. Geomaticsoffers great functionality as a science of visualizationfor the geo-spatial information related to almost allof the disciplines. It has numerous applicationseven in government activities from regulatoryfunctions such as law and order maintaining, crimecontrol and conflict management to variousdevelopment functions. So, the sector of appliedGeomatics science plays a pivotal role in thedevelopment process of a country, and, therefore,offers a significant role to the geomatics engineerfor shaping and spreading quality geo-spatialapplications as a key element in sustainable economicdevelopment.

Choose favorite adventure and shape your futureReferencesw Initiatives for Geomatics Education in Nepal, FIG Working Week 2007, Hong Kong

SAR, China, 13-17 May, 2007, Mr.Baburam Acharya & Mr. Keshav Sharma.w Burrough, Peter A. & McDonnell, Rachael – Principles of Geographic Information

Systems, Oxford University Press, 1998.w Dowman Ian, Geomatics education needs attention, Coordinate, issue-1, Jan 2007.w Kraak, M. J – exploratory cartography: map as tools for discovery, 2003. LMTC Booklet, Land Management Training Centre, 2004.w Molenaar, M. - Geo Information System, ITC, 2003.w GIM International January 2012 and December 2011w Programme for Geospatial World Forum 23-27 April, 2011


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Need for Land Information System in NepalBishrant AdhikariGeomatics Engineering-2008Kathmandu University

The cadastral and land information system in Nepalhas started going in the digital form just a fewyears back. Previously as well as till now the landand parcel records used to be limited in the papersand large chunks of the files and folders. When thegovernment of Nepal started using the softwareespecially built to solve specific problems in thespecific offices. As a result of the constant researchand dedication they came out with some prettygood software such as Parcel Editor for the Digitalcadastre record keeping and printing out the landrecord and ownership information, Spatial AnalystExtension (SAEX) developed for Department ofLand Information and Archive(DOLIA) to serve thepurpose of digitizing the previous land records andhard copy maps and DLIS developed by for landRevenue offices to make them able to keep theland and parcel’s ownership and transactioninformation in the digital form. As the times passedthose software started functioning, the managerialpersonnel who were in the development phase ofthese sof tware were shocked by theirshortsightedness. The problem here was that thesesoftware were good at what they were made forbut they had created the technological islandsbecause those software could in none of the wayinteract with each other. This meant that theinformation that they kept and maintained werenot compatible and usable by the others. Thusthere lacks a single information system that couldacts as a warehouse of the cadastral and landownership information. We just have to go to twodifferent offices physically in order to get theinformation about a certain parcel its ownershipand taxes.

Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has startedits works in implementation of the free and opensource land administration in Nepal. The Solutionon Open Land Administration (SOLA) project ofFAO has been previously implemented in Ghanaand Samoa and now they are implementing this inNepal. SOLA is primarily the desktop solutions thatneed to be setup in the each of the offices butfunction with either one central server or thedistributed ones. The major problem that lies hereis that it has not been customized to be able toserve the land information system in Nepal. Alsothe need for setup of SOLA admin in each machinethe task has to be done puts a significant amountof memory overhead. The works are undergoingin the customization of the SOLA. Although they

are building the application for web solution, theycurrently are not much interested in bringing thatin Nepal.

Although questioned by many of the managementand decision level personnel there is a true potentialfor making all these tasks a systematic and muchsimple. Actually there could be made a geospatialweb-portal that provides the users (or the authorizedpersons) the ability to query the current status ofthe selected parcel of the selected person in thecertain location and display the results in the tabularas well as in map format. In addition to the queryability it could be extended to support the transactionand record updating and deletion. Other stakeholderssuch as the VDC or Municipality could as well beserved by providing them with the ability toadminister the property construction andland/property taxes. The major ability of this solutionwill be that it will be accessible via all the ordinarycomputers and even mobile devices that haveaccess to internet. The problem of personal privacywill be dealt by segregating the ordinary citizensfrom the managers via the use of the userauthentication and clearance levels according towhich their access rights are defined.

Technically the servers will be established at LandRevenue office and District Cadastral offices. Theservers must be able to run Apache on the backend.The basic strategy is to maintain the informationin both the land revenue office and the cadastraloffice using a spatially enabled database programsuch as PostgreSQL. Then the maps will be servedvia any servers such as Geoserver or Mapserverthat uses the information in the database. Finallythe results will be displayed in the user’s browserthrough some server side includes such as PHP,ASP or via the use of the java applets.

Geomatics engineers will be the guiding personnelin this whole task as they know cadastral informationneeds of nation and the programming techniquesalong with the database and GIS knowledge thatneeds to be deployed for solving this problem. Thefield experience aided by the strong theoreticalbase of the geomatics engineers could be a majorhelp. This complete information system if madewill be a major help in the standardization and inthe increment of the efficiency of the tasks doneat the land related offices.


8

1. Introduction

Pervasive use of GIS indicates a high degree ofexpectation for bringing positive changes inorganizations broadly in terms of productivity,efficiency and ultimately organizational behavior.Although evaluation framework of informationsystem is a multidimensional construct and peeringmerely from organizational perspective does notend up in completeness in the measurement ofimpact of GIS, the paper only attempts to focus onthe advancement made so far on the organizationalimpact by GIS. The method followed in this studyis the review of the literatures used to review byNedovic-Budic (1998) on the aspect of organizationalimpact brought about by GIS technology. In thebase paper of Nedovic-Budic (1998), there arefifteen cited pre-1998 papers in the context oforganizational impact, (out of 22 citations in thecontext, some are repeating). Papers reviewed areCampbell and Masser (1992); Campbel (1994);Worrall (1994); Tveitdal and Hesjedal (1991);Gillespie (1992); Smith and Tomlinson (1992);Antenucci et al (1991); Brown (1997); French andWiggins (1990); Johnson (1995); Hitt andBrynjolfsson (1996); Landauer (1995); and twopost-1998 literatures, namely Nedovic-Budic (1999)and Gonzalez (2007). All these papers have beenreviewed focusing on the organizational impactissues. Discussion has been made regarding thegeneration of additional insights, method appliedand justification for the choice of method.

2. The Context

Organizational impact of GIS has been one of thedimension of measurement of success of IS successmodel (Delone & Mclean, 1992). Since organizationalefficiency and effectiveness caused by theimplementation of GIS depends on the otherdimension of the IS success model such as usersatisfaction, dependency relationship exists amongthese dimensions (Miles, 1980). However, this paperdoes not drift to model the ‘ecology’ caused bythese elements of success model. It mainly focuseson the original findings on the paper referred byNedovic-Budic (1998) in the context of organizationalimpact and the same on post-1998 literatures. Iclassified these papers based on the emphasis given

Impact of GIS on Organizational PerformanceNab Raj SubediDirector, Land Management Training CenterMinistry of Land Reform and Management, NepalVisiting Assistant Professor, Kathmandu University

by the respective authors in their research vis-à-vis organizational impact. Generally they are focusedon productivity, benefits, effectiveness, efficiencies,cost reduction brought about by GIS.

3. GIS Less Capable in Saving and better QualityDecision

Campbell and Masser (1992) carried out study tofind the impact of GIS in local government authoritiesin Great Britain. The method applied was acombination of detailed case studies as well as acomprehensive telephone based survey of all 514local authorities. The authors justify that thecollection of response through the postalquestionnaires from all 514 authorities could be anintensive task considering the size of the response.At the same time, possibility of non-response tothe postal surveys exits which renders difficultiesto draw precise conclusions on the overall study.On the other hand, the previous descriptive casestudies in the topic are failed to provide comparabilitybetween studies and therefore it is difficult to identifythe general trend in the use of GIS. Therefore, asthe authors explain, combined method has beenapplied in this study. The findings of the case studiesare based on the analyzed statistics as well asinterviews. The research has come up with thefindings that GIS does not help savings in theorganization, as Nedovic-Budic (1998) hashighlighted. But I found the paper stressing thatGIS is less capable in supporting better qualitydecision as well.

Campbell (1994) alone adopted a combination ofmethods, including a case study of 12 experiencedauthorit ies in implementing GIS and acomprehensive telephone survey of 514 localauthorities in Great Britain. A key feature of theapproach adopted towards the case studies wasthat interviews were undertaken with those involvedboth directly with GIS including potential users,senior managers, mapping and computer specialists.An element of participant observation was alsoinvolved in this process. The rationales behind thecombined approach are the same as explained inthe case of Campbell and Masser (1992). The finding


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of the study is that short term success can beachieved for relatively for small project. An ideaemphasized by Nedovic-Budic (1998) in a broaderperspective is that GIS users attach low importanceto saving.

4. Planning and Policy making

Worrall (1994) studied on the role of GIS-basedspatial analysis in strategic management in Localgovernment. The study was based on the study ofrelevant literatures. The research briefly explainshow to overcome the difficulties of integrating theopportunities provided by the new technologyembedded in a GIS to the whole range of strategicsocial, economic, demographic, and environmentalissues currently facing public policy analysis ingeneral and local government in particular. Finallythe author develops a research agenda which willseek to enhance the role of GIS-Based spatialanalysis. In a nutshell, Use of GIS can be made inanalysis of spatial distribution of income basedpopulation, urban facility management etc so thatproper policy can be developed to solve theseproblem in these areas.

Referring to Nedovic-Budic (1998) quotation thatin “Worrall’s (1994) review of cost-benefit analysesconducted in the three UK authorities it is claimedthat productivity gains and cost avoidance arepossible with GIS, but not immediately”. To ourobservations this quotation/citation is wrong,because nowhere in the paper I could find such aparagraph except at a point it says that few GISapplications in local government have been formallycost justified and a cost-benefit model has alsobeen developed. Although I can implicitly see thereare many intangible benefits of GIS implementationin the paper.

5. Cost-Benefit

Tveitdal and Hesjedal (1991) have put forwardedthe result of a case study carried out by “NordicKvantif”, a joint Nordic Project which focused onthe quantification of the community benefits ofdigital spatial information carried during 1985-87.The result of the study is based on the Cost-BenefitAnalysis (CBA). The reason to adopt CBA is that,it being an element in the overall appraisal, forcesanyone involved in the decision making to analyzethe impact of a project in a systematic way and, inthe words of the authors, helps to recommendstrategy for implementation. The report concludesthat benefits of GIS rely on the level of itsimplementation. Nedovic-Budic (1998) has onlyhighlighted the point that beneficial effects can beachieved if it is used for internal planning and

administration in the actual organization with leastratio of benefits/cost 2:1. But additionally I sawthat, the benefit cost is 1:1, if GIS is introduced asa production tool and it helps in the staff reductionthat too not fully. The highest beneficial effect forthe community can be achieved, if there existsinter-organizational coordination and they use thesame geographical information for planning designand administration of public utilities, with the ratioof benefit and cost, at least, as 4:1. This is referredas “1:2:4 rule” for benefit from GIS introduction(figure below left). Furthermore, it takes time toaccrue benefits from GIS for the user organizations(figure below right).

Smith and Tomlinson (1992) carried out analysisof the costs and benefits of GIS for the city ofOttawa. The benefits of 100 information productswere measured through interviews with city ofOttawa staff members responsible for the individualproducts. 46 senior staff members from 10departments were contacted to obtain data on bothcurrent and planned future uses of these products.In measuring costs, they were estimated in detailedfrom 1990 to 1996. The narrative descriptions ofGIS products provided the basis for the detailedappraisal of benefits. Their approach was built onexisting work dealing with assessment of investmentsin GIS. The methodology outlined advances existingmethodologies that focus primarily on cost savingsthat are due to reductions in staff time fromproducing existing information products. Nedovic-


10

Budic (1998) uses example from Smith andTomlinson, (1992) of GIS adoption in public sectoragencies where substantial savings were calculatedto justify that spatial data technologies results inlong term benefits.

Antenucci et al (1991) have shown that GIS bringsbenefits into organization by comparing thecumulative cost of manual operation over a periodof time to the cumulative cost of the implementingautomated system over the same period of time.Benefit-cost analysis shown by them consists ofcosts of both systems for 10 consecutive years.They argue that the comparative approach (usingbenefits and cost) is helpful in weighing the positiveand negative aspects, both quantifiable andunquantifiable of introducing GIS, and can be usedto compare the relative merits of implementationalternatives. The authors conclude, as I saw, thatalthough the earlier phase of implementation suffershigh investment cost in comparison to the incurrenceof costs in manual system, the cost curve declinesas investments diminish and consequently benefitsare enjoyed as the system become operational.The following figure shows this.

planning agencies. The survey came up with findingson system development that half of the planningagencies they surveyed experienced a large positivereturns or small positive returns unlike Nedovi?-Budi? (1998) highlighting on small returns oninvestment. Authors also emphasizes that in allsamples used no one suggested that their systemwas not a good investment.

Johnson (1995) conducted a study to observedissemination policies in Local Government GISagencies in the US using a multiple case studies.The study presents several case studies; six casestudies were selected for the research. The foremostcriteria that the study includes equal numbers ofopen access and cost recovery sites. Other criteriaincluded the extent of available documentation ateach site, evidence of any interesting anecdote,the willingness of GIS administrators to participateand to some extent geographic diversity. In eachcase study, the primary method of data collectionwas phone interviews, at about two hours, withseveral follow up conversation with primary andsecondary contact at each site. Phone and emaildiscussions with state level policy makers wereimportant in several cases for the prompt reply.The research found that many proprietary GISagencies are likely to recover little funds, even whenexpectations are very high. On the open accessside it was found that many open access policiesare not tremendously successful either. Conclusionwas that the benefits of both open access and costrecovery policies do not meet GIS agencyexpectations.

6. Effectiveness and Efficiency

Gillespie (1992) describes a model, called "digitalbenefit model" developed by USGS to measure thevalue of GIS in more than 40 case studies of FederalGIS applications. Two qualitative benefits, as theauthor says, namely, efficiency and effectivenesscan be measured by using the model. The modelrequires 5 common independent variables tomeasure along with other 4 dummy variables tomeasure these benefits. The independent variablesare: extent of the study area, physical amount ofthe relevant data, information dimension, complexityof environmental constraints, and likelihood of usein adversarial hearings. Depending on the size ofthe independent variable, the application of GIScan be classified as small, moderate and big. Asthese values differ according as the application typein an organization, only the case study method isappropriate for benefit measurement using thismodel. Apart from efficiencies of GIS, I see thateffectiveness benefit can also be measured usingthe model and moreover, effectiveness benefits aremuch higher than efficiency benefits of GIS.

Additionally I found the classification of benefits.Out of 5 benefits type, 4 are quantifiable. They areefficiencies in current practice, expanded capabilities,unpredictable events, and sale of informationservices. The non-quantifiable benefit type isintangible benefits.

French and Wiggins (1990) conducted a mail surveytechnique to study the role of GIS and automatedmapping in public planning agencies, in 35 agenciesthat had operational computerized mapping systems.This was a third survey in series they haveundertaken to track the adoption and use ofcomputing technology in the field of urban andregional planning. The authors state that as thesampling is based on the 1988 survey responses,the newest innovators may be somewhatunderestimated. Even by knowing that limitation,they still argue that their data provide useful insightinto the use of automated mapping and GIS in local


11

Issue like reduction on the cost of data collectionhas not been expressed by the author as Nedovi?-Budi? (1998) has stated in her paper but it saysthere is cost saving in the production of a result incomparison to the same production by the manualmethod.

7. Productivity and other issues

Landauer (1995) has focused on the usefulness,usability, and productivity of the computers. Conceptput on the book chapter-wise has been madebasically using macroeconomics. Usabilityassessment has been done by plotting benefit-costratio verses number of user test of the computersystem. Since the usefulness and usability dependson the user perspective, the methodologies followedare case studies as understood between the linessince it has not been explicitly stated in the book.As Nedovi?-Budi? (1998) has highlighted, it statesthat introduction of computer does not increasethe productivity in general. It has beenrecommended in the book that the productivity canbe increased after increasing the usability andusefulness by the fol lowing four ways:

w Reducing unnecessary and duplicate work bystoring and transporting informationelectronically.

w Improve the coordination and synchronizationof work by better planning, monitoring, trackingand analysis.

w support new high-productivity products andservices that depend on powerful informationprocessing.

w Help individuals perform information workmore efficiently.

Hitt and Brynjolfsson (1996) have found oppositeto what Landauer (1995) has found regardingproductivity. Hitt and Brynjolfsson (1996) studiedon the issues of IT's economic contribution withthe three issues: productivity, profitability andconsumer surplus. Authors justify that althoughthese issues are related, they are different topic inthemselves and therefore value of IT in economicsense should not calculated by simultaneously takingthem together. Therefore, they carried out empiricalanalysis by setting separate hypotheses pertainingto each of these issues and based on the secondarydata collected by International Data Group (IDG).Hypothesis related to productivity was tested byusing production function. For this, estimate ofparameters were obtained using Ordinary LeastSquares and enhancement of estimation was doneby using Iterated Seemingly Unrelated Regression(ISUR) model with the assumption that productivity

of IT firms is correlated with time. Businessprofitability was calculated by using the profitabilityfunction as the ratio of IT stuck to firm employees.Then relationship between IT and Profitability wastested by computing correlation and then using theregression function in year by year basis. Theconsumer surplus between two periods wascalculated by using the translog function as a ratioof IT stock to Value added, the price of stock andValue added. The overall finding is that the IT hasincreased productivity and consumer surplus butnot supranormal profitability. Additionally, for higherprofits, they suggest that management should focuson IT's other aspects such as product position,quality or customer service.

Brown (1997) in her study seeks to ascertain thegoals and challenges of GIS adoption according tolocal implementers. The method applied was asurvey with non-random sample of the 262 localgovernment members of the Urban and RegionalInformation System Association (URISA). Theresearch used two types of questionnaires. The firstwas sent to those identified as being knowledgeableabout GIS implementation process and the secondwas sent to users of the technology. Only 88responses were obtained. The majority of respondentrated the GIS favorably in the better category forstimulating productivity, performance and customerservice. The idea was also cited by Nedovi?-Budi?(1998). The author also concludes that the attitudinaland perceptual measures are preferred for examiningthe process of implementation and achievementoutcomes from technological innovations. Thequantitative measures are not able to adequatelytap perceptions. Therefore a qualitative instrumentis employed in this study to analyze perceptions ofInformation System Success. The research cameup with findings that organizational impedimentsoffered the greatest resistance to achieving GISsuccess.

8. Post-1998 research

8.1 Applying non-traditional approach for impactmeasurement

Nedovic-Budic (1999) have made a review of existingframeworks, methods and criteria used in evaluationsof geographical Information Systems, ManagementInformation Systems, other computerizedinformation technologies and other informationsystems. The review is aiming at checking how theeffects of GIS use should be measured specificallyto the evaluation of GIS technology in urbanplanning. Using literatures review as an instrumentfor the research, she justifies that there existvarieties of frameworks, quantitative and qualitative


12

criteria, and methods that can be used to assessGIS effects but none of them have been developedto specifically deal with evaluation of GIS in urbanplanning.

The author describes that the review of the potentialmeasures of GIS effects draws on five broadframeworks, basically focusing the evaluativeframework presented by DeLone and McLean(1992). Basing on evaluation dimensions by DeLoneand McLean (1992), she tries to review all criteriaand methods reviewed under each dimensions andcomplement by a discussion of measures and issuesthat are relevant in the context of urban planning.She adds one more dimension, societal effects toreflect the attention to societal issues that arepresent in the GIS literatures and the relevancy ofsocietal to planning. After discussion, she came upwith a table summary of the methods and criteriathat can be used in evaluating GIS effects in planningand the planning situations to which these methodsand criteria can be applied.

As to the measurement of organizational impact,she emphasizes the use of non-traditional cost-benefit analysis that turns the intangible benefitsinto some sorts of value. Such values signifyoperational (saving labor, clerical time etc),managerial (communication between managers,improved planning and improved use of managertime etc) and individual (deeper and broaderexploration of alternatives, clear understanding ofproblems) benefits. She also highlights thatmeasurement of productivity and efficiency aregenerally used methods to calculate theorganizational performance.

One strong reservation I have in this paper is thatthe author says the effects are favorable if the ratioof cost to benefit is generally greater than 1. As toour understanding, the ratio of benefit to cost (notcost to benefit) should be greater than 1.

8.2 GIS impact and its correlation with otherfactors

Gonzalez (2007) conducted a study to find thefundamental reasons for the GIS adoption at locallevel as well as impact and implications of GIStechnology at organizational level. To assessintegrated information systems as a strategic toolto support sustainable development in British localgovernment taking case of geographic informationsystems (GIS), she conducted four case studies.Regarding the case study methodology in herresearch, the author justifies explicitly stating thatthe data and analysis are grounded in the conditionof social existence in her case. There is tolerance

of ambiguity and contradictions of the social realitybeing investigated and existence of prospect ofalternative explanation. Data collection in theresearch was based on criteria-based samplingfollowed by semi structured interview andquestionnaire.

Her finding claims that the degree of impact of theadoption of GIS in organizational level is correlatedwith four main factors which are: attitude ofleadership and involvement of GIS staff within theorganization; organizational commitment andsupport in terms of formal policy establishment andavailability of resources for the GIS strategy; strategicvision and strategic thinking to assume GIS asenabling tool; and lastly, the necessity to set off acontinuous and widespread GIS learning processthat promotes inclusiveness with other organizationalstructures in order to create the link between theuser needs and the GIS applications. She alsoconcludes that GISs are implemented generally tosupport planning, decision making and e-governmentpolicies but not targeted to implement sustainabledevelopment at local level. In her own language'better outcomes' is possible if the technology isadopted for long term project except for the specificinitiatives for which the middle or short term 5-1year is sufficient.

To critically comment on her findings through ourview, I say that the author is completely failure tofind any organizational impact of GIS from herstudies. Her conclusive statement "…the councilsdo not measure GIS in terms of GIS function andin terms of GIS contribution to organizationalimprovements, the impact was clearly not feasibleto verify. Within this context, the conclusion is thatit is too early to give an unequivocal answer" provesthis. She claims that apart from planning,technological and data frameworks, periodic processof GIS measurement for search of best practicesand cross-sector approach to local sustainabledevelopment are critically essential to engage inGIS for the local authorities.

9. Conclusion

I conclude that there has been gradual enhancementin the concept of measurement of organizationalimpact of GIS from the mere measurement oftangible cost and benefits to the measurement ofintangible benefits. I also witnessed that the conceptof impact of GIS on sustainable development hasbeen raised. However, it is found that there is nota single holistic approach to measure the impactof GIS due to its diversified field of application.


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References1. Antenucci J C, Brown K, Croswell P L, 1991 Geographic Information Systems—A Guide to the Technology (Van No strand

Reinhold, New York)

2. Brown MM, 1997, "An empirical assessment of the hurdles to geographic information system success in local governments"State and Local Government Review 28 (3) 193-204

3. Campbell H J, 1994, "How effective are GIS in practice? A case study of British local government" International Journal ofGeographical Information Systems 8 309 – 325

4. Campbell H, Masser I, 1992, "GIS in local government: some findings from Great Britain" International Journal of GeographicalInformation Systems 6 529 – 546

5. DeLone, W.H. & E.R., McLean, 1992, Information Systems Success: The Quest for the Dependent Variable, InformationSystems Research, 3(1):60-95

6. French S P, Wiggins L L, 1990, "California Planning Agency experiences with Automated mapping and geographic informationsystems" Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design 17 441-450

7. Gillespie S R, 1992, "The value of GIS to the federal government" in GIS/LIS '92 Conference Proceedings, American Societyfor Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing-American Congress on Surveying and Mapping, S410 Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda,MD 20814-2160, USA

8. González, A. (2007), Assessing integrated information systems as a strategic tool to support sustainable development inbritish local government: the geographic information systems (GIS) case. Revista Chilena de Economía y Sociedad 1(2):pp.89-114

9. Hitt L M, Brynjolfsson E, 1996, "Productivity, business profitability, and consumer surplus: three different measures ofinformation value" MIS Quarterly 20(2) 121 -142

10. Johnson J P, 1995, "Case studies of dissemination policy in local government GIS agencies" Computers, Environment andUrban Systems 19 373 - 390

11. Landauer K, 1995, The Trouble with Computers (MIT Press, Cambridge MA)

12. Miles, Robert, H., 1980, Macro Organizational Behavior, GoodYear, SantaMonica, CA.

13. Nedovic-Budic Z, 1999, "Evaluating the effects of GIS Technology: Review of Methodsc", Journal of Planning Literature, Vol.13( 3), 1999

14. Smith DA, Tomlinson R F, 1992, "Assessing costs and benefits of geographical information systems: methodological andimplementation issues" International Journal of Geographical Information Systems 6 241-256

15. Tveitdal S, Hesjedal 0,1991, "GIS in the Nordic countries", in GIS Applications in National Resources Eds M Heit, A Shortreid(GIS World, Fort Collins, CO) pp 75-81

16. Worrall L, 1994, "The role of GIS-based spatial analysis in strategic management in local management" Computers, Environmentand Urban Systems 18 323 – 332

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14

Study of the Ocean Mesosacle Features UsingSea Surface Temperature (SST): A case Study

of Gulf StreamNawaraj ShresthaKathmandu UniversityDepartment of Civil and Geomatics Engineering

Introduction

Sea surface temperature (SST) is a function of theradiation emitted by the water which depends onthe temperature of the ocean. Depending upon thedepth and instrument used for measurement, SSTcan be from the skin (SSTskin), subskin (SSTsubskin)and any depth (SSTdepth). The temperature sensorsfitted in the buyos, ships gives the SSTdepth whilethe microwave radiometers on ship can be used formeasuring SSTskin. The satellites measure theSSTskin at 10-13 µm infrared wavebands emittedby water to measure the temperature. The variationof the temperature of the ocean with presence ofdifferent features makes it possible to detect withSST by satellites sensors. Mesoscale features arethe structures that follow distinct pattern in oceanscan be represented by the use of SST gradients.Besides temperatures various factors like baroclinicand barotropic instabilities, wind forcing andtopographic interaction also aids in the formationof those features (Robinson 1994). These featuresare important because they maintain and help totransport heat, momentum and nutrients withinand between the ocean and atmosphere. Themeasured data usability of the features howeverdepends upon the sensor characteristics and theiraccuracy.

SST measurement by remote sensing can be groupedinto thermal and microwave remote sensors. Thethermal infrared sensors have spatial resolution of1Km for detecting the micro and mesoscale features(0.3K-0.7K of rmse) but are affected by clouds,aerosols and atmospheric vapour. The microwave

sensors are invariant to cloud but have low spatialresolution (50Km) and are affected by heavyprecipitation. The most widely used infrared remotesensors are the Advanced Very High ResolutionRadiometer (AVHRR), Moderate Resolution ImagingSpectroradiometer (MODIS), Advanced Along trackscanning Radiometer(AATSR) and AdvancedMicrowave Scanning Radiometer-Earth ObservationSatellite(AMSRE_E), Tropical rainfall measuringmission(TRMM) Microwave Imager (TMI) abroad(Guan and Kawamura2003). The geostationarysatellites have high temporal resolution of 30 minuteand can have diurnal SST data but the problemsare the detection of mesoscale features with its lowspatial resolution. There are also different groundbased methods that measures SST with the helpof buoy, ships that carries instrument to measurethe SSTdepth temperature. However these methodscovers relatively small area and are point basedmeasurements. The SST from space borne sensorsis important in measuring the mesoscale featuresbecause of the high spatial and temporal resolution,regular sampling capacity and synoptic view of theocean.

Gulf Stream is a western boundary current thatoriginates from the Caribbean and Gulf of Mexico.It is a strong, warm and swift current characterizedby high velocity and volume of flow that exert aconsiderable influence in the dynamics of the oceanbasin because of the amount of water and theevaporation of the warm water that they carry.

Abstract

Mesoscale features are the instabilities present in the ocean. These play important role in maintainingclimate, energy balance and nutrients cycling within ocean and the atmosphere. Sea surface temperature(SST) is an important parameter that is estimated by the remote sensors in the study of the mesoscalefeatures like eddies, fronts, meanders and upwelling. The sensors use infrared and microwave radiationto determine SST and helps in understanding the ocean process and changes. The present study focuseson the study of Gulf Stream mesoscale features using the remotely sensed satellite data.


15

a northern part that crosses Europe and a southernpart that moves towards West Africa as seen inFigure 1. As the stream extends north it formsclockwise warm core ring with water from SaragossaSea that can be traced for several months, and insouth it forms anticlockwise rotating cold core ringthat are engulfed by the cold water of Atlanticocean(http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/oceancolor/tutorials/module1.shtml). In the figure the splittingof the Gulf Stream is visible at around 380N, 600Wat the downstream of Cape Hatteras. The imagealso shows Gulf Stream mesoscale features likeeddies, front and meanders.

Oceanic fronts are relative narrow zone of horizontalgradients that separate the border area of differentvertical structures. These fronts exhibit largevariability over time scales from daily to inter-annuldue to the instabilities in the ocean (Robinson 1994).SST can be used to find the narrow horizontalgradient that separates the two distinct layers ofwaters. The Gulf Stream itself is a large-scale frontthat separates the cooler continental and warmerSargasso water where warm water of the streamcreates the temperature gradient that separateswater with different water temperature and movesrelative to each other in horizontal direction(Robinson 1994). Various methods can be appliedto detect the fronts in images. The most commonmethod is the edge detection method. The figure2 shows the oceanic fronts according thetemperature gradient represented by differentcolour. The front separating the cooler coastal waterfrom the warmer water near Cape Hatteras isrepresented by dark blue colour. There are fourdifferent water fronts north of the Gulf Streamwhich are distinct as shown by the colour at differenttemperatures. In the above figure The Gulf Streamis shown as orange colour (260C) acts as frontseparating the cold Atlantic water represented bygreen colour (18-200C). The instabilities of frontin some lead development of meanders.

The Gulf Stream meanders show a wavelike lateralmovement pattern along its path. The wavelengthand the propagation speed changes as it movesfrom the Gulf of Mexico to Atlantic Ocean particularlyat Cape Hatteras where it enters the open ocean.The downstream propagation rate decreases from45Kmday-1 with wave length of 180Km to about14 Kmday-1 and wavelength of 500Km (Traceyand Watts 1986). The meanders form generally ateast of 750W (Mau et al 1978). In the figure 3 itcan be seen that the meanders are formed at 380N570S which is east of 750W. The meanderdeformation produce isolated eddies as in the caseof Gulf Stream.

The Gulf Stream can be divided into three majorsections, the loop current zone that originate fromthe Gulf of Mexico with narrow, linear and directedflow of water, the transition zone where it turnsinto Atlantic Ocean with increasing velocity anddouble in size, and the open sea zone where energydissipates. The initial stage is characterized by thecoastal interaction resulting in number of eddiesand ocean fronts that are permanent in naturewhile the open sea stage is characterized by theformation of the rings. The Gulf Steam splits into

Figure 1: MODIS/aqua 8 days SST level 3 compositeimage showing Gulf Stream features in May 2007.

Figure 2: The initial stage of the Gulf Stream showingthe fronts represented by different colours at varyingtemperature.


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Eddies are the mesoscale features that are formedby baroclinic instability, topographic generation andwind forcing (Robinson 1994). Eddies identificationis based on detecting borders delimited by stronghorizontal thermal gradients in relation to theiradjacent waters. The change in gradient is howeverdependent on the intensity and stage of the eddyformation. The Gulf Stream shows different patternof eddies along its course and the most prominentare the circular eddies with warm or sold cores.These eddies are formed due to the developmentof the meander in the Gulf Stream that increasesin size and pinches off. If the pinch off takes placeto the northern hemisphere it is the warm coreeddies and if to the right of the stream it is the coldcore eddies that moves towards Mid-Atlantic water.

Figure 3: The meanders and the circular eddiesformed in Gulf Stream. This is a MODIS 8 days SSTcomposite at year 2006 May provided by NASAESIP tool

In the figure the meanders pinching can be seenat 370N, 680W and the cold core eddies is seen in380N 570S. The temperature can be predicted tobe 18-200C at the core of the circular eddy whichis about 100C cooler than the surrounding water.The average life of these type of eddies are generallymore than six months with higher life span of thewarm core eddies than those of cold core eddies(Lai and Richardson1975). In the figure it can alsobe seen the small scale eddies at the right side ofstream near North Carolina.

Besides the expert judgment and manual detectionof the mesoscale features, there are models thathave been designed to detect the featuresautomatically. These models basically uses twoapproaches: matching the thermal gradient mapswith analytical description of the target structureand generating artificial neural networks to trainthe algorithms based on approximate matching andparallel distribution of process information (Castellani2006).

Conclusion:The instabilities in ocean cause variation intemperature, which is sensed by sensors to detect,monitor and map the mesoscale features. Theclouds and atmospheric effects that affect themeasurement of SST can be reduced by combiningSST data from various sensors and ground basedmeasurements for the better measurement. TheSST data of Gulf Stream showed the variation inthe spatial and temporal pattern of eddies, frontsand meanders that can be identified, monitoredand predicted with the analysis of the gradient ofSST variation.

References:

1. Castellani, M. 2006, ‘Identification of eddies from sea surface temperature maps with neuralnetworks’, International Journal of Remote Sensing vol.27, no. 8 pp. 1601-1618.

2. Guan, L. and Kawamura, H. 2003, ‘SST Availabilities of Satellite Infrared and Microwave Measurements’,Journal of Oceanography vol. 59, pp. 201-209.

3. Science focus- Classic CZC Scenes, Chapter 6: The Gulf Stream (Western Boundary Current) [online]Available: http://disc.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/oceancolor/classic_scenes/06_classics_boundary.shtml[Accessed 2008, November 20].

4. Lai, D. Y., and Richardson, P. L. 1977, ‘ Distribution and movement of Gulf Stream rings’, Journalof Physical Oceanography v0l. 7, pp. 670-683.

5. Maul, G. A., Witt, P. W., Yanaway, A. and Baig, S. R. 1978, ‘Geostationary satellite observations ofGulf Stream meanders: Infrared measurements and time series analysis’, Journal of GeophysicalResearch vol. 83, pp. 6123-6135.

6. Robinson, I.S. 1994, ‘Satellite Oceanography: An introduction for the oceanographers and remote-sensing Scientists’, John Wiley and Sons, England.

7. Tracey, K.L and Watts, D.R. 1986, ‘On Gulf Stream Meander Characteristics Near Cape Hatteras’,Journal of Geophysical Research vol.91, no.c6, pp. 7587-7602.


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Punya Prashad OliSurvey Consultant, Lecturer in AstronomyHimalayan College of Geomatic Engineering andLand Resources Management,Former DG, Survey Department.Email: [email protected]

Planetary mapping

AbstractMany countries are planning or sending manned or unmanned spacecrafts or probes outsidesthe earth. They have/are being developed GNSS and deep space networks to fix the positionof and communicate with satellites and other objects. The rockets, ICT, star tracker /astro-fix,inertial measurement system and sensors, remote sensing and other systems are developed.Star tracker, GNSS, IMU, LiDAR, remote sensing and satellite spectroscopy are developed toacquire the data remotely. The terrestrial surveying and mapping techniques could be miniaturizedfor celestial mapping. Various international surveying communities also created commissionsto standardize the data capture, recording and analysis of data of celestial bodies. Therefore,surveyor should study and participate in these programmes.

Background

Mapping of solid surface of planet, satellite, minorplanet and other celestial bodies are new areas ofexploration and mapping. The mapping of the moonand mars completed and mercury is under progress.New generation of surveyors will also involve inmapping of solid crust of celestial bodies beside ofthe earth. The terrestrial planets have solid crusts,the Jovian planets have liquid surface, the sun likestar has gaseous surface and minor planets andother smaller celestial bodies have frozen gaseoussolid surfaces. Some planets have no atmosphere,some has opaque and some have transparentatmosphere. The mapping involves precisemeasurement of orbit of the planet, latitude andlongitude and altitude of the point on the surface,composition of the crust, atmosphere and core aswell as situation of gravity, magnetic and effect ofsolar wind fields. The position of satellite which isbeing used to study is required to know accuratelyin relation to the celestial body.

Many countries like USA, Russia, EU, China, Indiaare planning or sending manned or unmannedspacecrafts or probes outsides the earth. Theyhave/are being developed GNSS and deep spacenetworks to fix the position of and communicatewith satellites. The rockets, ICT, star tracker /astro-fix, inertial measurement system and sensors,remote sensing, other systems are developed inminiature form.

Most of the study of universe is being carried outby terrestrial or orbiting telescopes and satellite

mission flyby or orbiting the celestial bodies. Thedetail mapping of bodies is usually carried out bysending satellite or probes equipped with thepositioning, imaging, altimetry and othermeasurement equipments to the bodies. It can bean example of present Messenger used for mappingof the mercury which briefly describe as publishmaterials.

Messenger mission

MESSENGER (MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment,GEochemistry, and Ranging) is a NASA-sponsoredscientific investigation of the planet Mercury andthe first space mission designed to orbit and detailmapping of the planet. The MESSENGER spacecraftlaunched on August 3, 2004, and entered orbitabout Mercury on March 18, 2011 UTC to begin ayearlong study of the planet.The primary science objectives of the missioninclude:

w determining accurately the surface compositionof Mercury

w detail mapping of the planetw characterizing the geological history of the

planetw determining the precise strength of the magnetic

field and its variation with position and altitudew investigating the presence of a liquid outer core

by measuring Mercury's librationw determining the nature of the radar reflective

materials at Mercury’s poles


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w investigating the important volatile species andtheir sources and sinks on and near Mercury.

Information for attitude control is provided by startrackers, an inertial measurement unit, and six sunsensors.

Communications

The probe includes two small deep spacetransponders for communications with the DeepSpace Network. The high gain antenna is used astransmit-only at 8.4 GHz, the medium-gain andlow gain antennas transmit at 8.4 GHz and receiveat 7.2 GHz, and all three antennas operate withright-hand circularly polarized (RHCP) radiation.One of each of these antennas is mounted on thefront of the probe facing the sun, and one of eachis mounted to the back of the probe facing awayfrom the sun.

Power

The space probe is powered by a two-panel, galliumarsenide/germanium (GaAs/Ge) solar array providingan average of 450 watts at Mercury. Each panel isrotatable and includes optical solar reflectors tobalance the temperature of the array. Power isstored in a common-pressure-vessel, 23-ampere-hour nickel hydrogen battery, with 11 vessels andtwo cells per vessel.

Computer and software

The computer system is based on the IntegratedElectronics Module (IEM), a device which combinescore avionics into a single box. The computerfeatures two radiation-hardened IBM RAD6000, a25 megahertz main processor and 10 MHz faultprotection processor. For redundancy, the spacecraftcarries a pair of identical IEM computers. For datastorage, the spacecraft carries two solid-staterecorders able to store up to one gigabyte each.The IBM RAD6000 main processor collects,compresses, and stores data from MESSENGER'sinstruments for later playback to Earth.MESSENGER uses a software suite called SciBox tosimulate its orbit and instruments, in order to"choreograph the complicated process of maximizingthe scientific return from the mission and minimizingconflicts between instrument observations, whileat the same time meeting all spacecraft constraintson pointing, data downlink rates, and onboard datastorage capacity

MESSENGER Satellite with instruments

Mercury Dual Imaging System (MDIS)

Includes two CCD cameras, a narrow-angle camera(NAC) and a wide-angle camera (WAC) mountedto a pivoting platform. The camera system willprovide a complete map of the surface of Mercuryat a resolution of 250 meters/pixel with 20–50meters/pixel images of regions of geologic interestduring the orbiting phase. Colour imaging is possibleonly with the narrow-band filter wheel attached tothe wide-angle camera.It is acquiring of near-global coverage at •'98500-meters/pixel and Multi spectral mapping at •'982-kilometers/pixel during the flyby phase.

Radio Science (RS)

It measures the gravity of Mercury and the stateof the planetary core by utilizing the spacecraftpositioning data to determine the position of thespacecraft during both the cruise and orbital phasesof the mission, observes gravitational perturbationsfrom Mercury to investigate the spatial variationsof density within the planet’s interior, and a time-varying component in Mercury’s gravity to quantifythe amplitude of Mercury’s libration and provideprecise measurements of the range of theMESSENGER spacecraft to the surface of Mercuryfor determining proper altitude mapping with theMLA.

A nadir-looking monochrome global photomosaicat moderate solar incidence angles (55°–75°) and250-meters/pixel or better sampling resolution, a

Scientific instruments


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25°-off-nadir mosaic to complement the nadir-looking mosaic for global stereo mapping, completionof the multispectral mapping begun during theflybys and high-resolution (20–50-meters/pixel)image strips across features representative of majorgeologic units and structures during Orbital Phase .

Gamma-Ray Spectrometer (GRS)

It measures gamma-ray emissions from the surfaceof Mercury to determine the composition by detectingcertain elements (oxygen, silicon, sulphur, iron,hydrogen, potassium, thorium, uranium) to a depthof 10 cm.

Neutron Spectrometer (NS)

It determines the hydrogen mineral composition toa depth of 40 cm by detecting low-energy neutronsthat result from the collision of cosmic rays and theminerals.

X-Ray Spectrometer (XRS)

It maps mineral composition within the top millimeterof the surface on Mercury by detecting X-ray spectrallines from magnesium, aluminum, sulphur, calcium,titanium, and iron, in the 1-10 keV range.

Magnetometer (MAG)

It measures the magnetic field around Mercury indetail to determine the strength and average positionof the field.

Mercury Laser Altimeter (MLA)

It provides detailed information regarding the heightof landforms on the surface of Mercury by detectingthe light of an infrared laser as the light bouncesoff the surface which may be summaries as following:

Provide a high-precision topographic map of thehigh northern latitude regions.Measure the long-wavelength topographic featuresat mid-to-low northern latitudes.Determine topographic profiles across major geologicfeatures in the northern hemisphere.Detect and quantify the planet’s forced physicallibrations by tracking the motion of large-scaletopographic features as a function of time.Measure the surface reflectivity of Mercury at theMLA operating wavelength of 1,064 nanometers.

Mercury Atmospheric and Surface CompositionSpectrometer (MASCS)

It determines the characteristics of the tenuous

atmosphere surrounding Mercury by measuringultraviolet light emissions and the prevalence ofiron and titanium minerals on the surface bymeasuring the reflectance of infrared light.3.9 Energetic Particle and Plasma Spectrometer(EPPS)

It measures the charged particles in themagnetosphere around Mercury using an EnergeticParticle Spectrometer (EPS) and the charged particlesthat come from the surface using a Fast ImagingPlasma Spectrometer (FIPS).

Control points (Attitude data)

LiDAR Survey with GPS in Nepal

The control points in terrestrial LiDAR and aerialmapping works in Nepal, is carried out by usingdifferential GPS receivers located at one or two firstorder trig. points and another GPS receiver onaircraft / helicopter equipped with LiDAR altimeter,inertial measurement unit and imaging camera. Itcan be similarly used by imaging satellite if theyhave reception of sufficient number of GNSSsatellites.

In case of mars mission, four Doppler satelliteswere used in addition to other facilities to fix theposition imaging satellites. Presently star tracker/astro-fix which is instrument to fix its position byobserving stars, inertial measurement unit andsensors are used to determine the instant positionof satellite like Messenger satellite. The deep spacenetwork which is the network of 3 stationary satellitesof the earth stationed separately by USA, Russia,EU, China and India, is used for communicationand to control the position of satellites.

Parameters

The parameters are latitude, longitude and meansurface / sea level, major and minor axis of celestialbodies. Mean position of north and south the axisof rotation is the equator which is origin of latitudeand a fix point on the surface is the origin of longitude


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MappingOrtho photos and DEM will be generated usingphotogrammetric techniques. Vector data will becreated and annotation will be carried out. Thefeatures will be classified as agreed internationallyby ICA. The feature names will be assigned asapproved IAU. The feature symbols andclassifications will be generally agreed from theplanetary cartography commission of ICA.

Resources dataThe magnetic and gravity field observation, surfaceand atmospheric compositions of the body will beobserved by magnetometer, gravimeter, radio scienceand various spectrometers respectively. They willbe transmitted to ground station and analyzed byground based laboratories. These data will providesituation of magnetic field and seasonal variationson the surface, the chemical composition of outercrust and the core. It will also provide thecomposition of atmosphere, geology as well aseffects of solar wind, magnetic field on the surface.

ConclusionThe technology is being developed for mapping anddetail study of the surface or crust and compositionof inner and outer surface of the celestial bodies.The satellites or probes are being sent by variouscountries. Various surveying communities like ISPRS,ICA, IAU, IGA are also created commissions tostandardize the data capture, recording and analysisof data of celestial bodies. Therefore, surveyorshould study and participate in these programmes.

which is decided by International AstronomicalUnion (IAU) and mean surface level (altitude) isfixed on the basis of starting point of sea likedepression on the surface. The Major axis (a) andminor axis (b) will be fixed on the basis of groundbased observations and finalized by the shape ofmean surface level. The map projection generallyfor the globe will be Mollweide projection.

Imagery

The imagery will be both mono and stereo imagesusing dual imaging system. The cameras will havenarrow and wide angles. The resolution of bodieswill be 250 m to 500 m pixel during the flyby phaseand the stereo images will taken from the camerasinclined to the nadir with 250m like resolution duringorbital phase. Special areas of interest may take athigher resolution of 25-50m pixel.Opaque celestial bodies like Venus will be imagedusing radar imagery to avoid poor visibility.

Altimetry

The height variation and nature of the surface ofthe bodies will be measured from the LiDARaltimeters of the altitude is lower than 1500 km.Otherwise, it is measured photogrammetrically.Hight of certain points on the bodies will be measuredfrom other techniques and ground based techniques.The satellite gravety observation will also be carriedout, which will assist on determinate of mean surfacelevel and composition of the body.

References

w Norton Star Atlas,

w Messenger Mission, Wikipedia

w Messenger Mission. NASA, www.nasa.gov

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21

An Approach to Improve InstructionalMethod of Training

Rabin K. SharmaPresidentNepal Remote Sensing and Photogrammetric SocietyE-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Instructional method of training is one of the very popular techniques of training. In this method instructortransfers knowledge to the students through lecturing and evaluates their performance by the tests. Oneshould always try to improve the teaching technique to produce highly skilled human resources. In orderto achieve these, basic needs in training and the basic elements of the training must consider properly.Human factors also play vital role for producing better products so this paper will enunciate all thesecomponents for improving instructional method of training.

Key Words: Training, Instructor, Class, Basic needs, Basic elements, Human factors.

Introduction

Training is to teach on a particular field to a groupof people who have no knowledge before and toget them to learn on it. The art of giving instructionsto such group is known as teaching by"Instructional Method". Lecturing in training isa means of communication to transfer knowledgefrom an instructor to the students and receivingresponse from the students on the subject mattertaught by an instructor. So teaching is a two waycommunication system. The instructor deliverslectures on a subject and evaluates the level of thestudents through the tests. The instructor receivesresponse through the test results and the scoresof the class reflect the quality of teaching as wellas the standard of the class. The current teachingsystem seems to be exceptionally exam orientedwhich enforces established ideas but does notpromote to creation of new ones. This system isgradually replacing by introducing explorative andproblem solving types of exercise to prepare theclass for the challenges they will encounter in theirreal world.

Training should be conducted in a better teaching-learning environment so that the class should feelan hour long delivery lecture terminates like halfan hour. In order to create such environment,instructors should be motivated to teach the classin a balanced way so that theoretical lessons nolonger dominate practical knowledge butcomplement the skills to overcome the challengesthe students will face. On the other hand, thestudents should be self-encouraged to learn anddevelop skills enabling individual to deal effectivelywith the demands and challenges of everyday life.

So in order to being designing a successful teachingpractice, some basic needs and basis along withthe concept on human factors related to teachingshould be considered. However, the instructorsmust contribute for further improving theinstructional method using her/his experiences andskills for producing highly trained and skilled humanresources.

Objective of Training

The objective of training is to improve behavioralchange to be effected in knowledge, skills,attitudes, techniques and experiences. In otherwords, training is to impart new knowledge, developpractical skills, influences old attitudes, practicenew techniques and over all to increase experiences.Obviously experiences can not be taught inclassroom. It is the result of practicing the use ofknowledge, skills and techniques over a period oftime and may be in a number of different situations.These key words are interrelated and should notisolate; otherwise the training will be incomplete.

Needs in Training

There are two basic needs in training: the instructorand the class. The instructor must have sufficientknowledge of the subject and proper skills to teach.Secondly, the class (trainees) must have desire tolearn. If an instructor does not have adequateknowledge on the subject to teach, the instructionwill be useless and it will have negative impact infuture. On the other hand, the situation will beworsening if the class has no intention to learn.However, in the later case, an experienced instructormay improve the condition with her/his skills tomotivate students for learning.


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Basic Elements of Training

In order to accomplish a training programmesuccessfully, the following basic elements of trainingmust consider properly.

Aim

The aim of teaching has three stages namelyimmediate aim, ultimate aim and final aim.

w The immediate aim is to deliver lecture ofthe lesson in hand and the lesson must beclear, concise and understood by all the studentsof the class.

w The ultimate aim is to cover all the topics ofa particular subject so that the trainee couldunderstand the subject and could use theknowledge at her/his work place. This can beachieved by capturing a series of immediate aims.

w The final aim is to complete the course coveringall the subjects given in the curriculum of thetraining programme. This will develop the mindand skill of an individual trainee in a methodicaland patient manner over a period of time.

Planning

Proper planning is a key to success of the training.The planning consists of the management of thefollowing:

Facilities:The facilities include syllabus, library, study room,training aids and store. A copy of syllabus must beissued to the instructor so that she/he knows aboutthe subject, content and the number of hours she/hehas to teach in the class. She/he needs a library tocollect all the information relevant to the subject.So a library which should be equipped with referencebooks and a quiet study room must be provided tothe instructor. Furthermore, arrangements mustbe made to have access on the internet and toprovide facilities for the production of teaching aidssuch as charts, posters, models, power points, etc.

Class Room:The class room must be in a quiet place and it mustnot be disturb by any activity occurring outside theclass room. The design and the layout of the classmust ensure the comfort based on the following sothat the trainees could stayed without any strainor difficulty for watching the activities in the class:

w Adequate space for seats and benches

w Proper lighting and ventilation

w Space for writing board, extra boards for charts,models, etc.

w Provision for over head projector or multi-media projector

Management

Proper management also plays important role tomotivate instructors as well as students so themanagement should arrange the following tofacilitate the instructors and the students:

w Transportation

w Accommodation and provision for refreshment

w Facilities for the production of teaching aidsand documents

w Recreational facilities

w Extra Curricular activities

w Salary or allowances payment

w Collection and distribution of individual mail

w Internet facilities

Preparation

The effectiveness of the lecture(s) depends uponthe quality of preparation by the instructor.Educational philosophy dictates that the teachermust be well prepared before entering the classeven if the lesson is very simple and common. Soalthough the instructor is a "Master" in the subject,she/he should not deliver lecture without preparationas this may sometimes adversely affect her/hisprofessional reputation. Preparation includes thefollowing:

w Finding: Find the content of the lecture as perthe syllabus and collect the reference materials.

w Knowing: Know the subject matter by studyingthe reference materials.

w Sifting: Sift the subject matter in such a waythat the essentials are closely examine

w Organizing: Organize the subject mattersystematically and logically so that it can bedeliver in the class effectively. This includesthe preparation of lesson plan, hands out,presentation slides/ power point, etc.

Motivation

As stated earlier, the students must have a desireor interest to learn. So, if such interests do notshown by the class the instruction will not beeffective. However, by following some basic rulesof motivation carefully, it could create interest tothe class. They are as follows:

Advertisement: A well laid out programme includingwho is taking which subject is displayed in thenotice board and at places where the students arehanged out frequently, such advertisement will bindto attract attention to them. Furthermore the noticescan be made more attractive by adding some catchyslogans such as "what is special on this week" orsome pictorial poster, etc.


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Realism: The academic approach of conductingclass must be avoided. The lecture should be madeas realistic as possible and the subject matter mustbe related to things and happening in real life, sowherever possible, use the real thing to demonstrateor give real examples.

Competition: If an instructor could create anatmosphere for competing each other amongindividuals or groups, this will lead to enthusiasmfor learning and consequently there will be betterperformance of the students. However, thecompetition must be friendly, healthy and free frombiasness.

Variety: Seeking change is a human nature. Thisapplies in the teaching field also. So, change ofsubject matter or a variation in the lecturepresentation will help the class to avoid being bored,to promote the interest of the class and to acceleratethe learning. So sometime telling a humor, shortstory, current weather condition, etc. will motivatethe class to concentrate on the subject matter. Butthey must be natural, effortless and relevant. But,the quality of humor should never be cheap, satiricaland it should not be introduced frequently.

Surprise: One of the most important factors fordelivering instructions is to keep the brain of theclass active. To do this the instructor should surprisethe class from time to time by allowing them forperforming some relevant activities such as quiz,project or experiments without giving prior notice.

Curiosity: It is a natural phenomenon that theperson involve in an activity will have curiosity toknow how she/he is progressing. Similarly, theindividual in the class will always trying to knowhow she/he is doing and will also try to compareher/his performance with their other colleagues.Therefore, the instructor must tell the progress ofthe class in general and individuals in particular, itnot only gives a sense of achievement and prideto the good ones but also serves as a stimulant forthe weak ones to emulate.

Evaluation: After delivering certain portion ofinstructions, it is necessary to assess to whichextent the students have assimilated the knowledgeand also to provide the students a sense ofachievement. So, the instructor should evaluatethe class from time to time to judge the level ofthe class so that the instructor enables to evaluatewhether the class requires further training andrevision or to proceed further. Method of evaluationcould be different nature such as homeworkassignments, class tests, oral tests etc. While askingquestions, the instructor must remember thefollowing:

w Consider standard of the class

w Avoid ambiguity

w Put question and give time the class to thinkabout the answer

w Ask answer from any individual

w Avoid asking always from a particular student

w Frame the question for the subject matter notfor the language ability.

But at the end of the subject it is necessary to takea final test. Students must be informed well aheadof the dates of the test and try to convince theclass to prevent 'test fear'. The instructor shouldcomplete examining the answer sheets within areasonable time period and should discuss on thetest result soon after the result is published. Theresult of the final test will indicate the quality ofthe teaching as well as the standard of the class.While setting the question paper for conducting thetest, the following criteria should reflect in thequestions:

w Easy to understand and no ambiguity

w Comprehensive and cover all aspects of taughtas far as possible

w Easy to mark and assess.

w Realistic so that assessment be made to cheekthe knowledge that can be applied in practice

Activity

The instructions even from a good instructor couldbe effective only when if she/he succeeds to keepthe class reasonably engaged by assigning someactivities. The activity could be either physical ormental depend on the nature of the subject. If thestudents are allowed to handle physically theequipment related to the subject being taught, thestudents will easily learn the lesson. If the lessonis purely theoretical, the instructor could keep theclass mentally active either by conducting workshopto present findings of their assignment in the classor by questioning technique in which the instructorpermits the class to put questions.The instructor must regulate the class based onthe following criteria for question and answer:

w Adopt a friendly and encouraging attitude andhelp to frame the question, if necessary toreframe it.

w Repeat the question so that the class canunderstand it clearly.

w Give chance to answer from the class insteadof answering it by herself/himself.

w Modify the answer if necessary or give correctanswer if the class could not give proper answeror do not know the answer

w Give a brief general answer if the question isirrelevant but sincere


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w Be firm and discourage if the question isirrelevant and not sincere

w Never to bluff, if the instructor does not knowthe answer but to accept ignorance and giveright answer later.

Use of Senses

The instruction will be effective or will be graspedeasily by the class if sense appeal mediums suchas the teaching aids and the senses are used. Themore the mediums are used, the longer the subjectmatter remains in the students mind. It is worthwhileto mention a Chinese proverb to justify theimportance of using teaching aids and is as follows:

"Tell me and I will forgetShow me and I will rememberInvolve me and I will understandStep back and I will act"

The mediums could be the following:

w Auditory: Such as tape recorder, radio, etcand these aids are appeal through the senseof hearing

w Visual: Such as charts, model, films, slides,video, etc. and these aids are appeal throughsight.

w Muscular: Such as instrument, part ofequipment, etc. which has to be physicallyhandled by students and appeal through senseof touch.

w Organized aids: Such as group workassignment, demonstration, etc. in which thestudents has to involve themselves.

Human Factors

Human factors in the context of training are thecharacteristics and attitude of the instructor. So thetraining will be more effective, if the instructor hashigh moral characteristics and positive attitudetowards the teaching and consequently theorganization could produce better products. Theelements of the characteristics and attitude aregiven below.

CharacteristicsA good instructor should possess the followingcharacteristics:

Identity: Students start assessing the instructorfrom the moment before she/he comes in the classor before she/he speaks the first word. A goodpresence is a natural asset however even withoutit one can be equally impressive if the instructor iswell turned out, display good natured, agile andcheerful and be pleasant in the class. So, the

instructor must convince the class for the possessionof better identity through her/his behavior. However,the instructor should possess the following identity:

w Stand smiling, make inspiring gestures andmake the ambience of the class most agreeable.

w Be knowledgeable in the subject

w Be simple, straight forward and open to thestudents.

w Pour out ideas with utmost confidence

w Satisfy every question and dispel every doubt

w Avoid creating fear in the class

w Avoid habit to distract the class.

w Give reference to illustrate an issue

w Excavate the issue even with an allusion

w Establish eye contacts with the trainees.

Enthusiasm: Enthusiasm is contagious so if theinstructor has great enthusiasm to deliver lectureit will definitely have a positive impact on the classfor listening. At times, the class may demand suchinstructor for the other subject also, even if theinstructor does not express interest on that subject.

Voice: Voice is a natural gift so it is difficult toimprove it. However, the instructor should speakin such a way that it should be heard by the traineesitting in the last bench with the voice loud andclear. But it should not be so loud that it causesauditory discomfort to the students sitting in frontdesk.

Delivery: Speaking is an art and lecture deliveryis a major asset of the teaching. So attention to bemade so that the correct and required informationdelivered to the student. The instructor must practiceto use simple language to speak and in a reasonablespeed so that the student can catch it and emphasismust be made for the important words andstatements. She/he should try to avoid or minimizeto express meaningless expression such as "YouSee", "I mean", "Right then". If such words areused, the students will concentrate more on thewords than the lecture.

Patience: In general, a class consists of studentswith varying mental caliber and temperaments. Sowhile dealing with such a heterogeneous group ofpersons, she/he should never loose temper, showsigns of disgust and exasperation instead she/heshould be considerate, sympathetic and helpful.Otherwise, the class will loose the confidence overthe instructor and the situation will go out of controlso she/he should deal the class very seriously andpatiently,


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Firmness: Firm control over the class is essentialto put the class in discipline. This does not meanthe strictness or unfriendly, rather it will motivatethe students to maintain discipline or not showingany tendency to get away from the class. So,firmness will gain respect and even may receiveadmiration from the students.

Mannerism: Mannerism is very much related tothe behavior and habit of a person. So, the instructormust concentrates on the class and subject she/heis dealing. She/he should avoid any unpleasantactivities (such as playing with a bunch of keys,tapping the leg, walking up and down, unknowinglydisplaying discomfort etc.) which distract the classfrom what she/he are saying .

Attitude of Instructor

The attitude of the instructor determines the levelof the class. If the class has enthusiasm to learn,but the attitude of the instructor is negative thenthe students could not receive the instructions asexpected. Consequently, the class will demand anew instructor. A positive attitude of an instructoris reflected by the several factors and they are asfollows:

Knowledge of the class: The instructor shouldkeep the knowledge of the class such as name ofeach student, their strong and weak points, likesand dislikes, etc. Each student has her/his ownindividuality and likes to recognize by the teacher.So if the teacher calls a student by her/his name,it will elicit much better response.

Faithful: The instructor must be faithful not onlyto colleagues but also to the organization. If theinstructor gives speech in derogatory term of anyother colleagues or organization it will be selfdefeating. So, team spirit attitude among instructorsmust always be fostered.

Friendliness: The instructor should not displaysuperiority, hostile, aggressive or bullying attitudetowards the class as a whole or towards an individualstudent. The teacher must create an environment

to the class that she/he is with them to help, teachand guide. Even when checking and correcting theassignment, the student should feel that they arebeing advised and helped to improve her/hisweakness and not being criticized for theirperformance.

Sarcasm: Sarcasm or cynicism kill warmth andfriendliness and pollute the atmosphere of the class.A student once belittled will never forgive theinstructor and this will result in a loss of confidencein both ways. So the student will hardly believesthat the instructor will ever treat better and theinstructor, in most of the cases, will be bias to thestudent in a negative sense.

Favoritism: Favoritism in a class is a very unhealthyattitude for the class. It hurts the student andcreates jealousy. So personal likes and dislikesshould be eschewed or at least keep as far behindthe screen as possible. In the beginning, only theunfavorable ones do not regard for the instructor,but in the long run favored one will also looserespect.

Familiarity: There is an old proverb that"Familiarity breeds contempt". So the instructorshould maintain the dignity attaching to the positionof 'Teacher' and should never let it down from theclass. This does not mean that the instructor issnobbish, standoffish or self-centered.

ConclusionTraining plays a vital role especially when newthings have to be taught to a group of persons ata time. Instructional method is one of the effectivemethods to educate them in which the instructordelivers lectures on a topic and the trainees listento it. This paper tried to outline the guidelines tobe followed by the instructors for achievingcommendable results from the training. Furthermore,the instructor must keep in mind that the classconsists of persons with different background anddifferent nature so she/he must deals class carefullyand must try to contribute to further improve themethods of teaching.

References

1. Klaus M.V. Keussler; Types of Teaching and Training Methods;1985

2. Rabin K. Sharma; Human Resource Development Policy inSpace Technology Sector in Nepal, 2004

3. S.K. Parthasarathi: Instructional Method in Training, 1980


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Shashish MaharjanKathmandu UniversityDepartment of Civil and Geomatics Engineering

Dissecting Web Coverage Service (WCS)and its Clients

Introduction

The phenomenon on the earth is monitored by twomajor scientific communities. They are GISciencecommunity and Earth Science (ES) community.These communities have their own data modelsfor representing the same geographic phenomenon.GIScience community collects datasets as staticfeatures with accurate earth location. Informationrelated to location as well as time is stored asattributes. In ES community, geo-phenomenon arestored as set of parameters that vary as continuousfunction in 3- dimensional space and time (Domenicoet al., 2007). The datasets are stored asmultidimensional array structure and time is storedas dimension of the structure.

Both communities provide data to the wide rangeof users using web services. Two communities havetheir own family of protocols. GISciecne communityhas OGC Web Coverage Service (WCS) for dataaccess and Catalogue Service for Web (CSW) forsearching metadata. Likewise ES community hasdeveloped set of protocols like OPeNDAP for dataaccess and Thematic Realtime EnvironmentalDistributed Data Services (THREDDS) catalogue forfinding datasets. In this article WCS will be discussedwith its different clients available.

Web Coverage Service (WCS)

WCS, one of the standards by OGC, supportsnetworked interchange of geospatial data as"coverage" based on subsetting, scaling andreprojection. The term coverage is defined by ISOand OGC as "space varying phenomenon" i.e.geographic object with some extent whose valuesdepend on location and time. Clients can chooseportions of information available on server basedon spatial and other constraints similar to Web MapService (WMS) and Web Feature Service (WFS).However there are some characteristics of WCSthat make it different from WMS and WFS. "Unlikethe WMS, which portrays spatial data to returnstatic maps (rendered as pictures by the server),the WCS provides available data together with theirdetailed descriptions; defines a rich syntax forrequests against these data; and returns data withits original semantics (instead of pictures) whichmay be interpreted, extrapolated, etc.-and not just

portrayed". "Unlike WFS which returns discretegeospatial features, the WCS returns coveragerepresenting space-varying phenomena that relatea spatio-temporal domain to a (possiblymultidimensional) range of properties"(OGC,2008).There are three basic operations of WCS thatare: GetCapabilities, DescribeCoverage andGetCoverage. GetCapabilities returns XML documentthat describes services provided by WCS serverand brief description of coverage. DescribeCoverageallows clients to request detail information of aboutavailable coverages. Server responds with XMLdocument that describes services available forselected coverages. GetCoverage operation isperformed after GetCapabilties and DescribeCoverageoperations. This operation allow spatial, temporaland band subsetting, scaling, reprojection, and finalresult packaging, including data format encoding.One GetCoverage operation returns single coverageat a time that is encoded in a well-known coverageformat like HDF-EOS, NITF, and GeoTIFF.

Detailed Functional Description

The mandatory and optional parameters for eachoperation are discussed below.

GetCapabilities: GetCapabilities returns an XMLdocument that describes service and data collectionsfrom which clients may request coverages.

Figure : Basic operations of WCS


27

DescribeCoverage:DescribeCoverage operation returns an XMLdocument that describes one or more coveragesserved by WCS. It provides the information for aclient to assess the usability of data and to formulateGet Coverage requests.

DescribeCoverage Response:In response to a Describe Coverage request, WCSreturns XML document whose top-level element isa Coverage Description containing Coverage Offeringelements for all coverage requested. CoverageOffering extends Coverage Offering Brief, to provideadditional details on the domain and range of acoverage offering. Some of mandatory and optionalCoverage Offering elements are: name (CoverageOffering Brief), label (Coverage Offering Brief),supported CRSs, supported Formats etc. The servicemust support at least one of the following formats:w GeoTIFFw HDF-EOSw DTEDw NITFw GML

GetCoverage:GetCoverage returns values or properties of regularlyspaced locations, bundled in a requested format.GetCoverage Request Mandatory:

w SERVICE: "WCS".

w REQUEST: "GetCoverage".

w VERSION: the requested version.

w COVERAGE: the name of the coveragerequested. The current version supports asingle coverage request only.

w CRS: name of the coordinate reference systemin which requested domain constraints areexpressed (BBOX).

w BBOX: minx, miny, maxx, maxy, minz, maxz(minz and maxz are optional).

w TIME: time1, time2, or min/max/res. This isused to request a subset corresponding to thespecified time instants or intervals. Theparameter "res" is optional.

w WIDTH, HEIGHT, DEPTH: all integers are usedfor requesting a coverage to be returned witha specific grid size, i.e. number of grid pointsor cells.

w RESX, RESY, RESZ: the parameters RESX andRESY define the grid-cell size along the firstand second axes of the coordinate referencesystem given in RESPONSE_CRS. RESZ isoptional for 3D grids. Either these or WIDTH,HEIGHT, and DEPTH are required, but ifinterpolation is not supported for the requestedcoverage, both sets of parameters will beignored. In that case, BBOX alone will be usedfor sub-setting.

w FORMAT: the format to be used for returningthe coverage.

GetCoverage Response:The response to a valid GetCoverage request is acoverage extracted from the coverage requested,with the specified spatial reference system, boundingbox, size, value sets, and format.

WCS versionsThe recent version of WCS is 2.0 announced inNovember 2010. WCS version 2.0 is modified tosupport GML coverage model. WCS 2.0 supportsall GML and ISO coverage types. The earlier versions1.1.0 had functional changes like use of GridCRSin coverage description and requests, hierarchicalcoverage description. The WCS versions are modifiedduring addition of extensions like processingextensions, transaction operation extension. Theearly versions of WCS were 0.5and 0.7 that specifiesoperations of WCS.

WCS ClientsWCS Clients are software packages or modules thatare capable of performing basic WCS operations.An ideal WCS client is capable of communicatingwith OGC-compliant coverage servers for accessingmultidimensional geospatial data and handlingdifferent coverage-encoding formats. Besidesperforming basic client-server communication, WCSclients are capable of accessing, visualizing coverage,and interacting with the user. The client also providesgeorectification, reprojection, and reformattingfunctions. The execution of those functions isperformed according to the requirements of usersand capabilities of the servers. "The interactionbetween WCS client and OGC compliant webcoverage servers provides interoperable,personalized, on-demand data access and servicesof remote sensing data"(Di et al., 2002).Some of the available WCS clients are explainedbelow.

gvSIGgvSIG is desktop GIS application that can handlemost of the raster and vector data formats. Moreoverit is capable of capturing, storing, handling, analyzingand deploying any kind of referenced geographicinformation. It can access to remote servers usingOGC complaints specifications WMS, WFS and WCS(gvSIG, 2010).

gvSIG supports WCS version 1.0.0 and containsWCS client that allows user to access raster dataand add to geographical view that can be overlappedwith other information from local or remote dataservers. The data can be discovered using embeddedcatalogue service. So user can select data services


28

from the catalogue or can provide the URL of theservice provider. After connecting to the servergvSIG receives metadata information. The detailinformation about coverage is given in the nextstage. In that stage it provides the list of availablecoverage data, file format, CRS and interpolationmethods. In addition, temporal subsetting and bandselection is also possible. Users have to selectappropriate choices from the dialogue boxes beforegvSIG executes "GetCoverage" in order to displaycoverage data. It is developed in platformindependent environment using Java and designedto be easily extendable. There is provision ofadvanced functionalities like scripting support. Thisallows operations to be performed using externalscripts.

OWSLibOWSLib is an open source python OGC library thatcan access remote data sources using WMS, WFSand WCS specifications. It offers common API foraccessing service metadata and wrappers for basicWCS operations: GetCapabilities, DescribeCoverageand GetCoverage (Domenico & Lowe, 2009). Itsupports 1.0.0 and 1.1.0 versions of WCS. The firststep is to instantiate a WebCoverageService objectfor a particular WCS service. This will call the"GetCapabilities" method of the server and populateappropriate python metadata attributes. The severalavailable coverages are provided. Users can exploremore information about a particular coverage (forexample spatio-temporal extent, available outputformats).>>> airtemp.timelimits #get the temporal extents[ ’ 2024-01-15T00:00 :00 .0 ’, ’ 2054-12-15T00:00:00.0’]#find out which output formats are supported>>> airtemp.supportedFormats[’cf-netcdf’, ’GeoTiff’]

This calls the DescribeCoverage method on theserver to retrieve coverage specific metadata.DescribeCoverage requests can be expensive i.e.,it can retrieve long list of coverage of different time.In order to maintain performance the detailedmetadata is only retrieved from the server if it isspecifically requested by the client. By using theinformation gained during "DescribeCoverage", aGetCoverage request is formulated and sent to theserver.

output=wcs.getCoverage(identifier=’AirTemperature’,time=[’2024-01-15T00:00:00.0’], bbox=(-80,30,50,60), format=’cf-netcdf’)>>> f=open(’test.nc’, ’wb’)>>> f.write(output.read())>>> f.close()

The output coverage file is then written to disk andviewed using suitable software. OWSLib can alsosupports Catalogue Service for Web (CSW) and canbe used to discover metadata information of dataproviders. Python has libraries to read scientificdata formats, such as HDF(pyhdf) and netCDF(pynetcdf) and it can be combined with OWSLib.So OWSLib module can be incorporated easily intostandard-alone desktop or web-based client asmiddleware between software components.

GDALGDAL is a translator library for raster geospatialdata. It presents a single abstract data model tothe calling application for all supported formats. Italso comes with a variety of useful command lineutilities for data translation and processing. Itsupports over 50 raster formats range of rasterdata formats including HDF4, NetCDF and also canaccess WMS and WCS servers using GDAL WCSdriver. The current driver supports WCS 1.0.0 andWCS 1.1.0 servers. In addition it provides utilitiesfor data translation, image warping, subsetting,and various other common tasks (GDAL, 2010).WCS server is accessed by creating a local servicedescription XML file. The file contains the coverageserver URL, and the name of coverage. There shouldbe no spaces or other content beforethe<WCS_GDAL>element. The example XML fileis shown below.<WCS_GDAL><Serv i ceURL>ht tp: / / la i t s .gmu.edu /cg i -bin/NWGISS/NWGISS?\</ServiceURL><CoverageName>AUTUMN.hdf</CoverageName></WCS_GDAL>GDAL can be accessed from various programmingplatforms like python, c++, perl. It is used bydifferent open source GIS applications like GRASS,MapServer, QGIS, and OpenEV as primary dataaccess engine.

Multi-Protocol Geoinformation Client (MPGC):Multi-Protocol Geoinformation Client (MPGC) is theOGC compliant multi-purpose client that can accessgeospatial data using WCS, WFS, WMS and WebRegistry specifications. MPGC supports WCS 0.5and 0.7 versions. MPGC can handle range of datasetslike HDF, GeoTiff, GML, JPG, PNG, and GIF. Besidesaccessing subset of multi-dimensional data indifferent formats, it has functionalities likereprojection, resampling, reformatting, subsettingand visualization as well as analysis of multi-dimensional data (MPGC, 2005). MPGC is equippedwith Catalog Service for Web (CSW) specificationso that services can be discovered and registered.The server URL can also be taken as input fromusers. The list of coverage data is derived from


29

"GetCapabilities" and other attributes for each datalike bbox, range set, resolution, and spatial referencesystem, are derived from the "DescribeCoverage"response. On the basis of these information usercan select particular coverage data. After choosingdata, users can subset coverage data in spatial,temporal, resolution/size and range dimensions.Then "GetCoverage" request is sent on accordingto setting made by user and coverage is retrieved.The MPGC is a standard alone thick client based onJava platform. It uses the HDF Java NativeInterfaces, which calls the HDF library.

GaiaGaia is an open-geospatial viewer that can accessmultiple geospatial sources such as OGC WMS,WCS and WFS, commercial services such asMicrosoft Bing Maps, OpenStreetMap and Yahoo!Maps. This client supports various file formatsincluding ESRI Shapefiles, Google EarthKML/KMZ,DXF, MIF, Geography Markup Language (GML) andGML for Simple Features (GMLsf)(Gaia, 2010).Gaia supports accessing WCS server versions 1.0.0,1.1.0 and 1.1.1. The list of WCS servers is providedthat can be added and updated. Once a server ischosen, different available coverage are extracted.The required coverage can be selected and addedas layer after inspecting provided preview and shortinformation. There is provision of spatial subsettingusing parameters but time subsetting is not possiblein the current version. It supports GeoTIFF andNetCDF file formats.

The comparison between different WCS clients isshown in following table. The criteria for choosingbest WCS clients are:

w Interpolation

w Spatial subsetw Temporal subsetw WCS version supportw Format of GetCoveragesw Extensibilityw Integration into client server architecture.w Metadata/ Catalogue supportw OPENDAP/THREDDS support

Conclusion

Most of the WCS clients support the mandatoryfunctions of the WCS and also provides support formost of the raster formats like NetCDF and GeoTIFF.The possibility of integration into system asmiddleware to access WCS server was alsoexamined. The advanced functionality of usingscripting language can enable the client programto act as middleware. gvSIG has scriptingfunctionality with jython. Similarly OWSLib andGDAL can be used with programming languages.

Large volume of earth observation data are providedin the internet using OPeNDAP standard but onlyfew data servers have adopted WCS standards. Soit would be better if WCS client can also accessdata servers implemented using OPeNDAP standards.The WCS clients are unableto connect OPeNDAPservers. Nevertheless python module named Pydapcan be used to access OPeNDAP. OWSLib modulesupports the latest version of WCS, can connectwith CSWservers, and has possibility to use asmiddleware. It can be used along with other pythonmodules that can connect with OPeNDAP server.So OWSLib is most appropriate WCS client.

Table : Comparison between different WCS client applications.

OWSLib gvSLG GDAL Gaia MPGC

Interpolation Yes Yes Yes No YesSpatial Subset Yes Yes Yes Yes YesTemporal Subset Yes Yes Yes No YesWCS version support 1.0.0,1.1.0 1.0.0 1.0.0,1.1.0 1.0.0,1.1.0,

.1.1.10.5,0.7

Format of Getcoverages

GeoTIFF, HDF,Net CDF

Geo TIFF Most of therasterformats

GeoTIFF NetCDF

Geo TIFF,HDF,NetCDF

Extensibility Yes Yes Yes Yes YesIntegration into clientserver architecture

Yes Yes Yes No -

Metadata/Cataloguesupport

Yes Yes No No Yes

OPeNDAP/THREDDS No No No No No


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References

Di, L., Yang, W., Deng, M., Deng, D., & McDonald, K. (2002). Interoperable access ofremote sensing data through NWGISS. In Geoscience and remote sensing symposium,2002. IGARSS’02. 2002 IEEE international (Vol. 1, pp. 255–257).

Domenico, B., Caron, J., Davis, E., Nativi, S., & Bigagli, L. (2007). GALEON: standards-based web services for interoperability among Earth sciences data systems. In Geoscienceand remote sensing symposium, 2006. igarss 2006. ieee international conference on(pp. 313–316).

Gaia. (2010). Gaia Geospatial Platform. http://www.thecarbonproject.com/gaia.php/.

(Accessed date: 2010.10.12)

GDAL. (2010). Geospatial Data Abstraction Library. http://www.gdal.org/. (Accesseddate: 2010.10.27)

gvSIG. (2010). gvsig. http://www.gvsig.org/. (Accessed date: 2010.10.25)

MPGC. (2005). Multi-Protocol Geoinformation Client. http://geobrain.laits.gmu.edu/mpgc/.(Accessed date: 2010.09.12)

OGC. (2008). Web Coverage Service(WCS) implementation standard, version 1.1.2,OGC (No.07-067r5).

BAGMATI ENTERPRISESRaut NiwasP.O. Box : 26350336/16 TripurapathTripureswor, Kathmandu Nepal

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31

Introduction

People migrating to urban area in search ofopportunities and facilities is not a new phenomenon.Throughout history, the increasing in urbansettlement has been occurring as a default process.But with the enhancement in transportation andcommunication facilities in the modern age, andwith the improvement in people’s lifestyle filled withaspirations of progress and better quality of life,the rapid swelling in urban areas has been historic.Urban spatial areas have expanded in an acceleratedspeed during the last five decades, and rates ofurban population growth are higher than the overallgrowth in most countries because urban areas arethe locus of economic activity and transportationnodes (Masek et al., 2000).

A modern nation must have all means and resourcesto regulate, analyze and monitor the boomingurbanization settlement in its cities. A plannedrecord and know-how of inhabited area not onlyhelps in planned settlement but also in emergencyplanning, hazard mapping and disaster management.Remote Sensing with all of its means and resourceshas become a valuable tool for this kind ofassessments. The following text deals with the waysof extracting urban settlement area from Landsatimages and then moves to classification of the landcover changes. This proposition can be adoptedwith minor rectifications for the above assessment.The primary area of interest here is KathmanduValley, the capital city of Nepal. Use of the outputand applicability can be widespread, discussion ofwhich is beyond the scope of this paper.

Obtaining Satellite Imagery

Landsat is a mid-resolution satellite affording imagerywith synoptic view yet detailed enough tocharacterize the human scale processes, e.g.: urbangrowth. There are three sensors used in the Landsatprogram. The Multi Spectral Scanner (MSS) mission

Land Cover Change and Urban SettlementExtraction in Kathmandu Valley using Remote

Sensing: A PropositionShital DhakalGeomatics Engineering-2008, Kathmandu University, NepalErasmus Mundus Exchange Scholar, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, [email protected]

ran from 1972 to 1993 and had four spectral channelcovering the green, red, and (2) near infraredchannels. The spatial resolution was 57 or 60meters. The Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) missionbegan in the mid-80’s and Landsat 5 is still inoperation. This sensor features seven spectralchannels at 30 meters spatial resolution. The Landsat7 Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) mission beganin 1999 and is still operational. It features the samespectral channels as the TM sensor, with the additionof a second thermal channel and a 15 meterpanchromatic channel. On May 31, 2003 the ETMscan line corrector failed and ETM images sincethat time are missing large portions each scene.On USGS sites these images are designated as SLC-Off and use of these images is generally notrecommended.

There are many sites that can be used to locateand obtain Landsat satellite imagery. Threerecommended sites are GLOVIS and Earth Explorerby the USGS and the Global Land Cover Facility(GLCF) at the University of Maryland. The mostcomplete collection of Landsat data can be foundat two USGS sites; GLOVIS and EarthExplorer. Abroad collection of Landsat data spanning the entiretime of the program, beginning in the early 1970’scan be found. The user interface and downloadprocesses are a bit different for each site. Thereare several international sources of Landsat imageswhich typically charge $1,000 or more per scene.More information about each is listed below:

w GLOVIS - http://glovis.usgs.gov/w Earth Explorer- http://earthexplorer.usgs.gov/w GLCF-http: http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu/

A. Land Cover Change:The classification of the downloaded imagecan be done through following ways:

w Supervised Classificationw Unsupervised Classification


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Unsupervised Classification

Unsupervised Classification is a technique forclassifying land cover features in a digital image.In the unsupervised approach, the dominant spectralresponse patterns that occur within an imageare extracted and the desired information classesare identified through collection of ground datai.e. by visits to the site in the image.

In popular remote sensing software like ENVI,Unsupervised Classification is provided by way oftwo modules named IsoDATA and k-means.

IsoDATA

The Iterative Self-Organizing Data Analysis Technique(IsoDATA) is a widely used clustering algorithmwhich makes a large number of passes through theremote sensing dataset. It uses the minimumspectral distance formula to form clusters. ISODATAbegins with either arbitrary cluster means or meansof an existing signature set, and each time theclustering repeats, the means of these clusters areshifted. The new cluster means are used for thenext iteration. The ISODATA utility repeats theclustering of the image until either a maximumnumber of iterations have been performed, or amaximum percentage of unchanged pixels havebeen reached between two iterations. For ourpurpose IsoDATA can be used with 20 iteration toobtain the result.

K-Means

K- means is one amongst the numerous clusteringalgorithm, that accepts from the analyst thenumber of clusters to be located in the data. Thealgorithm then arbitrarily “seeds” or locates,that number of clusters centers in themultidimensional measurement space. Each pixelin the image is then assigned to the cluster whosearbitrary mean vector is closest. After all pixelshave been classified in this manner, revised meanvectors for each of the clusters are computed. Therevised means are then used as the basis to reclassifythe image data. The procedure continues until thereis no significant change in the location of class meanvectors between successive iterations of thealgorithm. Once this point is reached, the analystdetermines the land cover identity of each spectralclass.

Supervised Classification

In a supervised classification, the analyst identifiesin the imagery homogeneous representative samplesof the different surface cover types (information

classes) of interest. These samples are referred toas training areas. The selection of appropriatetraining areas is based on the analyst's familiaritywith the geographical area and their knowledge ofthe actual surface cover types present in the image.Thus, the analyst is "supervising" the categorizationof a set of specific classes.

The training sites for the Kathmandu Valley can bedeveloped based on following classes:

w Green Vegetationw Urban built upw Roadsw Water bodyw Free Space

The classified image can then be imported to GISsoftware for mapping purpose.

B. Extraction of Urban Feature:

An urban area is a complex ecosystem composedof heterogeneous materials. Nevertheless, thereare still some generalizing components among thesematerials. Ridd (1995) divided the urban ecosysteminto three components, i.e., impervious surfacematerial, green vegetation, and exposed soil whileignoring water surfaces. However, the open wateris an important component of the urban surfaceand has to be taken into consideration Xu (2007).Hence while extracting features from KathmanduValley, the urban land-use can be grouped into thethree generalized categories, i.e. built-up land,vegetation, and open water. Based on these threeelements, three indices, NDBI, SAVI, and MNDWI,can be selected in this study to represent abovethree major land-use classes, respectively.

Soil Adjusted Vegetation Index (SAVI):Though Normalized Differential Vegetation Index(NDVI) is widely being adopted in the remotesensing of vegetation, some study suggest to employSAVI to highlight vegetation features due to itsadvantage over NDVI when applied in an area withlow plant cover such as the urban areas. SAVI canwork in the area with plant cover as low as 15percent, while NDVI can only work effectively inthe area with plant cover above 30 percent (Ray,1994).

The SAVI is calculated using the following equation(Huete, 1988):

SAVI =(NIR - Red) (1 + l)

NIR + Red + l


33

where l is a correction factor ranging from 0 forvery high densities to 1 for very low densities. Avalue of 0.5 can be adopted for our purpose.

Modified Normalized Difference Water Index(MNDWI)

McFeeters (1996) proposed the NormalizedDifference Water Index (NDWI) to delineate openwater features, which is expressed as follows:

where GREEN is a green band such as TM2, andNIR is a near infrared band such as TM4.Xu (2005) modified the NDWI by using a middleinfrared (MIR) band such as TM5 to substitute theNIR band in the NDWI. The modified NDWI (MNDWI)is expressed as follows:

Normalized Difference Built-up Index (NDBI):The built-up land image can be produced using theNDBI of Zha et al. (2003) with the followingequation:

The images obtained from the three indices can betreated as three bands in new image data set whichcan undergo supervised classification usingmaximum likelihood algorithm for extraction of builtup land features.

Accuracy Assessment

Packages like ENVI can calculate a confusion matrix(contingency matrix) using either a ground truthimage or using ground truth regions of interest(ROIs). In each case, an overall accuracy, producerand user accuracies, kappa coefficient, confusionmatrix, and errors of commission and omission arereported.

Here, we can use the test site ROIs that we collectin the above step to assess the classificationaccuracy.

Conclusion

Knowledge of land use, land cover and extractionof built-up features is important for many planningand management activities. With rapid urbanization,it has become difficult to keep a track of changingland use and constructed features. However, theuse of Remote Sensing can ease the process to agreat extent and produce a highly accurate output.The methodology mentioned above can be adopted,keeping some spaces for correction, in and aroundKathmandu Valley for various planning, and disastermanagement activities.

References:

Masek, J.G., F.E. Lindsay, and S.N. Goward, 2000. Dynamics of urban growth in the Washington DCmetropolitan area, 1973–1996, from Landsat observations, International Journal of Remote Sensing,21(18):3473–3486

Ridd, M.K., 1995. Exploring a VIS (vegetation-impervious surface-soil) model for urban ecosystemanalysis through remote sensing: Comparative anatomy for cities, International Journal of RemoteSensing, 16(12):2165–2185.

Xu, H.,2007. Extraction of Urban Built-up Land Features from Landsat Imagery Using a Thematic-oriented Index Combination Technique. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing,73 (12):1381-1391

Xu, H., 2005. A study on information extraction of water body with the Modified Normalized DifferenceWater Index (MNDWI), Journal of Remote Sensing, 9(5):511–517.

Zha, Y., J. Gao, and S. Ni, 2003. Use of normalized difference built-up index in automatically mappingurban areas from TM imagery,International Journal of Remote Sensing, 24(3):583–594.

McFeeters, S.K., 1996. The use of normalized difference water index (NDWI) in the delineation ofopen water features, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 17(7):1425–1432.

Huete, A.R., 1988. A soil-adjusted vegetation index (SAVI), Remote Sensing of Environment,25(3):295–309

NDWI =GREEN - NIRGREEN + NIR

MNDWI =GREEN - MIRGREEN + MIR

NDBI =MIR - MIRMIR + MIR


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Introduction

An assessment is the systematic collection, reviewand use of information for depth understandingfrom different sources [1]. Based on this definitionof an assessment, an assessment framework isdefined as the conceptual structure for the collection,review and use of information to guide the studyfor developing an assessment fraework. It is difficultto find the methodologies to assess the role of landtenure in hydropower development. Therefore, itis necessary to develop an assessment frameworkfrom scratch for assessing the role of land tenurein hydropower development. An assessmentframework is very important to assess how issuesrelated to land tenure and property rights areimpacting the success of hydropower development.An assessment framework provides guidelines andidentify the aspects that should be considered inan assessment [2]. An assessment framework findsthe aspects that are to be expected and to beconsidered during an assessment process [3]. Itshows that formulating assessment framework isessential to include, review and use core aspects.Land tenure assessment is required for determiningthe real cause of conflicts and also for theimplementation of a plan and program to supportlocal communities [4]. The main objective of the studyis to prepare the assessment framework for assessingthe role of land tenure in hydropower development.

Methods and Materials

The desk study is selected for the study. The deskstudy is followed by the literature review. The studyis started with critical reviewing of scientific literaturein the land tenure in hydropower development. Thescientific literature such as journal articles,conference papers, books and documents includingresearch/project reports are used for the purposeof this research and are mentioned in referencesection.

Findings

Some cases of an assessment approaches are foundwith their specific objective which are discussed asfollows.

Comparative evaluation approach

At first goals are defined and the ways to get thatgoal in this approach. One or more qualitative andquantitative indicators for each goal are formulatedand benchmark is developed for each indicator.Optimal benchmarks are developed as best practice[5]. The overview of framework for this approachis given in the Table1.

Methodology for Assessing the Role of LandTenure in Hydropower Development

Subash GhimireFaculty, Kathmandu University, School of Engineering, Department of Civil and Geomatics [email protected]

ABSTRACTAn assessment framework is required to assess how issues related to land tenure and property rights areimpacting the success of hydropower development. It is difficult to find the methodologies to assess therole of land tenure in hydropower development. Therefore, the main objective of the study is to developan assessment framework for assessing the role of land tenure in hydropower development. The deskstudy is followed by the literature review and is started with critical reviewing of scientific literature inthe land tenure in hydropower development. Based on the scope of an assessment, various aspects;elements are identified for an assessment. Scope in an assessment is the evaluation areas that providereference for the assessment framework. The aspects are the breakdown of these evaluation areas. Theelements are the smaller units of aspects for an assessment. Based on these elements strategies aredeveloped by strength, weakness, opportunity and threat (SWOT) analyses. The strategies are the wayto achieve the objective and indicators are measurable variables such as types, number of stages,percentage of respondents etc. and are developed based on the strategies. It is found that good practicescriteria are optimal performance of indicator. Finally, the reveals that an assessment framework is importantbecause it provides guidelines and determines the aspects that should be focused in an assessment. Goodpractices and indicators are the methods for assessing the role of land tenure in hydropower development.


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Evaluation Area Aspects Indicators Good Practices

Policy level Relevant Aspects Relevant indicators Good practice for each indicators

Management level Relevant aspects Relevant indicators Good practice for each indicators

………………. …………….. ………………. ……………

Logical framework matrix approachIn this approach, key elements of project are structured in a way to give target input, planned activities,and expected output and are interconnected logically [6]. It gives the basis for formulation of action planand a framework for evaluation. The overview of the logical framework matrix approach is given in theTable 2.

Table.LFA approach for evaluation by [6]

Good practice criteria approachThis approach of evaluation consider the evaluation area, aspects, indicators and good practice criteriafor the evaluation[7,8]. The overview is shown in the Table 3. For each indicator, good practice criteriaare developed for the evaluation.

Table.Good practice criteria approach by [7,8]

Comparison of Evaluation Approaches

An approach followed by [7] involves mainly policylevel, management level and operation level as anevaluation area. The central elements defined forthe evaluation is the integrated form of objective,strategy, outcomes and indicators and resultevaluation. These elements are correlated with thevarious evaluation areas whereas LFA approach iswidely applicable in evaluation of LAS project ofinternational donor. Many donors such as WorldBank and Asian Development Bank (ADB) requestthe application of it in project proposal and reports.An approach used by [5] for evaluation of nationalLAS followed the goal concepts (Table 1). Bycomparing the characteristics of each approach itis found that no any approach can be perfectly usedfor the assessment of role of land tenure inhydropower development which considers theevaluation areas as the political decision making,planning and feasibility, design, implementationand operation stage.

An assessment framework for the HydropowerdevelopmentAn assessment framework for this study is more

influenced by the idea of [7] and [5]. The Figure1 gives an overview for an assessment of role ofland tenure for this research. Based on the scopeof an assessment, various aspects; elements areidentified for an assessment. Scope in an assessmentis the evaluation areas that provide reference forthe assessment framework. The aspects are thebreakdown of these evaluation areas. The elementsare the smaller units of aspects for an assessment.Policies, Governance, Tenure and rights on land,Threats and power degree, land acquisition are themajor aspects for assessing the role of land tenureas reviewed from [4]. External factor and impactare also the key aspects for the assessment in LandAdministration System [8] . These aspects arechosen for the assessment in this research becausethese aspects have correlation with the scope ofhydropower development. The stakeholders’ capacityand expectation are the external factors whereassocial and environmental effects and stakeholders’satisfaction are the impacts. Based on these elementsstrategies are developed by strength, weakness,opportunity and threat (SWOT) analyses. Thestrategies are the way to achieve the objective and

Intervention logic OVI Mov Assumption

Purpose Purpose OVI Purpose Mov Assumption

Output Output OVI Output MoV Assumption

Activities Input Budget Assumption

Precondition

Goals

Goal 1

Goal 2

…………

Indicators

Indicator 1 for Goal 1Indicator 2 for Goal 1

Indicator 1 for Goal 2Indicator 2 for Goal 2

………

Bench mark ( % , yes, no, value )

Benchmark 1 Benchmark 2

Benchmark 3 Benchmark 4

……….

Source

Best practice 1 Bestpractice 2

Best practice 3 Bestpractice 4

……….


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indicators are measurable variables such as types,number of stages, percentage of respondents etc.and are developed based on the strategies. Goodpractices criteria are optimal performance of indicator

and are developed from the literature review.Indicators and good practice criteria are the methodsto assess the role of land tenure within the scope.

Figure.An Assessment Framework

Following scope, aspects and elements are identified for assessment of role of land tenure in hydropowerdevelopment [9].

Table .Scope, Aspects and Elements for an assessment

Political decisionmaking

Policies: Land, hydropower andenvironmental policies

Policy formulation approach, access to land, equityin access to land & sustainability

Governance Public participation, access to information &transparency

Planning andfeasibility study

Tenure and rights on land Forms of rights, ownership & Land use


External Factors Stakeholders expectation

Design Governance Public participation, access to information &transparency

External Factor Stakeholders expectation

Implementation Land acquisition Resettlement and compensation

External Factors Stakeholders capacity & stakeholder satisfaction


Threats and power degree Land conflicts

Operation Impact Improvement of socioeconomic status and biologicalenvironment & stakeholder satisfaction


Stages/Scope Aspects Elements


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Strategies, Indicators and Good practice for anAssessment

SWOT analysis is commonly known for the situationanalysis within the strategic planning process. Thesituation analysis is the way of identifying strategicfit within internal strengths and external opportunitieswhile working on internal weakness and external

threat [6]. The strategies in this study are developedby SWOT matrix method because it is easy, flexibleand basic tool in the strategic planning processcomparing to other methods such as balanced scorecard and strategic grids. The SWOT matrix isrepresented in the Table 3.5 and matches externaland internal factors.

Table.SWOT matrix

Indicators and good practice criteria

The indicators are formulated to develop the household and interview questionnaire for the collection ofdata based on the strategies formulated in the Table . Optimal performance of the indicators is definedas good practice criteria. An assessment of the land tenure in hydropower development on defined indicatoris used to compare to related good practice criteria. The overview of aspects, strategies, indicators andgood practices criteria are shown in the Table 3.7. Indicators and good practice criteria are the basis forthe assessment.

Table 6. Strategies, Indicators and good practice

Weakness

- Manage all types of land required forhydropower development.

- Relocation/Resettlement of the affectedpeople

- Provision for access to information toaffected people.

- Implementation of good practice

Threats

- Stakeholder's satisfaction- Cooperation and coordination with funding

agencies- Identifying various land conflicts- Sustainable hydropower projects- Better policy formulation.- Maintain properly the land records.

Strength

- Improvement of land tenure securityby land registration

- Upgrading of Land tenure.- Improvement livelihood of people

Opportunity

- Public awareness can be increased- Right to access land can be increased- Equity in access to land

Internal Factors

External Factors

Improve equity inaccess to land

Status of equity of land in project area. Equitable to all.

Provide access to land. Number and ways of access to land All should have access to land andways are based on the existingground condition.

Support sustainability Kinds of social, environmental andeconomic impact by the project.

Socially, environmentally andeconomically feasible.

Follow better policyformulation approach

Types of land policy formulationapproach

Policy formulation is based onbottom up approach to incorporateinterest of affected families

Manage all ownershipand use rights.

Types of ownership and use rights inthe project area.

Ownership /use of land is basedon the existing ground condition.

Support tenureupgrading.

Status of land registration certificateissued.

All rights are registered

Strategies/goals Indicators Good Practices

Polic

y


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Improve land tenuresecurity.

Status of legally recognized land rights.

Support landregistration and landmarket system.

Transactions status before and afterimplementation of the project.

Transaction status is improved.

Increase Publicawareness

Stakeholder involved in awarenessprogram.

All stakeholders are participatedin awareness program

Improve publicparticipation level

Provide information foraffected people

Involve localstakeholders andcommunities

Types of people getting informationeasily.

All stakeholders are timely andsufficiently informed about theproject.

Define role andresponsibility ofstakeholders

Ways of involving stakeholders regularlyin the project

Roles are well defined

Adopt suitableacquisition andcompensationprocedure

Identify the various landconflicts

Identify stakeholdersexpectation Buildstakeholders capacity

Improve social andenvironmentalconditions. Measurestakeholders satisfactionlevel

Strategies/goals Indicators Good Practices

Tenu

re &

rig

htG

over

nanc

eA

cqui

siti

onIm

pact

Exte

rnal

fac

tor

Thre

ats

- Types of training carried out- Number of employed family members.- Effect on education by the project- Status of access to basic facilities due

to hydropower project in the area.- Types of family structure.- Satisfaction level in getting

compensation and implementation ofthe project.

- Types of mitigation measures

- Local resource is given a firstpriority. -Affected familiesincome level has been improved.

- Socioeconomic status of theaffected families has beenimproved.

- Affected families are satisfiedwith the procedure.

- Mitigation measures is applied

- Various types of benefits that can beexpected from the projects

- Types of employee in the projec- Types of training for the affected

families- Stakeholder and their role

- Strategies for post constructionbenefits are available.

- Use of local resources as far aspossible.

- stakeholders capacity isincreased

- Ensure minimum conflict- Mechanism for resolving

conflicts is available.

- Types of land disputes/conflicts in theproject

- Ways of resolving land conflicts

- Method of land acquisition iscommonly accepted in the context.

- Less people is affected- Scientific valuation procedure is

applied

- Types of acquisition and compensationprocedure.

- Number of affected people- valuation procedures

- Participation and benefits isensured

- The stakeholders’ interest iswell addressed in each stage ofparticipation

- Access to information is easierfor these people

- More source is used fordissemination

- Access to information for affectedpeople.

- Source of dissemination of information.

- Benefits of participation- Number of participation stage and

respondents.

Discussions

It is difficult to find the appropriate methodologiesto assess the role of land tenure in hydropower

development. Various approaches such asComparative evaluation approach, Logical frameworkmatrix approach and Good practice criteria approachare identified during the study. But no approaches


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are perfectly can be applied for the assessment ofrole of land tenure in hydropower development.Therefore, th is assessment frameworkis developed from beginning by reviewing variousliterature for assessing the role of land tenure inhydropower development. This assessmentframework is more influenced by combination ofthese three approaches. It is no doubt that anassessment framework is very important to assesshow issues related to land tenure and propertyrights (LTPR) are impacting the success ofhydropower development. An assessment frameworkprovides guidelines and identify the scope, aspects,elements that should be considered in anassessment. Indicators and good practice criteriaare the methods to assess the role of land tenurewithin the scope of the development. Variousindicators are developed based on the strategieswhich can be used to formulate the questionnairefor the data collection. It is important to beconsidered all the aspects and elements (asmentioned in Table 4 ) in assessing the role of landtenure.

Conclusion and Recommendation

An assessment framework is important because itprovides guidelines and determines the aspects

that should be focused in an assessment.Determining the scope of an assessment is essentialto identify the extent up to which it should becarried out. Land policies, Land tenure and rights,Governance, threats and power degree, landacquisition, external factors and impacts are thekey aspects for an assessment. The strategies aredeveloped by SWOT matrix and are used as goalsfor an assessment which helped to formulate theindicators. Indicators are the key variables whichsupports in formulating the questionnaire. A goodpractice criterion is an optimal performance ofindicators and is the methodology to assess therole of land tenure in hydropower development.This assessment framework is developed to assessthe role of land tenure based on some literature asmentioned in reference section. Further study canbe carried out to validate the strength of thisassessment framework.

Acknowledgements

The author is greatly thankful to KathmanduUniversity (KU) and University of Twente, Facultyof Geo Information Science and Earth Observation,ITC, The Netherlands for their support to carry outthe study.

REFERENCES

1 . Palomba, C. A., & Banta, T. W, Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing, andImproving Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999. 4.

2 . Reijersa, H. A., & Mansarb, S. L. Best practices in business process redesign:an overviewand qualitative evaluation of successful redesign heuristics. The International Journalof management Science (2004).

3 . Crisp, B. R., Anderson, M. R., Orme, J., & Lister, P. G.,Learning and teaching in socialwork education: Textbooks and frameworks on assessment (2005).

4 . Galudra, G., Sirait, M., Pasya, G., & Fay, C,A Rapid Land Tenure Assessment Manual forIdentifying the Nature of Land Tenure Conflicts (2009).

5 . Bandeira, P., Sumpsi, J. M., & Falconi, C, Evaluating land administration systems: acomparative method with an application to Peru and Honduras (2009).

6 . Groenendjik, E. M. C., & Dopheide, E. J. M.,Planning and management Tools (2003)Enschede, International Institute for geoinformation science and Earth Observation,ITC.

7 . Steudler, D., A Framework for the Evaluation of Land Administration Systems (2004).The University of Melbourne, Melbourne.

8 . Steudler, D., & Williamson, I. P.,Evaluation of National Land Administration System inSwitzerland Case Study Based on a management model(2005).

9 . Ghimire,S.Assessing the role of land tenure in hydropower development fpr social andenvironmental effects.MSc Thesis.(2011), University of Twente. Faculty of GeoinfomationScience and Earth Observation,ITC, the Netherlands


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Prefeasibility Study of Mini-Hydropower atEastern Part of Sagarmatha Region

Abhishek Manadhar1#, Prashant Ghimire2*, Nishchal Aryal3#, Prof. Dr. Ramesh Kumar Maskey4*#, Anthony Carvalho5+* Department of Civil and Geomatics Engineering, Kathmandu University# Center for Excellence in Production and Transportation of Electrical Energy+ ADAPT Asia Pacific1 [email protected] [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Abstract

Villages of eastern part of Khumjung VDC, Sagarmatha region are deprived of source of electricity exceptsolar power which seldom fulfils the lowest electricity demand of the region. This study hence is directedtoward the prefeasibility study of hydropower at Imja River situated at Dingboche Village.The study depicts the possibility of a mini-hydropower of 585 kW from the River at Dingboche Villagewith its intake at Bibre Goth, 2 km upstream the River from Dingboche.

Keywords: Mini-Hydropower, Topographic Survey, Imja River

Study AreaThe study area is the region of Imja River atDingboche extending up to Bibre Goth, 2 Kilometreseast to the Dingboche. Dingboche village lies ateastern part of Khumjung VDC, Sagarmatha Region.The nearest villages to Dingboche are Pheriche,Chhukung and Lobuche. There are 6 lodges and14 residential houses at Chhukung, 21 lodges and11 residential houses at Dingboche, 13 lodges and10 residential houses at Pheriche.Most of the people

FIGURE Study Area

Introduction

Four villages, Dingboche, Chhukkung, Pheriche andLobuche of the Khumjung VDC, Sagarmatha Regionlack any source of renewable energy except solarpower, which is unable to meet the general demandof electricity. The energy demand of the region ismainly for the room heating system and cooking.According to Vaidya (2011) the sources of energysupplies at this regions are kerosene brought fromKathmandu, fodder collected from a few hours walkdownhill and cattle dunk which contributes 50%,30% and 20% respectively. Even with all thosesources, the demand of energy on the peak touristseason is seldom met. Hence, a sustainable sourceof electricity in this region is inevitable in long run.

The Imja River is one of the tributaries of DudhKoshi River, flowing through Dingboche village.There have been previous studies on possibility ofgeneration of hydro-power from Imja River (Vaidy,2011) (Allard et al, 2011). People at Dingbochehave even established a company named asDingboche Bidhyut Co. and its desk study has calledfor a hydropower capacity of 200kW in 2009 (Allardet al, 2011). Nevertheless, the detailed studyregarding the possibility of hydropower at this areais inevitable. Hence, this study is directed towardspre-feasibility study of mini-hydropower plant atImja River at Dingboche.


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living in this region are associated with tourism andhospitality business as this region is regarded asone of the major trekking destination of world.Potato and barley are the major agricultural productsproduced here. Very few population practicecultivation of lettuces, radish and carrots but theyare limited to household use only. Agriculturalproducts, produced here seldom last for somemonths.

Field Survey and AnalysisA reconnaissance survey of the region resulted onbest possible sites for prospective intake, forebayand powerhouse. In order to cover the area includingall the entities of powerhouse, a set of traversesurvey was carried out at Dingboche region. Thetraverse loop consisted 11 control points as shownin Table 1. The traverse loop was referenced totwo national control points of third order establishedby Department of Survey, Nepal. Survey workswere carried out with total station (PENTAX R425v).

The instrumental error is ± (2 + 2 ppm x D) mm.The contributions of the weather and personal errorincrease the error though. Despite extreme weathercondition, the total error of the traverse loop atDingboche retion whose total distance was 4270mwas 8 cm, 35 cm and 25 cm on Easting, Northingand Elevation respectively, which were adjusted inrespect to the traverse length.

Based on these established control points, detailedsurveys of prospective intake, forebay, andpowerhouse were carried out. The survey includedthe recording of the topographic features and pointsto depict the general topography. Nevertheless, forpenstock, cross-sections were recorded at chainageinterval of 25 m starting from powerhouse.Discharges were measured at intake region and tailrace region using salt-dilution method and tracermethod using sulphorodamine G. A power-demandsurvey was carried out with the help of KhumbuAlpine Conservation Council (KACC).

Unfavourable weather condition hampered the workto some extent which resulted on incomplete surveyof prospective canal.

TABLE Adjusted Traverse CoordinatesSN Easting Northing ElevationCP1 483959.3810 3086026.0180 4311.097CP2 483846.4095 3086237.8766 4323.011CP3 484150.5430 3086323.6699 4336.509CP4 484356.8034 3086386.5077 4340.334CP5 484569.2525 3086443.2551 4357.078CP6 484858.0591 3086466.0293 4382.920CP7 485185.1415 3086446.4367 4413.708CP8 485485.0402 3086594.3599 4459.024CP9 485799.2563 3086657.1855 4482.071CP10 485120.1673 3086373.5130 4401.198CP11 484368.0581 3086345.7722 4340.899

Result and Discussion

Detailed topographic maps of intake, forebay andpowerhouse region with control interval of 1m wasprepared. As the control points were derived fromnational control points of third order, the projectionsystem used was Modified UTM projection systemwith Everest-Bangladesh datum. The forebay(Figure II) and powerhouse (Figure III) lies atDingboche Village, just after the end of village atEast. The Coordinates of the proposed forebay are484056.6544 Easting, 3086537.3073 Northing and4470 Elevation above mean sea level and theproposed powerhouse are 484153.525 Easting,3086331.416 Northing, and 4336 Elevation abovemean sea level. The proposed intake region (FigureIV) lies at the point near Bibre Goth, 2 km upstreamfrom Dingboche. The coordinates of intake pointare 485772.273 Easting, 3086615.104 Northingand 4471 Elevation above mean sea level.

The discharge of the Imja River at intake regionand tailrace are 2.72 and 2.85 m3/s respectively.Observing the monthly average discharge, mediumirrigation project methodology (MIP Method)suggests the discharge available be used for theplant should be 0.6317 m3/s throughout the year.Gross head available for the plant is 135 meters.If efficiency of the plant taken 70%, the total powergenerated would be 585 kW.


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A research by Vaidhya (2011) suggested themaximum power of 400 kW generated from anintake site around 500 m upstream of Dingbocheand a powerhouse around 1.5 km downstream withhead difference 80m. However, this studies showwith the same distance of canal, more power canbe generated as more head can be gained.

As per the demand survey, the average energydemand on the peak hour per household atDingboche, Pheriche, Chhukung and Lobuche countsto 5KW. The total household at those villagesexcluding Lobuche is 75. If we assume the totalhousehold to be 100 including Lobuche, the totalenergy demand on the peak season counts up to500 kW. Driven by the economic activities of thisregion, the households are increasing. Incorporatingthis fact, the energy demand of the region isanticipated to increase in future. Hence, in orderto hold the peak demands of energy, a mini-hydropower plant of full capacity (585 kW) is required.

Conclusions and recommendationThe study reveals the potential of 585 kW of electrical

energy from the Imja River at Dingboche villagewhich could be shared with nearest three villagesnamely, Pheriche, Chhukung and Lobuche. Theaccess to clean energy will address the need ofreducing green house gas emission as well raisingadaptability to climate change risk. This study doesnot take the current geological data into account.Hence detail survey with geological analysis issuggested for future studies.AcknowledgementWe would like to thank ADAPT Asia Pacific, ICIMOD,Kathmandu University, Prof. Dr. Bhadra ManTuladhar, Prof. Dr. Bhola Thapa, Prof. Dr. SanjayNath Khanal, Dr. Rijan Bhakta Kayastha for theirgenerous support. We would like to express ourgratitude to Er. Shankar Lal Baidya, SagarmathaNational Park, Khumbu Alpine Conservation Council,Mr. Kapindra Rai and Sagarmatha Pollution ControlCommittee, Mr. Chime Kalden Sherpa and KhumbuBijuli Company for providing invaluable supportsand information.

References

1. Allard J., McKinney C. D. (2011) Hydropower Site Study at Imja Lake andDingboche Village. http://www.crwr.utexas.edu/online.shtml

2. Vaidhya S. L. (2011), Dingboche Mini-Hydro Recognisance Visit Report.

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