Geomorphology and - مجلات پژوهشکده علوم زمین و...

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Geography and Development10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012

Received : 9/7/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012PP : 1- 4

Appraising Ecological Power for Identifying Appropriate Districts forDevelopment Around Sahand New Town

Dr. Mohammadreza Pourjafar Professor of UrbanismUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

Mahdi MontazerolhojahPh.D Student of UrbanismUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

Ehsan Ranjbar Ph.D Student of ArchitectUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

Reza Kabiri M.Sc of Environmental PlanningUniversity of Tehran

IntroductionDuring the history, human being has always been dependant on nature and environment for providing his main requirements, but during the time has caused many effects on the land because of their management methods and different interventions. So with regard to human beings potential capability, ecological capability has much importance for future development of land. On the other hand appropriate developments of cities depend on appropriate use of land potentials. Thus, identifying the potentials and capabilities of the area prior to its establishment and loading usages and urban activies has a great importance. Otherwise the development of the cities and inhabitats will be performed in a way that natural and ecologica limits will prohibit the continuity of activies and practically a lot of used investments will be lost. According to these issues, before any intervention in the land, ecological capability of the land should be assessed and regard to this capability and considering social and economic needs we should develop cities.The most important issue in evaluating the ecological capability of new town of Shahand is using environmental criteria for obtaining sustainable urban development. In fact it can be said that the main goal of this study is to determine the best location for urban development of new town of Sahand, which has had the least amount of bad effects in the present and in long term.

Research MethodologyThis study attempts to identify appropriate districts for Sahand new town and its future development by using descriptive – analytical method. In fact Research method is descriptive and analytical method and data collection has been performed by library ,studies and field observations, the required information were also obtained from Omran company in Sahand new town, Urbanization and Housing Organization of East Azarbaijan Province, Iranian Statistics Center, Meteorology

2 Geography and Development, 10nd Year, No.28, Autumn 2012

organization of East Azarbaijan, Geology and mine Exploration Organization of Iran , Research Society of Water and Soil, and General office of Environment Protection of East Azarbaijan.

Discussion and ResultsSahand is a new established town in East Azerbaijan province which was constructed about two decades ago for controlling the extreme growth of Tabriz city and for attracting the extra population of this metropolis. Sahand new town is 20 kilometers far away from Tabriz. The area of lands allocated for this town is about 12650 hectares and it is situated on the hillside of Sahand Mountain, but only 1050 hectares of which has been constructed up to now. In this paper, for future development of this city in the areas with proper ecological properties and capability, Sahand land areas have been evaluated based on logistic principles of the region. The main goal of this study is locating the best area and place for the city development which has the least bad effects in short and long term. The process for assessment of ecological capability in the present research includes the following three main parts, in which after passing these stages , the ecological property at this study area has been determined- First, identifying ecological resources- Second, analysis and adding up the data- Third, assessment and classification of the areaIt should be mentioned that in the assessment of ecological capability of Sahand new town, GIS is used in a way that there is no need to fill the table (the method generally used in geographical information systems), but by converting maps to Resteri format and use of weight overlaying based on Resteri data, the evaluation of ecological capability of the region has been studied, in fact the final overlayed map covers all the information and date of the model.After identifying ecological resources, analysis and adding up the relevant data and also comparing the determined parameters as two by two, at the next stage, the final map of ecological capability of the under study area has been extracted. This map, based on the score, has been classified in to two groups of rather appropriate areas (grade 1) and medium appropriate areas (grade 2), and then the final map which is obtained based on the acceptance of the two groups of rather appropriate and medium of development and as overlaing of the maps of these two areas, determines the appropriate lands for development

ConclusionAssessment of ecological potential in Iran is based on multi factor assessment. With respect to the exclusiveness of ecological features of each region, it is obvious that assessment of ecological potential in each region has its own special criteria and regulations. In this research, based on the criteria specified for development of Sahand new town, it is tried to to find the direction and area of the most appropriate geographical limits for development of Sahand new town.By implementing the indicated assessmemt criteria and after specifying the appropriate area from the view point of ecological potential, the final area of development is determined through overlaying and separating the relevant ecological maps and appropriate land slope from urbanization point of view

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(figure No.5). In the map for slope dividing, with respect to different types of suitable slopes in urbanization activities, these slopes in three classes of 0-8%, 8-12%and 12-15% has been considered in development of Sahand new town.All the development land with an area of 3500 hectares is located at east and south east of Sahand. By scrutinizating this area and not considering the areas which have no efficiency for providing the appropriate lands of development, an area of about 3200 hectares is considered for planning the future development of Sahand new town.Also, at the new recommended area, creating the areas with in appropriate width has been avoided because such areas will increase the infrastructural costs.Finally, this development area based on morphology, natural features and Sahand-Tabriz freeway were divided in to four urban districts and was considered for future development of Sahnd town as prioritization.

Keywords: Ecological capability assessment, City development, Sahand new town, AHP, GIS.

Refrences1- Bontayan, N.C., and Bishop, I. D (1998). Linking Objective and Subjective Modeling for Land

Use Decision Making. Landscape and Urban Planning. Vol. 43, No. 1-3.2- Burrough, P.A (1996). Principles of Geographical Information Systems for Land Rresources

Assessment. Clarendon Press, Oxford.3- Chan, S.L., and Huang, S.L (2004). A System Approach for The Development of a Sustainable

Community, The Application of The Sensitivity Model(SM). Environmental Management, No. 72.4- Freksa, C., Mark, D.M., eds (1999). Spatial Information Theory - Cognitive and Computational

Foundations of Geographic Information Science, Berlin, Springer. 5- Hosseini Abri, Sayyed Hasan (2000). the Theoretical Framework and Model of Rural Development

in Balochistan, Isfahan University Research.6- Makhdoom, Majid (2005). Foundation of Land Use Planning, Sixth Edition, Tehran University

Publication, Tehran.7- Monavari, S.M (1994). The Application of Geographical and Environmental Considerations in

New Towns site selection, Proceedings of International Conference of Urban Development and New Towns, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development.

8- Monavari, S.M., and Tabibian, S (2006). Identification of Environmental Factors Determining the site of New Cities in Iran, Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 8, No. 3.

9- Montazerolhodjah, Mahdi, (2009), Considering Criteria of Landmarks Site Selection and Design in New Towns; Case Study: Sahand New Town, East Azerbaijan, MA Thesis, Supervisor: Dr. M.R.Pourjafar, Faculty of Art and Architecture, Tarbiat Modares University.

10- Mostafapour, Ahmad (2005). Analysis of Realization of New Towns Goals in Iran; Case Study: Pardis New Town, MS Thesis, Supervisor: Dr. H.Shakouei, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University.

11- National Center of Land Use Planning (2006). Provincial Program Studies Guide, Management and Planning Organization, Vol. I, Second Edition.

Appraising Ecological Power for Identifying Appropriate Districts …


12- Noori, Hedayatollah (2000). Spatial Analysis in Agricultural Geography, Journal of Geographical

Research, Vol. 39.13- Nouri, J., Sharifipour, R., and Babaei, A.A (2006). Ecological Capability of Land Use Planning

for Rural Development, Online Journal of Biological Sciences 6 (1).14- Orartu, Consulting Engineers (1991). Strategic Studies of Sahand New Town, Vol. VIII: Physical

Development Patterns, the Ministry of Housing and Urban Development, New Towns of Iran Organization.

15- Padisson , R (2001). Handbook of urban studies, London, SAGE publications.16- Pourjafar, M.R (2009). Conservation of Old Towns. Tehran: Payam Press17- Qodsipour, Hasan (2007). Analytic Hierarchy Process, Amirkabir University of Technology,

Tehran. 18- Rahnamai, Mohammad Taghi (1991). Environmental Capacities of Iran, Center for Architectural

and Urban Studies and Research, Tehran.19- S.A.P (Sabz Andish Payesh), Consulting Engineers (2008). Review of Sahand New Town

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21- Ziari, Keramatollah (1999). New Towns Planning, Samt Publication, Tehran.

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Evaluating the Effect of Tectonic on the Entrenchment of Alluvial Fans’ Head Around

Danehkhoshk Anticline

Dr. Shahram Bahrami Assistant Profess GeomorphologyUniversity of Hakim Sabzevari

Dr. Mehran MaghsoudiAssociate Professor of GeomorphologyUniversity of Tehran

Kazem BahramiM.Sc of Engineering GeologyUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

IntroductionAlluvial fans are deposit landforms that their development is controlled by a number of factors such as tectonic, climate, lithology, base level change and morphometric properties of catchments. Among mentioned factors, tectonic has a major role in the fan development in tectonically active mountain ranges. The velocity of tectonic uplifting in mountain fronts can affect the rate of river entrenchment and the location of deposition in alluvial fans. When the rate of uplift exceeds the rate of stream-channel down cutting at the mountain front, deposition will tend to be focused near the fan apex. Climatic changes is also an important variable affecting the alluvial fans aggradations and degradation. In the wetter glacial periods, sediment production in the catchments of fans were increased and hence fans surfaces experienced aggradation while during drier present-day climate regime (interglacial period), fans surfaces experience degradation and incision. Although several works have been carried out on tectonic effects on alluvial fan development, little works have been done about tectonic effect on the rate of alluvial fan entrenchment in Iran. The study area is located in the south of Sarpole-Zahab town, Kermanshah province, in western part of Iran. 103 alluvial fans have been formed around uplifting Danehkhoshk anticline. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the uplifting effect of Danehkhosh anticline on the entrenchment of alluvial fans.

Research MethodologyTo evaluate the relationship between entrenchment rate of alluvial fans and active tectonics of Danehkhosh anticline, boundaries of 103 alluvial fans were delineated based on Quick bird satellite imagery as well as field works. After digitizing 20-meter contour lines from topographic maps of Iranian National Geography Organization, at a scale of 1:50 000, Digital Elevation Model (DEM) of study area were prepared in ILWIS (Integrated Land and Water Information System) software. The catchment's borders were identified by topographic maps and Quick bird satellite imagery. The borders of fans and their basins were converted to polygons and thereby basin and fan areas were


obtained. To determine fan entrenchment, deepest channel on every fan surface was identified by field works. Subsequently, the difference in elevation between the channel bed (C) and the old surfaces of fan, in right (B) and left (A) sides of channel was obtained by a theodolite. Geological data such as lithology, faults and cross sections were derived from 1:250 000 and 1/1000000 scale geological maps. The strata dips of anticline limbs were measured at mountain front by a clinometer.

Discussion and ResultsStudied alluvial fans are located around Danehkhoshk anticline that is tectonically active. The lateral growing of anticline towards southeastern and northwestern ends and the presence of a deep canyon (Golin canyon) in the southeastern end reveals that Danehkhoshk anticline is tectonically active and growing laterally toward southeast and northwest. Field works revealed that most fans are composed of inactive or degradational surfaces with large boulders and clasts. The presence of large boulders and clasts, pitting of calcareous boulders, varnished clasts and some soil development on most fans reveal that most of fans surfaces are now inactive. Data show that the areas of fans range from 0.21 to 30.5 hectares. The Largest basin (upstream of fan 74) has an area of 736.8 hectares whereas smallest basin (upstream of fan 41) has an area of 3.77 hectares. The rates of fan entrenchment vary from 0.45 to 14 meters. Evaluating the rates of fan surface entrenchment and structural dips of anticline limb reveals that rate of entrenchment of fans increases with increasing strata dips. Result of this study shows that maximum depth of fan surface entrenchment has taken place over fan surfaces located on steepest limbs of anticline. Data analysis represents that there is positive relation (with a correlation coefficient of 65%) between the fan surface entrenchment and the strata dips at the upstream side of fan. Results reveal that the correlation coefficient between the fan surface entrenchment and the strata dips is higher (86%) among fans with larger catchments (50 to 736.85 hectares). This means that fans with larger catchments are more sensitive to tectonic uplift (or strata dips) than fans with smaller catchments. Results also represent that there is no positive relation between catchment areas and entrenchment of fan surfaces so that correlation coefficient between two parameters is 9%.

ConclusionDanehkhoshk anticline is part of Simply Folded Belt of Zagros, growing laterally towards southeast and northwest. Studied anticline is composed of same lithology (Asmari unit; limestone and dolomite). The difference in the rate of tectonic uplifting has resulted in the variation in the strata dips of anticline limbs. Hence, this research was focused on the tectonic effects on fans entrenchment rate. Results show that fans entrenchment rate is controlled by tectonic or strata dips of anticline limbs so that fans entrenchment increases as strata dip increases. Data show that there is no meaningful correlation between catchments area and fans entrenchment rate. It seems that this is due to the differences in the tectonic and uplifting rates in different parts of anticline. Studied anticline was subdivided into three tectonic zones. The rate of fan entrenchment is higher along steep slope mountain fronts (zone 1) than gentler mountain fronts (zones 2 and 3). Overall, this research shows fan surface entrenchment is perfectly affected by tectonic situation of strata dips of anticline limbs.

Keywords: Tectonic, Alluvial fan, entrenchment, structural dip, Danehkhoshk.Refrences

Evaluating the Effect of Tectonic on the Entrenchment of ...

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1- Abbas Nezhad, A (1997). Neotectonical surveys of fan deposits; applications from Kerman Province. Geosciences, No. 25.

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3- Ahnert, F (1998). Introduction to Geomorphology. Arnold, London.4- Azor, A., Keller, E.A., Yeats, R.S (2002). Geomorphic indicators of active fold growth: South

Mountain–Oak Ridge anticline, Ventura basin, southern California. GSA Bulletin, No. 114.5- Beaumont, P (1972). Alluvial fans along the foothills of the Elburz Mountains, Iran.

Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, No. 12.6- Blair, TC, and McPherson, J.G (2009). Alluvial fan processes and forms, In: Abrahams, A D and

Parsons, A J (eds) Geomorphology of Desert Environments, 2nd Edn, Springer.7- Bull, W. B (1977). The Alluvial- Fan Environment. Progress in Physical Geography, No. 1.8- Burbank, D.W and Anderson, R.S (2001). Tectonic geomorphology: Blackwell Science, Oxford.9- Calvache, M.L., Viseras, C., Fernandez, J (1997). Controls on fan development-evidence from fan

morphometry and sedimentology, Sierra Nevada, SE Spain. Geomorphology, No. 21.10- Crosta, G. B., and Frattini, P (2004). Controls on modern alluvial fan processes in the central Alps,

northern Italy. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, No. 29.11- Goswami, P K ., Pant C C and Pandey, S (2009). Tectonic controls on the geomorphic evolution

of alluvial fans in the Piedmont Zone of Ganga Plain, Uttarakhand, India. Journal of Earth System Science, No.118.

12- Harvey, A.M (1996). The role of alluvial fans in the mountain fluvial systems of southeast Spain: implications of climatic change. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms, No. 21.

13- Iranian National Geography Organization (1996). 1/50000 topographic map, sheet 5158-1.14- Iranian National Oil Company (1963). 1/250000 geological map of Qasre Shirin Sheet.15- Iranian National Oil Company (1969). 1/1000000 Geological map of south western Iran Sheet.16- Kumar, R., Suresh, N., Sangode, S.J., Kumaravel, V (2007). Evolution of the Quaternary alluvial

fan system in the Himalayan foreland basin: Implications for tectonic and climatic decoupling. Quaternary International, No. 159.

17- Maghsoudi, M (2008). Assessment of Effective Factors on Evolution of Alluvial Fans Case Study: Jajroud Alluvial Fan. Physical Geography Research Quarterly, No. 65.

18- Malik, J.N., Sohoni, P.S., Merh, S.S., Karanth, R.V (2001). Active tectonic control on alluvial fan architecture along Kactchh Mainland Hill Range, Western India. Zeitschrift fur Geomorphologie N.F, No. 45.

19- Mokhtari, D., Karami, F., Bayati Khatibi, M (2005). Different types of alluvial fans around Mishoodagh mountainous massif, with emphasis on the effects of tectonic activities on their formation. Modares Quarterly, No. 53.

20- Ramesht, M.H., Shahzeidi, S., Seif, A, Entezari, M (2009). Effect of active tectonic in the morphology of Derakhtegan alluvial fans in Shahdad, Kerman, Geography and Development Quarterly, No. 16.


21- Robustelli, G., Muto, F., Scarciglia, F., Spina, V., Critelli, S (2005). Eustatic and tectonic control

on Late Quaternary alluvial fans along the Tyrrhenian Sea coast of Calabria (South Italy). Quaternary Science Reviews, No. 24.

22- Roostaei, Sh, Zomorrodian, M.J., Rajabi, M., Maghami Moghim, Gh (2009). Effect of tectonic activity in formation of alluvial fans in the southern slopes of Aladagh. Geography and Development Quarterly, No. 13.

23- Sorriso-Valvo, M., Antronico, L., Le Pera, E (1998). Controls on modern fan morphology in Calabria, Southern Italy. Geomorphology, No. 24.

24- Viseras, C. and Fernandez, J (1994). Channel migration patterns and related sequences in some alluvial fan systems. Sedimentary Geology, No. 88.

25- Viseras, C., Calvache, M.L., Soria, J.M., Ferna´ndez, J (2003). Differential features of alluvial fans controlled by tectonic or eustatic accommodation space. Examples from the Betic Cordillera, Spain. Geomorphology, No. 50.

26- Whipple, K.X. & Trayler, C.R (1996). Tectonic control of fan size: the importance of spatially variable subsidence rates. Basin Research, No. 8.

27- Yamani, M., Maghsoudi, M ( 2003). Evaluation of the effect of braided channel development in the alluvial fan surface; case study, Tangueieh alluvial fans in Sirjan plain. Geography researches, No. 45.

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Received : 22/7/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012PP : 9 - 12

Sustainable Local Development and Attracting Maximum Participation of PeopleCase Study: The Experiences of International Project of Carbon Sequestration in South

Khorasan

Dr. Rostam Saberifar Assistant Professor of GeographyUniversity of Payam Noor

Dr. Mahmood Fal Soleyman Assistant Professor of Geography University of Birjand

Sedigheh GheisariM.Sc University of Payam Noor

IntroductionAlthough, villagers are the societies with simple social, cultural and economical relations, but in most of the areas, the existence of cultural, ethnic, and religious conflicts issues and more important, the intensive contrast of social classes has caused societies with its specific complications. For this reason, developing proper approaches for entering in to such societies is the main concern of programmers and policy-makers. The experiences of several decades of activities about rural development shows that failure of programs and unsuccess in accompanying people and their maximum cooperation in the plans and constructional, social, and cultural projects has a close relation with the attraction of villagers’ confidence. Therefore, it seems that if we be able to increase the villagers’ confidence toward programmers and policy-makers, a large part of these problems will be solved. The experiences of some successful plans show that the best solution for this problem is to involve practically villagers into planning, implementation and evaluation processes. The condition that is noticed in some projects, including the Carbon Sequestration Project (CSP), which is implemented in Hossein Abad of Sarbisheh region. The managers of this project who, through maintaining and reviving natural resources of the region, have intended to increase the current Carbon Sequestration realized that they cannot reach the targets without participation and accompaniment of people. This group, after studing the social and cultural condition of the region and observing weak results of previous plans reached to this end that they should concentrate their most attempts on attracting the participation of people. They found that they should make plans together with people, instead of for people. Also this research is implemented to introduce this project.


Research MethodologyThis survey is implemented by descriptive and analytic method. Therefore, a sample size with 354 people is selected by random method. 188 people of this sample are the villagers who are inhabited in the area of CSP and the inhabits of the adjacent villages who have not enjoyed from facilities of this project. Moreover, to study the conformity of the considered priorities of the project authorities and people, the priorities considered by senior authorities of the project area were considered and asked. For more accurate and precise study of the condition, the required information were obtained through questionnaire. Formal and local statistists were used in addition of field statistics and information. A pretest is performed to determine the validity of the questionnaire in the under the study area; and then 0.94 Cronbach's alpha coefficient was obtained by using SPSS software which indicates that the questions of the questionnaire have a great validity.

Discussion and ResultsCSP has directly involved people into planning, implementation, and supervision fields to set demands and proprieties of them. So that, it is sound that CSP has come to provide villagers demands and needs, rather than to maintain and/or increase vegetation of the region. In fact, when the intended priorities of the people and authorities were compared, this survey showed that the average of scores that the people and the authorities have assigned, are too close together and nearly the same. Therefore, participation in CSP has got near to 80 percent. In contrary to most of the plans, this participation has been involved various groups of people. Maximum participation of people and following-up the project implementation conditions through correct and democratic methods, have brought specific consequences and blessings. For example, the current surveys showed that the income condition of households that exploit from the facilities of the project are too better than the households who are not located in the project. According to the obtained results and sequences from implementation of CSP, it is identified that the people have highly got confidence to the project and even they are hopeful to its future. so that, the results of the survey about forecasting a willing future for this project and other similar projects show that 66 percent of the people are hopeful to the future of these activities. On this basis, through realization of maximum participation of people ,the sense of possession and participation in the results and consequences of constructional plans will be provided and people play not only the role of its protector and supporter powers but also as the permanent preserver and keeper.

ConclusionSince, most of constructional projects in rural areas don’t face with the participation and willingness of villagers, therefore they do not have distinguished results, and the main target of the current research is to identify how this basic problem can be removed. For this reason, the obtained experiences from the International Carbon Sequestration Project have been discussed. Initial surveys showed that significant revolution occurred in economical and social condition of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab area, through implementation of CSP. Within the process of designing and implementation of the Project, firstly authorities of the project tried to lead the people. In second step, after presenting necessary training and information, they limit their performance range to guidance and cooperation. In third and final

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step, authorities sufficed to present necessary and demanded consulting by villagers. By this way, villagers, themselves, take the initiative and really get involved into practice. Continuing this procedure caused that the people not only contrast against the CSP but also they be considered as designer and executer of that, by presenting their little savings. This action has brought good and effective results, including maximum people participation in the plan, increase of villagers’ income, decrease of immigration, sense of possession to the established installation and equipments and consequently protecting and maintaining them, etc.Mainly, the obtained results and sequences from this project showed that if people practically got involved into constructional plans and projects and their views be used in this issue, not only the budgets and the spent cost will not be wasted, but will have results and consequences more that what forecasted. For this reason, it is advised that the experiences of CSP to be considered preciously take an attention and practically applied in other plans and projects about rural development and even in urban and regional plans.

Keywords: Local development, Directed interventions, Rural society, Participation, Carbon sequestration project.

Refrences1- Andishe-ye Sabz (2007). Why Carbon Sequestration?, Andishe-ye Sabz, Promotional Journal of

CSP, Vol. 1, No. 1

2- Andishe-ye Sabz (2008). Abstract of Carbon Sequestration Project Operation, Vol. 2, No. 3

3- Carbon Sequestration Project (2008). Basic factors for implementation of participatory

development, Andishe-ye Sabz, Vol. 1, No.2

4- Chambers, R (1992). Rapid Rural Appraisal and Participation, I.D.S., Sussex.

5- Chambers, R (2003). Reflection on P. R. A. Experiences, Pathway to Participation, I.D.S.,

Sussex.

6- Chambers, R (2004). Prioritizing The Poors, Translated by M. Azkiya, Tehran Tehran University

Press.

7- Khorashadizadeh Gh. et al (2007). International Carbon Sequestration Project, Execution Report,

National Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Organization: International carbon

Sequestration Project Office.

8- Lewin, E (2006). Feminist Anthropology, Blackwell, Oxford.

9- Malhotra P, Dutta S, Pal RC, Sharma S, Ramana PV(2000). Rural Energy Matters:The Dhanawas

Experience, Data Energy Institute, New Delhi.

10- Malhotra P, Dutta S, Ramana PV (1998). Participatory Rural Energy Planning: A Handbook, Tata

Energy Research Institute, New Delhi.

11- Malhotra, P (2006). Management of Community-Based Energy Interventions In Rural Areas of

India, Calina in Waey, India.

12- Matthews, L (1994). Manual for Social, the Agha Khan Rural Support Programme, Pakistan.

Sustainable Local Development and Attracting Maximum ...


13- Moseley, M.J (2004). Rural Development: Principles and Practice, Sage, Publications, London.

14- Naraghi, Y (1991). Development and Developing Countries, Press Corporation, Tehran.

15- Nomads Affairs Administration (2000). Planning and Implementing Inhabitation Site for Nomads

of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Nomads Affairs Admministration of Khorasan, Masshhad.

16- Perat, Bryan, Louses, and Peter (2008). Selecting Research Method, Translated by E. Hasanpour

Ahi Dashti, Pubished by research and Survey rural affairs.

17- Poland DHV Consulting Engineers (1992). Guidelines for Programming of Rural Centers, Rousta

va Tose’a Press.

18- Saberifar, R (2002). Social and Economical Study of River and Bed of Kalat-e Nader River,

Sazab-e Shargh Consulting Engineers Company.

19- Saberifar, R. and Gheysari, S (2009). Management of Rural Areas and Eliminating Poverty, Case

Study, Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Village and Development, Vol. 20, No. 2

20- Shirzad, A and Azkiya, M (2006). Rural Management, Ministry of Interior.

21- Taleb, M (1997). Rural Management in Iran, Tehran Tehran University Press.

22- Third Monitoring CSP (2008). Monitoring Plan for Carbon Sequestration Economical and Social

Studies Sector: Forests, Pastures, and Watershed Management Organization, Forests, Pastures,

and Watershed Management Department of South Khorasan.

23- Nomads Affairs Administration (2000). Planning and Implementing Inhabitation Site for Nomads

of Hossein-Abad-e Ghinab, Nomads Affairs Admministration of Khorasan, Masshhad.

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Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Hail in Iran

Dr. Manuchehr Farajzadeh Associated Professor of Remote SensingUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

Taher MostafapoorM. Sc of ClimatologyUniversity of Tarbiat Modares

Introduction Hail is one of the most important climatic hazards in the world and Iran. Hail is a phenomena related to thunderstorm which occurrs in unstable atmosphere with high level of moisture. Hail damages human and agricultural products. The damage of hail is serious in comparing with tornadoes and storms. Most of these damages occurrs in agriculture sector and on the crops, so that sometimes all the annual crops are destroyed in a few minutes. Iran has a mountainous condition in Alborz and Zageos area that in association with climatic system creates a suitable area for hail occurrence. In order to prevent the damages of hail, it is necessary to study the frequency and other climatic features. In this study, the temporal and spatial distributions of hail have been investigated in Iran.

Data and MethodThe present study has concentrated on the observation data from 67 synoptic stations of a 20-years period (1986-2005), and the spatial distribution has been demonstrated on the country map. In this research, the analyses have been performed by statistical method. At first, the data collected through statistical tests, were examined and then the related data base has been created.the next process was the extract of frequencies for each station, which is performed by SPSS software. After that the calculated frequencies has been entered in to GIS software (ArcGIS) frequency mapshas been prepared and analyzed.

Discussion and Results The prepared geographical distribution maps indicate the frequency concentration in Iran. Maximum amount of frequency is 4.7 which has been recorded on northern, western and eastern stations of Ilam and other stations are Abali with the average of 4.3 and Maragheh station with an annual mean of 3.2. Regarding the hail seasonal distribution, the highest amount is recorded in spring in which the highest frequency of 1.7 has been recorded for Abali weather station. After spring, the second one is winter which is recorded for Ilam of about 2.5. Autumn and summer have the low frequency so that in most stations, the hail precipitation in summer is zero and in autumn it reaches to 0.1. The monthly distribution of hail precipitation belongs to March, April and May months.


The highest frequencies of hail occurred in March with 22 cases and April and December with 21 cases which recorded for Ilam and Abali weather stations. Regarding the hourly distribution of hail, the highest amount of hail is recorded between 6 am to 15 pm on Greenwich Time (9:30 am to 18:30 pm for local time). The analysis indicated that distribution of hail occurrence in Iran as a common phenomenon has not been the same for all the regions but it mainly occurres in special regions. It is entirely due to the climatic changes and topography conditions, because the condition for unstable atmospheric systems is suitable for the occurrence of hail. The temporal conditions for occurrence of this phenomenon are on late March and early April. In that time of year, the whole country is influenced by Mediterranean systems moving from west. During this time the temperature difference in plains and mountain regions covered with snow and the topographical condition of main regions which hail is occurred, an increase in temperature can be obsereved. Moreover, the hail occurrence especially at early hours in the afternoon, in which the temperatures difference between the mountain and plain regions is significant is probably one of the reasons of hail occurrence in this time of a day.

Conclusion The analysis shows that hail is concentrated on east ranges of Zagros extending toward north west of Iran on a direct line to the boarders of Ilam province and also concentrated on the southern parts of central Alborz range, from this point to the southern parts of the country, the hail frequency is decreased and in some stations located in the southern parts of Iran, the hail is almost zero. There are two weather stations in the eastern parts of the country namely Birjand and Torbatheydarye where a higher level of hail is recorded in comparing to the other parts of the country probably due to high altitudes such as Qayenat Mountain ranges and Birjand.

Keywords: Hail - Hailstorm- Thunderstorm- Temporal and spatial distribution- Iran.

References 1- AbdeManafi, Dina (2004). The study of erratic indicators, wind right angle cut and the situation

of moisture at the time of hail precipitation, an M.A thesis, Tehran university. 2- Alizadeh, Amin (2006). The principles of applied hydrology, Astane Ghodse Razavi

Publications.3- AminiLeyla et al ( 2003). The study of synoptic-thermodynamic of hail precipitation in Isfahan

province, 11th conference on geophysics of Iran.4- Charles, A. & Doswell, C,A (1993). Scientific Approaches for very short range forecasting of

severe convective storms in the united state of America.5- Etkin, David & Erik Brun (2001). Canada’s Hail Climatology:1977-1993, LCLR Research, No

14.6- Ezatyan Victoria (2003). Physic processes in increasing the atmosphere disorders, 11 th

conference of geophysics.7- Frisby, E.m (1961). Relationship of ground hail damage patterns to features of synoptic map in

the upper Great plain of the united state. J.Appl. meteorology. No1.

Temporal and Spatial Analysis of Hail in Iran

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8- Giaiotti, Dario &etc (2003). The climatology of hail in the plain of Friuli Venezia Giulia , Atmospheric Research ,No 67 -68.

9- Huff, f.a (1964). correlation Between summer hail patterns in Illinois and Associated climatological events, Journal of Applied meteorology, No 3.

10- Kawyani, Mohammadreza&Alijani,Behlool (2006). The principles of Climatology.11- Qorbani,Azam (2006). the analysis and study of hail phenomenon and cloud classification using

GIS and RS in Zayande Rood basin, an M.A thesis, the university of Tarbyat Moalem.12- Mir Moosavi, SayedHoseyn & Akbarzadeh, Yunes (2009).The study of disorder indicators in

forming hail at Tabriza aerology station, FazayeJoghrafyayi, NO9-25, 105, 95.13- Mir Musavi, SeyedHoseyn & Akbarzade, Yunes (2009). applying poacen and negative

functions in evaluating the occurrence possibilities of hail precipitation (case study): East Azerbaijan province, geography and environmental planning (the university of Isfahan scientific magazine) NO 36,73,84.

14- Saanayi, Bahram et al (2003).The study of hail statistic models in Iran, Niwar Journal,48and 49.15- Seyf, Mehrzad (1996). The study of the distribution of hail precipitation in Iran and its case

study, a thesis for getting M.A degree, Tehran university. 16- Sioutas,M. & Flocas, Ha (2004). Hailstorms in northern Greece: synoptic patterns and

thermodynamic environment, Applied Climatology, No 75.17- "The study of avalanche phenomenon, gale and hail in different regions of Iran", third report,

volume one, determining the potentials of climate disasters in Iran.18- Vinet, Freddy (2001). Climatology of hail in France, Atmospheric Research, No 56.19- Weorer, john & Lindsey, d (2004). Some overlooked severe Thunderstorms Characteristic

observed.




A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development of Mountainous Valleys Using the SWOT Model

Case study: Kardeh Valley in the North of Mashhad City

Dr. Ali Asghar Kadivar Assoistant Professor of GeographyUniversity of Payam Nour

Dr. Mohammad MosaviAssoistant Professor of Management Governmental University of Payam Nour

IntroductionAfter several decades of struggle for development of rural districts and protection of water and soil of these regions, Unfortunately,The Poverty and jobless and damages to natural resources is further on progress in many countries, particularly rural regions of the developing countries. The reason for this situation is that ,the index for poverty reduction, jobless and imbalance in development definition has not been considered for three decades (1950-1980) and the development has been defined only as a per person income . The surveys and different experiences in the far distance of the world, particularly in developing countries, shows that the reduction in poverty, reduction in jobless and sustainable utilization of natural resources in rural environment as well as a decrease in distance between poor’s and wealthy people could not be achieved successfully only by looking to agricultural problems. But a structural looking to residents in villages and consideration of all residents’ problems if accompanied with a progress in non – agricultural business and income creation, using all rural capability in the region, could be a good solution for rural problems. Therefore ,in recent decades, the policies of the countries toward the different economic activities particularly in development of rural tourism as generation of a new income has been recommended to resist against the rural poverty and rural jobless. Attention to non agricultural activities in rural environment accompanied by social– economic improvement in rural families (those with no or less property and water) will bring a reduction in environmental hazards of the rural districts and also will reduce the urban problems of suburbs and environmental pollution. Now days, the new participatory look is the central column of sustainable development .Participatory management is a people satisfactory method and includes the role of local societies in sustainable development as a determinant factor. Participation in decision making, share in responsibility and having the authority, could be the best particularity and a symbol of real participation. Participation in public affairs will familiarize the most of people with possibilities and particularly with limitations exist around them. They will learn to act not only as an individual but also as a social group so that the

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potential of people power in different levels could be appeared. Using the managers and the local superior groups to determine the most appropriate strategies for development is the correct decision. Although it has not the benefits of horizontal participation but it is close to Ozalid Strategy and it has been useful and suitable method in many regions particularly in rural regions of developing countries.Therefore, to make the activities of the rural societies sustainable, the present research is to make known the various capacities of mountainous valleys for creation of variation in job occupation and enhance the income based on the views of local authorities and using SOWT model. To achieve the results and goals of the research, two important questions should be answered: 1- Considering the natural conditions of the in villages of Kardeh valley, What are the strength points, the weak points, opportunities and threats in this region ? 2- To reduce the existing problems and challenges in this region particularly in natural resources, which kind of guidelines and strategies are there with consideration of the weak points and opportunities?

The Method of Investigation This investigation has been done through field study and with a descriptive-analytic method using SWOT model. In the field study, local managers questioners (including village governor and members of Islamic council in the study area) with a total number of 45 persons were used. The study and determination of weak points, strength points, opportunities and threats were undertaken in two steps in the study area. The collected data were classified and totalized and based on totalized data and using SWOT model of David, the appropriate strategies were compiled and presented.

Discussion and ResultsThe external factors evaluation Matrix The external evaluation matrix is the result of strategic study of external factors. In matrix, the opportunities and threats of external environment are collected and evaluated. If the amounts of total external factors were between 1 to 2.5, the result would show the treat and if between 2.5 to 4 it determines the existing of opportunities. So, the number 2.18 in the matrix table of external factors evaluation shows that a relative threat in the area exists.Internal factors evaluation matrixThe internal factors evaluation matrix is the result of strategic study of internal factors. This matrix writes and evaluates the main strength points and weak points. if the amounts of final internal evaluation of internal factors were between 1 to 2.5, this indicate the weakness and if the result shows number 2.5 to number 4 that means the strength . So the number 2.65 in the internal factors evaluation means that a relative strength exists in the study area. The written strategies:Considering the extracted data from questioners, the internal and external factors evaluation matrix was written and by using the SWOT analysis matrix, the strategies were written too. At the end, using the 4 boxes matrix of internal and external factors (IE), the appropriate strategies were selected from presented strategies and then the result was proposed.

The final mark for internal factor evaluation(IFE)

A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development ...


As it is shown in matrix of external factors, variation in job occupation considering the limited source for water will come in box (3) or competition box. This point shows that diversify in occupation with consideration of water limitation has a good situation but from the point of external factors it has not a good situation.

The final mark for internal factor evaluation(IFE)

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As it is shown in the table , the points resulted from Minimum and Maximum of internal and external standard deviation around the points (2.65 , 2.18 ) shows that the concentration of points are in box (3) and dispersion of points are in boxes of (1) and (4) . This means that, in addition of competition strategies, the attack and defending strategies should be compiled and be executed too.

ConclusionThe result of the present investigation, based on the views of local managers, gives us a new guideline in all-inclusive development with consideration the capabilities and the problems of space and location in the mountainous valleys in the suburbs of towns.Based on the investigation results, the area under investigation has appropriate conditions from the points of internal factors. But the area has not a good condition from the points of external factors. therefore, considering the results achieved from the four boxes matrix of internal and external factors and concentration of mean points in box number three (competition) and dispersion of points in boxes No.1 (Attack) and No.4 (conservative action), the competitive strategies and diversification in job occupation, considering the limitation in water resources as the first priority and the conservative action and defending as later priority, should be confirmed. According to the present investigation results, the following strategies as appropriate strategies are presented on the priority importance:

1- Creation of jobs in the form of productive – service cooperatives to reduce the pressure on water and soil resources

2- To improve the water utilization method in agricultural sector 3- The promotion and strengthening the mechanism of participatory management with the priority in

using the skilled and educated local human power.4- To create and develop the multipurpose people companies.5- Improvement and approving the laws and the pertinent regulation in water resources management. 6- Creation and strengthening the watershed management to protect the natural resources.7- Development and promotion the required skills in the optimum utilization of resources through

organization of local and regional training workshops.8- Creation and development the changeable industries and packaging to enhance the increased value

of agricultural and husbandry products. 9- Creation and development of new methods in utilization of soil and water resources.

Refrences1-Tavassoli, Gholam Abbass (1382). Social Participatory in conditions of an atomic society , Tehran University Publication. 2- Twodaro micle (1370). economic development in the third world, Volum I, Translated by : Gholam Ali Fardjadi, Tehran . Budget and plan organization 3-Regional Water Company of Razavi Khorassan (1386). a data book of yearly Hydrometric of Kardeh River : Mashhad

A Survey on Capacities and Problems for Sustainable Development ...


4 Shahi Ardabili,Hekmat (1386). The role of rural industries in Optimum income distribution , PhD Thesis , Ferdowsi University of Mashhad.5-Shayan, Hamid and Shahi, Hekmat (1386). The role of rural industries in Optimum income distribution , Village and Development magazine , summer 1386.6-David,Fred R (1382). Strategic management , translated by :Ali parsian and seid Mohammad Aarabi,Tehran, The Office for cultural research, 4th eddition .7-Fain, Ben (1385). Social invest and social Theory , Translated by : Seid Mohmmad Kamal sarvarian, the publication of research Institute of Guidelines studies: Tehran. 8-Fokoyama, Fransis (second Ed. 1385) The End of regulation in social invest and its protection,Translated by : Gholam Abbass Tavassoli, publication of Hekayat Ghalam Novin: Tehran.9-Kadivar, Ali Asghar (1388). a survey on the effects of building dams in river Basins , Case study the dams of Kardeh and Bidwas in Khorassan Razavi & Khorassan Shomali, a PhD Thesis , Ferdowsi University > Mashhad.Iran10-Moosavi, Seid Mohammad (1388). compilation of the Strategies of Human resources “, PhD thesis, the faculty of accounting and management , University of Allameh Tabatabaee , Tehran.11-The Climatology Center of Northeast of IRAN (1386). Statistical certification of Rain gauge stations of Mashhad (1350-1386).12- Iran Center for Statistics (1385). public census for population and housing , www.sci.org.ir13-Homayoonpoor, Parvis (1380). “ New Participatory guidelines” , Proceedings of the technical workshops , IRICID:Tehran 14-Bale. Johm, smith. David (1989(. Ecology and development in the Third World,London and New York.15Brant. Steven & Fekri Hasan (2000(. Dam and cultural heritage management, university of Florida.16-Islam Nurual (1997). The Nonfarm Sector and Rural Development, International Food Policy Research Institute. Washington, D.c.17-Maestu. Josefina )2003(. Public participation river basin management in Spin, availbel at: www. Harmonic of. Uni- osnabrueck.de/-files/-down/ spain.18-Mendoza .C & Levi.c )2005(. social impact assessment of technological water projects,sustainable development and planning volume 2.19-Misra.R.P )1982(."Regional development planning: search forbearing." (Singapore: Maruzen Asia.20-Lanza,Myriam and other (2003).Analyzing Heritage Resources for urban Tourism in European cities, in: Contemporary Issues in Tourism Development, Routledge.21-lee, D (2001). Diversification of the Rural Economy: A Case study on Rural industrialization in the Republic of Korea. Japan program/ INDES 2001 Conference, Japan.22-Lanjouw, P (1997). Rural Non Agricultural Employment and Poverty in Latin America evidence form Ecuador and Elsalvador .Washington DC: World Bank.

http://www.sci.org.ir/

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Spatial Monitoring of Groundwater Salinity in Drought and Wet PeriodsCase Study: Tabriz Plain

Dr. Fariba KaramiAssociate Professor of Geography University of Tabriz

Haneih KazemiM.Sc University of Tabriz

IntroductionGroundwater, which forms part of hydrologic cycle is a reliable source for supplying the water required by human being. The occurrence of droughts and heavy precipitations are the most important climatic extremes having both short and long-term impacts on the groundwater availability. The results of climatic extremes propagate through the hydrological system, including surface water and groundwater (unsaturated zone and saturated groundwater). These impacts include changes in groundwater recharge resulting from the erratic behavior of the annual and seasonal distribution of precipitation and temperature; changes in evapotranspiration resulting from changes in vegetation. Drought is a recurring, natural phenomenon, which affects every part of the hydrological cycle. Droughts are mostly caused by periods of lower than average precipitation and propagate through the hydrological system. Fall of water table and decrease of groundwater chemical quality cause secondary soil salinity, surface water salinity and reduction of soil fertility in arid and semi-arid regions. These phenomena, which salted soil and water resources, are effective factors of desertification in the world. Thus, spatial monitoring of groundwater chemical quality at the time of climatic extremes is necessary for stable management and planning water and soil resources in the area of exposed to salinity hazard. Continued and intense droughts occurred in Iran and Tabriz plain in past years (1998-2008). The impacts of droughts make dry surface water resources and bring down water table strongly. In Tabriz plain, Farmers used surface waters of Aji-chai, Komor-chai and snikh-chai rivers. Also, they used groundwater of plain. In drought periods, that precipitation declines and groundwater level falls, high exploitation of groundwater resources change chemical quality waters. Low quality waters aren’t suitable for agriculture. Also, salt waters cause secondary soil salinity in plain. Therefore, the aims of this research are determination of drought and wet periods in Tabriz plain by SPI index and spatial monitoring of chemical quality groundwater in the study years in Tabriz plain. Tabriz plain is located at the east of Urmia lake. Its west limit is salty swamps of Urmia lake margins. Moro Mountain is located in the north of Tabriz plain and Sahand Mountain is the south limit of Tabriz plain. The Onebne-ali elevations are forming the east limit of Tabriz plain. Aji-chai River is flowing in Tabriz plain toward Urmia Lake. Other rivers such as Saeedabad-chai, Mehranrud-chai and


Gomanab-chai are joining to Aji-chai River. There are two types of aquifers in Tabriz plain (Confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer). Unconfined aquifer located in east, northeast and southeast of the study plain. There are confined aquifer and unconfined aquifer in parts of west. Unconfined aquifer into plio-pleistocene tuffs has high quality waters and located in North Slope of Sahand Mountain. The plio-pleistocene tuff is composed of red and green andesitic tuff admixed with large quantities of blocks, gravel and sand of volcanic and alluvial origin. Also, unconfined aquifer into alluvial tuff is the most important aquifer in the area has been known for many years as a good aquifer.

MethodologyIn this research, for defining the study region, topographical maps (1: 50000), geological maps (1:100000) and IRS satellite images were used. For calculating drought periods, monthly precipitation of selected stations in Tabriz plain in the study periods (1972-2008) were used .For studying the chemical quality of ground waters, the chemical analysis results of groundwater samples of 40 deep and semi-deep wells were used. Quality indexes include Electrical Conductivity (EC), Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) and Total Dissolved Solid (TDS). The electrical conductivity of water estimates the total amount of solids dissolved in water -TDS, which stands for Total Dissolved Solids. TDS is measured in ppm (parts per million) or in mg/l. Quality indexes maps (EC, SAR) draw by Arc/GIS , for studying spatial variation groundwater chemical quality. Then, drought and wet periods selected by Standard Precipitation Index (SPI). The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a way of measuring drought. The Standardized Precipitation Index (SPI) is a probability index that considers only precipitation. The SPI is an index based on the probability of recording a given amount of precipitation, and the probabilities are standardized so that an index of zero indicates the median precipitation amount (half of the historical precipitation amounts are below the median, and half are above the median). The index is negative for drought, and positive for wet conditions. As the dry or wet conditions become more severe, the index becomes more negative or positive.

Results and DiscussionThe results of SPI index show that in the study period of (1972-2007), precipitation positive anomalies is high in slopes of plain margins. Gradually, negative anomalies increase toward center and northwest of plain. Based on Standardized Precipitation Index SPI in the index drought year, the northern and southern mountains plains of Tabriz plain have a normal situation. Ground water’s EC show that excellent quality waters are involving % 30.38 and good quality ground waters are including %23.25 plain aquifers in drought period (2000-2001). These ground waters belong to aquifers of Sahand mountain and north elevations of Tabriz plain. Gradually waters quality decrease toward plain center and Urmia Lake. So that 17.8% of the area underground waters have a medium quality. Therefore, the ground waters are unsuitable and very unsuitble in these regions. Salt ground waters involve %13.02 plain aquifers and very salt ground waters contain %15.18. The base of EC rates and drought maps of plain, salty and very salty ground water conform to drought and strongly drought areas. SAR index of Tabriz plain ground water in drought period (2000 October) show the very alkalinity water. These aquifers located in central and end parts of Tabriz plain. These lands conform to drought and intense drought areas. The rate of SAR ratio reduces toward elevations. Water quality increases toward

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elevations especially Sahand mountain. Moderate alkalinity waters contain %15.27 of the plain aquifers. Excellent and good waters are %36.9 and %22.48 plain aquifers Spatial distribution of quality indexes differ in wet period (2003 October) from drought period. Fresh ground waters rates are high in wet period. Salt water (% 9.47) and very salty water (%8.86) belong to the northwest plain aquifers. Excellent (%27.5) and good (%23.26) waters belong to Sahand mountain aquifers. Sodium Absorption Ratio (SAR) map show that there are high alkalinity ground water in small area and they located in west of Tabriz plain in wet periods. The base of (SAR) Ratio, moderate water quality includes %16.33 plain ground water.

ConclusionThe study of SPI index in periods (1972-2008) show that drought and wet periods alternately have occurred in Tabriz plain. Also, frequency of short dry periods is high as compared with long dry periods. Generally, precipitation negative anomalies increase toward plain. Chemical analysis results of 40 samples water show that excellent and good groundwater belong to Sahand mountain and north elevations aquifers, but water quality decrease in the course of center of plain and Urmia coasts. These conditions intensify drought periods.

Keywords: Spatial Monitoring, Groundwater Salinity, Drought, SPI, Tabriz Plain

References1- Abadeh,M., Onag, M., Mosaedi,A., Zeinedini,A (2006). The study of fall water table effect in

water salinity (case study: Zeydabad - Sirjan), Journal of Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources 2.

2- Abdynejad, M (2008). Study of desertification and drought factord, Forest and Pasture 78.

3- Asghari Moghaddam, A (1991). The hydrology of Tabriz area, Iran, PH.D Thesis, University College London, London.

4- Azizy,G (2003). Relation of recent droughts and ground water resources in Gazvin plain, Geographical Researchers 46.

5- Edwards, D.C. Mckee,T.B (1997). Characteristicts of 20 th century drought in the United State at multiple time scales, Climatology Report Number 97-2, Colorado Etate University, Fort Collins, Colorado.

6- Eltahir,E.A.B., Yeh,P.J.F (1999). on the asymmetric response of aquifer water level to floods and droughts in Illinois, Water Resources Research 35(4).

7- Ghosh,N.G., Sharma,K.D (2006). Groundwater Modeling and Management, Capital Publishing Company.

8- Hayes,M.J., Svoboda,M.D., Wilhite,D.A. Vanyarkho,O.V (1998). Monitoring the 1996 Drought Using the Standardized Precipitation Index, Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 80.

9- Karami, F., Noori, H (2008). Investigation of drought and wet periods in Tabriz, Urmia and Ardebil station, 3rd Iran Water Resources Management Conference, Tabriz University.

10- Malins, D., Metternicht,G (2006). Assesing the spatial extent of dryhand salinity through fuzzy modeling, Ecological Modeling, 193.

Spatial Monitoring of Groundwater Salinity in Drought and Wet Periods


11- Mohamadi-Agdam, K., Rostai, A (2008). Assessent of groundwater quality for irrigation in

Tabriz township, 3rd Iran Water Resources Management Conference, Tabriz University.12- Mohamadi, H., Shasipoor, A (2003). The effects of drought on ground water levels in Hamadan

plain, Geographical Researches 45.13- Nadiri, A (1997). Predicted of ground water level by neoural network in Tabriz city, MS Thesis,

Faculty of Natural Resources, Tabriz Universty.14- Panda,D.K.Mishra,A.,Jean,S.K.James.B.K.Kumar, A (2007). The influence of drought and

anthropogenic effects on groundwater levels in Orissa, India. Journal of Hydrology 343.15- Peters,E., Bier,G., Van Lanen,H.A.J., Torfs,P.J.J.F ( 2006). Propagation and spatial distribution

of drought in a groundwater catchment. Journal of Hydrology 321.16- Soliman,A.S., Farshad, A., Sporry,K., Sherstha, D.P (2004). Predicting salinization in its early

stage, Using Electromagnetic data and Geostatistical Techniques: Nakhon Ratchasima, Thailand, 25th ACRS, Chiang Mai, Thailand.

17- Srivastava, A., Tripathi,N.K., Gokhale,V.G (1997). Mapping groundwater salinity using IRS data and GIS Techniques. Int.J.REMOTE SENSING 18(13).

18- Subyani,A.M (2005). Hydrochemical idenification and salinity problem of groundwater in Wadi Yalamlam basin, Western Saudi Arabia, Journal of Arid Environments 60.

19- Velayati, S (2008). Hydrogeology of soft and hard formation, Jahad Daneshgahi, Mashhad, 396.

20- Yaouti,F.EL., Mandour,A,EL., Khattach,D., Benavente,J., Kaufmann,O (2009). Salinization processes in the unconfined aquifer of Bou-Areg (NE Morocco), Applied Geochemistery 24.

21- Yarahmadi, J (2006). Analysis of hydrological droughts in Aji- chai basins, 3rd Iran Water Resources Management Conference, Tabriz University.

22- Zareian Jahromi, M., Tagizadeh, R., Mahmodi, Sh., Heydari, A (2007). Assessment of geostatistical methods for predicting spatial distributon of groundwater, 4th National Seminar on Watershed management sciences and engineering. Faculty of Natural Resources, Tehran University.

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A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its EffectiveIndicators in Hirmand

Dr. Mahmood Reza Mirlotfi Assistant Professor of Geography and Rural Planning University of Zabol

Dr. Hamid ShayanAssistant Professor of Geography and Rural Planning University of Mashhad ferdowsi

Dr. Seyyed AmirMohammad Alavizadeh Associate Professor of Geography and Rural Planning University of Payame Noor

IntroductionFrom geopolitic point of view, the underdevelopment of the border regions which creates basic challenges for country has a large amount of effects on the developing process of the country. Solving the problems of the border regions specially providing stable security in these regions is not merely a security and military issue but it is political, economical, social and cultural in nature. In this regard, the strategy for organizing and developing the rural areas in these regions becomes highly important. In fact, agriculture and its various activities have a special role in different economical, social and environmental dimensions of rural areas (Whelan, 2003:7). Lack of attention for assessing the magnitude of their effect decreases the agricultural potentials of the rural areas and if this process continues, the agricultural sector and therefore the social and economical stability of the rural areas will be destroyed. The scope of the activities in the agricultural sector in the country's rural areas in one side and the occupational and income dependence of villagers on this sector on the other side, requires the planners to pay more attention to this issue because the national development and the real economical independence of every region is contingent upon the agricultural sector.Many studies have been done by researchers about the factors affecting on the growth and the development of agriculture and each of these studies have pointed to particular causes and factors such as adverse geographical conditions like water shortage, lack of fertile lands and hot weather (Meijerink, 2007:47); focusing on all of the production factors and promoting productivity (Nin–pratt et al., 2009:101); technological development and local production, tax cuts, government investments on researches and infrastructures and the mechanization of agricultural sector(Chen et al., 2008: 581). Some researchers state that the public infrastructures have an important role in the development of agricultural sector (Mamtzakis, 2003:169), and some believes that the productivity of labor force in promoting the agriculture level (Baylis, 2008:75), and the integration of farmlands in order to increase


utilizing mechanization and the deep development of agriculture by increasing the function and the intensity of cultivation are considered to be among the most important strategies for agricultural development by other researchers (melor,Gavi,1999:25).Others cite that the essential training for effective access to modern technologies and the farmers' awareness about the market conditions and their literacy level are the major factors in agricultural development and these researchers believe that those strategies which do not focus on human force are not successful (Stiglitz, 2000:552). Some researchers approve that the close relationship and interaction between researchers, county agents, farmers and policy-makers is of high importance in agricultural development (colemon, 2000:311). Physical infrastructures and technologies for achieving high rate of agricultural growth are considered to be essential by some other researchers (Ravallion & Datt, 2002: 383).On this basis and with respect to the performed studies and the spatial differences and various environmental factors and also for achieving a unit development pattern in each region and a comprehensive knowledge of effective and exclsive factors, in this research it is tried to study a special area (Hirmand township), in this regard, the current study seeks answers for the following questions:Do the effective factors in agricultural sector of this region have different impacts?What effective factors should be prioritized for promoting the agricultural level of this region?To answer the above questions, the following hypothesis can be presented:The various and effective factors on the agricultural sector of the region are of different level of importance.Among the different effective dimensions, production dimension and its indices affect mostly on the development of agriculture.

Research MethodologyThe current study is an applied research and analytic-descriptive research methods and statistical methods have been used for analyzing the data. The data have been collected from the sample villages through methods and field studies and the major amount of data from the sample population have been gathered through questionnaire which have been finalized after it was approved by experts and also after doing a pre-test. The collected data have been analyzed by EXCEL and SPSS software and the reliability of items has been calculated by Cronbach’s Alpha test statistic with a range of 0-1 and its value is 0.819.Regarding special conditions of agricultural activity in this region and also some basic features such as pragmatism, dependence upon the environmental capabilities and an all-directional trend in agriculture planning (Noori, 1379:10), the explanatory components of agricultural development have been analyzed in four administrative, social, structural and producing dimensions (Figure 1 and Table 1). It is worth saying that the above-mentioned dimensions have been offered by The Committee of The International Geographical Association for identifying agricultural types in different parts of the world (Grick, 1375:7).

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The indices of different dimensions of the level of agricultural development have been examined in 40 sample villages. The qualitative scores of different dimensions are the average of scores of every different dimension's indices for every village (Figure 1). To have symmetric non-Likert indices, they were scored according to Likert scale (1-5) and range, therefore the average number of each index shows the score or value of village in that index and the sum of all averages of indices in each dimension shows the village score in that dimension. Considering the range of the average of dimensions’ scores and the dependant variable, villages were clustered into three groups (by the cluster analysis option in SPSS software).The explanatory factors for agricultural development variable were introduced by using factor analysis and at the end the villages were categorized into two groups according to the scores of agricultural level and based on (Si) ± 0/2µ and for finding a suitable strategy indices which have significant differences between these two groups of villages will be introduced. The sample population consists of 12207 households who live in 197 villages with more than 20 households. According to the Sharpe & Cochran’s formula and the correction formula (Saraee, 1371:129 and 137), the volume of the sample villages was 40. Using proportional allocation method, the number of sample villages in Jahan Abad, Doost Mohamad, Ghergheri and Margan townships were respectively 10, 13, 9 and 8. The villages were selected randomly after codifying (them) by mini-tab software.

Discussion and ResultsAccording to the nation-wide census of 1385(2006), the extent of Systan region is 15197 square meters whose population is 400'000 who concentrated in 6 urban areas and 937 villages. 250'000 of this population live in villages. District of Miyankangi, among them, with an area of 1009 square meters and a population of 73254 is one of the important border regions in Systan. This region has 100 kilometers common border with Afghanistan and consists of 300 habitable villages (The Statistical Center of Iran, The nation-wide census of 1385/2006).During the history, because of flat and fertile plain lands and also Hirmand River, the main activity of the villages in district of Miyankangi has been based on agriculture. In current situation, because of high percentage of farmer families (67.85%), the economical base of this geographical region under the study is agriculture. Yet, agriculture in this region has always been facing eith different challenges such as water level fluctuations of Hirmand River and substantial decline in farming activities. For example, the average of cultivated lands with an area above 30'000 hectares in the 1383-1384 crop year was decreased to about 40'000 hectares. In these situations, of course, the existence of more than 2000 water holes can be a good contribution for stable agriculture. Although in the suitable water conditions still the water consumption is up to 9000 cubic meters per hectares for cultivating wheat, the productivity of 1900 kilograms per hectare cannot be achieved (The Crusade for Agriculture of Zabol, 1387).It is worth noting that lack of real agriculture vitality in the region affected by traditional exploitation systems, lack of complementary cycles in the process of agriculture production for increasing added value, the weakness of vocational training, lack of public organizations,… have caused the instability

A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its Effective ...


of the pillars of the economy there. The consequence of the above procedure along with the adjacency to Afghanistan have provoked a group of active forces to seek for jobs other than farming and producing occupations specially goods smuggling or working as an unskilled worker in cities like Rafsanjan or Yazd.These factors have resulted in the prevalence of unemployment, increasing unofficial jobs, widespread poverty (20% of this region's population receives the services of The Imam Khomeini Relief Foundation), the exit of capital and human forces, the destruction of resources and leaving the major villages of the region. According to the above issues and by considering the previous researches and geographical differences and various environmental factors, and also for finding a unified developmental pattern for each region, a comprehensive understanding of effective and unique factors, in this research it has tried to study a specific region (Hirmand city). The results show that the villages under study have different levels of agricultural potential, for example Ghajar-e-Barani has maximum average of agricultural development level that is 3/26 and Galle Bache has minimum average of agricultural development level that is 1/36. The results of the regression analysis show that the production dimension and its indices have influenced the agricultural development of the region mostly.

ConclusionMany strategies have been offered for achieving agricultural development. But they are not encompassing because of variety in situational conditions and as a result recognizing various and effective factors on the agriculture of the regions are highly important. Regarding the results of correlation coefficients and the level of agricultural development of the rural areas, we should take action in terms of increasing the number of livestock and wheat productivity as the main cultivated crop in the region, increasing the literacy level and creating motivation and interest by supporting farmers in the process of production to distribution, family planning programs, and paying more attention to remote rural areas. Above all and by considering the results of factor analysis, quick expansion of greenhouse cultivated areas and providing suitable conditions for using farm machinery such as tractor in agricultural development programs should be prioritized. According to the results of t-test, the quality and quantity level of services offered by The Crusade for Agriculture in specialized issues (specially providing education and extension sessions, controlling the cultivated lands by experts, providing cultivation programs), farm machinery and constant management for fair distribution of inputs should be promoted.

Keywords: Agriculture, Agricultural Development, Sistan, Hirmand County.

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A Survey on the Level of Agricultural Development and its Effective ...

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1- Abargham, Majid (1383).Examining/investigating The Role of Agriculture and Stockbreeding in Stable Development of rural areas, Case Study: Roueen Sub-district, Esfarayen Township. MA Thesis, University of Tehran.

2- Icher, Carl. K (2002). International Agriculture Development, Translated by Manouchehr Farhang, The Institute of Agricultural Planning and Economy Research: Tehran.

3- Icher, Carl, and States, John. M (1991). Agriculture Development in The Third World, Translated by Karim Darvishi, The Institute of Rural and Agricultural Economy Reaearch: Tehran.

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6- Roknodin Eftekhari, Abdoreza, Pourtaheri, Mahdi, Farajzade, Manouchehr, Heidari Sareban, Vakil (2009). The Role of Empowerment in Agricultural Development: Case Study: Ardebil Province, The Journal of Human Geography Reaearch, Issue 69.

7- Roknodin Eftekhari, Abdoreza, b (2003). The Role of Village in Food Security, The Collection of Articles in The First Conference/Seminar of Agricultural and National Development, Forth Volume, The Institute of Agricultural Planning and Economic Reaearch: Tehran.

8- Roknodin Eftekhari, Abdoreza, a (2003). Agriculture Development, SAMT Publication: Tehran.

9- Zahedi Mazandarani, Mohamad Javad (2003). Development and Inequality, Maziar Publication: Tehran.

10- Zahedi Mazandarani, Mohamad Javad (2004). The Functional/operational Necessities for The Development of Employment in Agricultural sector, Agriculture Economy and Development Quarterly, Issue 47.

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12- Faal Soleiman, Mahmoud (2007). Examining The Role and The Effects of Rural Functions in Facing Water Crisis in Dry Regions, Sample: Birjand Plain, PhD Dissertation, Ferdowsi University, Mashad.

13- Fakharan Khorasgani, Mansour (2003). The Capabilities in Agricultural sector for Rural Development in Northern and Southern Baraàn Villages, MA Thesis, Isfahan University.

14- Karimipour, Yadollah (2000). An Introduction to Iran and Its Neighbors (The Sources of Tension and Thread), Acadenic Center for Education, Culture & Research (ACECR), Tarbiat Modallem University(TMU): Tehran.

15- Garmaabi, Ali Asghar (2001). The Strategy of Rural Growth and Development of Takht-e-Jolge Region in Naishabour with Emphasis on Agriculture Development, MA Thesis, Ferdowsi University, Mashad.


16- Gerick, David (1996). An Introduction to The Geography of Agriculture, Translated by Evaz

Kouchaki et al. Ferdowsi University: Mashad.17- Maani Kelarijani, Ayoub (2001). The Possibilities and Dilemmas of Rural Development with

an Emphasis on The Agriculture and Stockbreeding in Baghour Sub-district, Savad Kooh Township, MA Thesis, Shahid Beheshti University.

18- Moti'ee Langeroudi, Seyyed Hassan and Ardeshiri, Ali Reza (2007). The Consequences of Establishing Processing Industries of Agriculture Products on Rural Development in The Central District of Amol, The Magazine of Geographical Researches, Issue 61.

19- Mousavi, Gholam Reza (2005). Examining The Capabilities of Agricultural sector of Sajas Roud Township, MA Thesis, Ferdowsi University: Mashad.

20- Mahdavi, Masoud and Taherkhani, Mahdi (2004). The Application of Statistics in Geography, Ghomes Publication: Tehran.

21- Nouri, Seyyed Hedayatollah (2000). Spatial Analysis in Geography of Agriculture, Geographical Studies, Issue 39.

22- Nouri, Hedayatollah, and Ghanbari, Yousof (2007). The Comparison of Exploitation Systems in Terms of Access to Some Indexes of Rural Development, Case Study: Isfahan Province, Village and Development Quarterly, Year 10, Issue 4.

23- Hayami, Youjiro, and Rotan, Vernon (1999). Agriculture Development, an International View, Translated by Majid Koopaee, Agricultural Education and Extension Research, The Deputy Ministry Office, Ministry of Agriculture: Tehran.

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Geomorphology and Genesis of Sahl Abad Playa – East of Iran

Dr. Seyyed Naser RaisossadatAssistant Professor of Geology University of Birjand

Dr. Mohammad Hossein ZarrinkoubAssociate Professor of Geology University of Birjand

Dr. Mohammad Mahdi KhatibAssociate Professor of Geology

University of Birjand

IntroductionSahl Abad playa is located at about 120 kilometers south of Birjand at Birjand-Nehbandan road in South Khorasan province. This playa is geographically located between 58o 40′ to 60o 10′ east longitude and 31o 50′ to 32o 15′ north latitude , the area of playa is about 1116 km2 (Figure 1). The study area is located in dry and arid climatic conditions. Since there is no meteorology station in Sahl Abad playa, therefore based on the figures of the surrounding areas, it is possible to estimate the annual average of precipitation of all the area about 150 mm (Eshagian, 1990).Formation of Sahl Abad salt flats has made a new ecology in the north east area of Nehbandan, in this area, extraction of salt storages and different kinds of industrial salts creates a suitable opportunity for sustained job opportunity in the deprived area of Sahl Abad. Therefore recognizing its geomorphology features and natural geography will be a great help for development planning of the area. It is hoped that this study leads to a better recognition of the said flat and be used in the studies for geographical investigations of the area, watershed management, flood control, exploring natural and mineral resources and other similar cases.Sahl Abad playa is an active sedimentary basin in quaternary. Geomorphology and morpho-tectonic of this playa and the mechanism of its formation are the main goals of the present study.

Research MethodologyMethods include studying aerial in 1/55000 scales, satellite photos in 1/1000000 scales, field works and sampling from sediments and salts up to two meters depth.


Figure 1: position of Sahl Abad playa on satellite image that shows main faults and position of topographical cross sections of Figure 6. (From Landsat 8).

Discussion and ResultsFirst works were done by Krinsley (1970) and Samani (1973). However this is the first work on Sahl Abad playa. Many works have been done on playas around the world. Here some works that related to our work can be referred here such as Castaneda et al. (2005) on facies identification within the playa-lakes of the Monegros desert in Spain, Gutirrez-Elorza et al., (2005) on Origin and evolution of playas and blowouts in the semiarid zone of Tierra de Pinares, Duero Basin, Spain, Messina et al., (2005) on Macropolygon morphology, development, and classification on North Panamint and Eureka playas, Death Valley National Park CA and Mann et al., 1983 on the effects of structure geology on playas.Quaternary sediments are important in formation of Sahl Abad playa. These sediments include recent alluviums, alluvial terraces, alluvial fans, sand dunes and salt plain. The study area is a folded, faulted and crushed zone that is formed in a convergent area. Faults are mostly trust and strike slip. Trends of folds and faults are mostly in north west- south east. The tensional stress with this trend has formed a Pull-apart basin (Figure 1). The most important faults are Shir Shotor, Sahl Abad and Esmaiel Abad (Figure 1).Sahl Abad playa extended 1880 kilometers squares. Based on geological and topographical maps, aerial photos, field observation and Krinsely (1970), Samani (1973), Ahmadi (1988) and Torshizian (1994), two types and few faces have been identified.1- Mud flats types: There are five facies including puffy and soft faces, plough surfaces (Figure 2), clay plain, Nebka and clay-slat polygons (Figure 4).2- Salt plain type: there are five faces including clay polygons, salt faces with clay –salt blossoms, salt polygons and black salt faces, salt polygons with salt blossoms (Figure 5) and salt faces (Figure 6).


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There are three distinct parts from margin to center of playa. 1- Clay flat: this part is formed by clay, silt and a little salt. Margin of this part is frequently dry and show a puffy ground. This part is about 37.5% of the salt plain (Figure 7). 2- Wet zone: in this part moreover Sodium chloride, gypsum and other salts are present. This part has more salt than the previous part. The extension of this area changes during year and depend on precipitation. This part is about 18.6% of the salt plain. 3-Salt crust: this part has perfectly white colour because salt crust is thick here. This part has lowest elevation and therefore ground water surface is high in this part. Due to evaporation and capillary pressure salt coming up to surface and forms salt crust. This area is about 17.45% of the salt plain.

Figure 2: Plough surfaces in north west margin of Sahl Abad

Figure 4: Clay-salt polygons


Figure 5: Polygons with salt blossoms Figure 6: Salt faces with a thick layer of salt that is formed in high evaporation of brackish waters

Figure 7: Sahl Abad Geomorphologic zones that is prepared with aerial photos

Structural elements in the study area shows Sahl Abad playa is surrounded by strike slip faults and activity of these faults has effected on formation of salt plain. Mann et al., 1983 believes that strike slip faults are seldom straight and will be bent or split. They probably are connected together or far away from each other. Such transform faults will lead to formation of ellipsoid or spherical basins.Strike slip basins have been discussed (Balance, 1980; Crowell, 1976; Mann & Burke, 1982; Burke et al., 1982).


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Paull-apart term was introduced by Burchfiel and Stwewart (1960) for the first time and then applied for about 60 quaternary basins that are formed along strike slip faults (Aydin and Nur, 1982).Enechelan faults normally produced a regional movement. This might lead to formation of extensional and compression zones. Where there is an extension, sedimentary basins are formed and where there is compression, high lands are formed and will be under erosion. These materials will fill the formed basins. Shape of these basins is related to faults patterns. Pull-apart term has been introduced for all strike slip basins.Based on the above explanations, structural geology of study area, strike slip faults with thick terrigenous sediments in their margins, shape of basin and faulted margin, a Pull-apart basin is suggested for Sahl Abad playa (Figures 1 and 8).

Figure 8: A development model of Pull-apart basin formation

In addition to the above factors, river sinuosity increases with slope decrease that sinuosity changes could be related to tectonic activities. Therefore with increase of slope, channel morphology will change to distributed channels shape and this could confirm tectonic rising of the area.Based on definition, channel sinuosity is channel length to down valley length (Adams et al., 1999.)

S=V /CV= length of channelC= straight length of channels along valleyFor investigation of this morphometeric index in sahl Abad playa, 33 channels have been selected (Figure 9) and their sinousity have been calculated (Table 1). The results could be intrepreted as tectonic activity of the study area and uprising of the margins of Sahl Abad playa and depression in center.


Figure 9: channels position for sinuosity

Table 1: Calculated channel sinuosity in study area

ChannelCalculated sinuosityChannelCalculated

sinuosityChannelCalculated sinuosity

A1.1X1.03Y1.14B1.09M1.06Z1.07C1.05N1.11AA1.09D1.03O1.07BB1.08E1.09P1.05CC1.11F1.02Q1.03DD1.04G1.06R1.09EE1.08H1.05S1.06FF1.08I1.1T1.05GG1.12J1.09U1.07

Position of channels are platted in figure 13. K1.06V1.09

L1.11W1.02

Conclusion


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Two types of clay and salt plains have been identified in Sahl Abad playa. In Mud flats types, four faces including puffy and soft faces, plough surfaces clay plain, Nebka and clay-slat polygons and in Salt plain type five faces including clay polygons, salt faces with clay –salt blossoms, salt polygons and black salt faces, salt polygons with salt blossoms and salt faces have been recognized. Based on structural setting, strike slip faults and thick clastic sediments beside the faults, shape of basin and faulted margins can probably suggest that Sahl Abad is a Pull-apart basin. Generation of this basin is interpreted due to strike slip fault actions (operation) that are branched from Nehbandan fault. However, it could be mentioned that this basin is in young stage and there is no volcanic action.Based on Sahl Abad active fault and morpho-tectonic interpretation it is suggested that the basin is in extension state. Calculation of channel sinuosity also confirmed an active tectonic in the area and it is expected that Sahl Abad plain is going to be bigger.Further studies on Sahl Abad area are suggested and it is hoped that the result of this study could be used in natural geography, water management, flood control and mineral resources.

Acknowledgment: This research has been supported by the University of Birjand (Research affairs). We thank M. Bardeh (previous student of Geology Dept. of Birjand University) and Mr. E. Yazadan panah (PhD student of geology Dept. of Birjand University) for their help in field and lab works.

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of Iran.4- Aghanabati, A. (Compiler) (1990). Geological Map of Zabol, No. L9, 1:250000 scales,

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Journal of Faculty of Science, Tehran University, 100-109 [in Persian].6- Aydin, A. and Nur, A (1982). Evolution of pull-apart basins and their scale independence,

Tectonics, 1.7- Balance, P. F (1980). Models of sediment distribution in non-marine and shallow marine

environments in oblique-slip zones. In: Sedimentation in oblique-slip mobile zones (Balance P. F. and Reading, H. G. Eds.), International Association Sedimentologists Special Publication, 4.

8- Berberian, M (1988). Tectonic Evolution of mountain Ranges in Iran. Abstract with Proceeding 7th Earth Science Seminar, 28-33, Geological Survey of Iran [in Persian].

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1:250000 scales, Geological Survey of Iran.11- Burchfiel, B.C. and Stwewart, J. H (1966). ‘Pull-apart’ origin of the central segment of Death

Valley, California. Geological Society of Ammerica Bulletin, 77.12- Bull, W.B., and McFadden, L.D (1977). Tectonic geomorphology north and south of the

Garlock fault, California, In: Geomorphology in arid regions (Doehring, D.O., Ed.), Proceedings of the 8th Annual Geomorphology Symposium Binghamton, New York, State University of New York Publications in Geomorphology.

13- Burke, K., Mann, P. and Kidd, W (1982).What is a ramp valley? Abstract of 11 th International Congress Sedimentology, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario.

14- Castan˜eda. C., Herrero, J. and Casterad M. A. 2005. Facies identification within the playa-lakes of the Monegros desert, Spain, from field and satellite data. Catena, 63.

15- Crawell, J.C. 1974. Origin of late Cenozoic basins in southern California. In: Modern and anceint geocynclinal sediemntation (Dott, R. H. and Shaver, R. H. Eds.), SEPM Special Publication 19.

16- Eftekharnejad, J. (Supervior) (1991). Geological Map of Birjand, No. K8, 1:250000 scales, Geological Survey of Iran.

17- Eftekharnezhad, J (1991). Structural separation of Iran in relation to sedimentary basins. Journal of Iranian Petroleum Society. 82, 19-27 [in Persian].

18- Eshagian, K (1990). Flood report in Nehbandan, Water Management Organization., internal report, 20 pp [in Persian].

19- Gutie´rrez-Elorza M., Desir G., Gutie´rrez-Santolalla, F. And Marı´n, C (2005). Origin and evolution of playas and blowouts in the semiarid zone of Tierra de Pinares (Duero Basin(, Spain, Geomorphology, 72.

20- Hubber, H. (Compiler) (1976). Geological map of Iran, 1: 1000,000 scale, (Sheet No. 3). Geological map of North-East Iran. Exploration and Production, N.I.O.C., Tehran.

21- Khatib, M.M (1994). Neotectonic and seismotectonice of Birjand. Research Project, Research Affairs, Birjand University, 51 pp[in Persian].

22- Krinsley, D. B (1970). A geomorphological and paleoclimatological study of the palays of Iran. Geological Survey of United State of America.

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24- Krinsley, D. B (1971). Importance of past climate of playas in Iran. Geography Organization, 8 pp [in Persian].

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26- Messina, P., Stoffer, P. and Smith, W (2005). Macropolygon morphology, development, and classification on North Panamint and Eureka playas, Death Valley National Park CA. Earth-Science Reviews, 73.


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27- Moshtagian, A (1972). Geology of east of Iran, between Torbate-Jam and Zahedan, Journal of Iranian Petroleum Society. 47, 1-7 [in Persian].

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37-





Recognition of Weather Types in Ardabil Synoptic Station and its RelationshipWith Atmospheric Circulation Patterns

Shahram Razmjuei M.Sc Student of Climatology University of Mohaghegh Ardabili

Dr. Bromand Salahi Assistant Professor of Natural GeographyUniversity of Mohaghegh Ardabili

IntroductionDetermination of weather types as one of the goals of Synoptic climatology is identification of similar weathers variables. Hence, weather types in fact visualize air masses. In other words, a weather type is a different set of atmospheric characteristics which is different from other series. Today, identification of weather type based on climatic variables is one of the important tools for climatologists to understand about the weather and climactic problems & disasters due to atmospheric circulations. On the other hand, the weather types are associated with surface events and by identification of these, environmental phenomena such as floods, pollution, pests, etc, are predictable. Many of the processes concerned with environmental problems, are affected by atmospheric circulations. Since in synoptic studies, the relationship between changes in atmospheric circulation patterns and environmental phenomena and processes are reviewed, the results of these studies could lead to explain and predict phenomena and environmental conditions.

Research Methodology In this paper, in order to determine and investigate the synoptic weather types in Ardabil synoptic station, 18 climatic variables such as wet and dry bulb temperature, relative humidity, direction & speed of wind (for 03, 09 & 15 GMT) mean of rainfall, maximum and minimum of temperature belong to Ardebil synoptic station in years 1978 – 2005 have been used. 9918 days has had complete data of the above variables. First, a P Matrix (9918×18) created and then the data standardize process has been performed. On this Matrix, by using cluster analysis, weather types of this station have recognized. based on correlations, 6 days selected as representative days of 6 synoptic types in Ardabil synoptic station. So, in these representative days, climatic characteristics of sea level pressure and 500 hecto-pascal geopotential height maps were investigated.

Discussion and ResultsIn this study, using the climatic data of years 1978-2005 of Ardabil synoptic station and performing the cluster analysis by Ward method on standardized data, six weather types were identified. Including: 1) Warm and dry , windy 2) Very warm with low rainfall 3) Very cool & rainy 4) Cool and

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dry, windy 5) Moderate 6) Warm & wet. At first, these types were located in 2 clusters (warm and cool). Types 1, 2 and 6 belong to the warm cluster and types 3, 4 and 5 belong to the cold cluster. It seems that the obtained weather types for this station almost represent spatial and temporal climatic conditions of this station. The results showed that type 1 is the most discordant type. Types 3 and 2, respectively, have the highest and lowest rainfall. The coldest and warmest types of the station are types 3 and 2. Type No. 6 has the best representation day with a 95 percent correlation with the other day and it had the longest duration among other types. Types 1 and 4 are the windiest types respectively. Type 6 (which belongs to the warm season), has the most and type No 1 has the lowest frequency of occurrence of weather types. In winter, the Siberian high pressure in north of Iran and the unstable mid-latitude out of tropical flow causes the influx of high-latitude cold weathers on the northwest of Iran. Consequently, the cold weather types in winter influenced more by controller planetary factors of station than local factors. In other seasons of the year, the effective air mass enters in to the region mainly from the northern regions and affects on its climate. In total, in this station, the frequency of warm types is more than cold ones (53.8 vs. 46.2 percent). Among the studied types, types 1 and 5 have more moderate climatic conditions than types 2 and 6 (warm types) and types 3 and 4 (cold types). Investigation of 500 hpa level and sea level patterns of representative days of weather types, showed the Influx of cold air of upper latitudes by Siberian & European high pressures and low pressure of Iceland on station and existance of high pressure closed center of Azores on center of Iran. In general, study of ground level and 500 hpa atmospheric circulation patterns, justified cold types (types 3, 4 and 5) more than warm types (types 1, 2 and 6). Although in warm types, especially types 2 and 6, the arrangement of atmospheric circulation patterns play a decisive role in the occurrence of these weather types, Since weather types of each area are related with the occurrence of environmental phenomena, therefore the discovery and analysis of this relationship can take important steps in preventing and dealing with these phenomena.

ConclusionThe results of cluster analysis showed that there are 6 weather types in Ardabil synoptic station; 1- Warm and dry, windy. 2- Very warm with low rainfall. 3- Very cool & rainy. 4- Cool and dry, windy. 5- Moderate. 6- Warm & wet. Statistical analysis shows that number 5 (moderate) and 6 (warm & wet) types were active in 29.5 & 17.5 percent of the year respectively and considered as the dominant types of Ardabil station. Weather Type 3 has the most precipitation & the least temperature and weather type 2 has the highest temperature & the least precipitation. weather type 1 has the most inharmonious & windy. The warm & wet type of weather has the longest term among the other types of weather. The results of synoptic analysis of weather types show that in Ardabil synoptic station,each of weather types are related to a special atmospheric circulation pattern. The cold flows of high latitudes creates by Siberian & European high pressures, high altitude of Azores, west & south-west winds are the main atmospheric patterns in sea level pressure and 500 hecto-pascal geopotential height maps.

Keywords: Ardabil synoptic station, Cluster analyze, Synoptic analyze, Weather type.

References1- Alijani, B. (2002). Synoptic climatology, Samt Press, Tehran.

Recognition of Weather Types in Ardabil Synoptic …


2- Bagheri, J. (2008). Identification of Weather Types in Arak Station, Isfahan university magazine (humanities), No. 15.3- Bernardi, A. (1987). Pollution episodes at Venice Elated to weather types, an analysis for a better predictability, Science of the total environment, Volume 63.4- Bettolli, M ., Penalba, O., Vargas W. (2010). Synoptic weather types in the south of South America and their relationship to daily rainfall in the core crop-producing region in Argentina, Australian meteorological and oceanographic journal, Vol, 60, Issue 1.5- Kalkstein, L.S. Nichols, M., Barthel, D., Greene, J. (1996). a new spatial synoptic classification: application to air-mass analysis. International journal of climatology, Vol, 16.6- Kalkstien, L.S. Tan, G. and Skindlov, J. A. (1987). An evaluation of three clustering procedures for use in synoptic climatological classification.7- Kalkstein, S., Scott, C., Daniel, Y., Graybeal. (1998). A determination of character and frequency changes in air masses using a spatial synoptic classification. International journal of climatology, No.18.8- Karimi Akhoprme, M. (2008). Identification of weather types in Konarak station, Isfahan university magazine (humanities), No. 4.9- Khoshhal, J., Nazaripour, H. (2006). Identification of weather types in Tabas station in years 1985-2004, Sepehr, Quarterly, No. 72.10- Kidson, J. (2008). An analysis of New Zealand synoptic types and their use in defining weather regimes, International Journal of Climatology, Vol, 20, Issue 3.11- Krichak, S.O. Tsidulko, and Alpert. (2000). Monthly synoptic patterns associated with wet/dry conditions in the eastern mediterranean, Theor. Appl. Climatol. 65.12- Littmann, T. (2000). an empirical classification of weather types in the Mediterranean Basin and their interrelation with rainfall. Theor. Appl. Climatol. 66.13- Masoudian, S., Mohammadi, B. (2007). Identification of weather types in Sanandaj station, Journal of geography and regional development research, No. 9.14- Masoudian, S. (2007). Identification of weather types in Isfahan, Final report of research project, Vice chancellor for research and technology of Isfahan University. 15-Michailidou,C, Maheras,P., Arseni-Papadimititriou,A., Kolyva-Machera, F, Anagnostopoulou,C. (2009). A study of weather types at Athens and Thessaloniki and their relationship to circulation types for the cold-wet period, part I: two-step cluster analysis, Theoretical and applied climatology, Vol, 97, issue 1-2.16- Mohammadi, B., Masoudian, S. (2007). Relationship between weather types of Sanandaj station with circulation pattern of 500 hectopascal level, Geography and Development Quarterly, No. 9.17- Morabito, M., Alfonso, C., Daniele, G., Simone, O., Lorenzo. C., Laura, B., Pietro Amedeo Modesti, Gian, F., Gensini, G.M. (2006). Winter air-mass-based synoptic climatological approach and hospital admissions for myocardial infarction in Florence, Italy. Environmental Research 102.18- Nazaripour, H., Khoshhal, J. (2007). Identification of weather types in Khorobyabanak station, Nivar, Quarterly, No. 66-67.

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19- Rainham, Daniel G. C., Karen, E., Smoyer-tomic, Scott, C., Sheridan, R., Burnett. (2005). Synoptic weather patterns and modification of the association between air pollution and human mortality. International journal of environmental health research, Vol. 15(No. 5).20- Razmjuei, F. (2008). Identification of weather types in Bam synoptic station in years 2003-2006 and investigation of relationship between weather types with 500 hectopascal level, Isfahan university magazine (humanities), No. 4. 21-Serra, C., Mills, G., Periago, M. (1999). Winter synoptic weather types in Catalonia (NE Spain) and their linkage with minimum temperature anomalies, International Journal of Climatology, Vol, 19, Issue 15.22-Sheridan, S.C. (1997). Using a synoptic classification system to assess climate trends and variability. Texas, pp1-3 research, Vol. 15(No. 5).23-Sheridan, R., Scott, C. (2002). The redevelopment of a weather-type classification scheme for north america. International journal of climatology, No. 22.24-Sheridan, R., Scott C. (2003). North American weather-type frequency and teleconnection Indices, International journal of climatology, No. 23.25-Yarnal, B. (2006). Synoptic climatology and its application in environmental studies, translated by Masoudian S, Isfahan University press.26- (URL)http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/psd/data/composites/nssl/day/index.html.


Geography and Development

10nd Year - No. 28 - Autumn 2012Received : 16/12/2011 Accepted : 18/7/2012

PP : 44 - 46

Quantitative and Qualitative Analysis of Erosion on Southern River Basins Adjacent to Mashhad and its Environmental Impact

Dr. Mohammad Jafar ZomorodianAssociate Professor of GeographyUniversity of Ferdowsi Mashhad

Ramin RahimiM.Sc in Geomorphology

IntroductionErosion and especially soil erosion can be considered as one of the most threatening factor for the environment in general and for soil and water resources in particular. Because soil is made from the composition of fine material, mineral and homos and its a natural-dynamic environment in which plants are grown. Nowadays, soil erosion is one of the problems and challenges which cause huge damages, particularly in Iran. This happens because erosion has many other consequences including soil loss and degradation, water pollution, reduction of water reserves and dams water filling operation, threatening general health and etc. Therefore, the assessment and control of erosion and its consequences can be considered as a major step for moving towards sustainable development. As a result, many researches and administrative activities are done and many models are employed in this field. Fundamental research related to soil erosion was started in 1915 for the first time and Wotiy was the first person who did comprehensive research in this field. Many researches also carried out in this field in Iran in general and in khorasan Province in particular and present study is in parallel with these research, because city of Mashhad is located in northern slope part of Binalood Mountain range, and it is surrounded by four river basins including Torogh, Mayaan, Dehbar, and Jaghargh. Unsurprisingly, the negative consequences of soil erosion in these areas have an impact on city of Mashhad and its citizens. This study was carried out to identify the details of this erosion in this area and appropriate ways to control it.

Research Methodology This research is designed based on experimental method, quantitative and qualitative analysis, field study and also laboratory research. This study employed MPSIAC Model with consideration of data and natural features of the selected area (9 factors including: geology, climate, run-off and discharge , topography, soil, plant coverage, land use, river erosion, and superficial soil erosion). Results of this study are compared and analyzed with data from sediment analysis stations in the region. In order to obtain better results, this research employed variety of maps including Topographic maps, Geological maps, etc. Moreover, this research also used Remote Sensing images in order to achieve its objectives. Discussion and Results

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Area covered in this study is located in the North-East of Iran (Khorasan-Razavi Province) between 36,4 -36,21 North latitude and 59,10-59,37 East altitude. The flow of these mentioned four river basins are derived from the north slope of Binalood Mountain range and they are flowing into Mashhad - Chenaran plain and ultimately joining Kashafrud River. These river basins covered area is about 429 km2 and with respect to geomorphology are agree with Binalood. From litho logic point of view, metamorphic schist and Mashhad filith (slate, schist, schale, ophiolith, and etc) have covered 90% of these basins. Also several faults exist in this area in which Sangbast Shandiz is the most famous one. Climate of this area can be categorized as semi-dried and cold and the annual average of rainfall is about 256.3 mm. Length of the major branches of these river basins is about 25 km in average and they seems to be in the form of permanent rivers. The average of annual water flow is 4.455 M3/S. The land coverage in these areas is mainly cliffs, Scree, roads and civil structures and in terms of plant coverage can be considered as a relatively poor area. This area also includes agricultural land area that in the recent years were converted to restaurants and constructions in which Jaghargh can be considered as the first place regarding this ranking. These environmental and natural characteristics and features as independent or as a common or a combination of factors were effective in creating the erosion and sedimentation processes of the area and has had particular environmental consequences.

ConclusionResults of quantitative and qualitative analysis indicate that, firstly, Jaghargh River basins has the most erosion and sediments compared to other river basins studied in the region. Secondly, the MPSIAC Model is applicable in this region, because as an example, according to MPSIAC Model, the amount of sediments measured in Jaghargh river basin was 531 Ton/Km2 per year, whereas, in sediment measuring station in this area, amount of sediment measured was 547 Ton/Km2 per year. Thirdly, the amount of erosion and sediment in the region studied in this research were constantly increasing which is affected by changes in land use patterns and also human disruptions. Increasing erosion and sediment in the region also had a negative impact on the environment (changes in linear river section, reducing the life-cycle of dams in the region, dusty weather conditions in Mashhad, and etc). In terms of qualitative analysis, it is needed to mention that, in addition to the above quantitative analysis and its results, the existence of series of factors in the region led to increase erosion and also intensified it. These factors mainly include: the characteristics and features of elements and environmental and natural factors (e.g. Schistozite, the range of temperature variation in a day and during the season which intensify Thermoclasty and Cryoclasty in one hand and on the other hand, topography, high levels of rainfall with relatively high snow coefficient, and high water flow in rivers which strengthening the process of erosion and sediment), changes in land use patterns in recent decades (particularly in Jaghargh river basin), and (due to population increase) in recent years.

Keywords: Quantitative and qualitative analysis, River basin, Erosion and sediment, Environment, Sediment measuring, MPSIAC.References


1- Ahmadi, H (2004). Applied Geomorphology, Vol.2, Water erosion, Tehran University

Publication.2- Climatology Research Center (2008). Climate Report of Mashhad.3- David, E., Sugden, Richard J. Chorley, Stanley S. Schumm (2001). Geomorphology Vol 3,

Translated by Motamed A, Samt Publication.4- Refahi H (1997). Water Erosion and its Control, Tehran University Publication.5- Zomorodian, M.J (2008). Geomorphology of Iran, Vol.2, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad

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in Torogh Dam.13- Najafi Disfani M (1999). Analysis of Digital Images (RS), Samt Publication.14- Topographic Maps, 1:25000, Surveying Organization.15- Geological Maps, 1:100000, Geological Organization. 16- Nikoo, M (1999). Comparison of Images Information with Sediment Measurment Stations in

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ending (Kadsto) to Hormoz Defile, Geographical Research Magazine.

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