Geology 1001/1101
description
Transcript of Geology 1001/1101
![Page 1: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
1
Geology 1001/1101
Sec 003 Chris PaolaClass 13: energy
![Page 2: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/2.jpg)
2
Key ideas about energy
• Energy use is linked fundamentally to population, population density, and GDP
• Total world energy consumption, now and projected
• Geology-related energy sources
![Page 3: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/3.jpg)
3
Geology & energy
• ~85% of current energy use is from fossil fuels: oil, gas (hydrocarbons) and coal
• All fossil fuel energy is fossil solar energy• All fossil fuel energy is linked to life and thus
to carbon• Are we running out of hydrocarbons? The
“peak oil” debate• Nuclear energy• Geothermal energy
![Page 4: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/4.jpg)
4
Key points
• How hydrocarbons form• Measuring the reserves, oil field sizes• Definitions: oil and gas units,
discoveries, proven reserves, ultimate recoverable reserves
• “Unconventional” hydrocarbons: shale gas, shale oil, tar sands
• A little about coal
![Page 5: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/5.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 6: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/6.jpg)
6
Energy and power
• Energy (work) – Joules– BTUs: 1 BTU = 1055 J– Quad = 1015 BTU = 1.055x1018 J (1.055 ExaJ)– Kilowatt-hour: 1 KWH = 3600000 J– Calorie (food): 1 Cal = 4187 J
• Power: energy per time (energy rate)– 1 Joule/sec = 1 Watt– 1 HP = 746 Watt
• US energy consumption (power), per capita: 11.4 kW (11,400 Watt)
![Page 7: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/7.jpg)
7
Energy and power
• Energy (work) – 1 gallon [U.S.] of automotive gasoline = 131.8
Mjoule– 1 gallon [U.S.] of automotive gasoline = 31470
Calorie [nutritional]– Kilowatt-hour: 1 KWH = 3600000 J– Calorie (food): 1 Cal = 4187 J
• Power: energy per time (energy rate)– 1 Joule/sec = 1 Watt– 1 HP = 746 Watt
• US energy consumption (power), per capita: 11.4 kW (11,400 Watt)
![Page 8: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/8.jpg)
8
Energy equivalents
• 1 Quad = 1015 BTU = 1.055 x 1018 J =8 x 109 Gallons (US) of gasoline 172 x 106 Barrels of oil293 x 109 Kilowatt-hours (kWh) 36 x 106 Tonnes of coal 970 x 109 cubic feet of natural gas (~1 TCF)6 x 109 UK gallons of diesel oil 25 x 106 Tonnes of oil
• solar input at surface: 168 W/m2 x 106 x 510,065,600
km2 x 3.1x107 sec = 2.66 x 106 EJ per year
![Page 9: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/9.jpg)
9
Energy per person
• Our per-person average consumption: 11.4 kW (11,400 Watt)
• In one year: 3.59 x 105 MJ = 359,000 MJ (mega joules) = 59 barrels of oil OR332,000 cubic feet of natural gas OR15 tonnes of coal OR67.9 m2 of sunlight (at 100% conversion)
![Page 10: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/10.jpg)
10
World energy consumption
2008 total world energy consumption, per year:
474×1018 J (474 EJ or 449 Quad)
80-90% derived from the combustion of fossil fuels
Oil equivalent: 77 x 109 (billion) barrels (Bbbl)
Actual world annual, oil only: 31 x 109 (billion) barrels (Bbbl)
![Page 11: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/11.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 12: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/12.jpg)
12
Total world energy consumption
![Page 13: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/13.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 14: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/14.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 15: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/15.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 16: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/16.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 17: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/17.jpg)
17
Where in the world was oil first produced for human consumption?
Texas?
Middle east?
California?
Caucasus?
![Page 18: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/18.jpg)
JMAJMA
The Goal - ‘Black Gold’The Goal - ‘Black Gold’
Light Texas CrudePalo Pinto Field
North Texas
Light Texas CrudePalo Pinto Field
North Texas
Heavy Texas CrudeHumble Oil FieldSouthwest Texas
Heavy Texas CrudeHumble Oil FieldSouthwest Texas
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 19: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/19.jpg)
JMAJMA
What is Petroleum?What is Petroleum?
• Petroleum:Petroleum: a natural yellow-to-black a natural yellow-to-black flammable flammable liquid hydrocarbon found liquid hydrocarbon found beneath beneath the earth’s surfacethe earth’s surface
• Hydrocarbon:Hydrocarbon: an organic compound made an organic compound made up up of carbon and hydrogen of carbon and hydrogen atomsatoms
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 20: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/20.jpg)
JMAJMA
Petroleum ProductsPetroleum Products
Gasoline - 19.5 gallonsGasoline - 19.5 gallons
A Barrel of Crude Oil Provides:A Barrel of Crude Oil Provides:
Fuel Oil - 9.2 gallonsFuel Oil - 9.2 gallons
Jet Fuel - 4.1 gallonsJet Fuel - 4.1 gallons
Asphalt - 2.3 gallonsAsphalt - 2.3 gallons
Kerosene - 0.2 gallonsKerosene - 0.2 gallons
Lubricants - 0.5 gallonsLubricants - 0.5 gallons
Petrochemicals,Petrochemicals,other products - 6.2 gallonsother products - 6.2 gallons
One Barrel =One Barrel =42 gallons42 gallons
American Petroleum Institute, American Petroleum Institute, 19991999Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 21: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/21.jpg)
JMAJMA
024839-2
Projected World Energy SuppliesProjected World Energy Supplies
19001900 19201920 19401940 19601960 19801980 20002000 20202020 20402040 20602060 20802080 30003000
2020
4040
6060
8080
100100100 BILLION
BARRELS
Billion Barrels
of Oil Equivalent
per Year (GBOE)
Billion Barrels
of Oil Equivalent
per Year (GBOE) Natural
GasNatural
Gas
HydroelectricHydroelectric
Crude OilCrude Oil
Solar, Wind Geothermal
Nuclear Electric
1993
CoalCoal
24929
Decreasing
Decreasing
Fossil F
uelsF
ossil Fuels
Ne
w T
echno
logies
Ne
w T
echno
logies
World Energy DemandWorld Energy Demand
after Edwards,AAPG 8/97
Careers inCareers inOil & GasOil & Gas
Remain ImportantRemain Important
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 22: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/22.jpg)
JMAJMA
Global ExplorationGlobal Oil and Gas Fields
GasGasOilOil
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 23: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/23.jpg)
JMAJMA
US HydrocarbonUS HydrocarbonOccurrenceOccurrenceLargest 25 Oil FieldsLargest 25 Oil Fieldsby Ultimate Recoveryby Ultimate Recovery
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 24: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/24.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
Deposition
Erosion
![Page 25: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/25.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 26: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/26.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 27: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/27.jpg)
27
Hydrocarbon formation
![Page 28: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/28.jpg)
28
Hydrocarbon formation
![Page 29: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/29.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 30: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/30.jpg)
30
Hydrocarbon formation
![Page 31: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/31.jpg)
JMAJMA
Petroleum System ProcessesPetroleum System Processes
24803
Petroleum System ElementsPetroleum System Elements
120° F120° F
350° F350° FGenerationGeneration
MigrationMigration
Seal RockSeal Rock
Reservoir RockReservoir Rock
OilOil
WaterWater
Gas CapGas Cap
EntrapmentEntrapmentAccumulationAccumulation
Source Source RockRock
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 32: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/32.jpg)
JMAJMA
Petroleum System ProcessesPetroleum System Processes
• Generation Generation -- Burial of source rock to temperature and Burial of source rock to temperature and pressure regime sufficient to convert organic pressure regime sufficient to convert organic matter into hydrocarbon matter into hydrocarbon
• MigrationMigration - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source - Movement of hydrocarbon out of the source rock toward and into a trap rock toward and into a trap
• AccumulationAccumulation - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into - A volume of hydrocarbon migrating into a trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an a trap faster than the trap leaks resulting in an
accumulation accumulation
• PreservationPreservation - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is - Hydrocarbon remains in reservoir and is not altered by biodegradation or “water-washing” not altered by biodegradation or “water-washing”
• Timing Timing - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon - Trap forms before and during hydrocarbon migrating migrating Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 33: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/33.jpg)
JMAJMA
A hydrocarbon “trap”: anticlineA hydrocarbon “trap”: anticline
GasGas
OilOil
WaterWater
Petroleum Accumulates in Structural ClosurePetroleum Accumulates in Structural Closure
Source: J. Armentrout, AAPG
![Page 34: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/34.jpg)
34
More hydrocarbon traps
![Page 35: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/35.jpg)
JMAJMA
3D Seismic Image - Submarine Fan3D Seismic Image - Submarine Fan
Armentrout Armentrout et al.et al., 1996, 1996
11
22
33
11
22
33
Less Less Confined Confined
FlowFlow
Confined Confined FlowFlow
New Tools Better Data Improved UnderstandingNew Tools Better Data Improved Understanding
Hummocky Channel Levee
Lobate Mound
Sheet-Form Fan
![Page 36: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/36.jpg)
36
Hydrocarbons: drilling
![Page 37: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/37.jpg)
37
Where in the world was oil first produced for human consumption?
China (349)
Pennsylvania (1859)
![Page 38: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/38.jpg)
38
Are we running out of oil?
![Page 39: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/39.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 40: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/40.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 41: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/41.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 42: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/42.jpg)
42
Who was M. King Hubbert and what is “Hubbert’s Peak”?
Hubbert the person… …Hubbert the icon
![Page 43: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/43.jpg)
43
Hubbert’s prediction
![Page 44: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/44.jpg)
44
Source: J. LaHerrere, Oil & Gas Journal, 2000
![Page 45: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/45.jpg)
45
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 46: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/46.jpg)
46
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 47: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/47.jpg)
47
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
Resources have limits, but is the limit quantifiable?
![Page 48: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/48.jpg)
48
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 49: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/49.jpg)
49
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 50: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/50.jpg)
50
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 51: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/51.jpg)
51
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 52: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/52.jpg)
52
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 53: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/53.jpg)
53
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
![Page 54: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/54.jpg)
54
Hubbert’s prediction revisited
![Page 55: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/55.jpg)
55
![Page 56: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/56.jpg)
56
From Steve Gorelick, Stanford Univ.
Note: we have used ~ 1 Trillion bbl so far
![Page 57: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/57.jpg)
57
Unconventional hydrocarbons
![Page 58: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/58.jpg)
58
Tar sand
Athabaska sands, Alberta
![Page 59: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/59.jpg)
59
Tar sand reserve: 3.6 x 109 (trillion) barrels in Canada and Venezuela alone
For comparison:
Current world total energy consumption in oil equivalent: 77 billion bbl
Conventional oil reserves: 1.75 trillion bbl
![Page 60: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/60.jpg)
60
Shale gas
Gas-bearing shale, Alberta
![Page 61: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/61.jpg)
61
Shale gas
![Page 62: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/62.jpg)
62
Shale gas
![Page 63: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/63.jpg)
63
Shale gas reserve: 616 x 109 (trillion) cubic feet (TCF) in US alone
For comparison:
Current world total energy consumption in gas equivalent: 77 billion bbl
Conventional gas reserves: 6300 TCF
![Page 64: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/64.jpg)
64
What we don’t like about hydrocarbons…
![Page 65: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/65.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 66: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/66.jpg)
66
Gulf Coast Oil Spill, 2010
![Page 67: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/67.jpg)
67
Coal: fossilized marsh
![Page 68: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/68.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 69: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/69.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 70: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/70.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 71: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/71.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and CompanyFIGURE 14.13 Coal strip mine, Buskin, Indiana.
![Page 72: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/72.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 73: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/73.jpg)
73
Coal reserves
• Estimated total reserve: 843 Gton
• Current usage: 6.4 Gton/yr
![Page 74: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/74.jpg)
74
Other Earth-based energy sources
![Page 75: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/75.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 76: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/76.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 77: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/77.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 78: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/78.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 79: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/79.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 80: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/80.jpg)
80
![Page 81: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/81.jpg)
81
![Page 82: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/82.jpg)
82
![Page 83: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/83.jpg)
Jordan, The Essential Earth 1e © 2008 by W. H. Freeman and Company
![Page 84: Geology 1001/1101](https://reader038.fdocuments.in/reader038/viewer/2022102801/568146eb550346895db42530/html5/thumbnails/84.jpg)
84