Accepted Manuscript

Geological characteristics and ore-forming process of the gold deposits in the

western Qinling region, China

Jiajun Liu, Chonghao Liu, Emmanuel John M. Carranza, Yujie Li, Zhihao Mao,

Jianping Wang, Yinhong Wang, Jing Zhang, Degao Zhai, Huafeng Zhang, Liang

Shan, Laimin Zhu, Rukui Lu

PII: S1367-9120(14)00517-3

DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2014.11.012

Reference: JAES 2173

To appear in: Journal of Asian Earth Sciences

Received Date: 3 April 2014

Revised Date: 28 October 2014

Accepted Date: 1 November 2014

Please cite this article as: Liu, J., Liu, C., Carranza, E.J.M., Li, Y., Mao, Z., Wang, J., Wang, Y., Zhang, J., Zhai,

D., Zhang, H., Shan, L., Zhu, L., Lu, R., Geological characteristics and ore-forming process of the gold deposits in

the western Qinling region, China, Journal of Asian Earth Sciences (2014), doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.

2014.11.012

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Geological characteristics and ore-forming process of the gold deposits in the

western Qinling region, China

Jiajun Liua,b,*, Chonghao Liua,b, Emmanuel John M. Carranzac, Yujie Lia, , Zhihao Maoa, b,

Jianping Wanga, b, Yinhong Wanga, b, Jing Zhanga, b, Degao Zhaia, b, Huafeng Zhanga, b, Liang

Shana,b, Laimin Zhud, Rukui Lud

a State Key Laboratory of Geological Processes and Mineral Resources, China University of

Geosciences, Beijing 100083, People’s Republic of China

b School of Earth Sciences, China University of Geosciences (Beijing), Beijing 100083,

People’s Republic of China

c School of Earth and Environmental Sciences，James Cook University, Townsville，Queensland 4811,

Australia

d State Key Laboratory of Continental Dynamics, Department of Geology, Northwest University,

Xi’an, 710069, People’s Republic of China

Abstract

The western Qinling, belonging to the western part of the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu orogen between

the North China Block and South China Block, is one of the most important gold regions in

China. Isotopic dates suggest that the Mesozoic granitoids in the western Qinling region

emplaced during the Middle-Late Triassic, and the deposits formed during the Late Triassic.

Almost all gold deposits in the western Qinling region are classified as orogenic, Carlin-type,

and Carlin-like gold deposits, and they are the products of Qinling orogenesis caused by the

* Corresponding author. E-mail address: liujiajun@cugb.edu.cn

final collision between the North China Block and the South China Block. The early

subduction of the Mian-Lue oceanic crust and the latter collision between South Qinling

Terrane and the South China Block along the Mian-Lue suture generated lithosphere-scale

thermal anomalies to drive orogen-scale hydrothermal systems. The collision-related

magmatism also provided heat source for regional ore-forming fluids in the Carlin-like gold

deposits.

Orogenic gold deposits such as Huachanggou, Liziyuan, and Baguamiao lie between the

Shang-Dan and Mian-Lue sutures and are confined to WNW-trending brittle-ductile shear

zones in Devonian and Carboniferous greenschist-facies metasedimentary rocks that were

highly-deformed and regionally-metamorphosed. These deposits are typical orogenic gold

deposits and formed within a Late Triassic age. The deposits show a close relationship

between Au and Ag. Ores contain mainly microscopic gold, and minor electrum and visible

gold, along with pyrite. The ore-forming fluids were main metamorphic fluids. Intensive

tectonic movements caused by orogenesis created fluid-migrating channels for precipitation

locations. Although some orogenic gold deposits occur adjacent to granitoids, mineralization

is not synchronous with magmatism; that is, the granitoids have no genetic relations to

orogenic gold deposits. As ore-forming fluids converged into dilated fractures during the

extension stage of orogenesis, changes of physico-chemical conditions resulted in fluid

immiscibility that played a key role in gold and sulphide deposition.

The geochemical and mineralogical characteristics of the Carlin-type deposits in the western

Qinling region are similar to those in the Carlin trend, Nevada, USA. Gold deposits such as

La’erma and Jinlongshan occur mostly in the southeastern margin of the western Qinling

regionic region whereas some deposits occur in its eastern part. These deposits are hosted in

slightly metamorphosed Cambrian to Triassic sedimentary rocks, showing structurally- and

stratigraphically-controlled features. The deposits mainly contain submicroscopic and

microscopic gold in arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite, with characteristic ore-forming elements

of Au-As-Sb-Ba. The ore-forming fluids are early-stocked formation water and

later-recharged meteoric water. Meteoric water apparently evolved in ore-forming fluids by

circulation, indicating the extensional setting, and led to the deposition of Au and other

elements in cool reactive permeable rocks at shallow levels, forming the disseminated ores.

Carlin-like gold deposits occur between the Shang-Dan suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault.

The host rocks are mainly sedimentary rocks that underwent reconstruction through

reworking by structural metamorphism. These deposits are structurally controlled by

brittle-ductile shear zone and occur adjacent to granitoid plutons. The most important

characteristic that differ to the orogenic and Carlin-type gold deposits is the genetic

relationship with the synchronous magmatism. Gold occurs mainly as microscopic gold.

Pyrite and arsenian pyrite can be recognized as gold-bearing minerals. The ore-forming fluids

are main magmatic water mixed with metamorphic and/or formation water. Similar to

orogenic gold deposits, fluid immiscibility caused the deposition of gold Carlin-like gold

deposits.

Keywords: western Qinling region; geological characteristics; ore-forming process; gold

deposit

1. Introduction

The Qinling Orogen in central China links the Kunlun Orogen to the west with the

Dabie-Sulu Orogen to the east, and is bounded to the north by the North China Block (NCB)

along the Lingbao-Lushan-Wuyang fault and to the south by the South China Block (SCB)

along the Mian-Lue suture and Bashan-Xiangfan fault (Fig. 1). As one of the most important

gold regions in China, the western Qinling region hosts over 50 gold deposits distributed

within east-trending thrust and suture zones. Because of its unique tectonic setting,

complicated geological history, and abundant mineral resources, the western Qinling region

has been a long-term focus of geological study in China (e.g., Qin and Gan, 1976; Zhang et al.,

1984; Zhang et al., 1998; Chen et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2010). Many western researchers

began to focus on Qinling in the 1980s, especially after the year 1985 when Mattauer et al.

(1985) and Peltzer et al. (1985) published research papers in top publications such as Nature

(e.g., Lerch et al., 1995; Webb et al., 1999; Ratschbacher et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., 2014).

Gold deposits in China have typically been classified according to host rock lithologies

(e.g., granite-hosted, volcanic-hosted, and sedimentary-hosted gold deposits; Tu, 1990; Nie,

1997) and genetic types of ore-forming fluids (e.g., magmatic hydrothermal, metamorphic

hydrothermal, and hydrothermal sedimentary gold deposits; Zhong et al., 1993; Chen et al.,

2007). Although these criteria make the classification simple and clear, they provide little

focus on the spatio-temporal information and ore genesis. Therefore, more common

international terminologies are used in this paper to describe the gold deposits in the western

Qinling region.

We prefer and propose to classify gold deposits in the western Qinling region mainly as

orogenic, Carlin-type, and Carlin-like gold deposits. Orogenic gold deposits, first described

by Groves et al. (1998), are widely distributed in the world. Carlin-type deposits were first

discovered in Nevada, U.S.A, and the theory of Carlin-type gold deposit was introduced into

China in the early 1970s. During the past a few decades, orogenic gold deposit and

Carlin-type gold deposit have developed into two worldwide important types of gold deposit

(Large et al., 2011). During the 1990s, with the deepening of research and exploration of

Carlin-type gold deposit in China on the basis of the connotation of Carlin-type gold deposit,

some gold deposits were discovered and redefined as Carlin-like gold deposits. This is a class

of gold deposits that show similar geological characteristics to the Carlin-type gold deposit,

but their geochemical characteristics are obviously different (Hu, 1988; Liu et al., 1994; Chen,

2001; Zhang and Wang, 2013).

This study provides a preliminary discussion on geological characteristics and

ore-forming process of the gold deposits in the western Qinling region and suggests possible

genetic models for their formation.

2. Geological framework

The Qinling Orogen can be divided into several major tectonic zones, which are

subparallel to its general east-west trend and which include two well-documented suture

zones with ophiolitic mélanges (i.e., the Shang-Dan suture zone in the north and the

Mian-Lue suture zone in the south) and the north-dipping Fengxian-Zhen’an (or

Shanyang-Fengzhen) fault zone (Zhai et al., 1998; Mao et al., 2005; Chen, 2010). The

Paleozoic Shang-Dan suture separates the North Qinling Terrane (NQT) from the South

Qinling Terrane (SQT). The SQT can be further subdivided into two domains along the

Fengxian-Zhen’an fault (Mao et al., 2002; Ratschbacher et al., 2003; Mei et al., 1999). They

share a same orogenic belt. The southern margin of the eastern Qinling is covered by

Paleozoic strata characterized by widespread high-pressure metamorphism (Zhang et al., 2003;

Dong et al., 2011) whereas Triassic turbidites outcrop in the easternmost part of western

Qinling region forming part of the extensive Songpan-Ganzi basin (Mao et al., 2002; Li et al.,

2003; Zeng et al., 2012).

2.1. Historical evolution of the Qinling Orogen

The Precambrian tectonic evolution of the Qinling region is still controversial at present,

but it is widely accepted that the present Qinling region had undergone both separation and

accretion of multiple continental blocks in the Precambrian (e.g., Du et al., 1999; G.W. Zhang

et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2004; Dong et al., 2011). At the end of the Neoproterozoic, the

Shang-Dan ocean, a branch of the Proto-Tethyan ocean, was established and separated the

SCB from the NCB (Fig. 2a), after which the Phanerozoic evolution of the Qinling Orogen is

clear with little disputes.

The Shang-Dan ocean formed as a product of the break-up of Rodinia in early

Neoproterozoic (Qiao and Gao, 1999; S.H. Zhang et al., 2000), when the present SQT was the

northern part of the SCB. At the beginning of Cambrian, the extension of the Shang-Dan

ocean continued. The northward subduction zone on the northern margin of the Shang-Dan

ocean resulted in rifting and formation of the Erlangping back-arc basin (G.W. Zhang et al.,

2000; Chen et al., 2003), which separated the NQT, as an island arc, from the NCB. The

Erlangping basin started to subduct southward beneath the NQT before ca. 508 Ma (Fig. 2b)

and the intense subduction and compression of the Shang-Dan ocean started at ca. 485 Ma

(Dong et al., 2011). From Late Ordovician to Middle Silurian, arc-continent collision took

place between the NQT and NCB after the closing of the Erlangping basin and a rift

developed along the northern margin of the SCB (Fig. 2c; Zhang et al., 2007, Dong et al.,

2008). After the closure of the Shang-Dan ocean along the Shang-Dan suture, the rift

developed into the Mian-Lue basin in Middle Devonian (Dong et al., 2011) and further into

the Mian-Lue ocean in Carboniferous, separating the SQT from the SCB as an independent

microplate (Yin and Nie, 1996; Zheng et al., 2010).

A “Zipper Suturing” model for the amalgamation of the NCB and SCB suggests that

collision started firstly in the Dabie region to the east of Qinling and migrated westward (Xu

et al., 1986; Zhu et al., 1998; Chen et al., 2004; Wu et al. 2006). The Mian-Lue oceanic crust

started to subduct northward beneath the SQT from east to west in Early Permian and the

ocean closed completely in Middle-Late Triassic (Fig. 2d; Lai et al., 1998; Du et al., 2003,

Luo et al., 2012). After the closure of the Mian-Lue ocean, the tectonic setting was

transformed from oceanic slab subduction to intercontinental collision along the Mian-Lue

suture in Late Triassic (Zhai et al., 1998; Chen, 2010). The collisional orogeny caused

extensive thin-skinned folding, thrust deformation, uplift, and granite plutonism in both SQT

and NQT and the lateral escape structures of the NQT along major strike-slip faults (Fig. 2e;

Dong et al., 2011; Meng and Zhang, 1999, 2000).

From Late Jurassic to Cretaceous, the NCB subducted southward along the

Lingbao-Lushan-Wuyang fault (S.H. Zhang et al., 2000). The lack of Jurassic and Cretaceous

strata and the widespread distribution of granitoids in the NQT and the southern margin of

NCB during 150-100 Ma suggest that intense uplift resulted from orogenesis (Mao et al.,

2005; Ye et al., 2006). The foreland fold-thrust belt formed in front of the Mian-Lue suture

and Bashan-Xiangfan fault (Dong et al., 2008). Chen et al. (2004) and Zhang et al. (2003)

argued that the Qinling Orogenesis stopped completely in Late Cretaceous.

2.2. Regional geology of the western Qinling region

The south margin of the NCB is characterized by highly deformed and metamorphosed

Neoarchean to Neoproterozoic basement rocks (B.R. Zhang et al., 2000). The Kuanping

Group, immediately adjacent to the north of the Qinling Orogen, consists of Sinian schists,

quartzites, amphibolites, and marbles (Mao et al., 2002).

To the south, according to the classification of the NQT and SQT, the western Qinling

region contains the western parts of both the NQT and SQT. Therefore, the western Qinling

region is here divided into north and south zones.

The north zone is bounded to the north by the Kuanping Group and to the south by the

Shang-Dan suture (Fig. 1). As an Early Paleozoic accreted arc complex (Xue et al., 1996; Yan

et al., 2007), the Erlangping and Qinling Groups overlie the north zone of the West Qinling

Orogen. The mafic to intermediate volcanic and sedimentary rocks within the two groups

underwent medium- to high-grade metamorphism because of the collision between the NQT

and NCB (He et al., 1991; H.Y. Zhang et al., 2009). Local Cretaceous to Cenozoic continental

cover occurs to the west of Hulu River. Up to now, the north zone of the western Qinling

contains little gold deposit. The Shang-Dan suture zone consists of a discontinuously exposed

tectonic mélange (ophiolitic assemblages and arc-related volcanic rocks from the Danfeng

Group by Zhang et al. (2000) and marks the main tectonic boundary between the north and

south zones of the western Qingling Orogen.

The south zone is situated between the Shang-Dan and Mian-Lue sutures. Its northern

part is characterized by a highly-deformed basinal flysch sequence (Lai et al., 1998; Xue et al.,

1996), with the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault as boundary (Fig. 1). The flysch consists mainly of

Devonian clastic and carbonate rocks with minor local Carboniferous and Permian

metasedimentary rocks, and was metamorphosed to medium-grade facies (Zhai et al., 1998;

Goldfarb et al., 2014). To the south of the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault, extensive Devonian strata

are overlain by Triassic turbidites with small local Cambrian to Ordovician sedimentary rocks

in the middle and west, which portray the Zipper Suturing model. Meng et al. (1999)

suggested a passive continental setting for the Devonian strata. The Triassic turbidites in the

southwestern Qinling form part of the extensive Songpan-Ganzi basin, which occupies the

broad area within the Qinling Orogen, the SCB, and the North Tibet block. The eastern parts

of this basin were folded and thrust eastward over the passive margin of the SCB along most

the southwest margin of the western Qinling region (Mao et al., 2002). To the southmost part

of the western Qinling region, a non-Smith stratigraphic mélange region along the Mian-Lue

suture was recognized by Du et al. (1999) as the southern boundary of the western Qinling

region.

To the south of the western Qinling region, the foreland fold-thrust belt forms the

boundary between the Qinling-Dabie-Sulu Orogen and the SCB. However, the platform and

shelf facies rocks immediately to south of the Mian-Lue suture are weakly-foliated and

metamorphosed. In addition, a marine volcanic terrane, known as Bikou Group, is located

between the northwestern SCB and the northeastern Songpan-Ganzi basin. Previous studies

suggested that rocks in this region formed in an island-arc environment in

subduction-collision setting (Xia et al., 1989; Xu et al., 2002; Yan et al., 2004) with a zircon

from basalt and dacite LA-ICP-MS U-Pb age of 802.1 ± 5.3 Ma for Neoproterozoic (Lin et al.,

2013).

Phanerozoic granitoids occur widespread in the western Qinling region (Fig. 1). Most of

them are plutons and stocks in sharp contacts with their intruded rocks and they are mostly

granodiorites and monzogranites. The Paleozoic granitic intrusions have U-Pb formation ages

of 455-414 Ma (Xu et al., 2007; Chen et al., 2008). These intrusions which outcrop in the

north zone, including the Tangzang diorite, the Taibai and Heihe granitoids, the Laoyu and

Zhongnanshan granitoids, and the Zaoyuan, Huangbaicha, and Tieyupu granitoids, are related

to the collisional convergence along the Shang-Dan suture. These granitoids are mostly

characterized by I-type geochemical compositions except for the few S-type granitoids

exposed in the Danfeng area (Li et al., 1993; Wang et al., 2009). In comparison, Mesozoic

granitoids occur mainly in the south zone and in several small areas in the north zone (Xiba,

Baoji, Huayang, Liuba, Guangtoushan, Jiangjiaping, Zhongchuan, etc.) with ages ranging

from ca. 248 to 195 Ma with the cluster in 225-200 Ma (e.g., Lu et al., 2006; F. Zhang et al.,

2009; S.W. Liu et al., 2011; Wang et al., 2013). These granitoids are related to the convergent

tectonic processes that occurred between the SQT and SCB along the Mian-Lue suture,

registering the evolutionary processes of the Qinling Orogen (S.W. Liu et al.,

2011). The granitoids south of the Shang-Dan suture are typical I-type derived from partial

melting of the lower crust and/or upper mantle (Mao et al., 2002).

3. Geological characteristics of gold deposits in the western Qinling region

The orogenic type of gold deposit was established according to metallogenic mechanism

providing genetic information, whereas the Carlin-type of gold deposit was established with

no genetic significance but named after the place where the first deposit of this type was

discovered (Chen, 2001; Ouyang et al., 2011). Therefore, as the two types of gold deposits

relate to genetic and applicable (or industrial) classifications, respectively, it seems improper

to classify gold deposits using the two types simultaneously. However, we cannot neglect the

fact that, since the discovery of the Carlin gold deposit, many studies have focused on the

genesis of Carlin-type gold deposits (e.g., Romberger, 1986; Sillitoe and Bonham, 1990;

Wang and Zhang, 2001; Large et al., 2011; Zhang and Wang, 2013). Despite of controversies,

it is widely accepted that Carlin-type gold deposits are different from orogenic gold deposits

in terms of genesis and the present Carlin-type classification is supposed to be based also on

genesis (Zhou et al., 2002; Mao et al., 2002). Almost all gold deposits in the western Qinling

region are classified as Carlin-type, Carlin-like, and orogenic gold deposits. Research and

study on the classification of gold deposits in the western Qinling region can contribute to

constraining of the metallogenic mechanism for the genesis of different types of gold deposit.

In the following sections, the concept, distribution, and common characteristics of each type

of gold deposits in the western Qinling region are described. The main gold deposits that are

presently being mined in the western Qinling belt are listed in Table 1.

3.1. Orogenic gold deposits

Orogenic gold deposits are typically spatially associated with deformed and

metamorphosed terranes, particularly in spatial association with major crustal structures, and

were formed during compressional to transpressional deformation in accretionary and

collisional orogenies along convergent plate margins (Groves et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al.,

2001). Most ores are post-orogenic with respect to tectonism of their immediate host rocks,

but are usually syn-orogenic with respect to ongoing deep-crustal and subduction-related

thermal processes. They are generally accepted to have formed from fluids produced during

metamorphic devolatilization, with gold and sulfur in the fluids derived from the breakdown

of widely disseminated pyrite (Groves et al., 2003; Goldfarb et al., 2005, 2014).

In the western Qinling region, most orogenic gold deposits (e.g., Baguamiao, Ma'anqiao,

Liziyuan) occur between the Shang-Dan suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault. The recently

confirmed Huachanggou orogenic gold deposit lies along the Mian-Lue suture (Zhou et al.,

2011) and is confined to WNW-trending brittle-ductile shear zones in Devonian and

Carboniferous greenschist-facies metasedimentary rocks that were highly-deformed and

regionally-metamorphosed during Indosinian collision between the North China Block and

the South China Block. Granitoids, mainly granodiorites and monzogranites, also were

intruded in this region during the Late Triassic (S.W. Liu et al., 2011; Mao et al., 2012; Wang

et al., 2013). The ore-hosting shear zones, extending from Lixian in Gansu province to

Zhen’an in Shaanxi province, parallel the regional Shang-Dan suture that is located a few tens

of kilometers to the north. Generally, the mineralized structures were ductile deformed and

superimposed by later brittle faulting, both of which are gold-related. Ore genesis studies

normally indicate that ores were deposited from low salinity (<10% equiv. NaCl), CO2-rich

(≥5 mol %), neutral to slightly alkaline, H2O-NaCl-CO2±CH4 fluids that transported gold as a

reduced sulfur complex. Sulfide minerals mainly consist of pyrite with minor amounts of

arsenopyrite, pyrrhotite, galena, sphalerite, and chalcopyrite. Gold in the deposits vary from

fine- to coarse-grained native gold, with the former mainly visible under the microscope and

the latter in hand specimens. In addition, individual gold-bearing veins in these deposits are

characterized by extensive hydrothermal alterations of wall rocks, including silicification,

sulfidation, and carbonization. All of the above-mentioned characteristics are consistent with

those of well-studied orogenic gold deposits throughout the world (e.g., Phillips, 1993;

Groves et al., 2003; Chen et al., 2007; Goldfarb et al., 2014).

3.1.1. Huachanggou gold deposit

The Huachanggou gold deposit is located in Lueyang county, Shaanxi province, about 4

km south of the Kang-Lue-Mian deep fault, and is controlled by a ductile-brittle shear zone,

belonging to the Mian-Lue suture. Found in 1990s, available gold reserves of more than 10

tons have been verified in 2013 with gold grade of 10-30 ppm. Although smaller than many

other deposits, its geological characteristics make it worthy of attention (Liu et al., 2012).

The outcropping strata in this area are the Upper Proterozoic Bikou Group (Pt3bk) and

the Devonian Sanhekou Group (Dsh) (Fig. 3). A large-scale regional ductile shear zone and

multistage faults form a complex structural framework (Wei et al., 2005). The ductile shear

zone covers the whole ore district from WNW to ESE for about 2 km in width and more than

15 km in length, where strongly deformed subzones and weakly deformed subzones show

inlaid distribution patterns. Based on fault strike, two phases of brittle faults have been

recognized. The WNW-striking faults outcrop as boundaries of different strata with wavy

fault planes and north-dipping angles of 50-85° (e.g., F3, F6) whereas the NE-striking faults

(e.g., F7) are tension shears characterized by straight fault planes with the west wall slipping

to the southwest for about 50 m.

The deposit is hosted in the Devonian Sanhekou Group, which can be divided into two

lithologic formations. The first formation can be subdivided into three layers. The first layer

(DSh1a), in fault contact with the Pt3bk, consists of silty sericitized phyllite, calcareous

phyllite, and metamorphic quartz sandstone. The second layer (DSh1b) consists of thin to

moderately-thick bedded microcrystalline limestone, argillaceous limestone, and bioclastics.

The third layer (DSh1c), in fault contact with the DSh1b, consists of tuffaceous sericitized

phyllite, tuffaceous slate, and lenticular layered spilite. The second formation can be

subdivided into two layers. The first layer (DSh2a) consists of calcareous phyllite, silty

sericitized phyllite, and metamorphic quartz sandstone. The second layer (DSh2b) consists of

bedded crystalline limestone and quartz sandstone.

Three major ore zones (denoted I, II, and III) have been identified, and the ore zone I is

the largest. Gold mineralization in the ore zone I is hosted in altered spilite in the Dsh1c,

trending NW for more than 2 km, with a greater vertical extension than lateral extension and

with north-dipping angles of 55-65°. The major ore minerals are pyrite and native gold and the

minor mineral is chalcopyrite. The gangue minerals are quartz, albite, calcite, and dolomite.

The ore is characterized by block texture and the pyrite occurs as disseminations. In the ore

zones II and III, carbonate-quartz vein type ores occur with high gold grades. Gold

mineralization in the ore zone II is hosted in bedded crystalline limestone in the Dsh2b,

trending E-W for about 1.8 km, with north-dipping angles of 60-80°. Gold mineralization in

the ore zone III is hosted in the microcrystalline limestone in the DSh1b, trending WNW for

about 2 km, with north-dipping angles of 40-75° and high gold grades of 3 to 13 g/t (or ppm)

In both ore zones II and III, the ore minerals are mainly pyrite and native gold, with a small

amount of chalcopyrite, galena, and sphalerite. The gangue minerals are quartz, feldspar,

calcite, and dolomite. The ores are characterized by banded and disseminated textures whre

pyrite occurs as disseminations.

In all three ore zones (I, II, and III),the alterations of wall rocks include pyritization,

silicification, carbonatation, sericitization, chloritization, and epidotization. Three

mineralization stages have been identified: (1) quartz-pyrite stage, (2) quartz-polymetallic

sulfides-carbonate stage, and (3) quartz-carbonate stage. The second stage is the main

mineralization stage.

3.1.2. Liziyuan gold-dominated polymetallic deposit

The Liziyuan gold deposit on the northern margin of the western Qinling region is located

in Lizi Town, Gansu Province. The deposit consists of five gold-only mineralized sites

(Jiancaowan, Kuangou, Yingfang, Liushagou, and Yuzigou) within the NW-striking

Niangniangba-Shujiaba fault zone, a second-order fault that splays off the westward extension

of the Shang-Dan suture. Multistage faults occur throughout the goldfield and form a complex

structural framework (Fig. 4). Four phases of deformation have been recognized in this zone

(Yang et al., 2012a): (1) ductile and dextral NW-striking and SW-dipping (235-260°) steep

(65-85°) strike-slip shear zone; (2) ductile-brittle NW-striking transtensional faults; (3)

ductile-brittle thrust faults (striking 260-285° and dipping 45-65°); and (4) normal faults that

strike northeast.

The strata in the area include the Palaeoproterozoic Qinling Formation to the north of the

Liziyuan gold deposit and the metasedimentary units to the south, including the Lower

Palaeozoic Taiyangsi Formation, the Middle Devonian Shujiaba Formation, the Middle-

Upper Devonian Xihanshui Formation, and the Upper Devonian Dacaotan Formation. The

five gold-only mineralized sites are hosted in metavolcanic rocks and one Au-Ag-Pb

polymetallic mineralized site (Suishizi) is hosted in the Tianzishan monzogranite. The

metavolcanic host rocks can be subdivided into three formations (Ding et al., 2004; Pei et al.,

2006). The first (lowest) formation consists of greenish plagioclase-amphibole schist. The

second formation consists of greenish plagioclase-amphibole schist, chlorite-epidote schist,

and minor quartzite. The third formation consists of light grey ankerite-bearing chlorite-quartz

schist, with minor interlayers of quartzite and marble. The orebodies are hosted in the second

and third formations and occur as diagonal auriferous veins and lenticular discrete auriferous

quartz veins. These auriferous veins are commonly 13 to 265 m in length and 0.2 to over 2.5

m in width extending 10 to 260 m down dip with averages grades of 2.58 g/t Au, 12.70 g/t Ag,

13.3 wt.% Pb and 0.15 wt.% Cu (Liu and Ai, 2009).

Ore minerals mainly consist of pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, freibergite, tetrahedrite,

zinckenite, argentite, sphalerite, and native gold. Gold mineralization is associated with

intense hydrothermal alteration mainly controlled by ductile shear zones. Wall rock alterations

include silicification, sericitization, pyritization, chloritization, epidotization, carbonation, and

fluoritization. Four mineralization stages are identified in the deposit: (1) pyrite-quartz stage,

(2) native gold-chalcopyrite-pyrite-quartz stage, (3) pyrite-freibergite-galena-quartz-carbonate

stage, and (4) carbonate stage. The second and third stages are the main mineralization stages.

3.1.3. Baguamiao gold deposit

The Baguamiao gold deposit, located in Fengxian county, western Fengxian-Taibai ore

field, occurs between the Shang-Dan suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault (Feng et al.,

2003a). Discovered in the early 1990s, the shear zone-hosted deposit has a large gold resource

of more than 100 t with gold grade of 3-8 ppm.

The deposit is hosted in the Upper Devonian Xinghongpu Formation, which locally

consists of limestone-spotted ankerite-sericite phyllite, calcareous chlorite phyllite, silicalite,

and epizonal fine clasolite (Fig. 5). Albite-rich aplite and porphyritic diorite dikes occur in the

deposit. Early Mesozoic granodiorite batholiths are present about 20 km to the southeast and

northwest (Mao et al., 2002). Host rocks lying in the Changgou-Erlihe shear zone underwent

brittle-ductile shearing deformation and mylonitization. The shear zone comprises a series of

high-angle thrust folded slices with large faults including the Zheliyuan, Wangjialeng, and

Xiushiyan faults that generally dip north with angles of 50-60° (Feng et al., 2004).

Gold orebodies are distributed in three (southern, central, and northern) zones, with the

northern zone being the largest. The NW-striking northern zone is 1680 m in length, 50-160 m

in width, and 120-520 m in vertical extent, with gold grades of 3-6 g/t. The central and

southern zones are less explored because they have less resource potential (Wen et al., 2007).

The wall rocks are mainly phyllite and ankerite sericitic rocks. Pyrite, marcasite, and

pyrrhotite are dominant, with minor chalcopyrite, molybdenite, titanite and native gold, and

rare sphalerite and galena.

Wall-rock alterations are common in the deposit and are dominated by silicification,

pyritization, and carbonatization, and minor chloritization, biotitization, and albitization. Four

hydrothermal stages have been identified (Wei, 2007): (1) quartz-albite stage, (2)

quartz-polymetallic sulfides stage, (3) pyrite-marcasite-quartz stage, and (4) quartz-carbonate

stage. The second and third stages are the main mineralization stages.

3.2. Carlin-type gold deposit

Carlin-type deposits are sediment-hosted disseminated gold deposits that were first

discovered in Nevada, U.S.A. Since the 1960's, a mineralized belt of gold deposits with

similar characteristics has been delineated in the West United States (Hofstra and Cline, 2000;

Cline et al., 2005; Peters et al., 2007). Although no consensus on the general definition has

been reached to date, the following common geological characteristics of Carlin-type gold

deposit are acknowledged (Romberger, 1986; Cline et al., 2005; Smith et al., 2005): (1)

hosted in sedimentary rocks along continental margins; (2) alterations of wall rocks are

relatively weak with no sharp boundary between mineralization and host rocks; (3)

ore-forming elements of Au-As-Sb-Hg-Ba-T1 is characteristic of hydrothermal mineralization

at low temperatures; (4) gold occurs as submicroscopic invisible gold in disseminated or

veinlet-disseminated ores; (5) the deposits occur as groups or belts in areas flanked by

regional fault systems which often control the evolution of sedimentary basins where the

deposits present; and (6) syngenetic fault systems may have played an important role in the

evolution of the sedimentary series which are generally highly variable in lithology.

Similar deposits have also been found in the other parts of the world, and to date, the

Carlin-type gold deposits in China are concentrated in two important triangle areas (i.e,

Sichuan-Shaanxi-Gansu and Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi) and the lower-middle reaches of the

Yangtze River in China (Wang and Zhang, 2001; Hu et al., 2002; Ouyang et al., 2011;

Lubben et al., 2012). In the western Qinling region, the deposits mainly occur along the

boundaries of Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Gansu provinces, i.e., the Sichuan-Shaanxi-Gansu area

(Zhou et al., 2002; Mao et al., 2002; Chen et al., 2004), although some deposits (e.g.,

Jinlongshan) occur in the eastern part of the western Qinling region. The Carlin-type gold

deposits in the western Qinling region mostly lie adjacent to the collisional orogen. However,

the deposits in the Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi area lie in a passive continental marginal rift

basin (Wang and Zhang, 2001; Fang et al., 2006; Zaw et al., 2007), whereas those in the

western United States lie in an active marginal back-arc basin and a range province (Ren and

Li., 1998; Grauch et al., 2003). This indicates that the Chinese deposits were formed in a

compressional setting whereas the American deposits were formed in an extensional setting.

In the part of the western Qinling region where Carlin-type gold deposits occur, the

regional dominant Palaeozoic N-S and E-W trending faults are crosscut by Mesozoic NW-SE

trending faults (Zaw et al., 2007). Minerals associated with gold mainly consist of arsenian

pyrite, arsenopyrite, realgar, orpiment, barite, stibnite, and cinnabar. Invisible gold, hosted in

micron-sized arsenian pyrite, is disseminated in carbonate, tuffaceous and siliciclastic

sedimentary rocks, particularly argillaceous limestone, calcareous siltstone, and silty argillite

of Cambrian to Triassic (e.g., La’erma in Cambrian, Huanglong in Silurian, Jinlongshan in

Devonian, Dongbeizhai in Triassic), with slight sign of metamorphism in some areas.

Intrusive rocks are absent in most of the deposits. Gold-related alterations are typically

characterized by silicification, dolomitization, argillization, and the introduction of

fine-grained sulfide minerals. Metasomatic dissolution textures are common and include

brecciated and corroded calcareous clasts within hydrothermal mineral matrices and residual

insoluble materials (e.g., clay, organic carbon, and iron-sulfides; Mao et al., 2002). The

ore-forming fluids exhibit low temperatures and salinities (2-8 wt% equiv. NaCl) that

typically decrease from early to later stages.

3.2.1. La’erma gold deposit

The La’erma gold deposit is located at the plunging end of the western Baiyigou

anticline between the Mian-Lue suture and the Luoba-Gaoqiao fault zone. It was discovered

in 1985 and has a refractory gold resource of more than 50 t with gold grade of 2-6 ppm. We

have studied this deposit in the 1990s, during which large amounts of selenium and

Se-bearing minerals were identified (Liu et al., 1992, 1997, 2000a; Zheng et al., 1994).

The deposit is hosted in the Cambrian Taiyangding Formation, which is composed of a

series of carbonaceous siliceous rocks and slates. It is characterized by the occurrence of

organisms, bacteria, and algae with anomalies of Au, Se, U, Cu, Mo, Sb, and PGE (Wen and

Qiu, 1999). Large granitoids are absent, but small mafic and felsic dikes are present in the

mine area.

The La’erma deposit, strictly controlled by structure and lithology, is hosted within a

north-dipping shear zone. This shear zone is bounded by two dextral strike-slip faults

characterized by brittle fractures and brecciation, and is cut by secondary NE- and

NW-striking faults (Fig. 6).

Several orebodies occurs as layers and lenticles, which are somewhat conformable with

the host strata. Local complications (e.g., shrinking, expanding, branching, and pinching) are

commonly observed in the orebodies. These orebodies are 40-450 m in length, 1-38 m in

width, and 80-200 m in vertical extent, with gold grades of 1-25 g/t. The deposits are so

complex in mineralogy that more than 80 minerals have been identified (Liu et al., 2000a),

among which the dominant minerals are pyrite, marcasite, tiemannite, stibnite, quartz, barite,

and dickite.

Alterations include silicification, stibnitization, pyritization, baritization, and

dickitization, among which silicification and pyritization are the most important alterations

associated with gold mineralization. Four hydrothermal stages of mineralization are

recognized (Liu et al., 1997): (1) pyrite-quartz stage, (2) pyrite-marcasite-quartz stage, (3)

stibnite-selenides-quartz-barite stage, and (4) quartz-barite- dickite stage. The second and

third stages are the main mineralization stages.

3.2.2. Jinlongshan gold deposit

The Jinlongshan gold deposit consists of four gold ore domains (Jinlongshan, Yaojian,

Qiuling, and Guloushan from east to west, Zhang et al., 2014). The ore belt is located south of

the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault in the Zhen’an-Xunyang Late Paleozoic basin. It has a total gold

reserve of more than 150 t with gold grade of 3-4 ppm (T. Yang et al., 2012a).

The deposit is hosted in the Upper Devonian Nanyangshan Formation and the Lower

Carboniferous Yuanjiagou Formation (Fig. 7). The former, which is the main ore-host,

consists of argillaceous siltstone, calcareous siltstone, silty shale, silty limestone, argillaceous

limestone, and bioclastic limestone containing organic matter (Zhao and Feng, 2002).

Syngenetic fault controlled the orebodies in Jinlongshan (Zhao et al., 2005). As the main

regional structure, the Zhen’an-Banyan fault controlled the E-W-striking faults in the

Zhenan-Xunyang basin (Zhang et al., 2006). The north and south boundaries of the mine are

controlled by the secondary Qiuling-Potongya and Miliang-Anjiamen faults, respectively. In

general, these shear zones were axially overprinted on anticlines.

Gold mineralization appears to be related to anticlines (Zhao et al., 2005). Gold

orebodies commonly occur in the core and flank of these anticlines. The orebodies are

200-500 m in length, 3-12 m in width, with average gold grades of 3-4 g/t. Arsenian pyrite,

arsenopyrite, and stibnite are dominant ore minerals, with minor pyrite, cinnabar, sphalerite,

and chalcopyrite. Gangue minerals are mainly quartz, calcite, ankerite, and sericite.

Alterations mainly include silicification, calcilization, pyritization, and ferritization,

among which silicification is the most widespread and associated with gold mineralization.

Hydrothermal mineralization can be divided into three stages (J. Zhang et al., 2002): (1) gold

mineralization stage characterized by auriferous pyrite and high Fe, As, and Au contents; (2)

Sb mineralization stage characterized by stibnite-cinnabar assemblage in quartz-calcite veins;

and (3) carbonation stage characterized by fine carbonate veinlets filling in fractures or

tensional structures. The first stage is the main mineralization stage; however, the third stage

also contributed albeit little to gold mineralization.

3.3. Carlin-like gold deposit

In the western Qingling Orogen, Carlin-like gold deposits occur between the Shang-Dan

suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault. The host rocks, which are similar to those of

Carlin-type gold deposits, are mainly sedimentary rocks that underwent reconstruction

through reworking by structural metamorphism (Zhang and Wang, 2013). Disseminated gold

ores are spatially associated with pyrite, arsenian pyrite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite, sphalerite,

and galena, frequently in a gangue of quartz, calcite, and ankerite. Gold occurs mainly as

microscopic gold. In addition, most of the Carlin-like deposits are genetically related with

collision-linked magmatism, which is the significant difference to the Carlin-type gold

deposits.

The disseminated gold ores, middle-low temperature metallogeny, and interbedded

carbonate units have historically led to classification as Carlin-like deposits. However, the

concept of Carlin-like gold deposit is still controversial. Some researchers working on such

deposits refer to them as ‘Carlin- and Carlin-like-type’ gold deposits, whereby the use of

Carlin-type together with Carlin-like type is considered an extension of the concept of

Carlin-type gold deposit. Other researchers classified gold deposits showing the same or

similar characteristics as the Carlin gold deposits as ‘Carlin-like type’ (e.g., Kerrich et al.,

2000; Zhou et al., 2002; Mao et al., 2002). Apparently, the Carlin-type gold deposits

described above can be classified as ‘Carlin-like’ gold deposits. Although there are noticeable

similarities between Carlin-type and Carlin-like gold deposits, their differences in geological

and geochemical characteristics suggest that Carlin-like gold deposits are likely a derivative

type of Carlin-type gold deposits. Moreover, taking the differences in ore genesis (e.g., the

supposed additional magmatic- and orogenic-related geneses; discussed further below) into

consideration, the term Carlin-like is justified as a separate gold deposit type.

3.3.1. Shuangwang gold deposit

The Shuangwang gold deposit is located about 35 km east of the Baguamiao deposit

between the Shang-Dan suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault. The breccia-style gold deposit

has a large gold resource of more about 80 t with gold grade of 1-3 ppm.

The Devonian strata in the area where the Shuangwang gold deposit occurs consist of

weakly metamorphosed clastic-carbonate rocks of neritic facies, including the Lower

Devonian Wanjialeng, Middle Devonian Gudaoling, and Upper Devonian Xinghongpu and

Jiuliping Formations (Fig. 8). The gold-bearing breccia belt lies in sodic clastic sedimentary

rocks of the Xinghongpu Formation. This formation occurs on the NE limb of the

Yingdonggou anticline, which is a secondary fold of the Xiba-Songping composite anticline.

The deposit is located in the northern limb of Xiba-Songping composite anticline and is

hosted in a NW-trending hydrothmal breccia belt, about 11.5 km in length, in the Devonian

strata in the Fengxian-Taibai basin. Two large WNW-trending Wangjialeng and Xiushiyan

faults confine the breccia bodies whereas sinistral post-ore NNE-trending faults cut the

ore-bearing breccia belt.

The Xiba composite granodiorite intrusion is located 1-3 km southwest of the breccia

belt, measuring about 30 km in length, 2-8km in width, and about 150 km2 of outcrop area. It

consists of quartz monzodiorite and monzogranite, which intrude the axis of the Xiba

anticline. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating yields crystallization age of ca. 218-215 Ma (F.

Zhang et al., 2009; H. Wang, 2012). Detailed underground investigation shows that some

lamprophyre dikes are emplaced into the breccia belt. However, the dikes are undeformed,

indicating that they are products of post-ore magmatism in an extensional environment.

The ore-hosting breccia belt, concordant with the Xinghongpu Formation, is

discontinuous at the surface and is divided into five breccia bodies in the main breccia belt

and into two smaller breccia bodies in the north. Economic orebodies have been found in the

Nos. II, III, and IV breccia bodies, where gold occurs in cements of the breccias. Generally,

gold mineralization is most extensive at shallow levels of the breccias. Fourteen orebodies

have been delineated with low gold grade, small scale, and complicated shapes. The largest

orebody is the KT8 in the No. IV breccia body. The orebodies measure 25-500 m in length,

about 2-30 m in width, and more than 400 m in vertical extent, with average gold grades of

1.2-6.9 g/t.

The ores are typified by their hydrothermal breccia form. The breccia contains angular

fragments of wall rocks that show little sign of transport. The fragments consist mainly of

albitized slate and siltstone, as well as partial silty sericitic slate. Cements are composed of

ankerite (about 25%), albite (5-7%), calcite (5-15%), quartz (3-5%), and pyrite (3-6%).

Hydrothermal alteration is well-developed in the breccia bodies. In areas of most intense

alteration, breccia fragments are altered to massive albite, with minor ankerite and rutile.

However, in less-altered areas, ankerite and albite occur in roughly equal amounts (Zhang et

al., 2004a, 2004b).

Gold minerlization in the Shuangwang gold deposit is divided into four stages: (1)

replacement mineralization before brecciation, i.e., a ankerite-quartz-albite stage; (2)

quartz-albite-pyrite-ankerite stage, which is the main gold mineralization stage, characterized

by infilling of euhedral ankerite in open spaces created by cryptoexplosion; (3)

pyrite-calcite-quartz stage; and (4) fluorite-dickite-gypsum stage (K.X. Wang et al., 2012).

The third stage is also a mineralization stage.

3.3.2. Liba gold deposit

The Liba gold deposit is located about 2 km northeast of the porphyritic Zhongchuan

granite batholith, between the Shang-Dan suture and the Fengxian-Zhen’an fault. Liba and

some other gold deposits (e.g., Loudixia, Ganggouli, Sanrengou, Jiudian, Zhenggouli,

Yawanli deposits to the northeast; Jinshan, Maquan, Shigoushan, and Miaoshan deposits to

the south) are hosted in fracture zones that cut Middle Devonian to Middle Carboniferous

metasedimentary rocks surrounding the Zhongchuan Granite. Discovered at the end of the

1980s, Liba has a large gold resource of about 80 t with gold grade of 2-6 ppm (Zeng et al.,

2012).

The Zhongchuan batholith is circular in shape and covers about 210 km2 in the area (Fig.

9). Two concentrically zoned phases in the batholith are identified: (i) an outer phase of

coarse-grained, seriate to porphyritic biotite monzogranite, and (ii) a smaller inner zone of

equigranular medium-grained biotite monzogranite. Both phases lack obvious deformation

and are cut by biotite-bearing and quartz-rich granite dykes (Zeng et al., 2012).

The Liba gold deposit is hosted in metamorphosed siltstone, sandstone, mudstone, and

shale in the Middle Devonian Shujiaba Formation. Coeval dikes, mainly plagio-amphibole

larnprophyre, diorite, plagioaplite, and granite, as the important indicator of mineralization,

are well developed in and around the mine (Feng et al., 2004). It is also controlled by the

NW-striking Luoba-Suolonggou fault, a high angle (65-86°) SW-dipping reverse fault, where

the orebodies occur in secondary faults (Mao et al., 2002). More than 20 orebodies have been

identified. They measure 100-1200 m in length, 5-30 m in width, and 100-350 m in vertical

extent. The largest Magou orebody, with an average gold grade of 1.8 g/t, contains 40% of the

known resource.

Ore minerals mainly consist of pyrite, arsenopyrite, and minor sphalerite, galena, and

pyrrhotine; however, these sulfides are less than 10% of the ore (Feng et al., 2003b). Main

gangue minerals are quartz, sericite, and muscovite, with lesser chlorite, biotite, feldspar, and

carbonate. Kaolinite and limonite occur in oxidized zones.

The alteration comprises pyritization, carbonatization, silicification, and sericitization.

Four stages of gold mineralization have been recognized (Cui, 2012; Zeng et al., 2012): (1)

diagenetic stage comprising gray barren quartz with minor arsenopyrite, pyrite, and apatite; (2)

metamorphic stage defined by a gold-pyrite-arsenopyrite-quartz-sericite assemblage with

minor chlorite; (3) magmatic hydrothermal stage characterized by an early quartz-sulfide

sub-stage and a later carbonate-quartz-sulfide sub-stage; and (4) supergene stage that led to

the enrichment of gold in oxidized zones. Among these stages, the second and third stages are

the most important for gold mineralization.

4. Differences and links among different types of gold deposits

4.1. Magmatisms

As mentioned at the beginning, two major distinct tectono-magmatic events are

recognized in the western Qinling region with ages of Late Ordovician (ca. 450 Ma) and Late

Triassic (ca. 220 Ma). These periods correspond to the earlier Caledonian and later Indosinian

collisions along the Shang-Dan and Mian-Lue sutures, respectively.

Although distributed widely in the north zone, Paleozoic granitic intrusions have no

relation to the gold deposits in the western Qinling region because of the lack of gold resource.

In contrast, Mesozoic granitoids in the south zone are related to large gold resource in the

western Qingling Orogen. The Mesozoic granitoids are well-exposed near many orogenic and

Carlin-like gold deposits (e.g., the Xiba granitoids southwest of Shuangwang, the

Zhongchuan granite southwest of Liba, the Tianzishan granite south of Liziyuan). However,

the gold deposits are hosted in a few granitoids and in some metavolcanic rocks (e.g., the

middle and upper segments of metavolcanic rocks in Liziyuan, the spilite in the ore zone I in

Huachanggou).

In comparison, most Carlin-type gold deposits in the western Qinling region lack

magmatic rocks and only some magmatic dikes occur in a few deposits or adjacent areas,

similar to the gold deposits in the Yunnan-Guizhou-Guangxi area. For example, dacite

porphyritic and Early Yanshanian (Mesozoic) granite porphyry dikes occur in La’erma. In the

Jinlongshan gold deposit, no magmatic intrusive rocks, even dikes, are recognized. In

Dongbeizhai, a famous Carlin-type gold deposit in the northeastern Songpan-Ganzi basin,

diabase dikes occur along the N-S-trending fault in a sheared matrix and are slightly

metamorphosed and tectonically cleaved and sheared (Wang and Zhang, 2001; Li et al., 2009).

However, the distribution of magmatic rocks in these deposits is different to that in Nevada,

where most ores are hosted not only within silty and pyritic, carbonaceous Paleozoic

carbonate rocks but also in plutonic and volcanic rocks (Hofstra and Cline, 2000; Cline et al.,

2005; Lubben et al., 2012). Some researchers proposed a magmatic source for ore-forming

fluids and materials (Hofstra and Cline, 2000; Heitt et al., 2003; Muntean et al., 2011).

Obviously, the absence of magmatic rocks in the Carlin-type gold deposits in the western

Qinling region indicates that there is no certain genetic relation between the mineralization

and magmatism.

4.2. Ore-forming elements and gold-bearing minerals

The ore-forming elements in orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region are

pretty simple: Au-Ag. Liu et al. (2012) studied the geochemistry of the Huachanggou gold

deposit comprehensively, suggesting that the ore-forming element group: Au-Ag-Pb. The

ore-forming element group in the Liziyuan gold deposit is Au-Ag-Bi (Xu, 2004), and the

ore-forming element group in the Baguamiao gold deposits is pretty simple: Au-Ag (Zhu et

al., 1999). The enrichment of Ag is a significant characteristic of the orogenic gold deposits in

the Western Qinling, and the independent silver mineral, electrum, is recognized in the

Liziyuan (T. Yang et al., 2012b) and Baguamiao (Wei et al., 1996) gold deposits. Because of

the lack of As, the gold-bearing mineral is pyrite.

In contrast, the element ore-forming elements of Au-As-Sb-Hg-Ba-(Se) in Carlin-type

gold deposits in the western Qinling region are similar to that in the Carlin-type gold deposits

in Nevada. The La’erma and Jinlongshan gold deposits display the ore-forming elements of

Au-As-Sb-Hg-Ba-Se (Liu et al., 1999, 2000a) and Au-As-Sb-Hg (Zhang et al., 1998; T. Yang

et al., 2012a), respectively. Because of the enrichment of As, a large amount of arsenian

pyrite and arsenopyrite are recognized as the main gold-bearing minerals.

The ore-forming elements of Carlin-like gold deposits are complex, e.g., Au-Sb-Bi for

the Shuangwang gold deposit (Li et al., 2000) and Au-As-Pb-Zn-Bi-Ti for the Liba gold

deposit (Zhang and Wang, 2013). Pyrite is the main gold-bearing minerial in both

Shuangwang and Liba gold deposits. Arsenian pyrite also occurs in the Liba gold deposit

(Zeng et al., 2012), while a small amount of acalaverite was recognized in the Shuangwang

gold deposit (Mao et al., 2002).

4.3. Gold occurrence

In most orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region, native gold occurs mainly

as visible gold under an optical microscope and closely associated with pyrite and small

amount of large-sized visible gold occurring in quartz vein is found in some deposits (Fig. 10).

Gold in the Carlin-type gold deposits, similar to the gold deposits in Nevada, occurs mainly as

both structurally bound gold (e.g., Au1+) and submicroscopic native gold (Au0) residing in

arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite (Simon et al., 1999; Lubben et al., 2012). In some deposits,

small amount of microscopic and submicroscopic native gold is identified, which was resulted

from the exsolution from partial metastable auriferous arsenian pyrite (Palenik et al., 2004;

Yang et al., 2011). In contrast, gold in Carlin-like gold deposit exists mainly as microscopic

gold.

L.B. Yang et al. (2013a) studied the occurrence and distribution of gold in the

Huachanggou gold deposit. The results show that gold exists mainly as argentiferous native

gold or electrums enclosed in pyrite, quartz, and chalcopyrite. The native gold occurs mainly

as microscopic gold, varying from 5 to 150 μm in size, in the form of interparticle gold,

inclusion gold, and fissure gold. The coarse-grained visible gold, present in quartz vein, up to

3 mm in size, is less in amount, but significant to ore grade and total resource. The gold in

Liziyuan exists chiefly as independent minerals, especially sulfide-rich quartz veins, including

native gold and electrum (T. Yang et al., 2012b, 2013). Studies show that native gold is

commonly microscopic in the micro fractures cutting pyrite and chalcopyrite and in fractures

and vugs in quartz and some visible gold is always intergrown with sulfides in the fracture of

white quartz vein. The gold concentration in pyrite measured by electronic microprobe

analysis (EMPA) is rather low, indicating a small amount of invisible gold (Y.H. Liu et al.,

2011a). Electrum occurs as granular forms and veinlets generally larger than 10 μm in size,

infilling the cracks of pyrite and the interfaces between sulfides and gangue minerals (Y.H.

Liu et al., 2011b). In addition, visible gold is also found in some other orogenic gold deposits,

e.g. Ma’anqiao (Zhu et al., 2011) and Hualingou (Luo et al., 2011) in the western Qinling

region, and Laowangzhai (Liang et al., 2011) in Yunnan provience. Therefore, the occurrence

of visible gold is considered as a significant characteristic (not the requirement condition) of

orogenic gold deposits.

Gold in the Jinlongshan gold deposit occurs mainly as submicroscopic (nanoscale) gold

closely associated with arsenian pyrite and arsenopyrite (Zhao et al., 2000). The analysis on

pyrite and arsenopyrite by LA-ICP-MS shows that gold content in arsenopyrite is about a

magnitude higher than that in pyrite. However, microscopic native gold is more common in

the La’erma gold deposit. Liu and Zheng (1994) determined the microscopic gold has a wide

range of 0.2-50μm in size, more than half of the sizes are distributed in the range of 0.2-5 μm

that is close to the size of microscopic gold. Besides the microscopic gold, a large amount of

submicroscopic gold found by transmission electron microscope (TEM) and neutron

activation analysis (NAA) is present in auriferous minerals, e.g., pyrite (with a gold content

up to 2.01%; measured by electron microprobe analysis), tennantite (up to 2.16%, Au), and

tennantite (up to 1.17%) (Qian and Zhou, 1993).

Previous studies (e.g., Zhang, 1997; H. Wang, 2012) show that gold in the Shuangwang

gold deposit exists in the form of microscopic native gold, with very small amount of

electrum and gold-bearing tellurides. About half of the native gold is > 70 μm in size, filling

the cracks and interfaces of pyrite. The analysis by EMPA and flameless atomic absorption

spectrometry (flameless AAS) reveals that the gold concentration in hydrothermal pyrite,

containing no inclusion gold, is almost lower than the detection limit. Gold in the Liba gold

deposit is present as native gold with a fineness ranging from 800 to 1 000 and as electrum

(Liu, 1994) and is rarely visible with average size around 5μm. The microscopic gold

commonly fills cavities in or along the edges of sulfide grains (Zeng et al., 2012).

4.4. Fluid inclusions

Many deposits are formed as a result of multiple fluids, leading to high proportion of

mixed hydrothermal fluids, in later-stages of mineralization during multi-stage events, which

may cause reworking of the original ore systems or renewed fluid flow (Chen et al., 2007).

Therefore, it is logical to employ earlier-stage (main-stage) fluids associated with

mineralization to determine the nature and evolution of an ore-system.

Previous studies have identified some significant differences between orogenic and

Carlin-type gold deposits based on fluid inclusion analysis (Groves et al., 1998; Hu et al.,

2002; Chen et al., 2007; T. Yang et al., 2012b) For example, fluid inclusions in orogenic gold

deposits are CO2-rich whereas either CO2-poor or CO2-rich inclusions occur in the Carlin-type

gold deposits in the western United States. However, fluid inclusions in the Carlin-type gold

deposits in the western Qinling region are more similar to those in orogenic gold deposits,

which may imply similar sources of fluids because they occur in the same or similar setting,

i.e., the western Qinling region. Several studies on petrography, microthermometry, and

chemical composition of fluid inclusions have recently been conducted on samples from the

selected deposits in the western Qinling region (Table 2; Fig. 11). Liquid and gas components

of fluid inclusions in quartz from different types of deposits are similar. They are rich in Na+,

K+, and Cl- relative to Ca2+, Mg2+, SO42-, and F-. H2O, CO2, and small amounts of N2 and CH4

as the main volatiles in the inclusions, indicating H2O-NaCl-CO2-(CH4) fluids.

The data of fluid inclusions in quartz from the Huachanggou (Zhou et al., 2011) and

Liziyuan (Yang et al., 2012a) orogenic gold deposits are similar. The primary inclusion fluid

inclusions can be classified mainly into three types, i.e., two-phase aqueous inclusions,

CO2-H2O inclusions, and carbonic inclusions. They are oval or negative or occasionally

irregular in shape, generally from 5 to 30 μm in size. Three phase inclusions (liquid H2O,

liquid CO2, and vapor CO2) are relatively rare at room temperature and coexist with

two-phase aqueous and carbonic inclusions. Different types of primary inclusions coexist in

the same mineral and the same growth plane. During heating, they are homogenized to liquid

and vapour at similar temperatures, respectively. Therefore, it indicates that these different

types of fluid inclusions were trapped from immiscible fluids and fluid immiscibility occurred

during fluid evolution. Ores were formed at temperatures ranging from 240 to 320°C, at

pressures from 80 to 170 Mpa, with salinities ranging from 3 to 10 wt% NaCl equiv.

Fluid inclusions in the Jinlongshan and La’erma Carlin-type gold deposits have obvious

differences (Zhang et al., 2002; Zhang, 1993; Wang and Zhang, 2001). The primary inclusion

fluid inclusions can be classified mainly into liquid-rich and vapor-liquid inclusions. They are

usually small in size, generally less than 5 μm. Three phase inclusions are really rare at room

temperature and no obvious hydrothermal boiling is recognized. Ores were formed at

temperatures ranging from 180 to 250°C, at pressures from 5 to 25 Mpa, with salinities

ranging from 5 to 14 wt% NaCl equiv.

In the Shuangwang and Liba Carlin-like deposits, fluid inclusion types are the same as

those in the above orogenic gold deposits (B.Z. Liu et al., 2011a, 2011b; Zhang et al., 2004b).

Several daughter minerals exist in the fluid inclusions of ankerite and quartz from

Shuangwang, including ankerite, pyrite, arsenopyrite, and halite (Xie et al., 2000). The

characteristics of fluid immiscibility and hydrothermal boiling are also recognized. Ores were

formed at temperatures ranging from 240 to 360°C, at pressures from 100 to 170 Mpa, with

salinities ranging from 2.58 to 22.73 wt% NaCl equiv. for Shuangwang, and from 320 to

400°C, at pressures from 90 to 150 Mpa, with salinities ranging from 3.00 to 16.24 wt% NaCl

equiv. for Liba.

4.5. Stable isotopes

4.5.1. Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes

We measured and collected H and O isotope data on minerals separated from samples of

ores of typical orogenic, Carlin-type, and Carlin-like gold deposits. In order to determine the

characteristics and origin of ore-forming fluids, the samples of quartz, rain, and spring water

were measured for H and O isotopes. The δD values of ore-forming fluids were obtained

directly by measuring fluid inclusion in quartz and calcite. The δ18O values of ore-forming

fluids were obtained by calculation based on isotopic fractionation equation for quartz-H2O at

corresponding temperatures (O'Neil et al., 1969; Clayton et al., 1972).

The H and O isotopic compositions of fluid inclusions in quartz from the different

deposits show significant differences (Table 3). On the whole, δD and δ18O values of

ore-forming fluids range from -112 to -73‰ and from -0.18 to 13.34‰, respectively, for

orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region (e.g., Huachanggou, Liziyuan,

Baguamiao) (Yang et al., 2012a; T. Yang et al., 2013; He et al., 2009), from -117 to -52.93‰

and from -11.06 to 15.50‰, respectively, for the Carlin-type gold deposits (e.g., Jinlongshan,

La’erma) (Zhang et al., 2002; Liu et al., 1998a), and from -92 to -63‰ and from 4.90 to

13.96‰, respectively, for the Carlin-like gold deposits (e.g., Shuangwang, Liba) (Shi et al.,

1989; Zhang et al., 2004b; K.X. Wang et al., 2012; Huang et al., 2000).

Hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions of ore-forming fluids and meteoric water

relative to traditional references are shown in Fig. 12. Most samples fall below the boxes of

typical magmatic hydrothermal and metamorphic water, and some samples from the orogenic

and Carlin-like deposits plot in the magmatic hydrothermal water and/or metamorphic water.

The component plot of the samples from orogenic gold deposits migrate towards the meteoric

water line, suggesting that the ore-forming fluids contain meteoric water that evolved via

isotopic exchange with wall rocks. The ore-forming fluids of Carlin-type have wide δD and

δ18O ranges, and samples plot outside either magmatic hydrothermal water or metamorphic

water, which can be interpreted as formation water recharged by meteoric water. However,

the ore-forming fluids in different Carlin-like deposits show different characteristics, e.g.,

magmatic water mixed with metamorphic water for Shuangwang, and magmatic water mixed

with formation water for Liba.

The major disadvantage is that the data may include the δD and δ18O values of both

primary inclusions and secondary inclusions. The existence of secondary inclusions

strengthens the effect of later fluid process on the mineralization of gold (Wang et al., 2010).

The low δD values are the result of the formation of secondary inclusions that contained a

large proportion of meteoric waters (Goldfarb, 1997). Therefore, most of the H-O data of

orogenic gold deposits are projected between metamorphic water and magmatic water (Fig.

12), and it is difficult to trace the source of the ore-forming fluid independently.

4.5.2. Carbon and oxygen isotopes

CO2 is the dominant C-bearing constituent in the hydrothermal system, which leads to

the assumption that the hydrothermal fluid and the CO2 in the fluid have almost the same δ13C

value (Ohmoto, 1972) and the data were directly measured from CO2 released from minerals.

The C and O isotopic compositions of the limestone host rocks and the hydrothermal calcite

and dolomite in the ores from different deposits are shown in Table 4 and Fig. 13. The δ13C

and δ18O values of different types of gold deposits in the western Qinling region show

significant differences.

In the orogenic gold deposits, e.g., Huachanggou and Baguamiao, the δ13C and δ18O

values are different from the ranges of typical crustal source, atmospheric source, freshwater,

and organic matter (Zheng and Yu, 1994; L.B. Yang et al., 2013b), but close to those of

marine carbonates (δ13C = 0±4‰, δ18O = 20‰−40‰; Liu et al., 2004, 2010). The lower δ18O

values, compared with marine carbonate, may reflect the interaction with hydrothermal fluids.

The distribution array suggests that the C in the ores was derived from dissolution of marine

carbonate.

In the Jinlongshan Carlin-type gold deposit, most of the δ13C and δ18O values are

consistent with those of marine carbonates (Zhang et al., 2002; Yang et al., 2012b) and some

δ18O values are plot below outside the field of marine carbonate, indicating that the C in the

ores mainly originated from marine carbonates in the host rocks.

In comparison with the above deposits, the δ13C and δ18O values of calcite and ankerite

from the Shuagwang Carlin-like gold deposits (K.X. Wang et al., 2012) are widespread,

mainly plotting between the fields of marine carbonate and deep sources (e.g., granite, mantle

polyphase system) and many of them are just distributed in the fields of deep sources. These

suggest that the C in the ores originated from deep (mantle) sources and dissolution of marine

carbonate. The data also indicate the genetic relation between the ore formation and the Xiba

granitoid pluton.

4.5.3. Sulfur isotope

Sulfide samples from different types of gold deposits in the western Qinling region have

been analyzed for sulfur isotopes (Table 5; Fig. 14). The sulfide can be classified into two

types, diagenetic and hydrothermal. The diagenetic sulfides were separated from unaltered

host rocks and hydrothermal sulfides were extracted from altered, gold-bearing ores. H2S is

the dominant sulfur species in fluids, and little isotopic fractionation between sulfide and HS-

took place. Therefore, the average δ34S value of the ore-forming fluids may be representative

of hydrothermal sulfide (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979; Rollinson, 1993; Wang and Zhang, 2001).

The values of δ34S vary from deposit to deposit, reflecting variations in the δ34S composition

of marine sulfate when the rocks were deposited, the mechanisms of sulfate reduction, and

that whether the systems were open or closed (Ohmoto and Rye, 1979).

In the Huachanggou gold deposit, the δ34S values of hydrothermal pyrite are similar to

those of diagenetic pyrite, but the hydrothermal pyrites from different ores show significant

differences (L.B. Yang et al., 2013b). The δ34S values of hydrothermal pyrite hosted in spilite

(metavolcanite) vary in a narrow range with markedly homogeneous sulfur isotope

compositions close to the δ34S values of meteorite and mantle. However, the δ34S values of

hydrothermal pyrite hosted in limestone have relatively broad ranges (from -8.3‰ to 0.8‰),

indicating the simultaneous incorporation of heavy and light sulfur in the hydrothermal fluids.

The most important difference between the two types of ores is the different host rocks.

Therefore, H2S was derived from dissolution of diagenetic pyrite in the host rocks. Similar to

Huachanggou, the δ34S values of hydrothermal sulfides from the Baguamiao and Liziyuan

gold deposit are consistent with those of diagenetic sulfides from their wall rocks (Wu et al.,

2013; Yang et al., 2012), indicating that sulfur was sourced from reduced metamorphic fluids,

although the broad range in δ34S does not eliminate a magmatic source for sulfur in the ores.

In the Shuangwang and Liba gold deposit, the δ34S values of diagenetic and

hydrothermal sulfides have broad ranges. Some δ34S values of the hydrothermal sulfides are

consistent with those of the diagenetic sulfides, however, many are not (K.X. Wang et al.,

2012; Feng et al., 2004), whereas between the values typical sedimentary and granitic rocks.

The similarities and differences suggest multiple sulfur sources, crustal (wall rocks) and

mantle.

In the La’erma gold deposit, δ34S values of hydrothermal pyrite and marcasite also

suggest that the sulfur was mainly provided by diagenetic sulfides from wall rocks (Zhang,

1993; Liu et al., 2000b; Wang and Zhang, 2001). However, δ34S values of barite show a

significant difference, but still are in the value range of typical sedimentary rocks. The

difference may have resulted from the dissolution and oxidation of early-formed sulfides.

4.5.4. Lead isotope

Lead isotope studies have contributed significant constraints to the understanding of Pb

sources and ore genesis (Goldhaber et al., 1995; Kamona et al., 1999; Wang and Zhang, 2001).

Lead isotopic data of minerals, ores, and surrounding rocks from different deposits are

presented in Table 6 and Fig. 15.

In the Huachanggou gold deposit, the Pb isotopic data suggest mantle source affected by

subduction-related magmatism for spilite and upper crustal source with contamination of

mantle Pb caused by orogenesis for ores (Chu, 1996; L.B. Yang et al., 2013b). In

consideration of the wall rocks (i.e. spilite, limestone) and the lack of coeval volcanic rocks,

ore Pb likely originated mainly from wall rocks and diagenetic pyrite.

In the Shuangwang gold deposit, the Pb isotopic data of pyrite in ores are significantly

different to those of the Xiba granitoid pluton (Shi et al., 1993; K.X. Wang et al., 2012). The

Pb isotopic range of the Xiba pluton is very small and represents a mantle source. Ore Pb

shows the evolution feature of orogene Pb from an upper crustal source affected by

subduction-related magmatism. In contrast, the Pb isotopic data of hydrothermal sulfides

(pyrite, galena, and stibnite) in ores from the Liba gold deposit suggest an deep crustal Pb

source affected by orogenesis (Huang et al., 2000).

Few data obtained for the Jinlongshan gold deposit show that the ore Pb originated from

wall rocks (Lv et al., 2012). However, the Pb isotopic ratios of ore minerals from the La’erma

gold deposit vary significantly, indicating anomalous lead (Zhang, 1993; Liu et al., 1998b; Qi

et al., 2004). A positive relationship exists between 207Pb/204Pb and 206Pb/204Pb and the data

points distribute almost along a straight line in the triangle chart with three end members of

206Pb, 207Pb, and 208Pb, indicating that Pb in gold ores probably was derived from diagenetic

sulfides and their wall rocks.

In summary, the Pb in ores was mainly derived from host rocks and diagenetic sulfides

in wall rocks and partly from coeval volcanic rocks, if existing, and underlying strata.

4.6. Geochronology

It is generally accepted that an important gold-forming event in the western Qinling

region mainly took place during the Late Triassic after the closure of the Mian-Lue Ocean

(Mao et al. 2012). In the Mian-Lue suture zone, the andesite in the Nanping area yielded a

LA-ICP-MS U-Pb zircon age of 246 ± 3 Ma (Qin et al., 2008b). These ages indicate the time

of subduction. In the northen SQT, the Zhashui-Shanyang thrust-nappe fault, in the western

Fengxian-Zhen’an fault zone, has a 40Ar/39Ar age of 217-236 Ma (Chen et al., 2004; T. Yang

et al., 2012b). The muscovite from granitic mylonite in the Wushan area, Shang-Dan suture,

yielded a 40Ar/39Ar plateau age of 226.8±2.2 Ma and an isochron age of 226.9 ± 2.3Ma (Li,

2008).

Because of the lack of suitable minerals for isotopic dating, the age of gold

mineralization in the western Qinling region is difficult to obtain directly. Therefore, some

indirect methods are used in some deposits; however, many deposits still have not yet

obtained uncontroversial ages. With the improvement of isotopic dating precision, a Late

Triassic age is probable for the gold deposits in the western Qinling region (Mao et al.,

2012)(Table 1). The quartz from the Baguamiao gold deposit yields Ar-Ar ages of

232.58±1.59 Ma (plateau age) and 222.14±3.45 Ma (isochron age) (Feng et al., 2002, 2003a).

Sericite in the altered wall rock, synchronous to gold mineralization, was dated by Ar-Ar at ca.

232.7±6.9 Ma (Zhao et al., 2001). Based on the muscovite and biotite Ar-Ar ages, Zeng et al.

(2012) calculated a weighted age of 216.4 ±0.7 Ma for the hydrothermal event in the Liba

gold deposit.

5. Ore-forming process of gold deposits in the western Qinling region

Most gold deposits in the western Qinling region occur in the south zone to the south of

the Shang-Dan suture, and no gold deposits at present are recognized in the north zone, even

in the accreted arc north of the Shang-Dan suture (Fig. 1). After the closure of the Shang-Dan

ocean, the Qinling and Erlangping Groups were rapidly lifted and metamorphosed within a

relatively short episode of the subduction of the Shang-Dan oceanic crust. Later, the NQT

underwent the Indosinian subduction and collision along the Mian-Lue suture and the

following intense Yanshanian reconstruction. Although the SQT underwent similar tectonic

movements (the subduction of Mian-Lue oceanic crust and the collision between the SQT and

SCB), perhaps the short-lived collision along the Shang-Dan suture was unable to provide the

required massive thermal pulse for significant hydrothermal activity (Mao et al., 2002); the

long-term tectonic movements and denudation during the Devonian resulted in the few

preservations of gold deposits that supposedly had formed during the Middle Palaeozoic.

Age data indicate that the different types of metallogenesis in the western Qinling region

started approximately coevally, different to the western United States where the orogenic gold

deposits in accreted terranes in California formed prior to the Carlin-type gold deposits in

Nevada for about 100 million years (Arehart, 1996; Illich and Barton, 1997; Goldfarb et al.,

2001). The similar tectonic regimes may have contributed to the contemporary ages in the

western Qinling region. The different types of gold deposits in the western Qinling region are

assumed to be the products of the same orogen-scale hydrothermal systems.

5.1. Thermal source for hydrothermal system

Based on previous studies, Goldfarb et al. (2001) provided and summarized the potential

scenarios for thermal sources that may drive orogen-scale hydrothermal systems for the

formation of orogenic gold deposits: (1) the crustal thickening resulted from characteristic

plate subduction (Jamieson et al., 1998): (2) plume impact or subduction (Barley et al., 1998;

Keppie and Krogh, 1999): (3) subduction rollback (Goldfarb, 1997; Landefeld, 1988); (4)

subduction of an oceanic ridge (Haeussler et al., 1995); (5) erosion of mantle lithosphere

(Griffin et al., 1998); and (6) delamination of mantle lithosphere (Qiu and Groves, 1999;

Gray,1997). Previous studies have reached a consensus that the final transition from oceanic

crust subduction to intercontinental collision occurred in the end Indosinian with the

subduction of the Mian-Lue oceanic crust beneath the SQT, which is indicated by the

Mian-Lue ophiolite consisting of large amounts of fragments of ophiolite and associated

island-arc volcanic rocks (Zhang et al., 1995; Li et al., 1996; Xu et al., 2000) and the plutons

in the eastern south zone (e.g., Cuihuashan, Caoping, Dongjiangkou, and Laocheng) that were

emplaced in a continental arc environment (Kamei et al., 2004; Jiang et al., 2010). Therefore,

the crustal thickening resulted from oceanic crust subduction is a plausible explanation for

generating lithosphere-scale thermal anomalies to drive orogen-scale hydrothermal systems in

the western Qinling region (Jamieson et al., 1998; Goldfarb et al., 2001).

The subduction of the Mian-Lue oceanic crust lasted from the Permian to Late Triassic

and the oblique convergence resulted in the Carnian collision in the western Qinling region

(Liu et al., 2005), after which several gold deposits formed. The crustal thickening caused by

oceanic crust subduction does not seem to be able to continuously generate lithosphere-scale

thermal anomalies for the formation of widely distributed, deformed and metamorphic rocks

and the collisional granitoids, e.g., Yangba granodiorite (215±8 Ma), Nanyili pluton (224±5

Ma), Zhashui pluton (214±2 Ma), Zhongchuan granite (ca. 220-213 Ma), and Xiba granitoid

pluton (ca. 218-215 Ma) (Sun et al., 2000; Qin et al., 2008a, 2008b; F. Zhang et al., 2009; Luo

et al., 2012; H. Wang et al., 2012). Generally, according to ideal pressure-temperature-time

(P-T-t) paths of collisional orogenesis, a complete collisional orogenic process is divided into

three stages (Jamieson, 1991): (1) an early stage of rapid pressure increase with little or no

temperature increase (collision-related crustal thickening); (2) a middle transition stage of

thermal relaxation between compression and extension with pressure decrease and

temperature increase; and (3) a late extension stage with pressure and temperature decreases.

Chen et al. (2004, 2012) argued that both pressure decrease and temperature increase could

lead to partial melting and fluid generation, resulting in granitic magmatism and metallogeny.

In addition, based on plate tectonics and continental drift, at the beginning of a continental

collision process, where continental lithosphere at the surface is connected to the previously

subducted oceanic lithosphere, the subduction of oceanic lithosphere leads to the onset of

syngenetic subduction of continental lithosphere. The buoyant continental material at the

surface creates tensile stresses between the two lithospheres, which lead to oceanic slab

separation from the continental lithosphere at the surface and sinking into mantle (Davies and

von Blanckenburg, 1995; Yoshioka and Wortel, 1995; Andrews and Billen, 2009). The slab

detachment is commonly referred to as slab break-off and was suggested an intrinsic

preference to start as a slab window within the interior rather than as a slab tear at the slab

edge (van Hunen and Allen, 2011). Many previous studies attributed collisional magmatism

to slab break-off, because, although slab window caused by slab break-off, hot mantle

material can be put in direct contact with the overriding plate (e.g., Ferrari, 2004; Whalen et

al., 2006; Omrani et al., 2008; Dargahi et al., 2010), generating thermal anomalies.

Recently, the P-T-t paths were tested by Casini et al. (2013) with thirteen numerical

experiments. The results suggest that the assumed high-temperature metamorphism that

results in the partial melting of crust can not merely be a production of increasing heat flow,

even the thermal effect of slab break-off does not by itself explain the development of the

high temperature gradient at shallow crustal levels. The high-temperature metamorphism is

instead best explained by lithosphere delamination. The detachment of a cold subducting slab

results in asthenosphere upwelling (Qiu and Groves, 1999), which conducts heat from the

underlying convective mantle to relatively shallow levels in the core of orogen, triggering

hydrothermal activity, and induces uplift and extension of above orogen that can enhance

fluid migration (Goldfarb et al., 2001). With favorable fluid-generating and thermal

conditions, earlier-formed thrust complexes and folds are reactivated during a change in

far-field stress caused by changing plate convergence.

5.2. Fluid evolution and migration

Situated in the same orogen-scale hydrothermal systems, the major hydrothermal fluids

in the western Qinling region were metamorphic fluids caused by orogenesis. The geological

and geochemical characteristics discussed above indicate that the ore-forming fluids of

orogenic, Carlin-type, and Carlin-like gold deposits mainly originated from metamorphic

devolatilization reactions at depth, from formation water with significant meteoric water

component, and from mixed sources of magmatic water and metamorphic (and/or meteoric)

water. However, gold deposits in the western Qinling region were formed after the onset of

collision orogenesis, and a Late Triassic is cited for most gold deposits in the western Qinling

region. The regional magmatism and gold mineralization are approximately synchronous. The

relationship between magmatism and gold mineralization requires further discussion on a

scale of individual deposits. As described above, almost no magmatism is recognized in the

Carlin-type gold deposits in the western Qinling region, the relationship between magmatism

and gold mineralization is mainly focused on orogenic and Carlin-like gold deposits.

Granitoid plutons occur in some orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region. In

the Liziyuan gold deposit, for example, the Tianzishan monzogranite and Jiancaowan quartz

syenite porphyry yielded LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages of 256.1±3.7 to 260.0±2.1 Ma and

229.2±1.2 Ma, suggesting the emplacement during the subduction of Mian-Lue oceanic crust

and collision between the SCB and SQT, respectively (T. Yang et al., 2013). They are much

older than the gold mineralization (206.8±1.6 Ma; Y.H. Liu et al., 2011a). Structurally, all the

orebodies are hosted in the faults that cut granitoids. Obviously, the ores in Liziyuan were

deposited long after the emplacement of the plutons. Moreover, the geochemical data and the

ore-forming fluid inclusions suggest that the ore-forming fluids are mainly metamorphic in

origin. Other orogenic gold deposits with adjacent plutons, e.g., Ma’anqiao (Zhu et al., 2009a,

2009b), are similar to the Liziyuan gold deposit, indicating that ores were formed after the

adjacent collision-related magmatism; that is, the collision-related magmatism hardly

provided thermal anomaly for the ore-forming fluids system.

Carlin-like gold deposits in the western Qinling region are spatially usually closed to

granitoid plutons. In the Liba gold deposit, the structural studies show that the mineralization

took place after the emplacement of pre-mineralization diorite and granitic porphyry dykes.

The 216.4±1.5 Ma age is in combination with continuous magmatism at 220-213 Ma,

suggesting that the gold mineralizing event was sub-synchronous with felsic magmatism

(Zeng et al., 2012). In the Shuangwang gold deposit, the Xiba pluton is 1-3 km from the

breccia belt that hosts orebodies and has a crystallization age of ca. 218-215 Ma, while

accurate gold mineralization age has not yet obtained. It is accepted that the ore-hosting

breccia is a type of crypto-explosive breccia (e.g., B.Z. Liu et al., 2011a, 2011b; Wang et al.,

2011; K.X. Wang et al., 2012). Exsolved magmatic fluid mixed with metamorphic fluid, and

pressure increased to a critical level because of the escape of large volume of volatile gas,

leading to the occurrence of hydrofracture and the formation of crypto-explosive breccia.

Therefore, the magmatism also provided heat source for the the ore-forming fluids and its

transportation. Overall, magmatism in the western Qinling also provided heat source for the

regional ore-forming fluids in the Carlin-like gold deposits.

Moreover, both orogenic and Carlin-type gold deposits are hosted in sedimentary

formations. In orogenic deposits in the western Qinling region, metamorphism and

deformation were critical processes in their genesis (e.g., phyllite in Huachanggou, and schist

and quartzite in Liziyuan). In contrast, the ores are hosted in epimetamorphic rocks (e.g.,

carbonaceous siliceous rocks in La’erma, and siltstone, silty shale and silty limestone in

Jinlongshan). If granitoid rocks are ignored, Carlin-like gold deposits also occur in

sedimentary formation in epimetamorphic grade (e.g., argillaceous slate).

The formation of orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region strongly involve

components of tectonic control. Ductile shear zones, hosting orebodies, are all recognized in

Huachanggou, Lizyuan, and Baguamiao. Due to collisional orogenesis, large-scale multiple

levels of imbricate thrusting nappe structure zones were formed. These gold deposits were

formed in the transitional period from compression to extension with temperature increase

and pressure decrease (Jamieson, 1991; Chen et al., 2004, 2012). In this period, the earlier

tightly closed structures dilated, creating fluid-migrating channels and precipitation locations.

As the ore-forming fluids converged into these dilational fractures (e.g., tension fissures, and

unconformity surface and formation interface of strata), the physico-chemical conditions

changed (e.g., temperature, pressure, and redox potential), leading to fluid immiscibility,

causing sulfide deposition and gold mineralization.

Most of the Carlin-type gold deposits in Nevada formed in the Middle Tertiary, during

which the western USA was undergoing regional extension along the craton margin (Kuehn

and Rose, 1992; Hofstra and Cline, 2000; Mao et al., 2002, 2005; Muntean et al., 2011). An

extension genetic model is drawn to better understand metamorphic gold-bearing systems

(Illich and Barton, 1997): deposit develops in a (meta) sedimentary rock-dominated terrane as

a consequence of regional fluid circulation due to crustal extension. The circulation of

meteoric water and underground thermal brine in La’erma (Liu et al., 1997) and Jinlongshan

(J. Zhang et al., 2002) is a response to extension. Although controlled by some tectonics, the

Carlin-type gold deposits in the western Qinling region are characterized more by stratabound

replacement. For example, the orebodies in the La’erma gold deposit is closely associated

with submarine exhalative-sedimentation, where the early-formed formation water during

regional metamorphism was stored in the low-grade deformed silicalite formation. The

later-broken formation caused by tectonic movement created channels and locations for the

recharge of meteoric fluids, leading to mineralization (Liu et al., 1997). Similarly, the

ore-forming fluids of Jinlongshan gold deposit are characterized by the mixture of

early-stocked formation water and later-recharged meteoric fluids (J. Zhang et al., 2002).

Because of the relations with magmatism, the genesis of Carlin-like gold deposits is

complicated. Gold deposits are distributed adjacent to granitoid plutons. These granitoids

offered thermal source for the mineralization. Geochemical characteristics show that the

average Au contents of the Zhongchuan granite and diorite dykes in Liba are 6 ppb and 58

ppb, respectively (Feng et al., 2004), but the Au contents of the Xiba pluton ranges from 1.57

to 3.23 ppb (H. Wang et al., 2012), which are lower than that of crust (4 ppb; Li, 1976). These

indicate that some granitoids may have offered part of the Au source for adjacent gold

deposits. The H and O isotopic characteristics and higher ore-forming fluid temperatures

indicate contamination by magmatic water. Because of different circumstances, orebodies

occur in different productive layers in different deposits. After the formation of breccias in the

Shuangwang gold deposit, sudden pressure decreases caused immiscibility in the fluid and

large amounts gold were deposited with pyrite and ankerite, which filled the extensional

spaces of breccias as cements. Similar to Huachanggou and Liziyuan, the Liba gold deposit is

strongly controlled by structures. Mixed fluids converged into these dilational fractures,

causing sulfide deposition and gold mineralization.

5.3. Processes of ore deposition

Diagenetic pyrite is widely recognized in most ore-bearing strata of gold deposits, e.g.,

the Sanhekou Group in Huachanggou (L.B. Yang et al., 2013b), the Xinghongpu Formation

(H. Wang, 2012), and the Nanyangshan Formation in Jinlongshan (Zhao et al., 2000; T. Yang

et al., 2012b). LA-ICP-MS analyses show that the average Au and As contents in the

above-mentioned strata rocks are 0.040 ppm and 23.27 ppm (Liu et al., 2012), 0.015 ppm

(Au), and 0.009 ppm and 234 ppm (Yang et al., 2012b), indicating the pre-enrichments of Au

and As in wall rocks. The S and Pb isotopic characteristics show that the sources of S and Pb

in Shuangwang and Liba mainly include both magmatic (mantle) and crustal components;

however, in orogenic and Carlin-like gold deposit, S and P were derived mainly from

diagenetic pyrite in wall rocks. Therefore, if the plutons in some Carlin-like gold deposits are

ignored, the ore-forming materials, e.g., Au, As, S, and Pb, are mostly derived from wall

rocks.

Previous studies show that, unlike pyrite, pyrrhotite does not hold Au or As in its

structure (Pitcairn et al., 2006; Large et al., 2007; Tomkins, 2010). Thus, invisible Au and As

are released from gold-bearing diagenetic pyrite into the metamorphic fluid during the

conversion of pyrite to pyrrhotite in greenschist and amphibolite facies metamorphism, which

is a very efficient method to provide Au for the formation of orogenic gold (Large et al., 2007,

2011). Hofstra and Emsbo (2007) have emphasized that this process is also applicable for

Carlin-type gold deposits based on studies in the Great Basin, southwestern U.S.A., where the

Carlin-type deposits exist. This may be also a potential mechanism for the migration of gold

from wall rocks into upward metamorphic fluids in the western Qinling region. With the

conversion of pyrite (FeS2) to pyrrhotite (FeS), sulfur is released under lower to upper

greenschist facies conditions, and Au is mainly transported as Au(HS)-2 (Ferry,1981; Muntean

et al., 2011).

The fluid inclusion characteristics show that the ore-forming fluids of orogenic gold

deposits are characterized by low salinity, CO2-rich, and medium temperature. The

ore-forming fluids of Carlin-like gold deposits are similar except for the medium-high

temperature. Fluid immiscibility is recognized in both types of gold deposits, and it is the

most important mechanism for the deposition of gold and sulfide in orogenic gold deposits

(Goldfarb et al., 2005). As ore-forming fluids converged into dilated fractures during the

extension stage of orogenesis (Fig. 16), physico-chemical conditions (e.g., temperature,

pressure, and redox potential) changed. If ambient conditions fall below the required solvus

for the respective fluid composition, fluid immiscibility will occur (Zhang et al., 2005, T.

Yang et al., 2012b), resulting in sulfide deposition and gold mineralization.

No obvious fluid immiscibility or hydrothermal boiling is recognized in fluid inclusions

of the Carlin-type gold deposits in the western Qinling region. The ore-forming fluids are low

in temperature with low salinity. The significant low pressure indicates that deposits were

formed at higher crustal levels. The increased permeability resulted from relaxation of

compressional setting, which allowed the influx and deep circulation of meteoric water (Hu et

al., 2002). Meteoric waters apparently evolved to become ore-forming fluids by circulation

(Fig. 16), leading to the deposition of Au and other elements in cool reactive permeable rocks

at shallower levels, forming the disseminated ores.

The gold deposition mechanism of Carlin-like gold deposits in the western Qinling

region is similar to that of orogenic gold deposits (Fig. 16). After the mixed fluids converged

into dilational fractures (e.g., fractures in breccia in Shuangwang, faults in Liba), fluid

immiscibility caused sulfide deposition and gold mineralization.

6. Conclusions

The western Qinling orogen in China is one of the most important gold regions in China.

We prefer and propose to classify gold deposits in the western Qinling region mainly as

Carlin-type, Carlin-like, and orogenic gold deposits. Isotopic dates suggest that the Mesozoic

granitoids in the region emplaced during the Middle-Late Triassic, and the deposits formed

during the Late Triassic. These deposits are considered as the products of Qinling orogenesis

caused by the final collision between the North China Block and the South China Block in the

Triassic. The Qinling orogenesis generated lithosphere-scale thermal anomalies to drive

orogen-scale hydrothermal systems and led to the formation of different types of gold

deposits with some characteristic differences (Table 7).

The orogenic gold deposits in the western Qinling region are typically spatially

associated with ductile shear zones within deformed and metamorphosed terranes formed

during compressional to transpressional deformation in collisional orogenies along

convergent plate margins (e.g., the Shang-Dan suture and Mian-Lue suture). The deposits are

characterized by the close relationship between Au and Ag. Native gold occurs as

microscopic gold, and minor electrum and visible gold, along with pyrite. Although granitoids

occur adjacent to some orogenic gold deposits, the mineralization of orogenic gold deposits

have no genetic relations to magmatism, and the ore-forming fluids were main metamorphic

fluids.

The Carlin-type gold deposits in the western Qinling region are closed to the collisional

orogen, suggesting a compressional setting, which is different to those of deposits in the

Carlin trend, Nevada, USA. Ores are hosted in epimetamorphic rocks and show obvious

stratigraphically-controlled features. Au-As-Sb-Hg-Ba-(Se) are the characteristic ore-forming

elements. The deposits mainly contain submicroscopic and microscopic gold in arsenian

pyrite and arsenopyrite. The ore-forming fluids are early-stocked formation water and

later-recharged meteoric water.

The Carlin-like gold deposits in the western Qinling region, structurally controlled by

brittle-ductile shear zone, are located in epimetamorphic rocks and are closed to granitoid

plutons. The ore-forming elements are complex and may differ in different gold deposit. Gold

exists mainly as microscopic gold with pyrite and arsenian pyrite, and very minor tellurides in

some gold deposit. The ore-forming fluids were main magmatic water mixed with

metamorphic and/or formation water. These deposits are genetically related with

collision-linked magmatism, which is the significant difference to the other types of gold

deposits.

Acknowledgements

Funding for this project was jointly granted by the Key Program of National Natural

Science Foundation of China (Grant No. 41030423), the Specialized Research Fund for the

Doctoral Program of Higher Education (Grant No. 20130022110001), the Major Basic

Research Program of People’s Republic of China (Grant No. 2014CB440903), the National

Natural Science Foundation of China (Grant Nos. 41173062 and 40972071), the work items

of China Geological Survey (Grant Nos. 1212011220924 and 1212011120354), and the 111

Project under the Ministry of Education and the State Administration of Foreign Experts

Affairs, China (Grant No. B07011). We are indebted to Engineers Lianxiong Yue, Zengtao

Wang, Hongle Guo, Fusheng Li, Xia Liu and other colleagues of the No.5 Gold Geological

Party of Chinese People's Armed Police Force for their enthusiastic help with the field work.

This manuscript has also benefited from the comments and critical reviews from Asian Earth

Sciences referee. Guest Editor Jingwen Mao and Editor-in-Chief Bor-ming Jahn have also

handled the manuscript.

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Figure captions

Fig. 1. Simplified geological map of the western Qinling region. (a) Simplified map of China,

showing major tectonic units of China. (b) Sketch geological map of the Qinling Orogen,

showing the tectonic location. (c) Sketch geological map of the western Qinling region,

showing typical gold deposits and granitoids (modified after Chen et al., 2004; Zeng et al.,

2012). QD - Qaidam; KL - Kunlun Shan belt; WQ - West Qinling; EQ - East Qinling; DB -

Dabie belt; SL - Sulu belt; SPGZ - Songpan-Ganzi terrane.

Fig. 2. Simplified cartoon showing the tectonic evolutionary history of the Qinling Orogen

(modified from Dong et al., 2011). (a) The Shang-Dan ocean was already established and

separated the SCB from NCB at the end of Neoproterozoic. (b) The Erlangping basin started

to subducted beneath the NQT before ca. 508 Ma. (c) Collision between the NQT and NCB

took place after the closing of the Erlangping basin and a rift developed within the northern

margin of the SCB. (d) The Mian-Lue oceanic crust started to subduct northward beneath the

SQT in the Early Permian. (e) Collision between the SCB and SQT started in the Late

Triassic.

Fig. 3. Geological sketch map of the Huachanggou gold deposit (after Liu et al., 2012).

Fig.4. Simplified geological map of the Liziyuan gold deposit (after T. Yang et al., 2012b).

Fig.5. Schematic geological sketch map of the Baguamiao gold deposit (modified from Mao

et al., 2002). The stratigraphic sequence in the mine comprises the Middle Devonian

Xinghongpu carbonates and calcareous phyllite.

Fig.6. Simplified geological map of the La’erma gold deposit (after Liu et al., 2000a).

Fig.7. Geological sketch map of the Jinlongshan gold deposit, consisting of four gold ore

domains (Jinlongshan, Yaojian, Qiuling, and Guloushan) from east to west (after Zhang et al.,

2002).

Fig. 8. Geological sketch map showing the NWstriking gold-bearing breccia bodies hosted by

metasedimentary clastic rocks between the Xiushiyan and Wangjialong strike-slip faults,

Shuangwang gold deposit (modified from K.X. Wang et al., 2012).

Fig. 9. Simplified geological map of the Zhongchuan-Liba area showing the location of the

Liba gold deposit (modified from Zeng et al., 2012).

Fig. 10. Photographs of native gold and other minerals in the ores from the Huachanggou (a,

b, c), Liziyuan (c and d), and Shuangwang gold deposits. All microphotographs are in

reflected light. (a) Visible gold in white quartz vein, Huachanggou (L.B. Yang et al., 2013a).

(b) Fissure gold within the fractures of pyrite, Huachanggou (L.B. Yang et al., 2013b). (c)

Interparticle gold within the sealed fractures (L.B. Yang et al., 2013a). (d) Visible gold

intergrown with sulphides in the fracture of white quartz vein, Liziyuan (T. Yang et al.,

2012b). (E) Native gold within the sealed fractures of pyrite and chalcopyrite, Liziyuan (T.

Yang et al., 2012b). (F) Native gold with sulphides in the fracture of white quartz vein,

Shuangwang. Au - gold; Py - pyrite; Ccp - Chalcopyrite; Qtz - quartz.

F.g. 11. Microphotographs of representative fluid inclusions in quartz from the Huachanggou

(a and b), Liziyuan (c and d), and Shuangwang (e and f) gold deposits.

Fig.12. δD-δ18Ow diagram for ore-forming fluid of orogenic (represented by Huachanggou

and Baguamiao), Carlin-type (represented by La’erma), and Carlin-like (represented by

Shuangwang and Liba) gold deposits (after Taylor, 1974).

Fig. 13. δ18O -δ13C diagram of orogenic (represented by Huachanggou and Baguamiao),

Carlin-type (represented by Jinlongshan), and Carlin-like (represented by Shuangwang) gold

deposits (Liu et al., 2004).

Fig. 14. Sulfur compositions in sulfide minerals in ores, granitoid plutons, and wall rocks

from the Huachanggou, Shuangwang, and La’erma gold deposits.

Fig. 15. Lead isotope compositions of samples from the Huachanggou (a), Shuangwang (b),

Liba (c), and La’erma (d) gold deposits. Lead evolution diagram is modified after Zartman

and Doe (1981). O -orogen; M-mantle; UC -upper crust contributed to the orogen; LC - lower

crust contributed to the orogen. Dotted curves show the lead evolutions fit the data.

Fig. 16. Model of orogenic, Carlin-type, and Carlin-like gold deposits formed in the Western

Qinling region. This figure is a sketch map with an incorrect proportional scale, showing

potential migration of meteoric and metamorphic fluids.

Table captions

Table 1. Summary of major gold deposits in the western Qinling region.

Table 2. Characteristics of ore fluids in typical gold deposits in the western Qinling region.

Table 3. Hydrogen and oxygen isotopic compositions of minerals in typical gold deposits in

the western Qinling region.

Table 4. Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of minerals in typical gold deposits in the

western Qinling region.

Table 5. Sulfur isotopic compositions of minerals in typical gold deposits in the western

Qinling region.

Table 6. Lead isotopic compositions of minerals in typical gold deposits in the western

Qinling region.

Table 7. Characteristics of various types of gold deposits in the western Qinling region.

No

. D

epo

sit

T

ype

R

eso

urce

(t)

Ho

st r

ock

M

agm

atic

roc

k M

iner

aliz

atio

n

age

(M

a)

Min

eral

&

Me

thod

R

efe

renc

e

1

Ma

'anq

iao

Oro

geni

c >

50

De

voni

an

ph

yllit

e a

nd

carb

ona

tite

Gra

nod

iori

te s

tock

23

2.58

±1.5

9,

222.

14±3

.45

Qua

rtz,

Ar-

Ar

Ad

am

elli

te

9

Zha

ish

ang

Car

lin-t

ype

12

7 D

evo

nia

n s

and

ston

e, s

late

, an

d

limes

ton

e

10

La'e

rma

C

arlin

-typ

e

>5

0 C

am

bria

n s

ilice

ous

ro

cks

and

slat

es

11

Das

hui

C

arlin

-typ

e

90.5

T

riass

ic to

Ear

ly

Jura

ssic

carb

onat

e r

ock

Gra

nod

iorit

e

Table 1

Zhu

et a

l., 2

011

2

S

huan

gwan

g

Car

lin-li

ke

>80

U

pper

Dev

onia

n sl

ate

X

iba

gran

itoid

K

.X. W

ang

et a

l., 2

012

3

B

agua

mia

o

O

roge

nic

10

6

U

pper

Dev

onia

n ph

yllit

e

A

plite

and

dio

rite

dike

s

Fen

g et

al.,

200

2,

2003

a

4

P

angj

iahe

Oro

geni

c

37

M

iddl

e D

evon

ianc

last

ic r

ocks

Mao

et a

l., 2

012

5

Lizi

yuan

O

roge

nic

M

etav

olca

nic

rock

s

T

ianz

isha

n

mon

zogr

anite

206.

8±1.

6S

eric

ite, K

–Ar

Y.H

. Liu

et a

l., 2

011b

6

Lib

a

Car

lin-li

ke

80

Mid

dle

Dev

onia

n

slat

e,

silts

tone

, a

nd p

hylli

te

Bio

tite

adam

ellit

e

216

.4±1

.5

Mus

covi

te a

nd

biot

ite, A

r-A

rZ

eng

et a

l., 2

012

7

Maq

uan

Car

lin-li

ke

7.5

M

iddl

e C

arbo

nife

rous

phy

llite

Ada

mel

lite

Mao

et a

l., 2

002

8

Jin

shan

C

arlin

-like

3

1

Mid

dle

Dev

onia

n

silty

phyl

lite

Zha

ng e

t al.,

200

2

Lu e

t al.,

200

6

Liu

et a

l., 2

000a

Han

et a

l., 2

011

12Lu

erba

C

arlin

-typ

e

23

M

iddl

e T

riass

ic s

ilty

slat

eC

hen

et a

l., 2

004

13

J

iuyu

an

Car

lin-t

ype

5

Mid

dle

Dev

onia

n lim

esto

ne

G

rano

dior

ite

porp

hyry

Mao

et a

l., 2

002

14

Din

gpin

g

C

arlin

-typ

e

1

1.5

M

iddl

e D

evon

ian

tuff

aceo

us

slat

eM

ao e

t al.,

200

2

Pla

gio

gra

nite

porp

hyr

y ve

in

197.

6±1

.7

Zir

con,

U-P

b

(SH

RIM

P)

17

Hua

cha

nggo

u O

roge

nic

10

Dev

onia

n sp

ilite

, lim

esto

ne,

and

ph

yllit

e

18

Jian

chal

ing

Car

lin-li

ke

52

Ultr

ama

fic r

ock

s a

nd L

ate

Pro

tero

zoic

do

lom

it

Gra

nod

iorit

e

15

Man

aoke

Car

lin-t

ype

40

T

riass

ic s

andy

sla

te a

nd m

inor

Che

n et

al.,

200

4

16

Y

angs

han

Car

lin-li

ke

>

300

Dev

onia

n ph

yllit

e, s

ands

tone

,

and

limes

tone

Hua

ng e

t al.,

199

6

19

H

uang

long

Car

lin-t

ype

5

Silu

rian

schi

st

C

hen

et a

l., 2

004

20

J

inlo

ngsh

an

C

arlin

-typ

e

>

150

Upp

er D

evon

ian

silts

tone

and

shal

e23

2.7±

6.9

Ser

icite

, Ar-

Ar

Zha

o et

al.,

200

1; T

.

Yan

g et

al.,

201

2b

215

± 0.

5

F

uchs

ite, K

–ArB

ai, 1

996a

, 199

6b; L

iu

et a

l., 2

012

Qi e

t al.,

200

5

Deposit Temperature (°C) Salinity

(wt.% NaCl equiv.)

Pressure

(Mpa)

Table 2

Reference

Huachanggou medium temperature (240–320) 0.43-11.19 (4-10) 100-170 Zhou et al., 2011

Liziyuan medium temperature (240–280) 0.5–9.1 (3-8) 80-150 T. Yang et al., 2012a

Shuangwang medium temperature (240–360) 2.58-22.73 100-170B.Z. Liu et al.,

2011a , 2011b

Liba High temperature (320-400) 3.00-16.24 (8-14) 90-150 Zhang et al.2004a

Jinlongshan Low temperature (180-220) 5.7-7.85 5-25 J. Zhang et al., 2002

Laerma Low temperature (200-250) 5-12 5-20 Zhang, 1993

Table 3

Sample no. Mineral δDQ (‰) δ18

OQ (‰) δ18

OW(‰) T (℃) References

Huachanggou

HCG–3 Quartz –94 17.9 11.60 314L.B.Yang et al.,

2013

HCG–32 Quartz –93 18.0 10.15 275

HCG–58 Quartz –80 17.6 7.38 225

HCG–175 Quartz –79 17.3 9.45 275

HCG–307 Quartz –86 18.1 9.15 250

HCG–9 Quartz –81 17.5 7.33 226

HCG–11–57 Quartz –81 17.9 9.16 254

HCG–11–58 Quartz –91 20.4 3.34 157

Baguamiao90-79-1 Quartz -81.4 3.39 250 He et al., 2009

91-480 Quartz -80.8 9.05 204

91-489 Quartz -79 9.14 215

BG-31 Quartz -77 18.8 8.73 312 Feng et al., 2004

BG-35 Quartz -80 19.5 9.61 231

BG-55 Quartz -84 19.5 11.04 261

BG-56 Quartz -86 19.9 13.34 310

BG-59 Quartz -80 14.5 5.03 240

Laermatc7-4 Quartz -58.21 -2.63 -8.80 284 Liu et al., 1998a

cm63-4 Quartz -85.0 23.40 10.37 191

lw-5 Quartz -68.04 21.38 10.78 231

yw-1 Quartz -74.23 19.72 9.74 243

yw-2 Quartz -73.48 19.80 9.20 231

la-6 Quartz -52.93 5.13 2.57 296

op1-9 Quartz -93.0 21.20 9.93 219

Pd11 Quartz -77.46 11.99 3.67 280

tc7-19 Quartz -85.0 19.40 9.01 235

cm8-1 Quartz -86.43 12.44 4.24 283

t-68 Quartz -73.09 2.61 -4.03 327

la-98 Quartz -93.61 -1.46 -11.06 251

la-161 Quartz -93.0 21.95 13.30 272

la-162 Quartz -85.0 20.08 11.50 260

la-163 Quartz -85.0 26.71 15.50 220

pd48-3 Barite -71.6 -3.19 -9.57 196

tc7-19 Barite -79.5 4.94 -5.45 235

pd5-1 Barite -82.8 1.54 -9.23 228

y05 Quartz -91.3 19.99 10.34 236 Zhang, 1993

y13-1 Quartz -118.1 20.56 10.17 253

y51 Quartz -99.0 23.85 15.03 235

g14 Quartz -100.6 16.05 8.07 272

l17 Quartz -98.4 20.08 11.97 269

l35 Quartz -106.0 20.87 13.34 257

l40 Quartz -116.9 20.37 11.51 252

k101 Quartz -90.0 24.20 15.34 252

l76 Quartz -97.4 16.21 8.31 274

g61 Quartz -72.8 18.20 10.78 286

g22 Quartz -101.5 16.25 10.71 342

l78 Quartz -111.9 17.24 11.41 332

l91 Quartz -102.59 9.49 -3.08 282

c Quartz -90.87 9.28 2.43 205

t103 Barite -93.2 2.34 -2.03 237

l54 Barite -117.0 8.42 2.92 212

t104-4 Barite -81.7 3.75 0.77 268

l56 Barite -92.5 12.66 4.13 163

Shuangwang

1550-127-1 Quartz -90.2 19.5 9.55 230K.X. Wang et

al., 2012

XMG-1 Quartz -83.4 19.6 9.65 230

MGN-4 Quartz -88.6 18.8 8.85 230

V-8 Quartz -90.6 18.4 7.90 220

31 Quartz -65.3 17.18 12.48 350 Shi et al., 1989

S85 Quartz -65.4 19.26 13.96 350

sh-10 Quartz -70 17.1 7.9 255Zhang et al.,

2004b

sh-28 Quartz -70 18.2 9.0 255

sh-31 Quartz -65 18.6 6.5 201

Liba

Mar-14 Quartz -63 14.7 9.5 356Huang et al.,

2000

Feb-38 Quartz -71 11.1 5.8 356

59 Quartz -92 13.4 8.0 348

ZK80-7 Quartz -83 13.4 4.9 260

ZK112-1 Quartz -84 15.2 6.7 260

Sample no. Mineral

δ13

CPDB

(‰)

δ18

OPDB

(‰)

δ18

OSMOW

(‰) References

Table 4

HuachanggouHCG–57 Calcite –1.49 –13.96 16.47 L.B.Yang et al., 2013

HCG–35 Calcite –1.68 –13.98 16.45

HCG–240 Calcite –2.76 –14.39 16.02

HCG–331 Calcite –1.6 –13.84 16.59

HCG–353 Calcite –3.76 –14.62 15.79

HCG–350 Calcite –1.52 –13.95 16.48

HCG–238 Calcite –1.18 –13.76 16.67

HCG–393 Calcite –0.37 –12.77 17.69

HCG–127 Calcite –2.39 –13.81 16.63

HCG–132 Calcite –2.42 –13.64 16.8

HCG–459 Calcite –2.64 –14.01 16.42

HCG–87 Calcite –0.24 –10.84 19.69

HCG–148 Calcite –2.2 –13.78 16.66

BaguamiaoB-5 Ankerite -3.04 -11.98 18.51 Zheng and Yu, 1994

B-12 Ankerite -1.93 -10.88 19.64

B-14 Ankerite -2.14 -11.08 19.43

B-16A Ankerite -1.91 -10.86 19.66

B-16 Calcite -4.87 -13.79 16.64

B72-16 Ankerite -2.31 -11.12 19.4

B-23 Ankerite -1.85 -10.8 19.73

B-32 Ankerite -2.01 -10.96 19.56

B-39 Ankerite -2.24 -11.19 19.32

B-45 Ankerite -2.22 -11.17 19.34

SW-2 Ankerite -2.28 -11.23 19.28

SW-3 Ankerite -2.33 -11.28 19.23

JinlongshanJPD7-Ca Calcite -4 13.2 22.7 J. Zhang et al., 2002

J-mg-3 Calcite 0.2 5.5 17.9

J-mg-4 Calcite 0.8 4.1 16.5

J-mg-5 Calcite 1 4.1 16.5

Qpd7-Ca Calcite 0.3 12.3 21.8

Q304-7 Calcite -0.7 11.6 22.3

Q304-6-2 Calcite -1.6 10.7 22

Q304-6-5 Calcite -3.6 10.8 22.1

Y36-3-1 Calcite -2.9 -1.9 6.7

Shuangwang414 Calcite -0.28 9.87 K.X.Wang et al., 2012

T025 Calcite -6.39 14.79

T585 Calcite -4.65 15.04

sh-16 Calcite -4.9 8.6

sh-21-2 Calcite -4.5 7.6

sh-26 Calcite -1.8 6.3

W-1 Calcite -4.63 14.21

NE-2 Calcite -4.23 8.73

1420CM79-1 Calcite -3.15 8.58

1520CM75-1 Calcite -2.89 7.47

1520CM75-2 Calcite -2.25 7.37

1600CM159-3 Calcite 0.19 7.77

1600CM75-1 Calcite -0.35 8.72

V-4 Calcite 0.51 13.38

Table 5

Sample no. Host Mineral δ34

S-CDT(‰) References

HuachanggouHCG-62 Ore Pyrite -0.6 L.B.Yang et al., 2013

HCG-66 Pyrite 0.3

HCG-79 Pyrite -3.1

HCG-4 Pyrite -1.2

HCG-14 Pyrite 0.4

HCG-263 Ore Pyrite -0.7

HCG-312 Pyrite -0.6

HCG-366 Pyrite -8.0

HCG-276 Limestone Pyrite -3.0

HCG-92 Ore Pyrite -8.3

HCG-122 Pyrite 0.8

HCG-152 Pyrite -0.5

HCG-27 Spilite Pyrite 1.0

HCG-160 Pyrite -2.4

HCG-191 Pyrite -1.8

LiziyuanSSZ-2 Ore Pyrite 7.9 T. Yang et al., 2012

JCW-5 Ore Pyrite 3.9

JCW-6 Ore Pyrite 5.3

SSZ-8 Ore Pyrite 7.4

LZ-2-A Ore Pyrite 7.5

LZ-2-B Ore Galena 5.0

SSZ-6 Ore Galena 5.0

SSZ-3-A Ore Pyrite 7.3

SSZ-3-B Ore Galena 5

SSZ-5 Ore Pyrite 5.7

SSZ-1 Ore Pyrite 7.5

LZY-6 Ore Pyrite 8.1

SSZ-9 Ore Pyrite 7.5

K87TC-07 Ore Galena 7.0

K87 Ore Pyrite 8.5

K89 Ore Pyrite 7.7

K87 Ore Pyrite 6.3

K100 Ore Galena 5.7

BaguamiaoBK1-2 Wall Rock Pyrite 12.8 Zheng and Yu, 1994

Ore Pyrrhotine 12.1

Ore Marcasite 4.1

BK3 Ore Pyrite 15.0

Ore Pyrrhotine 12.4

Ore Marcasite 13.0

BK16 Ore Pyrite 12.7

Ore Pyrrhotine 12.0

Ore Marcasite 13.8

BK20 Ore Pyrite 15.4

Ore Pyrrhotine 13.9

Ore Marcasite 12.5

BK21 Ore Pyrite 9.4

Ore Pyrrhotine 12.7

Ore Marcasite 9.8

BK22 Ore Pyrite 14.6

Ore Pyrrhotine 10.1

Ore Marcasite 9.5

LaermaH1 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 13.00 Liu et al., 2000b

H2-1 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 16.90

H2-2 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 46.90

H3 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 16.00

H4 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 14.10

H5 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 24.60

H12 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 7.84

PD8-1 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 10.30

PD8-3 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 8.56

PD48-2 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite 8.92

H6 Wall Rock Diagenetic Pyrite -10.00

h8 Ore Pyrite 7.20

la-73 Ore Pyrite 13.30

la-78 Ore Pyrite 10.30

la-89 Ore Pyrite 12.10

h11 Ore Pyrite -21.62

h9 Ore Marcasite -1.57

h10 Ore Marcasite 0.15

la-92 Ore Marcasite 14.2

h7 Ore Stibnite -6.70

la-62 Ore Stibnite 1.7

la-64 Ore Stibnite 0.6

la-85 Ore Stibnite -6.8

la-88 Ore Stibnite -5.1

la-90 Ore Stibnite -12.1

la-97 Ore Stibnite -9.4

la-104 Ore Stibnite -4.5

la-16 Ore Stibnite -28.3

la-14 Ore Barite 26

la-63 Ore Barite 28.5

la-86 Ore Barite 24.3

la-91 Ore Barite 14.6

la-95 Ore Barite 26.7

la-105 Ore Barite 16

la-165 Ore Barite 16.8

tc7 Ore Barite 28.25

cm48-2 Ore Barite 19.49

la-5 Ore Barite 33.3

pd5 Ore Barite 19.07

ShuangwangT16 Monzonitic Granite Pyrite 5.3 Shi et al., 1989

T17 Monzonitic Granite Pyrite 6.10

T52 Quartz Monzobiorite Pyrite 3.8

YDZ18 Quartz Monzobiorite Pyrite 4.84

T13 Wall Rock Pyrite 10.3

T54 Wall Rock Pyrite 5.7

T65 Wall Rock Pyrite 13.5

T66 Wall Rock Pyrite 13.8

T67 Wall Rock Pyrite 9.9

T15 Wall Rock Pyrite 11.6

T18 Wall Rock Pyrite 8.7

T72 Wall Rock Pyrite 9.25

T64 Wall Rock Pyrite 10.78

1100CM32-1 Ore Pyrite 9.68 K.X.Wang et al., 2012

1420CM43-1 Ore Pyrite 13.51

1600CM141-4 Ore Pyrite 11.93

1600CM75-1 Ore Pyrite 12.97

2-1550-129-4 Ore Pyrite 13.94

2-1600-187-2 Ore Pyrite 11.44

2-1600-73-1 Ore Pyrite 12.86

2-1670-75-1 Ore Pyrite 12

2-3-20-1 Ore Pyrite 10.77

1330CM13-1 Ore Pyrite 11.97

4CM18-3 Ore Pyrite 11.51

4CM38-2 Ore Pyrite 9.82

AHG-5 Ore Pyrite 14.87

MGN-2 Ore Pyrite 9.25

XMG-3 Ore Pyrite 13.75

V-1 Ore Pyrite 10.83

V-9 Ore Pyrite 8.29

Sample no. Host Mineral 206

Pb/204

Pb 207

Pb/204

Pb 208

Pb/204

Pb 206

Pb/207

Pb References

Huachanggou

HCG–62 Ore Pyrite

Spilite 17.62 15.58 37.56

b whole

rock

Spilite 18.07 15.54 38.11

c whole

rock

Spilite 18.12 15.45 37.69

d whole

rock

Spilite 18 15.55 38

e whole

rock

Spilite 17.9 15.52 38.06

Jinlongshan

J-S2 Wall

rock

Table 6

17.926 15.557 38.255 1.1523L.B.Yang

et al., 2013

HCG–66 Ore Pyrite 17.905 15.549 38.215 1.1515

HCG–79 Ore Pyrite 17.873 15.532 38.12 1.1507

HCG–4 Ore Pyrite 17.891 15.548 38.221 1.1507

HCG–14 Ore Pyrite 17.835 15.545 38.282 1.1473

HCG–27 Ore Pyrite 17.892 15.546 38.197 1.1509

HCG–160 Ore Pyrite 18.018 15.559 38.294 1.158

HCG–191 Ore Pyrite 17.875 15.535 38.158 1.1506

HCG–263 Ore Pyrite 18.221 15.622 38.683 1.1664

HCG–312 Ore Pyrite 18.125 15.594 38.583 1.1623

HCG–366 Ore Pyrite 18.294 15.639 38.938 1.1698

HCG–276 Ore Pyrite 18.332 15.624 39.27 1.1733

HCG–92 Ore Pyrite 18.306 15.645 38.799 1.1701

HCG–122 Ore Pyrite 18.28 15.633 38.87 1.1693

HCG–152 Ore Pyrite 18.34 15.647 38.848 1.1721

a whole

rockChu, 1996

Lv et al.,

2012

Pyrite 18.487 15.843 39.117

Q-S3 Ore Pyrite 18.329 15.629 38.434

Q-S4 Ore Pyrite 18.307 15.609 38.373

Q-S5 Ore Pyrite 18.202 15.716 38.77

Laermapd11 Ore Pyrite 18.418 15.615 37.836 1.1795 Liu et al.,

1998b

la-78 Ore Pyrite 18.680 15.689 38.432 1.1906

pd11 Ore Marcasite 19.134 15.618 38.007 1.2251

t56 Ore Stibnite 18.266 15.604 38.323 1.1706

la-57 Ore Stibnite 18.249 15.615 38.451 1.1687

la-88 Ore Stibnite 18.246 15.625 38.443 1.1677

la-56 Ore Stibnite 18.253 15.628 38.486 1.1679

la-85 Ore Stibnite 18.747 15.649 38.570 1.1980

la-90 Ore Stibnite 18.145 15.823 38.400 1.1467

t103 Ore Stibnite 25.194 16.269 38.877 1.5486

ltc95 Ore Stibnite 37.266 16.870 38.676 2.2090

lw5 Ore Quartz 17.794 15.460 37.674 1.1510

yw1 Ore Quartz 17.974 15.597 37.975 1.1524

yw3 Ore Quartz 17.987 15.604 37.982 1.1527

la-68 Ore Quartz 18.861 15.615 38.590 1.2079

la-107 Ore Quartz 18.009 15.629 38.301 1.1523

la-91 Ore Quartz 18.446 15.659 38.915 1.1780

la-98 Ore Quartz 19.490 15.699 38.830 1.2415

la-73 Ore Quartz 20.717 15.737 39.116 1.3165

la-41 Ore Quartz 21.677 15.814 38.432 1.3707

la-82 Ore Quartz 23.740 15.945 38.555 1.4889

la-6 Ore Quartz 20.633 16.022 39.091 1.2878

lw3 Ore Barite 18.417 15.550 38.158 1.1844

cm48-1 Ore Barite 26.906 15.898 38.135 1.6924

tc7-17 Ore Barite 31.602 16.138 38.087 1.9582

la-5 Ore Barite 18.425 15.554 39.555 1.1846

la-86 Ore Barite 18.347 15.595 38.641 1.1764

la-105 Ore Barite 19.274 15.606 38.691 1.2350

la-65 Ore Barite 18.703 15.661 38.764 1.1942

la-95 Ore Barite 18.689 15.661 38.560 1.1933

la-19 Ore Chert 20.091 15.677 38.647 1.2816

la-98-1 Ore Chert 21.344 15.786 38.558 1.3521

la-67 Ore Chert 21.236 15.819 39.224 1.3424

la-21 Ore Chert 23.543 16.016 38.932 1.4799

la-131 Ore Chert 27.973 16.056 38.366 1.7422

la-130 Ore Chert 27.291 16.167 38.276 1.681

la-22 Ore Chert 25.847 16.238 38.283 1.5918

la-20 Ore Chert 28.311 16.394 38.754 1.7269

la-132 Ore Chert 30.365 16.642 39.638 1.8246

la-133 Ore Chert 35.738 16.713 38.972 2.1383

pd11 Ore Dacite 27.945 16.176 36.644 1.7276

la-108 Ore Dacite 19.110 15.586 39.099 1.2261

la-110 Ore Dacite 20.752 15.908 39.204 1.3045

cm8-3 whole

rock

Pyrite 17.693 15.480 37.074 1.1430

mii-18 whole

rock

Slate 18.635 15.707 39.019 1.1864

mii-14 whole

rock Chert 18.798 15.626 38.592 1.2029

la-111 whole

rock Chert 36.697 16.775 38.552 2.1876

VII-5h whole

rock Chert 26.595 16.100 38.373 1.6519

la-12 whole

rock

Dacite 16.532 15.257 36.703 1.0836

Shuangwang

4CM38-2

Granitoid

potash

feldspar

17.782 15.473 37.744

d Granitoid

potash

feldspar

17.894 15.529 37.997

OrePyrite 19.633 15.673 39.192 K.X. Wang

et al., 2012

4CM18-3 Ore Pyrite 19.027 15.644 38.97

3CM44-6 Ore Pyrite 18.856 15.632 38.833

2CM32-4 Ore Pyrite 19.296 15.627 39.765

2CM00-1 Ore Pyrite 18.948 15.64 39.248

1420CM43-1 Ore Pyrite 18.391 15.597 38.627

1670CM75-2 Ore Pyrite 18.832 15.637 38.788

1600CM173-2 Ore Pyrite 18.673 15.631 38.857

1550CM157-2 Ore Pyrite 18.682 15.643 38.879

1550CM147-4 Ore Pyrite 18.43 15.593 38.588

1600CM141-4 Ore Pyrite 18.854 15.652 38.943

aGranitoid

plagioclase 17.674 15.506 37.808 Shi et al.,

1993

b Granitoid plagioclase 17.742 15.552 37.977

c

Liba

29 orepyrite 18.507 15.668 38.522 Huang et

al., 2000

91-142 ore pyrite 18.749 15.648 38.392

91-111 ore galena 18.327 15.626 38.435

PD2-1 ore galena 18.768 15.567 38.127

91-240 ore stibnite 18.792 15.57 38.127

Type Ore-controlling

structure

Ore-forming elements Gold-bearing mineral Gold occurrence Related magmatism Ore fluid

Orogenic Ductile shear zone Au-Ag Pyrite Microscopic gold,

visible gold, electrum

Not necessary;

non-synchronous (if present)

Metamorphic water

Carlin Lithology and syngenetic

fault

Au-As-Sb-Hg-Ba-(Se) Arsenic pyrite, arsenopyrite Submicroscopic gold,

microscopic gold

None Formation water

Carlin-like Brittle-ductile shear zone Au-As-Sb, or Au-Sb-W,

or Au-Sb-Cu-Pb-Zn, or

other

Pyrite, arsenic pyrite, minor

tellurides

Microscopic gold Synchronous Magmatic water

Table 7

Highlights

The preliminary discussion on geological characteristics and ore-forming process of gold

deposits in the western Qinling Orogen is based on the long-term studies on the gold deposits

in the western Qinling Orogen. We have studied some typical gold deposits with a lot of

workloads, including both fieldwork and in-room studies.

We prefer to classify gold deposits in the western Qinling Orogen into orogenic,

Carlin-type, and Carlin-like gold deposits.

We describe major characteristics of different types of gold deposits in the western

Qinling Orogen.

We select several typical gold deposits for a detailed study.

We discuss the differences and links between different types of gold deposits and their

ore-forming process.

We provide potential genetic models for the formation of different types of gold

deposits.