Geologic Time

Geologic Time By examining layers of sedimentary rock, geologists developed a time scale for dividing up earth history.

Earlier in the 20th century, radiometric-dating techniques allowed scientists to put absolute dates on divisions in the geologic time scale.

Geologic Time

 In this segment, we will learn how geologists:

determine the relative ages of rock units, determine the divisions of the geologic time scale, and

how radiometric techniques can be used to date some rocks.

How do geologists determine how old rocks are?

1. Relative dating -- determine whether the rock is older or younger than other rocks

2. Absolute dating -- use radiometric dating techniques to determine how long ago the rock formed in the exact number of years

*Not all rocks can be dated absolutely, so combinations of techniques are used.

 

Example of Relative Age Dating and Correlation

Relative Age Dating

Absolute Dating:

Radiometric Dating TechniquesUse naturally-occurring radioactive isotopes

Isotope -- form of an element that has additional neutrons

Radioisotope -- isotope that spontaneously decays, giving off radiation

 

Rate of Radioactive Decay

Radioisotopes decay at a constant rate.

Rate of decay is measured by half-life

Half-life -- time it takes for one-half of the radioactive material to decay.

Decay products

Radioisotopes may decay to form a different isotope or a stable isotope.

May be a series of radioactive decays before a stable isotope is formed.

Stable isotope is called the "daughter" formed from decay of radioactive "parent"

  

Radiometric Age DatingRadioisotopes are trapped in minerals when they crystallize.

Radioisotopes decay through time, and stable isotopes are formed.

Determining the ratio of parent isotope to daughter product reveals the number of half-lives that has elapsed.

 

Absolute DatingThus, by using the appropriate radioactive isotope (knowing its half-life time), and measuring the quantity of the isotope present in the rock, one can deduce how long it has taken to decay down to the present amount in the rock.

Example: A rock has 0.5 (one-half) of the original carbon 14 material in it. One can deduce that knowing the half-life of carbon 14 is 5730 years, the rock must have decayed (lost) 50% of its original carbon 14 material and is now 5730 years old. In a period of 5730 years from now, the rock will contain .25 (25%) of its original carbon 14 material. Theoretically, there will always be some trace of carbon 14 present in the rock…it will never decay totally.

• Radiometric dating uses decay of unstable isotopes.

– Isotopes are atoms of an element that differ in their number of neutrons.

– A half-life is the amount of time it takes for half of the isotope to decay

Principle of Uniformitarianism:

James Hutton, late 1700s – (considered to be "Father of Geology")

Hutton realized that most sedimentary layers were deposited from gradual, day-to-day processes. He realized that it took a long time to form these rocks. This was far different from what others believed prior to this time.

 

Principle of Uniformitarianism:

"Present is the key to the past" -- whatever processes are occurring today (plate tectonics, volcanism, mountain building, earthquakes, sedimentation) also occurred in the past and probably at the same (or very comparable) rates.

Principles associated with Relative Dating

The comparing of rock units to decipher their age relative to one another

Principle of SuperpositionRock layer above is younger than the ones below it. (Oldest on bottom, youngest on top)May not apply to rocks that have been folded (can get turned upside-down).

Principles associated with Relative Dating

Principle of Original HorizontalitySedimentary layers are deposited in approximately horizontal sheets. If layers are folded, episode of deformation must have occurred after rocks formed. Age of folding is younger than youngest deformed rock unit.

 

Principles associated with Relative Dating

Principle of Crosscutting RelationshipsAny feature (e.g. fault or intrusion) that cuts across rocks is younger than the youngest rock that is cut.

Principles associated with Relative Dating

Principle of Faunal SuccessionOrganisms have evolved and gone extinct through time Fossil content of rock changes in a systematic way, reflecting evolutionary changes Fossil content can be used to help determine age of rock and correlate rocks. Paraphrased as "Organisms within rock units change with time".

Illustration of Relative Age Principles

Superposition

Cross Cutting RelationsOriginal

Horizontality

CorrelationCorrelation is determining that rocks are the same formation (may mean rocks are the same age)

Illustration of Principle of Faunal Succession

Unconformities Unconformities are surfaces in rock that represent periods of erosion or non-deposition. In other words, time has been left out of the physical geologic rock record.

There are three (3) principal types of unconformities:

Unconformities1. Angular UnconformityRocks above and below unconformity have different orientations. Easiest of the three types to recognize because the units are at an angle truncated with the units above them.

 

Unconformities

2. NonconformityRocks in a horizontal fashion were eroded down to igneous bedrock material at which time subsequent deposition of sedimentary layers commenced.  

Unconformities 3. DisconformityRocks in a nearly horizontal fashion were eroded and an erosional profile remains covered by subsequent sedimentary deposition. Only a small discontinuous layer can be observed (rubble zone or soil profile).

Unconformity Types Using Grand Canyon as Example

Geologic Time Scale

Developed in 1800s from relative dating of rocks

More recently, radiometric techniques have allowed us to determine ages of units in years before present.

Many of the names relate back to localities in England (Ex: Devonian from Devonshire)

 

Divisions of Geologic Time Scale:Eons Eras:Paleozoic -- Mesozoic -- CenozoicOldest -----------------> Youngest  Periods of the Phanerozoic: Paleozoic EraPermian (youngest)Pennsylvanian together with Mississippian are called

"Carboniferous" in Great Britain

Epochs of Tertiary and QuaternaryPaleoceneEoceneOligoceneMiocenePliocenePleistocene

The Geologic Time Scale

Origin of the Earth ~4.55 Billion years

First multi-celled organisms

Age of Fishes

Age of Coal Formation

Major Mass Extinction

Age of Dinosaurs

Major Mass Extinction

“Humans” arrive

Most recent “Ice Age”

What Killed the Dinosaurs?

Earth During the Silurian (430+ million years ago)

Earth during:Devonian ~410 million years ago

Mississippian ~330 million years ago

Permian ~250 million years ago

Earth during:Triassic ~ 200 million years agoJurassic ~190 million years ago

Cretaceous ~100 million years ago

Early Cenozoic ~50 million years ago

Fossils can form in several ways.

Permineralization occurs when minerals carried by water are deposited around a hard structure.

A natural cast forms when flowing water removes all of the original tissue, leaving an impression.

Trace fossils record the activity of an organism.

Amber-preserved fossils are organisms that become trapped in tree resin that hardens after the tree is buried.

Preserved remains form when an entire organism becomes encased in material such as ice.

Specific conditions are needed for fossilization.

• Only a tiny percentage of living things became fossils.

Index FossilIndex fossils can provide the relative age of a rock layer. existed only during specific spans of timeoccurred in large geographic areas

Index fossils include fusulinids and trilobites.