GEOGRAPHY NOTES PRE CUM MAINS BATCH
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1 GEOGRAPHY NOTES PRE CUM MAINS BATCH
Transcript of GEOGRAPHY NOTES PRE CUM MAINS BATCH
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GEOGRAPHY NOTES PRE CUM MAINS BATCH
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Contents
1. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA .............................................................................................. 12
1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF INDIA ........................................................................................ 12
1.2 LOCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIA ....................................................................................... 15
1.2.1 Central location at the head of Indian Ocean:.................................................................... 15
1.2.2 Central Location in Eastern Hemisphere: ........................................................................... 16
1.2.3 Central Location in Southern Part of Asia’s Continent: ...................................................... 17
1.2.4 Strategic position midway between the Far East and the Middle East:............................. 18
1.3 Physiographic division of India................................................................................................... 19
1.4 The Himalayan Mountain:.......................................................................................................... 21
1.4.1 The Himalayan Mountains - Origin of the Himalayas ......................................................... 21
1.5 Plate Tectonics ........................................................................................................................... 22
1.6 The Northern Mountain ............................................................................................................. 24
1.6.1 Himalayas ............................................................................................................................ 24
1.6.2 The Trans-Himalayan ranges: ............................................................................................. 28
1.6.4 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills ................................................................................................. 29
1.7 THE NORTHERN PLAINS ............................................................................................................. 34
1.7.1 Divisions of Northern plain ................................................................................................. 35
1.8 THE INDIAN DESERT ................................................................................................................... 36
1.9 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU ........................................................................................................ 36
1.9.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau........................................................................... 37
1.9.2 Hills of Peninsular India: Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western & Eastern Ghats ............ 40
1.9.3 Tribes of India and States.................................................................................................... 44
1.10 THE COASTAL PLAINS ............................................................................................................... 45
1.10.1 Western Coastal Plains of India ........................................................................................ 45
1.10.2 Eastern Coastal Plains of India .......................................................................................... 46
1.11 THE ISLANDS............................................................................................................................. 47
1.11.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands .......................................................................................... 47
1.11.2 Lakshadweep Islands ........................................................................................................ 48
1.11.3 IMPORTANT ISLANDS OF INDIA ........................................................................................ 49
2. DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA ........................................................................................................... 52
2.1 DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN INDIA .................................................................................................. 52
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A) Discordant Drainage Patterns: ................................................................................................ 52
b) Accordant/ Concordant Drainage Patterns ............................................................................. 53
2.2 Classification of Drainage Systems of India ............................................................................... 53
2.2.1 Drainage System Based on the Size of the Catchment Area: ............................................. 53
2.2.2 Drainage Systems Based on Origin: .................................................................................... 53
2.2.3 Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage ............................................................. 53
2.2.4 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea ........................................................... 54
2.3 HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM ....................................................................................................... 54
2.3.1 THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM................................................................................................... 55
2.3.2 THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM................................................................................................. 60
2.3.3 THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM ................................................................................... 67
2.4 Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular River System................................................................ 69
2.5 PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM....................................................................................................... 71
2.5.1 EVOLUTION OF THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE ..................................................................... 73
2.5.2 Mahanadi River ................................................................................................................... 73
2.5.3 Godavari River..................................................................................................................... 75
2.5.4 Krishna River ....................................................................................................................... 76
2.5.5 Cauvery River ...................................................................................................................... 78
2.5.6 Pennar River ........................................................................................................................ 80
2.5.7 Subarnarekha ...................................................................................................................... 81
2.5.8 Brahamani River .................................................................................................................. 81
2.5.9 Ponnaiyar River ................................................................................................................... 81
2.5.10 Vaigai River........................................................................................................................ 81
2.5.11 West Flowing Peninsular Rivers ........................................................................................ 82
2.5.12 West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats) .................................................... 86
2.6 Interstate River Water Governance in India .............................................................................. 87
2.7 The River Basins of India ............................................................................................................ 89
3. TYPES OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA ..................................................................................... 91
3.1 Factors which affect the growth of natural vegetation: ............................................................ 91
a) RELIEF ....................................................................................................................................... 91
b) CLIMATE ................................................................................................................................... 91
3.2 Types of Natural Vegetation in India: ........................................................................................ 91
A. Moist Tropical Forests ............................................................................................................. 92
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B. Dry Tropical Forests ................................................................................................................. 96
C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests..................................................................................................... 98
1. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests..................................................................................... 98
D. Montane Temperate Forests ................................................................................................... 99
E. Alpine Forests......................................................................................................................... 100
3.3 FORESTS AND ENVIRONMENT ................................................................................................. 101
3.4 Conservation of Forests ........................................................................................................... 102
3.5 National Forest Policy .............................................................................................................. 103
3.6 Social Forestry .......................................................................................................................... 103
3.7 Agro Forestry............................................................................................................................ 103
4. SOILS OF INDIA: FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION, CLASSIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION AND CHARACTERISTICS .............................................................................................................................. 105
4.1 Factors Contributing To Soil Formation ................................................................................... 105
4.2 Soil Classification...................................................................................................................... 106
4.2.1 Soil Types........................................................................................................................... 106
4.3 Problems of Indian soil............................................................................................................. 112
4.4 Soil conservation ...................................................................................................................... 113
5. INDIAN CLIMATE ............................................................................................................................ 114
5.1 Features of Indian Climate ....................................................................................................... 114
5.1.1 Rainfall............................................................................................................................... 114
5.1.2 Temperature ..................................................................................................................... 114
5.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate........................................................................................... 115
1. Latitudinal location .......................................................................................................... 115
2. Distance from the Sea...................................................................................................... 115
3. Himalayas and Indian Climate ......................................................................................... 115
4. Physiography and Indian Climate .................................................................................... 116
5. Monsoon Winds and Indian Climate ............................................................................... 116
6. Upper Air Circulation ....................................................................................................... 117
7. El-Nino, La Nina, ENSO and Indian Climate ..................................................................... 117
8. Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances ................................................................. 118
6. INDIAN MONSOON ........................................................................................................................ 119
6.1 Theories of Origin of Indian Monsoon ..................................................................................... 119
6.1.1 Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory .................................. 119
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6.1.2 Dynamic Theory: by Flohn ................................................................................................ 120
6.2 Important features of Indian Monsoons ............................................................................. 121
6.3 Indian Climate – Seasons ......................................................................................................... 122
6.3.1 WINTER SEASON IN INDIA................................................................................................. 122
6.3.2 SUMMER SEASON IN INDIA .............................................................................................. 124
6.3.3 SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON.................................................................................... 127
6.3.4 RETREATING MONSOON SEASON (NORTH EAST MONSOONS) ....................................... 132
6.4 Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons] .......................................... 133
6.4.1 Areas of very high rainfall ................................................................................................. 133
6.4.2 Areas of high rainfall ......................................................................................................... 134
6.4.3 Areas of low rainfall .......................................................................................................... 134
6.4.4 Areas of very low rainfall .................................................................................................. 134
7. CROPPING PATTERN IN INDIA ........................................................................................................ 135
7.1 Types of Cropping System in India ........................................................................................... 136
7.3 Top crop producing states ....................................................................................................... 137
7.4 Factors determining cropping pattern in India ........................................................................ 138
1. Physical Factors ...................................................................................................................... 138
2. Technical Factors.................................................................................................................... 138
3. Economic Factors ................................................................................................................... 138
7.5 Agriculture and related fields .................................................................................................. 140
7.6 Green Revolution in India ........................................................................................................ 140
7.6.1 Benefits of the green revolution in India .......................................................................... 141
7.6.2 Drawbacks of Green Revolution ....................................................................................... 142
7.7 Second green revolution .......................................................................................................... 142
7.7.1 Focus on precision ............................................................................................................ 142
7.7.2 Interactive applications..................................................................................................... 143
7.8 Rainbow Revolution ................................................................................................................. 144
7.8.1 The Rainbow Revolution ................................................................................................... 144
7.8.2 It includes: ......................................................................................................................... 144
7.8.3 Benefits and effects of Rainbow Revolution..................................................................... 144
7.8.4 Details of each revolution within Rainbow....................................................................... 145
7.8.5 White Revolution- Comments .......................................................................................... 147
7.9 Livestock resources .................................................................................................................. 147
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7.9.1 Contribution of livestock to people .................................................................................. 148
7.9.2 Role of livestock in farmers’ economy .............................................................................. 149
7.10 Dryland Agriculture ................................................................................................................ 150
7.11 AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF INDIA ....................................................................................... 151
7.11.1 Various types of Agricultural Regions of India................................................................ 151
7.11.2 Agricultural Region based on First Ranking Crops .......................................................... 153
7.12 Infrastructural factors in agriculture ...................................................................................... 157
7.13 Institutional Factors Affecting Agriculture in India................................................................ 158
7.13.1 Abolition of Intermediaries: ............................................................................................ 158
7.13.2 Tenancy Reforms: ........................................................................................................... 158
7.13.3 Regulation of Rent: ......................................................................................................... 159
7.13.4 Security of Tenure: .......................................................................................................... 159
7.13.5 Reorganisation of Agriculture: ........................................................................................ 159
7.14 Cooperative Farming:............................................................................................................. 160
7.14.1 Updating and Maintenance of Land Records: ................................................................ 161
7.14.2 Computerisation of Land Records: ................................................................................. 162
7.15 INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES INDUSTRY REPORT (APRIL, 2021) ............ 163
7.15.1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 163
7.15.2 Market Size ..................................................................................................................... 164
7.15.3 Investments..................................................................................................................... 164
7.15.4 Government Initiatives ................................................................................................... 165
7.15.5 Achievements in the sector ............................................................................................ 166
8. DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES....................................................................................... 167
8.1 Principle Minerals .................................................................................................................... 169
8.1.1 BAUXITE............................................................................................................................. 169
8.1.2 CHROMITE ......................................................................................................................... 169
8.1.3 COPPER.............................................................................................................................. 170
8.1.4 GOLD ................................................................................................................................. 170
8.1.5 IRON ORE........................................................................................................................... 170
8.1.6 LEAD-ZINC ......................................................................................................................... 171
8.1.7 MANGANESE ..................................................................................................................... 171
8.1.8 NICKEL ............................................................................................................................... 172
8.1.9 TUNGSTEN......................................................................................................................... 172
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8.1.10 BARYTES .......................................................................................................................... 172
8.1.11 DIAMOND........................................................................................................................ 172
8.1.12 DOLOMITE ....................................................................................................................... 173
8.1.13 FIRECLAY.......................................................................................................................... 173
8.1.14 FLUORSPAR ..................................................................................................................... 173
8.1.15 GYPSUM .......................................................................................................................... 173
8.1.16 GRAPHITE ........................................................................................................................ 174
8.1.17 ILMENITE ......................................................................................................................... 174
8.1.18 KAOLIN ............................................................................................................................ 174
8.1.19 LIMESTONE...................................................................................................................... 174
8.1.20 MICA................................................................................................................................ 174
8.1.21 MAGNESITE ..................................................................................................................... 174
8.1.22 KYANITE AND SILLIMANITE ............................................................................................. 175
8.1.23 PHOSPHATE MINERALS ................................................................................................... 175
8.1.24 COAL ................................................................................................................................ 175
8.1.25 Iron Ore Distribution in India .......................................................................................... 176
8.1.26 Distribution of Coal in India ............................................................................................ 179
8.1.28 Gold Distribution across India......................................................................................... 192
8.1.29 Copper & Nickel Distribution across India ...................................................................... 193
8.1.30 Uranium & Thorium Distribution across India ................................................................ 195
8.1.31 Diamond & Graphite Distribution across India............................................................... 198
8.1.31 Mica, Limestone & other Non-Metallic Minerals in India .............................................. 200
8.2 What is Mining? ....................................................................................................................... 205
8.2.1 Mining Methods ................................................................................................................ 205
9. NATURAL DISASTER IN INDIA ......................................................................................................... 209
9.1 List of major natural disasters that have occurred over the last 20 years in India ................. 209
9.2 Types of Disasters .................................................................................................................... 210
1. Water and Climate Related Disasters .................................................................................... 210
2. Geologically related disasters ................................................................................................ 210
3. Chemical, Industrial & Nuclear related disasters................................................................... 210
4. Accident related disasters...................................................................................................... 211
5. Biologically related disasters.................................................................................................. 211
9.3 NATURAL DISASTERS ................................................................................................................ 211
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9.3.1 Floods ................................................................................................................................ 211
9.3.2 Droughts............................................................................................................................ 212
9.2.3 Cyclones ............................................................................................................................ 212
9.2.4 Earthquakes ...................................................................................................................... 213
9.2.5 Landslides.......................................................................................................................... 213
9.2.6 Avalanches ........................................................................................................................ 214
9.3 MANMADE DISASTERS ............................................................................................................. 214
9.3.1 Forest Fires ........................................................................................................................ 214
9.4 National Disaster Management System in India ..................................................................... 215
9.4.1 The Administrative Response ........................................................................................... 215
9.4.2 Non- governmental Organizations.................................................................................... 216
9.4.3 The Community ................................................................................................................. 216
9.5 New Strategies for a Safer Future............................................................................................ 216
9.5.1 Preparedness, Mitigation and Prevention ........................................................................ 216
9.5.2 Role of Local Bodies .......................................................................................................... 217
9.5.3 Institutional and Policy Framework .................................................................................. 217
9.5.4 National Disaster Management Act 2005......................................................................... 219
10. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA............................................................................................. 220
10.1 Wildlife Conservation in India ................................................................................................ 220
10.1.1 Project Tiger .................................................................................................................... 221
10.1.2 Project Elephant.............................................................................................................. 222
10.1.3 Indian Rhino Vision 2020 ................................................................................................ 223
10.1.4 Project Snow Leopard ..................................................................................................... 223
10.1.5 Sea Turtle Project ............................................................................................................ 223
10.1.6 Indian Crocodile Conservation Project ........................................................................... 224
10.1.7 Project Hangul ................................................................................................................. 224
10.1.8 Ganges Dolphin ............................................................................................................... 225
10.2 Government Bodies related to environment conservation in India...................................... 225
10.2.1 Central Pollution Control Board...................................................................................... 225
10.2.2 National Biodiversity Authority ...................................................................................... 226
10.2.3 National Tiger conservation authority ............................................................................ 226
10.2.4 Animal Welfare Board of India........................................................................................ 227
10.2.5 Forest Survey of India ..................................................................................................... 227
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10.2.6 Central Zoo Authority of India ........................................................................................ 228
10.2.7 Wildlife Trust of India...................................................................................................... 228
10.2.8 Wildlife Institute of India ................................................................................................ 229
10.2.9 World Sustainable Development Summit ...................................................................... 229
10.2.10 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)................................................................... 230
10.2.11 Conserve ....................................................................................................................... 230
10.2.12 Environmentalist Foundation of India .......................................................................... 231
10.2.13 National Green Corps.................................................................................................... 231
10.2.14 Bombay Natural History Society ................................................................................... 231
10.2.15 The Energy and Resource Institute (TERI) .................................................................... 232
10.2.16 Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation...................................................... 232
10.2.17 Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE) .......................... 233
10.2.18 Save Aravalli Trust......................................................................................................... 233
10.2.19 Narmada Bachao Andolan ............................................................................................ 233
10.3 LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA........................................................................................ 234
10.3.1 National Park................................................................................................................... 234
10.3.2 Wildlife Sanctuaries ........................................................................................................ 234
10.3.3 Conservation reserves .................................................................................................... 235
10.3.4 Community reserves ....................................................................................................... 235
10.3.5 Act related to wildlife...................................................................................................... 235
10.3.6 Project related to wildlife ............................................................................................... 235
10.3.7 List of National Park Specific to Animals in India............................................................ 235
10.3.8 LOCATION OF WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES/NATIONAL PARKS............................................ 236
10.4 BIOSPHERE RESERVES ............................................................................................................ 237
10.4.1 Biosphere Reserves in India ............................................................................................ 237
11. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES ................................................................................................... 239
11.1 Classification of Industries ..................................................................................................... 239
11.1.1 Agro-Based ...................................................................................................................... 239
11.1.2 Mineral-Based ................................................................................................................. 240
11.1.3 On the Basis of their Main Roles:.................................................................................... 240
11.1.4 On the Basis of Capital Investment:................................................................................ 240
11.1.5 On the Basis of Ownership:............................................................................................. 240
11.1.6 Based on the majority and heaviness of raw materials and complete goods:............... 241
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11.2 Location of Industries............................................................................................................. 241
11.3 Major Industries ..................................................................................................................... 242
11.3.1 The Iron and Steel Industry............................................................................................. 242
11.3.2 The Cotton Textile Industry ............................................................................................ 244
11.3.3 Sugar Industry ................................................................................................................. 246
11.3.4 Petrochemical Industries ............................................................................................. 247
11.3.5 Knowledge based Industries ........................................................................................... 248
11.4 Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India ........ 249
11.4 Industrial Regions in India ...................................................................................................... 251
11.4.1 Major industrial regions of the country.......................................................................... 251
12. SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................... 255
12.1 Definition................................................................................................................................ 255
12.2 Nature of settlement Geography:.......................................................................................... 255
12.3 Scope of settlement Geography: ........................................................................................... 256
12.4 Categories of Settlement: ...................................................................................................... 256
12.4.1 Clustered Settlement: ..................................................................................................... 256
12.4.2 Semi-Clustered: ............................................................................................................... 256
12.4.3 Hamleted Settlement:..................................................................................................... 256
12.4.4 Dispersed Settlement: .................................................................................................... 257
12.5 Rural-Urban Dichotomy (Difference) ..................................................................................... 257
12.6 Types and Patterns of Settlements ........................................................................................ 257
12.7 Rural Settlements................................................................................................................... 257
12.7.1 Rural Settlement Patterns .............................................................................................. 258
12.7.2 Problems of Rural Settlements ....................................................................................... 259
12.8 Urban Settlements ................................................................................................................. 259
12.8.1 Classification of Urban Settlements................................................................................ 260
12.8.2 Functions of Urban Centres ............................................................................................ 260
12.8.3 Types of Urban Settlements Problems of Urban Settlements ....................................... 261
12.8.4 Distribution of Mega Cities ............................................................................................. 261
12.8.5 Problems of Urban Settlements ..................................................................................... 261
12.8.6 Healthy City ..................................................................................................................... 262
12.8.7 Urban Strategy ................................................................................................................ 262
12.9 RURAL AND URBAN FRINGE................................................................................................... 262
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12.9.1 Evolution of the the concept of fringe. ........................................................................... 262
12.9.2 Definition of Rural- Urban Fringe.................................................................................... 262
12.9.3 Characteristics of Rural- Urban Fringe ............................................................................ 263
12.9.4 Types of Rural Urban Fringe ........................................................................................... 264
12.9.5 Factors of Development of Rural Urban Fringe. ............................................................. 264
12.9.6 Delimitation of Rural Urban Fringe ................................................................................. 264
12.9.7 SATELLITE TOWN............................................................................................................. 265
12.10 Morphology of Indian Cities................................................................................................. 266
12.10.1 Characteristics of Morphology of Indian Cities............................................................. 267
12.10.2 Morphology of Rural Settlement .................................................................................. 269
12.10.3 Doxiadis classification of Rural Morphology................................................................. 271
12.10.4 Conurbation .................................................................................................................. 272
12.10.5 Slum and associated problems ..................................................................................... 272
12.11 India’s urbanisation challenges............................................................................................ 275
12.11.1 History of town planning .............................................................................................. 277
12.11.2 Principles of Town Planning .......................................................................................... 278
12.11.3 Issues in urban planning ............................................................................................... 280
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1. PHYSIOGRAPHIC DIVISIONS OF INDIA This map of India on the next page shows that it is a South Asian country, also known as Bharat or Hindustan. India is mainly known for its diversity, both in terms of cultures and geography. The Indian subcontinent has a rich history that is 5 millennia old. The country is committed to still preserve it in some form or another. Also holding a great religious prominence, the country has a number of pilgrimage sites that attract tourists in large numbers every year. India is a vast South Asian country with diverse terrain – from Himalayan peaks to Indian Ocean coastline – and history going back 5 millennia. In the north, Mughal Empire landmarks include Delhi’s Red Fort complex and massive Jama Masjid mosque, and Agra’s iconic Taj Mahal
mausoleum. Pilgrims bathe in the Ganges in Varanasi, and Rishikesh is a yoga centre and base for Himalayan trekking.
The Indian subcontinent is bordered by the Indian Ocean in the South, The Arabian Sea in the
southwest, and The Bay of Bengal in the southeast clearly shown on the map of India. India shares its land border with Pakistan in the West; China, Nepal, and Bhutan in the northeast; and Burma
(Myanmar) and Bangladesh in the East. Sri Lanka and the Maldives are located just off the southern tip of India, also shown in the India Map.
One of India's major geographic features is the Himalayas, which is the world's highest mountain
range shown in the northern part of the map of India. Other terrains in India include plains, plateaus, and hills. The Thar Desert is among the largest deserts in Asia, shown on the India Map. Major rivers
in India include the Ganges, Yamuna, Indus and Brahmaputra Rivers; their lengths are also shown in the map of India.
1.1 GEOGRAPHICAL LOCATION OF INDIA India is situated north of the equator between 8°4' north to 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' to 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total area of
3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq. mi). India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,933 km (1,822 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,516.6 km (4,671 mi).
On the south, India projects into and is bounded by the Indian Ocean in particular, by the Arabian Sea on the west, the Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest, the Bay of Bengal on the east,
and the Indian Ocean proper to the south.
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Fig. Map of India
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The Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar separates India from Sri Lanka to its immediate southeast, and the Maldives are some 125 kilometres (78 mi) to the south of India's Lakshadweep Islands across the Eight Degree Channel.
India's Andaman and Nicobar Islands, some 1,200 kilometres (750 mi) southeast of the mainland, share maritime borders with Myanmar, Thailand and Indonesia. Kanyakumari at 8°4′41′′N and
77°55′230′′E is the southernmost tip of the Indian mainland, while the southernmost point in India is Indira Point on Great Nicobar Island. The northernmost point which is under Indian administration
is Indira Col, Siachen Glacier. India's territorial waters extend into the sea to a distance of 12 nautical miles (13.8 mi; 22.2 km) from the coast baseline.
Fig. Location of India
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The northern frontiers of India are defined largely by the Himalayan mountain range, where the country borders China, Bhutan, and Nepal. Its western border with Pakistan lies in the Karakoram Range, Punjab Plains, the Thar Desert and the Rann of Kutch salt marshes.
In the far northeast, the Chin Hills and Kachin Hills, deeply forested mountainous regions, separates India from Burma. On the east, its border with Bangladesh is largely defined by the Khasi Hills and
Mizo Hills, and the watershed region of the Indo-Gangetic Plain
The geographical location of India can be identified in three ways:
1. With the help of latitudes and longitudes: (A) Latitude: Being located in the northern hemisphere. India stretches from 8°04′ north latitude in
the south to 37°06′ north latitude in the north, i.e. the mainland of India extends from Kanyakumari in the south to Kashmir in the north. The southernmost point of Indian union is Indira Point which was previously known as Persons Pygmalion; is actually the southernmost point of Car Nicobar where it touches the parallel of 6°45′ north.
(B) Longitude: In the eastern hemisphere, India stretches from 68’07 east longitude in the west to 97°25′ east longitude in the east, i.e. between the western frontier of Gujarat in the west to the
eastern frontier of Arunachal Pradesh in the east.
2. According to the distance from the sea: India is surrounded by
(i) The Bay of Bengal in the east, (ii) The Arabian Sea in the west,
(iii) The Indian Ocean in the south and (iv) The Lakshadweep Sea to the southwest. No part of India is beyond 900 km from the sea.
3. In relation to the location of neighbouring countries: India is bordered on the north by
China (the largest neighbour, 96 lakhs sq. km), Nepal and Bhutan, on the east by Myanmar and Bangladesh, on the south By Sri Lanka, on the west by Pakistan and on the north-west by
Afghanistan. The smallest neighbour of India (298 sq. km), Maldives, lies to the south-east of India; with these neighbours India has trade relations as well as cultural links.
1.2 LOCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE OF INDIA
1.2.1 Central location at the head of Indian Ocean:
India commands an important strategic position on the globe with respect to trade as well as social
and cultural interaction. India stands at the head of the Indian Ocean at the very centre of the Eastern hemisphere commanding trade routes running in all directions. East and West coast have many
natural harbours due to which India had a flourishing sea trade from ancient times.
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Indian Ocean is the only ocean in the world which has been named after a country. The Indian Ocean bridges the gap between East and the west. It has served as a great linkage between the countries lying on its coast and even further beyond. The Peninsula table land of India gets into the Indian Ocean for a distance of about 1600 km and divides it into two parts the Western and Eastern
parts are known as the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal respectively no other country has such a long coastline on this ocean as India has. These geographical features provide India a significant edge in
International trade.
Fig. Trade routes of India through Indian Ocean
India's central location at the head of Indian Ocean gives it a great strategic importance and helps in maintaining trade and commerce. It helps India to keep a close contact with west Asia, Africa and Europe from western coast and southeast and east Asia from the eastern Asia .
It is also an important transit point for sea routes connecting the two regions that is countries of Europe with countries of East Asia. India is centrally located between the East and the West Asia India also serves as an important transit points for sea routes connecting the two regions that is countries of Europe with countries of East Asia.
India has the longest coastline in the Indian Ocean and it helps a lot for trade with Africa, south-east Asia, Australia and Europe. Due to this maritime location India receive benefits of south west monsoon seasons
1.2.2 Central Location in Eastern Hemisphere:
India is very favourably located in relation to Eurasia, Africa and Australia. It occupies central position
in the eastern hemisphere. India's location has many economic advantages. It helped in establishing economic and cultural contacts with the East Asian countries.
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Moreover, it could establish close contact with Southeast and East Asia from the sea ports of eastern coast.
Fig. Location of India in Eastern Hemisphere
It is favourably located on the world's highway of trade and commerce, both to the east and the west. There are some prominent air routes and sea routes passing through the Indian subcontinent.
1.2.3 Central Location in Southern Part of Asia’s Continent:
India is centrally located between the East and the West Asia. India is strategically located at the centre of the trans-Indian Ocean routes which connect the European countries in the west and the countries of East Asia. India could establish close contact with West Asia, Africa and Europe from the Western coast and Southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast.
Fig. Inland trade route of India connecting Middle East to Far East
India is a south west extension of the Asian continent. The Trans Indian Ocean routes which connect the developed countries of Europe in the west and the developing countries of East Asia in the east
must skirt the shores of India thus provide a strategic central location to India.
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The Deccan Peninsula, India’s Southward extension protrudes into Indian Ocean and divides it into two seas, the Arabian Sea on the West and the Bay of Bengal on its East and thus helping India to establish easy contact with West Asia, East Africa and Europe from Western coast also establishes
contacts with South-East Asia, East Asia and Australia from Eastern coast.
1.2.4 Strategic position midway between the Far East and the Middle East:
India’s strategic position midway between the Far East and the Middle East is significant because the Trans- Indian Ocean routes connect the industrially developed countries of Europe in the west and
the underdeveloped countries of East Asia.
India being centrally located in South Asia, she enjoys an advantageous-position for doing trade with Australia and the countries of Africa, the Middle East and the Far East. Thus, India dominates the
Indian Ocean and commands an important strategic position.
The central location of India is considered of great significance as it helps India to keep a close contact for business purpose with West Asia, Africa and Europe from western coast, and Southeast and East
Asia from the eastern coast. India occupies a unique position on the globe.
It enjoys a unique proximity with Europe, Africa and Australia. The Indian landmass has a central location between East and West Asia. India is Southward extension of Asia, thus, it forms the South -
Central Peninsula of world’s largest continent.
The central location of India is considered of great significance as it helps India to keep a close contact for business purpose with West Asia, Africa and Europe from western coast, and Southeast and East Asia from the eastern coast. Moreover, most of the air routes between Europe, West Asia and Africa
in the west and East Asia, Southeast Asia, Japan & Australia in the east also pass through India.
Fig. Strategic position of India
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Fig. Air routes through India connecting Europe and Middle East with Australia, South Asia and
East Asia
The centrality and the consequent significance of India to broader Indian Ocean geopolitics and
economics have been proved beyond doubt. It was India’s status as the principal entrepot in a highly profitable oceanic trade structure which attracted the West Asian Muslims, and the European
colonial powers towards India. India became the ‘jewel in the crown’ of the vast British Empire due to its wealth and because of its role as a fulcrum upon which the imperial and commercial system in
Asia was balanced. India thus commands as important strategic position on the globe with respect to trade as well as social and cultural interaction.
1.3 Physiographic division of India On the basis of physical features, India can be divided into following six divisions - 1. The Northern Mountains 2. The Northern Plains 3. The Indian Desert 4. The Peninsular Plateau 5. The Coastal Plains 6. The Islands.
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Fig. Physiological divisions of India
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1.4 The Himalayan Mountain:
1.4.1 The Himalayan Mountains - Origin of the Himalayas
Several scholars have expressed their views regarding the origin of the Himalayas. Prominent among
them are O H K Spate, D N Wadia, M s Krishnan, S Burrard, E H Pasco, G E Pilgrim, de Terra, T.T. Paterson, T. Hagen, Auden, A. Heim and A. Gansser, Wagner and a host of others.
There is almost a complete unanimity that the Himalayan Mountains have come out of a great
geosyncline called the Tethys Sea and that the uplift has taken place in different phases. But divergent views have been expressed regarding the process and time of uplift as well as the forces
responsible for uplift on such a vast scale. The consensus which has emerged from the views of different scholars is reproduced as under:
About 120 million years ago, the arrangement of continents and oceans was quite different from
what it is today. There was a super continent known as Pangea. Its northern part consisted of the present North America and Eurasia (Europe and Asia) which was called Laurasia or Angaraland. The southern part of Pangea consisted of South America, Africa, South India, Australia and Antarctica. This landmass was called Gondwanaland. In between Laurasia and Gondwanaland, there was a long, narrow and shallow sea known as the Tethys Sea. Sediments were brought by rivers from these landmasses and deposited in the bed of this sea. These sediments were subjected to powerful compression, either because of the southward movement of the Angaraland or due to the northward movement of the Gondwanaland. Majority of the scientists believe that it is the northward movement of the Gondwanaland which caused compression in the sediments at the floor of the Tethys Sea. In any case, whether Angaraland moved southwards or
Gondwanaland moved northward or both moved towards each other, the net result would be the same; the sediment in the Tethys Sea was squeezed and crushed, and a series of folds were formed
one behind the other giving birth to the highest relief features on the earth-the Himalayas. The curved shape of the Himalayas convex to the south is attributed to the maximum push offered at two
ends of the Indian Peninsula during its northward drift.
In the northwest it was done by the Aravalis and in the north-east by the Assam ranges, both acting as two extended arms pushing out the extremities, while the central area sagged giving the arcuate shape to the Himalayas. Recent studies have shown that India is moving northwards at the rate of about five cm per year and crashing into rest of the Asia, buckling the Himalayas between Angaraland and Gondwanaland. It is important to note that the Himalayas do not comprise a single range but a series of at least three ranges running more or less parallel to one another. Therefore, the Himalayas are supposed to have emerged out of the Himalayan Geosyncline i.e. the Tethys Sea in three different phases following
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one after the other. The first phase commenced about 120 million years ago, when the Great Himalayas were formed. Some geologists are of the opinion that the formation of the Great Himalayas was completed about 70 million years ago. The second phase took place about 25 to 30 million years ago when the Middle Himalayas were formed. The Shiwaliks were formed in the last
phase of the Himalayan orogeny – say about two million to twenty million years ago.
The diastrophic movements which helped in the formation of the Himalayas started in the late Cretaceous times and continued through the Eocene, Middle Miocene, Pliocene to the lower Pliocene
and finally into the upper Pleistocene to sub-Recent times. There are evidences to show that the process of uplift of the Himalayas is not yet complete and they are still rising. The heights of various
places as determined by trigonometrical methods indicate that the Himalayas continue to rise till date.
According to the estimates made by Godwin Austen, the average elevation of the Himalayas was
2,440 m above the sea level about a million years ago which has now risen to 3,050 m. The Mahabharata range is still in a state of rigorous uplift.
Following evidences are cited to prove that the Himalayas are still rising:
i. Some of the fossil formations found in the Shiwaliks hills are also available in the Tibet plateau. It indicates that the past climate of the Tibet plateau was somewhat similar to the climate of the Shiwaliks hills and that the elevation of Tibet plateau was almost the same as that of the present Shiwaliks hills and the plateau has since risen to its present elevation.
ii. Desiccation of lakes of Tibet has been observed within the recent or even in historical times. Surrounding these lakes, the sand and gravel terraces at higher levels, sometimes
60-100 meters above the present water level, are seen which prove that the water stood at a much higher level till recent times. This could be possible only in the event of uplift of
the region.
iii. The frequent occurrence of earthquakes in the Himalayan region shows that the Himalaya-‘5 have not yet attained the isostatic equilibrium and they still continue to rise further.
1.5 Plate Tectonics
Tectonics is the most recent and widely acclaimed theory which gives most satisfactory answers to intricate and puzzling questions regarding origin of continents and oceans, formation of mountains occurrence of earthquakes and eruption of volcanoes.
The credit for introducing this this theory goes to Harry Hess (1960), R S. Dietz (Global Tectonics, 1961), W .J. Morgan and Le Pichon (Sea Floor Spreading and Continental Drift, 1968). Plate tectonics is a theory of global dynamic in which the lithosphere is believed to be broken into a series of separate plates that move in response to convection in the upper mantle.
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Plate is a broad segment of lithosphere (including rigid upper mantle plus oceanic and continental crust) that is about 100 km thick and floats on the underlying asthenosphere and moves independently of other plates. The margin of the plates are sites of considerable geological activity such as seafloor spreading, volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, crustal deformation, mountain building
and continental drift.
There are three types plate boundaries, viz (a) Constructive (b) Destructive, and (c) Conservative
(a) Constructive boundaries represented zones of ‘diverging margins’. In this case, two plates move away from each other.
(b) Destructive boundaries are also known as ‘converging margins ’. In this case, two plates
move towards each other, converge and in the process one plate overrides the other. The overridden plate is subducted and goes under the asthenosphere and is lost or consumed.
(c) Where two plates slide past along transform faults neither creating nor destroying earth
crust it is called conservative zone.
Converging Boundary:
It is the converging boundary of the plates where folded mountains like the Himalayas build up. When two convergent plates composed of continental crusts collide against each other, the denser plate is subducted under the lighter plate. The resultant lateral compression squeezes and folds the sediments continental plate margins or sediments of the geosynclines lying between the two. The Himalayas are the product of such a process on the convergence zone of the Asiatic plate in the north and the Indian plate in the south.
Some 70 million years ago, the Indian plate started moving towards the Asian plate and the Tethys Sea began to contract due to the movement of Indian and Asian plates towards each other. Since the
Indian plate was made up of denser material than the Asian plate, the former began to subduct under the latter causing lateral compression of the marine sediment in the bed of the Tethys.
Geologists believe that the sediment got folded in three successive phases giving rise to three
important ranges of the Himalayas. Although the process of the Indian plate moving towards the Asian plate and formation of the Himalayan ranges was more or less completed about 10 million
years ago, it is believed that the Indian plate is still moving northwards and the Himalayas continue to rise further. Evidences regarding rise in the Himalayas have already been mentioned in the
foregoing paragraphs.
Recent studies have shown that convergence of the Indian plate and the Asian plate bas caused a crustal shortening of about 500 km in the Himalayan region. This shortening has been compensated by sea floor spreading along the oceanic ridge in the Indian Ocean. Since the northward movement
of the Indian plate is still continuing the height of the Himalayan ranges is increasing with the passage of time. It has estimated that the Indian plate is still moving northward at a rate of about 5 cm per year. As a result of this movement, one more fracture has appeared in the outer fringes of the Shiwalik Hills which demarcates these hills from the Ganga Plain Geologists postulate that a new
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mountain chain would be formed in the Ganga basin forcing the rivers of this region to migrate further south. This clearly indicates that the process of upheaval of the Himalayas is not yet over and will continue for a pretty long period in the times to come.
1.6 The Northern Mountain It is divided into three groups. They are:
(i) The Himalayas
(ii) The Trans Himalayas (iii) The Purvanchal hills
1.6.1 Himalayas
Himalayas are the young fold mountains. They run from west-east direction from Indus to Brahmaputra covering a distance of 2500 KM. Their width varies from 400 in the west and 150 KM
in the East. The Himalayas may be divided into three parallel ranges: (a) Greater Himalayas or Himadari
(b) Lesser Himalayas or Himachal (c) Outer Himalayas or Shiwaliks.
1.6.1.1 The Greater Himalayas or Himadari
Northern most ranges and peaks.
Average height of 6000 metres and width lies between 120 to 190 Kms.
Also known as Inner Himalaya, Central Himalaya or Himadri. Average elevation of 6,100 m above sea level and an average width of about 25 km.
It is mainly formed of the central crystalline (granites and gneisses) overlain by metamorphosed sediments [limestone]. {Rock System}
The folds in this range are asymmetrical with steep south slope and gentle North Slope giving ‘hog back (a long, steep hill or mountain ridge)’ topography.
This mountain arc convexes to the south just like the other two. Terminates abruptly at the syntaxial bends. One in the Nanga Parbat in north-west and the
other in the Namcha Barwa in the north-east. This mountain range boasts of the tallest peaks of the world, most of which remain under
perpetual snow.
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Fig. Northern Mountains
Mount Everest was first located by George Everest, the then Surveyor General of India in 1841 and in 1852 it was established as the highest peak of the world by the Great
Trigonometrical Survey of India.
Regional name of Mount Everest Region
Sagarmatha (The Goddess of the Sky) Nepal
Chomlungma (Mother of the World) China (Tibet)
1.6.1.1.1 Passes in the Greater Himalayas The passes because they are generally higher than 4,570 m above sea level and are
snowbound for most of the year.
State Passes of Greater Himalayas
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Jammu and Kashmir
1. Burzil Pass 2. Zoji La [La means pass]
Himachal
Pradesh
1. Bara Lacha La
2. Shipki La [The Hindustan-Tibet Road connecting Shimla with Gartok in Western Tibet]
Uttarakhand 1. Thaga La 2. Niti Pass 3. Lipu Lekh
Sikkim 1. Nathu La 2. Jelep La [important trade route connecting Kalimpong (near Darjeeling)
with Lhasa in Tibet, passes through Jelep La (4,386 m)]
Fig. Passes in Himalayas
1.6.1.2 The Lesser Himalayas or Himachal:
In between the Shiwaliks in the south and the Greater Himalayas in the north.
Runs almost parallel to both the ranges. It is also called the Himachal or Lower Himalaya.
Lower Himalayan ranges are 60-80 km wide and about 2400 km in length. Elevations vary from 3,500 to 4,500 m above sea level.
Many peaks are more than 5,050 m above sea level and are snow covered throughout the year.
Lower Himalayas have steep, bare southern slopes [steep slopes prevents soil formation] and gentler, forest covered northern slopes.
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In Uttarakhand, the Middle Himalayas are marked by the Mussoorie and the Nag Tibba ranges.
The Mahabharat Lekh, in southern Nepal is a continuation of the Mussoorie Range East of the Kosi River, the Sapt Kosi, Sikkim, Bhutan, Miri, Abor and Mishmi hills represent
the lower Himalayas. The Middle Himalayan ranges are friendlier to human contact.
Majority of the Himalayan hill resorts like Shimla, Mussoorie, Ranikhet, Nainital, Almora and Darjeeling, etc. are located here.
Important ranges of Lesser
Himalayas Region
The Pir Panjal Range Jammu and Kashmir (They are to the south of
Kashmir Valley)
The Dhaola Dhar Range Himachal Pradesh
The Mussoorie Range and The Nag
Tiba Range Uttarakhand
Mahabharat Lekh Nepal
1.6.1.2.1 The Pir Panjal range
The Pir Panjal range in Kashmir is the longest and the most important range.
It extends from the Jhelum River to the upper Beas River for over 300 km. It rises to 5,000 metres and contains mostly volcanic rocks.
Passes in Pir Panjal -Pir Panjal Pass (3,480 m), the Bidil (4,270 m), Golabghar Pass (3,812 m) and Banihal Pass
(2,835 m). The Banihal Pass is used by the Jammu-Srinagar highway and Jammu-Baramula railway.
The Kishanganga, the Jhelum and the Chenab cut through the range. Southeast of the Ravi, the Pir Panjal continues as Dhaola Dhar range, passing through
Dalhousie, Dharmshala, and Shimla.
1.6.1.2.2 Important Valleys
Between the Pir Panjal and the Zaskar Range of the main Himalayas, lies the valley of Kashmir. (average elevation is 1,585 m above mean sea level)
The synclinal basin of the valley is floored with alluvial, lacustrine [lake deposits], fluvial [river action] and glacial deposits. {Fluvial Landforms, Glacial Landforms}
Jehlum River meanders through these deposits and cuts a deep gorge in Pir Panjal through which it drains. (Kashmir is like a basin with very few outlets)
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In Himachal Pradesh there is Kangra Valley. It is a strike valley and extends from the foot of the Dhaola Dhar Range to the south of Beas.
On the other hand, the Kulu Valley in the upper course of the Ravi is transverse valley.
1.6.1.3 The Outer Himalayas or the Siwaliks:
Also known as Outer Himalayas. Located in between the Great Plains and Lesser Himalayas.
The altitude varies from 600 to 1500 metres. Runs for a distance of 2,400 km from the Potwar Plateau to the Brahmaputra valley.
The southern slopes are steep while the northern slopes are gentle. The width of the Shiwaliks varies from 50 km in Himachal Pradesh to less than 15 km in
Arunachal Pradesh. They are almost unbroken chain of low hills except for a gap of 80-90 km which is occupied
by the valley of the Tista River and Raidak River. Shiwalik range from North-East India up to Nepal are covered with thick forests but the forest
cover decreases towards west from Nepal (The quantum of rainfall decreases from east to west in Shiwaliks and Ganga Plains).
The southern slopes of Shiwalik range in Punjab and Himachal Pradesh are almost devoid of forest cover. These slopes are highly dissected by seasonal streams called Chos.
Valleys are part of synclines and hills are part of anticlines or antisynclines.
1.6.2 The Trans-Himalayan ranges:
It extends north of greater Himalaya and parallel to it is called Zaskar range. North of Zaskar range lies Ladakh range. The Indus River flows between Zaskar and Ladakh range. The Karakoram Range lie extreme north of the country. K2 is the second highest peak of the world.
The Himalayan ranges immediately north of the Great Himalayan range. Also called the Tibetan Himalaya because most of it lies in Tibet.
The Zaskar, the Ladakh, the Kailas and the Karakoram are the main ranges. It stretches for a distance of about 1,000 km in east-west direction.
Average elevation is 3000 m above mean sea level. The average width of this region is 40 km at the extremities and about 225 km in the central
part. The Nanga Parbat (8126 m) is an important range which is in The Zaskar Range. North of the Zaskar Range and running parallel to it is the Ladakh Range. Only a few peaks of
this range attain heights of over 6000 metres. The Kailas Range (Gangdise in Chinese) in western Tibet is an offshoot of the Ladakh Range.
The highest peak is Mount Kailas (6714 m). River Indus originates from the northern slopes of the Kailas range.
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The northern most range of the Trans-Himalayan Ranges in India is the Great Karakoram Range also known as the Krishnagiri range.
Karakoram Range extends eastwards from the Pamir for about 800 km. It is a range with lofty peaks [elevation 5,500 m and above]. It is the abode of some of the greatest glaciers of the
world outside the Polar Regions. Some of the peaks are more than 8,000 metre above sea level. K2 (8,611 m) [Godwin Austen
or Qogir] is the second highest peak in the world and the highest peak in the Indian Union. The Ladakh Plateau lies to the north-east of the Karakoram Range. It has been dissected into
a number of plains and mountains [Soda Plains, Aksai Chin, Lingzi Tang, Depsang Plains and Chang Chenmo]
1.6.4 Purvanchal or Eastern Hills
Eastern Hills or The Purvanchal are the southward extension of Himalayas running along the north-eastern edge of India.
At the Dihang gorge, the Himalayas take a sudden southward bend and form a series of comparatively low hills which are collectively called as the Purvanchal.
Purvanchal hills are convex to the west. They run along the India-Myanmar Border extending from Arunachal Pradesh in the north to
Mizoram in the south.
Fig. Purvanchal Hills
Patkai Bum hills are made up of strong sandstone; elevation varying from 2,000 m to 3,000 m; merges into Naga Hills where Saramati (3,826 m) is the highest peak.
Patkai Bum and Naga Hills form the watershed between India and Myanmar. South of Naga Hills are the Manipur hills which are generally less than 2,500 metres in
elevation. The Barail range separates Naga Hills from Manipur Hills.
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Further south the Barail Range swings to west into Jaintia, Khasi and Garo hills which are an eastward continuation of the Indian peninsular block. They are separated from the main block by Ganga and Brahmaputra rivers.
South of the Manipur Hills are the Mizo Hills (previously known as the Lushai hills) which have
an elevation of less than 1,500 metres. The highest point is the Blue Mountain (2,157 m) in the south.
1.6.4.1 Syntaxial Bends of the Himalayas Himalayas extend in the east-west direction from the Indus gorge in the west to the
Brahmaputra gorge in the east. Himalayan ranges take sharp southward bends at these gorges. These bends are called
syntaxial bends of the Himalayas. The western syntaxial bend occurs near the Nanga Parbat where the Indus River has cut a
deep gorge. The eastern syntaxial bend occurs near the Namche Barwa.
1.6.4.2 Passes of the Western Himalayas
Jammu and Kashmir
NAME CONNECTS COMMENTS
Mintaka Pass Kashmir and China Trijunction of India-China and Afghanistan
border
Parpik Pass Kashmir and China East of Mintaka pass on the Indo-China
border
Khunjerab Pass Kashmir and China Indo-China border
Aghil Pass
Ladakh region of India with
the Xinjiang (Sinkiang)
Province of China
5000 m above sea level.
north of K2 Peak (the highest peak in India
and the second highest peak in the world)
Banihal Pass
Jammu and Srinagar
2832 m across the Pir-Panjal Range remains snow covered during winter
season
The road from Jammu to Srinagar transversed Banihal Pass until 1956
when Jawahar Tunnel was constructed under the pass. The road now passes through the tunnel and the Banihal Pass is no longer used for road
transport. Another 11 km long tunnel provides railway link between Banihal and
Kazigund. It was thrown open to railway transport in July, 2013
Chang-La Ladakh with Tibet altitude of 5360 m
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This has a temple dedicated to Chang-La Baba after whom the temple has been named
Khardung La near Leh in the Ladakh
range
5602 m The world’s highest motorable road
passes through this pass remains closed in winter due to heavy
snowfall
Lanak La India and China (Akasai-Chin area of Jammu and Kashmir)
This pass provides passage between Ladak and Lhasa. A road to connect Xinjiang
Province with Tibet has been constructed by the Chinese
Pir-Panjal pass across the Pir Panjal range
Provides the shortest and the easiest metal road between Jammu and Kashmir
Valley. But this route had to be closed down as a result of partition of the
subcontinent
Qara Tag La Indo-China borer across the Karakoram Range
located at an elevation of over six thousand metres
Imis La Ladakh region of India and
Tibet in China
Pensi La vital link between the
Kashmir Valley and Kargil
remains closed to traffic from November to
mid-May due to heavy snowfall
Zoji La
important road link
between Srinagar on one side and Kargil and Leh on
the other side
The road passing through this pass has
been designated at the National Highway
(NH-1D) Border Road Organisation (BRO) is
responsible for maintaining the road and cleaning it off snow during winter. In spite
of all these efforts, the road through this pass remains closed from December to
mid-May
Himachal Pradesh
Bara Lacha La Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir
Elevation: 4,890 m National highway connecting Mandi in
Himachal Pradesh with Leh in Jammu and Kashmir passes through this pass. Being
situated at high altitude, it remains snow
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covered in winter and is not used as a transport route.
Debsa Pass link between Kullu and Spiti districts
elevation of 5270 m above sea level
It offers a much easier and shorter alternative route to traditional Pin-Parbati Pass route between Kullu and Spiti
Rohtang Pass road link between Kullu,
Lahul and Spiti Valleys
Elevation: 3979 m Border Road Organisation (BRO) is
responsible for constructing and maintaining roads in this area. Rohtang
pass is a great tourist attraction and traffic jams are very common because this route
is widely used by military, public and private vehicles.
Shipki La Himachal Pradesh and Tibet Elevation: 6000 m Remains closed in winter season (Nov –
Apr)
Uttarakhand
Lipu Lekh trijunction of Uttarakhand (India), Tibet (China) and
Nepal borders
This pass is used by pilgrims to Kailash-Mansarowar.
Mana Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet
elevation of 5610 Situated a little north of the holy place of
Badhrinath Remains closed in winter season (Nov –
Apr)
Mangsha Dhura Uttarakhand with Tibet It is used by pilgrims going to Kailash-
Mansarowar
Niti Pass Uttarakhand with Tibet Remains closed in winter season (Nov –
Apr)
Muling La Uttarakhand and Tibet
situated in the north of Gangotri
at an elevation of 5669 m in the Great Himalayas
Passes of the Eastern Himalayas
Sikkim
Nathu La Sikkim with Tibet altitude of 4310 m
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it forms part of an offshoot of the ancient Silk Route
an important trade route between India and China
It was closed after the Chinese aggression on India in 1962 but was reopened in 2006
as the governments of the two countries decided to enhance their trade through
land routes
Jelep La Sikkim-Bhutan border altitude of 4538 m passes through Chumbi Valley important link between Sikkim and Lhasa
Arunachal Pradesh
Bom Di La Arunachal Pradesh with Bhutan
altitude of 4331 m
Situated at an altitude of 4331 m near the western boundary of Arunachal Pradesh in
the Greater Himalayas, this pass connects Arunachal Pradesh with Lhasa
Dihang Pass Arunachal Pradesh and Myanmar.
elevation of more than 4000 m it provides passage
Yonggyap Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Tibet
Dipher Pass trijunction of India, China and Myanmar
Easy access between Arunachal Pradesh and Mandalay in Myanmar. It is an important land trade route between India
and Myanmar and remains open throughout the year.
Kumjawng Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
Hpungan Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
Chankan Pass Arunachal Pradesh with Myanmar
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1.7 THE NORTHERN PLAINS
The Great plain of Northern India was formed by the sediments brought down by the Indus- Ganga-Brahmaputra and their tributaries and it is popularly known as the Indo-Ganga- Brahmaputra plain
This one fourth of the land of the country hosts half of the Indian population. Fertile alluvial soils, flat surface, slow moving perennial rivers and favourable climate
facilitate intense agricultural activity.
The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. The main crops grown are rice and wheat, which are grown in rotation. Others include maize, sugarcane and cotton. The Indo-Gangetic plains rank among the world's most densely populated areas.
The northern plains have a rich underground water table which is being utilized through tube well.
Development of roads and railways could become easy in plains. The plains have witnessed several religious, political, cultural and social movement since the
dawn of history. Some of the great religions of the world like Buddhism, Hinduism, Jainism and Sikhism have their origin in the Great Plains.
The extensive use of irrigation has made Punjab, Haryana and western part of Uttar Pradesh the granary of India (Prairies are called the granaries of the world).
The entire plain except the Thar Desert, has a close network of roads and railways which has led to large scale industrialization and urbanization.
Cultural tourism: There are many religious places along the banks of the sacred rivers like the Ganga and the Yamuna which are very dear to Hindus. Here flourished the religions of Buddha
and Mahavira and the movements of Bhakti and Sufism. Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra Plain is the largest alluvial tract of the world.
It stretches for about 3,200 km from the mouth of the Indus to the mouth of the Ganga. Indian sector of the plain accounts for 2,400 km.
The northern boundary is well marked by the Shiwaliks and the southern boundary is a wavy irregular line along the northern edge of the Peninsular India.
The western boarder is marked by Sulaiman and Kirthar ranges. On the eastern side, the plains are bordered by Purvanchal hills.
The width of the plain varies from region to region. It is widest in the west where it stretches for about 500 km. Its width decreases in the east.
The thickness of the alluvium deposits also vary from place to place. The maximum depth of the alluvium up to the basement rocks is about 6,100 m (not uniform and varies greatly from
place to place). The cones or alluvial fans of Kosi in the north and those of Son in the south exhibit greater
alluvial thickness while the intra-cone areas have relatively shallower deposits. Extreme horizontality of this monotonous plain is its chief characteristic. Its average elevation is about 200 m above mean sea level, highest elevation being 291 m
above mean sea level near Ambala (This elevation forms the drainage divide or watershed between Indus system and Ganga system).
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Its average gradient from Saharanpur to Kolkata is only 20 cm per km and it decreases to 15 cm per km from Varanasi to the Ganga delta.
During the initial stages of upliftment of sediments, the already existing rivers changed their course several times and they were rejuvenated each time (perpetual youth stage of rivers
{Fluvial Landforms}). The rejuvenation is associated with intense head ward and vertical down cutting of the soft
strata overlying the harder rock stratum. Head ward erosion and vertical erosion of the river valley in the initial stages, lateral erosion
in later stages contributed huge amount of conglomerates (detritus)(rock debris, silt, clay etc.) which were carried downslope.
[Head ward erosion == Erosion at the origin of a stream channel, which causes the origin to move back away from the direction of the stream flow, and so causes the stream channel to
lengthen] These conglomerates were deposited in the depression (Indo-Gangetic Trough or Indo-
Gangetic syncline) (the base of the geosyncline is a hard crystalline rock) between peninsular India and the convergent boundary (the region of present day Himalayas).
1.7.1 Divisions of Northern plain
1.7.1.1 Regional divisions of the Indo-Gangetic-Brahmaputra plains-
Sindh plain Rajasthan plain.
Punjab plain. Ganga plain.
Brahmaputra plain.
1.7.1.2 Based on relief features the northern plain can be divided into following region:
1. Bhabar- after descending from the mountains, the rivers deposit pebbles in a narrow belt. The width of this belt is about 8-16 km and it lies parallel to the Shiwaliks. This region is
known as bhabar. All the streams disappear in this region. The porosity of bhabar is the most unique feature. The porosity is due to deposition of huge number of pebbles and rock
debris across the alluvial fans. The streams disappear once they reach the bhabar region because of this porosity. Therefore, the area is marked by dry river courses except in the rainy
season. The Bhabar belt is comparatively narrow in the east and extensive in the western and north-western hilly region.
2. Terai- lies towards south of bhabar belt. In this region, the streams reappear and make a wet, swampy and marshy region. Terai is an ill-drained, damp (marshy) and thickly forested narrow tract to the south of Bhabar running parallel to it. The Terai is about 15-30 km wide. The underground streams of the Bhabar belt re-emerge in this belt. This thickly forested
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region provides shelter to a variety of wild life. [Jim Corbett National Park in Uttarakhand and Kaziranga National Park in Assam lie in terai region]
3. Bhangar- largest part of northern plain and is composed of the oldest alluvial soil. They lie
above the flood plains and resemble terraces. The soil of this region is locally known as kankar and is composed of calcareous deposits. Bhur denotes an elevated piece of land situated
along the banks of the Ganga River especially in the upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab. This has been formed due to accumulation of wind-blown sands during the hot dry months of the
year
4. Khadar- the floodplains formed by younger alluvium are called khadar. The soil in this region is renewed every year and is thus highly fertile. The Khadar is composed of newer
alluvium and forms the flood plains along the river banks. A new layer of alluvium is deposited by river flood almost every year. This makes them the most fertile soils of Ganges.
5. Reh- Reh or Kollar comprises saline efflorescence of drier areas in Haryana. Reh areas have
spread in recent times with increase in irrigation (capillary action brings salts to the surface).
1.8 THE INDIAN DESERT
Lies towards the western margin of Aravalli Hills.
Called Thar Desert. It is the ninth largest desert in the world. Dotted with dunes and barchans It spreads over the states of Gujarat and Rajasthan. This region has semi-arid and arid weather conditions. It receives less than 150 mm of rainfall
per year.
The vegetation cover is low with thorny bushes. Luni is the main river in this area.
1.9 THE PENINSULAR PLATEAU
Roughly triangular in shape with its base coinciding with the southern edge of the great plain of North India. Apex of the triangular plateau is at Kanniyakumari.
It covers a total area of about 16 lakh sq. km (India as a whole is 32 lakh sq. km). The average height of the plateau is 600-900 m above sea level (varies from region to region).
Most of the peninsular rivers flow west to east indicating its general slope. Narmada-Tapti are the exceptions which flow from east to west in a rift (rift is caused by
divergent boundary.
The Peninsular Plateau is a one of the oldest landforms of earth.
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It is a highly stable block composed mostly of the Archaean gneisses and schists {Rock System}.
It has been a stable shield which has gone through little structural changes since its formation. Since few hundred million years, peninsular block has been a land area and has never been
submerged beneath the sea except in a few places. Peninsular Plateau is an aggregation of several smaller plateaus, hill ranges interspersed with
river basins and valleys.
1.9.1 Minor Plateaus in the Peninsular Plateau
a) Marwar Plateau or Mewar Plateau It is the plateau of eastern Rajasthan. [Marwar plain is to the west of Aravalis whereas
Mewar plateau is to the east]. The average elevation is 250-500 m above sea level and it slopes down eastwards. It is made up of sandstone, shales and limestones of the Vindhayan period. The Banas River, along with its tributaries [Berach River, Khari Rivers] originate in the Aravalli
Range and flow towards northwest into Chambal River. The erosional activity of these rivers make the plateau top appear like a rolling plain.
[Rolling Plain: ‘Rolling plains’ are not completely flat: there are slight rises and fall in the land form. Ex: Prairies of USA]
b) Central Highland Also called the Madhya Bharat Pathar or Madhya Bharat Plateau. It is to the east of the Marwar or Mewar Upland.
Most of plateau comprises the basin of the Chambal River which flows in a rift valley. The Kali Sindh, flowing from Rana Prataph Sagar, The Banas flowing through Mewar plateau
and The Parwan and the Parbati flowing from Madhya Pradesh are its main tributaries. It is a rolling plateau with rounded hills composed of sandstone. Thick forests grow here. To the north are the ravines or badlands of the Chambal river [They are typical to Chambal
river basin] {Arid landforms}.
c) Bundelkhand Upland Yamuna River to the north, Madhya Bharat Pathar to the west, Vindhyan Scrap lands to the
east and south-east and Malwa Plateau to the south. It is the old dissected (divided by a number of deep valleys) upland of the ‘Bundelkhand
gneiss’ comprising of granite and gneiss. Spreads over five districts of Uttar Pradesh and four districts of Madhya Pradesh. Average elevation of 300-600 m above sea level, this area slopes down from the Vindhyan
Scarp toward the Yamuna River.
The area is marked by a chain of hillocks (small hill) made of granite and sandstone. The erosional work of the rivers flowing here have converted it into an undulating (wave like
surface) area and rendered it unfit for cultivation.
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The region is characterized by senile (characteristic of or caused by old age) topography. Streams like Betwa, Dhasan and Ken flow through the plateau.
d) Malwa Plateau The Malwa Plateau roughly forms a triangle based on the Vindhyan Hills, bounded by the
Aravalli Range in the west and Madhya Bharat Pathar to the north and Bundelkhand to the
east. This plateau has two systems of drainage; one towards the Arabian Sea (The Narmada,
the Tapi and the Mahi), and the other towards the Bay of Bengal (Chambal and Betwa, joining the Yamuna).
In the north it is drained by the Chambal and many of its right bank tributaries like the Kali, the Sindh and the Parbati. It also includes the upper courses of the Sindh, the Ken and the
Betwa. It is composed of extensive lava flow and is covered with black soils. The general slope is towards the north [decreases from 600 m in the south to less than 500
m in the north] This is a rolling plateau dissected by rivers. In the north, the plateau is marked by
the Chambal ravines.
e) Baghelkhand North of the Maikal Range is the Baghelkhand. Made of limestones and sandstones on the west and granite in the east. It is bounded by the Son River on the north. The central part of the plateau acts as a water divide between the Son drainage system in the
north and the Mahanadi river system in the south.
The region is uneven with general elevation varying from 150 m to 1,200 m. The Bhanrer and Kaimur are located close to the trough-axis.
The general horizontality of the strata shows that this area has not undergone any major disturbance.
f) Chotanagpur Plateau Chotanagpur plateau represents the north-eastern projection of the Indian Peninsula. Mostly in Jharkhand, northern part of Chhattisgarh and Purulia district of West Bengal. The Son River flows in the north-west of the plateau and joins the Ganga. The average elevation of the plateau is 700 m above sea level. This plateau is composed mainly of Gondwana rocks. The plateau is drained by numerous rivers and streams in different directions and presents
a radial drainage pattern. {Drainage Pattern} Rivers like the Damodar, the Subarnarekha, the North Koel, the South Koel and
the Barkar have developed extensive drainage basins. The Damodar River flows through the middle of this region in a rift valley from west to east.
Here are found the Gondwana coal fields which provide bulk of coal in India.
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North of the Damodar river is the Hazaribagh plateau with an average elevation of 600 m above mean sea level. This plateau has isolated hills. It looks like a peneplain due to large scale erosion.
The Ranchi Plateau to the south of the Damodar Valley rises to about 600 m above mean sea
level. Most of the surface is rolling where the city of Ranchi (661 m) is located. At places it is interrupted by monadnocks (an isolated hill or ridge of erosion-resistant rock
rising above a peneplain. Ex: Ayers Rock in Australia) and conical hills. The Rajmahal Hills forming the north eastern edge of the Chotanagpur Plateau are mostly
made of basalt and are covered by lava flows {Basaltic Lava}. They run in north-south direction and rise to average elevation of 400 m (highest mount is
567 m). These hills have been dissected into separate plateaus.
g) Meghalaya Plateau The peninsular plateau extends further east beyond the Rajmahal hills to from Meghalaya or
the Shillong plateau. Garo-Rajmahal Gap separates this plateau from the main block. This gap was formed by down-faulting (normal fault: a block of earth slides downwards). It
was later filled by sediments deposited by the Ganga and Brahmaputa. The plateau is formed by Archaean quartzites, shales and schists. The plateau slopes down to Brahmaputra valley in the north and the Surma and Meghna
valleys in the south. Its western boundary more or less coincides with the Bangladesh border. The western, central and the eastern parts of the plateau are known as the Garo Hills (900
m), the Khasi-Jaintia Hills (1,500 m) and the Mikir Hills (700 m). Shillong (1,961 m) is the highest point of the plateau.
h) Deccan Plateau It covers an area of about five lakh sq. km. It is triangular in shape and is bounded by the Satpura and the Vindhya in the north-west,
the Mahadev and the Maikal in the north, the Western Ghats in the west and the Eastern Ghats in the east.
Its average elevation is 600 m. It rises to 1000 m in the south but dips to 500 m in the north. Its general slope is from west to east which is indicated by the flow of its major rivers. Rivers have further subdivided this plateau into a number of smaller plateaus.
(i) Maharashtra Plateau The Maharashtra Plateau lies in Maharashtra. It forms the northern part of the Deccan Plateau. Much of the region is underlain by basaltic rocks of lava origin [Most of the Deccan Traps lies
in this region]. The area looks like a rolling plain due to weathering.
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The horizontal lava sheets have led to the formation of typical Deccan Trap topography [step like].
The broad and shallow valleys of the Godavari, the Bhima and the Krishna are flanked [bordered on the opposite sides] by flat-topped steep sided hills and ridges.
The entire area is covered by black cotton soil known as regur.
(ii) Karnataka Plateau The Karnataka Plateau is also known as the Mysore plateau. Lies to the south of the Maharashtra plateau. The area looks like a rolling plateau with an average elevation of 600-900 m. It is highly dissected by numerous rivers rising from the Western Ghats. The general trend of the hills is either parallel to the Western Ghats or across it . The highest peak (1913 m) is at Mulangiri in Baba Budan Hills in Chikmaglur district. The plateau is divided into two parts called Malnad and Maidan.
The Malnad in Kannada means hill country. It is dissected into deep valleys covered with dense forests.
The Maidan on the other hand is formed of rolling plain with low granite hills. The plateau tapers between the Western Ghats and the Eastern Ghats in the south and
merges with the Niligiri hills there.
(iii) Telangana plateau The Telangana plateau consists of Archaean gneisses. Its average elevation is 500-600 m.
The southern part is higher than its northern counterpart. The region is drained by three river systems, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Penneru.
The entire plateau is divided into Ghats and the Peneplains (a vast featureless, undulating plain which the last stage of deposition process).
(iv) Chhattisgarh Plain The Chhattisgarh plain is the only plain worth the name in the peninsular plateau. It is a saucer shaped depression drained by the upper Mahanadi.
The whole basin lies between the Maikala Range and the Odisha hills. The region was once ruled by Haithaivanshi Rajputs from whose thirty six forts (Chhattisgarh)
it derives its name. The basin is laid with nearly horizontal beds of limestone and shales.
The general elevation of the plain ranges from 250 m in the east to 330 m in the west.
1.9.2 Hills of Peninsular India: Aravalis, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Western & Eastern Ghats
a) Aravalli Range They are aligned in north-east to south-west direction.
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They run for about 800 km between Delhi and Palanpur in Gujarat. They are one of the oldest (very old) fold mountains of the world and the oldest in India.
{Fold Mountains – Block Mountains} After its formation in Archaean Era (several 100 million years ago), its summits were
nourishing glaciers and several summits were probably higher than the present day Himalayas.
Now they are relict (remnants after severe weathering and erosion since millions of years) of the world’s oldest mountain formed as a result of folding (Archaean Era).
They continue up to Hariddwar buried under the alluvium of Ganga Plains. The range is conspicuous in Rajasthan (continuous range south of Ajmer where it rises to 900
m.) but becomes less distinct in Haryana and Delhi (characterized by a chain of detached and discontinuous ridges beyond Ajmer).
According to some geographers, one Branch of the Aravalis extends to the Lakshadweep Archipelago through the Gulf of Khambhat and the other into Andhra Pradesh and
Karnataka. Its general elevation is only 400-600 m, with few hills well above 1,000 m.
At the south-west extremity the range rises to over 1,000 m. Here Mt. Abu (1,158 m), a small hilly block, is separated from the main range by the valley of the Banas. Guru Sikhar (1,722
m), the highest peak, is situated in Mt. Abu. Pipli Ghat, Dewair and Desuri passes allow movement by roads and railways.
b) Vindhyan Range The Vindhyan Range, overlooking (have a view of from above) the Narmada valley, rises as an
escarpment (a long, steep slope at the edge of a plateau or separating areas of land at different heights) flanking (neighbouring on one side) the northern edge of the Narmada-Son
Trough (the rift through which the Narmada river flows)(trough is opposite of ridge. It is a narrow depression).
It runs more or less parallel to the Narmada Valley in an east-west direction from Jobat in Gujarat to Sasaram in Bihar for a distance of over 1,200 km.
The general elevation of the Vindhyan Range is 300 to 650 m. Most parts of the Vindhayan Range are composed of horizontally bedded sedimentary rocks
of ancient age. {Rock System} The Vindhyas are continued eastwards as the Bharner and Kaimur hills.
This range acts as a watershed between the Ganga system and the river systems of south India.
The rivers Chambal, Betwa and Ken rise within 30 km of the Narmada.
c) Satpura Range Satpura range is a series of seven mountains (‘Sat’ = seven and ‘pura’ = mountains) It runs in an east-west direction south of the Vindhyas and in between the Narmada and the
Tapi, roughly parallel to these rivers. It stretches for a distance of about 900 km.
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Parts of the Satpuras have been folded and upheaved. They are regarded as structural uplift or ‘horst’.
Dhupgarh (1,350 m) near Pachmarhi on Mahadev Hills is the highest peak. Amarkantak (1,127 m) is another important peak.
d) Western Ghats (or the Sahyadris) They form the western edge of the Deccan tableland. Run from the Tapi valley (21° N latitude) to a little north of Kanniyakumari (11° N latitude) for
a distance of 1,600 km. The Western Ghats are steep-sided, terraced, flat-topped hills presenting a stepped
topography facing the Arabian Sea coast. This is due to the horizontally bedded lavas, which on weathering, have given a
characteristic ‘landing stair aspect’ to the relief of this mountain chain. The Western Ghats abruptly rise as a sheer wall to an average elevation of 1,000 m from the
Western Coastal Plain. But they slope gently on their eastern flank and hardly appear to be a mountain when viewed
from the Deccan tableland. South of Malabar, the Nilgiris, Anamalai, etc. present quite different landscape due to the
difference in geological structure.
(i) The northern section The northern section of the Ghats from Tapi valley to a little north of Goa is made of
horizontal sheets of Deccan lavas (Deccan Traps). The average height of this section of the Ghats is 1,200 m above mean sea level, but some
peaks attain more heights. Kalasubai (1,646 m) near Igatpuri, Salher (1,567 m) about 90 km north of Nashik,
Mahabaleshwar (1,438 m) and Harishchandragarh (1,424 m) are important peaks. Thal ghat and Bhor ghat are important passes which provide passage by road and rail
between the Konkan Plains in the west and the Deccan Plateau in the east. [Konkan coast == Maharashtra coast and Goa coast; Malabar Coast == Kerala and Karnataka coast]
(ii) The Middle Sahyadri The Middle Sahyadri runs from 16°N latitude up to Nilgiri hills.
This part is made of granites and gneisses. This area is covered with dense forests.
The western scarp is considerably dissected by head ward erosion of the west flowing streams.
The average height is 1200 m but many peaks exceed 1500 m. The Vavul Mala (2,339 m), the Kudremukh (1,892 m) and Pashpagiri (1,714 m) are important
peaks. The Nilgiri Hills which join the Sahyadris near the trijunction of Karnataka, Kerala and TN,
rise abruptly to over 2,000 m.
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They mark the junction of the Western Ghats with Eastern Ghats. Doda Betta (2,637 m) and Makurti (2,554 m) are important peaks of this area.
(iii) The southern section The southern part of the Western Ghats is separated from the main Sahyadri range by Pal
ghat Gap [Palakkad Gap]. The high ranges terminate abruptly on either side of this gap. Pal ghat Gap it is a rift valley. This gap is used by a number of roads and railway lines to
connect the plains of Tamil Nadu with the coastal plain of Kerala. It is through this gap that moist-bearing clouds of the south-west monsoon can penetrate
some distance inland, bringing rain to Mysore region. South of the Pal ghat Gap there is an intricate system of steep and rugged slopes on both the
eastern and western sides of the Ghats. Anai Mudi (2,695 m) is the highest peak in the whole of southern India.
Three ranges radiate in different directions from Anai Mudi. These ranges are the Anaimalai (1800-2000 m) to the north, the Palani (900-1,200 m) to the north-east and the Cardamom
Hills or the Ealaimalai to the south.
e) Eastern Ghats Eastern Ghats run almost parallel to the east coast of India leaving broad plains between
their base and the coast. It is a chain of highly broken and detached hills starting from the Mahanadi in Odisha to
the Vagai in Tamil Nadu. They almost disappear between the Godavari and the Krishna. They neither have structural unity nor physiographic continuity. Therefore these hill groups
are generally treated as independent units. It is only in the northern part, between the Mahanadi and the Godavari that the Eastern Ghats
exhibit true mountain character. This part comprises the Maliya and the Madugula Konda ranges.
The peaks and ridges of the Maliya range have a general elevation of 900-1,200 m and Mahendra Giri (1,501 m) is the tallest peak here.
The Madugula Konda range has higher elevations ranging from 1,100 m and 1,400 m with several peaks exceeding 1,600 m. Jindhagada Peak (1690 m) in Araku Valley Arma Konda
(1,680 m), Gali Konda (1,643 m) and Sinkram Gutta (1,620 m) are important peaks.
Between the Godavari and the Krishna rivers, the Eastern Ghats lose their hilly character and are occupied by Gondwana formations (KG Basin is here).
The Eastern Ghats reappear as more or less a continuous hill range in Cuddapah and Kurnool districts of Andhra Pradesh where they are called as Nallamalai Range [Naxalite hideout in AP] with general elevation of 600-850 m.
The southern part of this range is called the Palkodna range. To the south, the hills and plateaus attain very low altitudes; only Javadi Hills and
the Shevroy-Kalrayan Hills form two distinct features of 1,000 m elevation. The Biligiri Rangan Hills in Karnataka (at its border with Tamil Nadu) attain a height of 1,279
m.
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Further south, the Eastern Ghats merge with the Western Ghats.
1.9.3 Tribes of India and States
Name of the
Tribe States in which they reside
BHIL Tripura, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka.
GOND Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
SANTAL Bihar, Tripura, West Bengal, Odisha, Jharkhand.
MINA Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh.
NAIKDA Karnataka, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra, Goa.
ORAON Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
SUGALIS Andhra Pradesh.
MUNDA Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh,
Tripura, Odisha.
NAGA Nagaland.
KHOND Bihar, West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha.
BORO Assam.
KOLI MAHADEV
Maharashtra.
KHASI Mizoram, Meghalaya, Assam.
KOL Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
VARLI Gujarat, Daman & Diu, Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Goa.
KOKNA Dadra & Nagar Haveli, Rajasthan, Gujarat, Maharashtra,
Karnataka.
KAWAR Odisha, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra.
GUJJAR Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh.
BHUMIJ West Bengal, Jharkhand, Odisha.
GARO Nagaland, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Assam, West Bengal, Tripura.
KOYA Odisha, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka.
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1.10 THE COASTAL PLAINS
India has a coastline of 7516.6 Km [6100 km of mainland coastline + coastline of 1197 Indian islands] touching 13 States and Union Territories (UTs).
The straight and regular coastline of India is the result of faulting of the Gondwanaland during the Cretaceous period. {Continental Drift}
The Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea came into being during the Cretaceous or early Tertiary period after the disintegration of Gondwanaland.
Large parts of the coastal plains of India are covered by fertile soils on which different crops are grown. Rice is the main crop of these areas.
Coconut trees grow all along the coast. The entire length of the coast is dotted with big and small ports which help in carrying out
trade. The sedimentary rocks of these plains are said to contain large deposits of mineral oil (KG
Basin). The sands of Kerala coast have large quantity of MONAZITE which is used for nuclear power.
Fishing is an important occupation of the people living in the coastal areas. Low lying areas of Gujarat are famous for producing salt.
Kerala backwaters are important tourist destinations. Goa provides good beaches. This is also an important tourist destination.
1.10.1 Western Coastal Plains of India
Rann of Kachchh in the north to Kanniyakumari in the South. These are narrow plains with an average width of about 65 km.
a) Kutch and Kathiawar region Kutch and Kathiawar, though an extension of Peninsular plateau (because Kathiawar is made
of the Deccan Lava and there are tertiary rocks in the Kutch area), they are still treated as integral part of the Western Coastal Plains as they are now levelled down.
The Kutch Peninsula was an island surrounded by seas and lagoons. These seas and lagoons
were later filled by sediment brought by the Indus River which used to flow through this area. Lack of rains in recent times has turned it into arid and semi-arid landscape.
Salt-soaked plain to the north of Kutch is the Great Rann. Its southern continuation, known as the Little Rann lies on the coast and south-east of Kachchh.
The Kathiawar Peninsula lies to the south of the Kachchh. The central part is a highland of Mandav Hills from which small streams radiate in all directions (Radial Drainage). Mt.
Girnar (1,117 m) is the highest point and is of volcanic origin. The Gir Range is located in the southern part of the Kathiawar peninsula. It is covered with
dense forests and is famous as home of the Gir lion.
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b) Gujarat Plain The Gujarat Plain lies east of Kachchh and Kathiawar and slopes towards the west and south
west. Formed by the rivers Narmada, Tapi, Mahi and Sabarmati, the plain includes the southern
part of Gujarat and the coastal areas of the Gulf of Khambhat. The eastern part of this plain is fertile enough to support agriculture, but the greater part
near the coast is covered by windblown loess (heaps of sand).
c) Konkan Plain The Konkan Plain south of the Gujarat plain extends from Daman to Goa (50 to 80 km wide). It has some features of marine erosion including cliffs, shoals, reefs and islands in the Arabian
Sea. The Thane creek around Mumbai is an important embayment (a recess in a coastline forming
a bay) which provides an excellent natural harbour.
d) Karnataka Coastal Plain Goa to Mangalore. It is a narrow plain with an average width of 30-50 km, the maximum being 70 km near
Mangalore.
At some places the streams originating in the Western Ghats descend along steep slopes and make waterfalls.
The Sharavati while descending over such a steep slope makes an impressive waterfall known as Gersoppa (Jog) Falls which is 271 m high. [Angel falls (979 m) in Venezuela is the highest
waterfall on earth. Tugela Falls (948 m) in Drakensberg Mountains in South Africa is the second highest.]
Marine topography is quite marked on the coast.
e) Kerala Plain The Kerala Plain also known as the Malabar Plain. Between Mangalore and Kanniyakumari. This is much wider than the Karnataka plain. It is a low lying plain. The existence of lakes, lagoons, backwaters, spits, etc. is a significant characteristic of the
Kerala coast. The backwaters, locally known as kayals are the shallow lagoons or inlets of the sea, lying
parallel to the coastline. The largest among these is the Vembanad Lake which is about 75 km long and 5-10 km wide
and gives rise to a 55 km long spit {Marine Landforms}.
1.10.2 Eastern Coastal Plains of India
Extending from the Subarnarekha River along the West Bengal-Odisha border to Kanniyakumari.
A major part of the plains is formed as a result of the alluvial fillings of the littoral zone (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) by the rivers Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna
and Cauvery comprising some of the largest deltas.
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In contrast to the West Coastal Plains, these are extensive plains with an average width of 120 km.
This plain is known as the Northern Circars between the Mahanadi and the Krishna rivers and Carnatic between the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers.
a) Utkal Plain The Utkal Plain comprises coastal areas of Odisha.
It includes the Mahanadi delta.
The most prominent physiographic feature of this plain is the Chilka Lake.
It is the biggest lake in the country and its area varies between 780 sq. km in winter to 1,144 sq. km in the monsoon months.
South of Chilka Lake, low hills dot the plain.
b) Andhra Plain South of the Utkal Plain and extends up to Pulicat Lake. This lake has been barred by a long
sand spit known as Sriharikota Island (ISRO launch facility). The most significant feature of this plain is the delta formation by the rivers Godavari and
Krishna. The two deltas have merged with each other and formed a single physiographic unit.
The combined delta has advanced by about 35 km towards the sea during the recent years. This is clear from the present location of the Kolleru Lake which was once a lagoon at the shore but now lies far inland {Coastline of Emergence}.
This part of the plain has a straight coast and badly lacks good harbours with the exception of Vishakhapatnam and Machilipatnam.
c) Tamil Nadu Plain The Tamil Nadu Plain stretches for 675 km from Pulicat Lake to Kanniyakumari along the coast
of Tamil Nadu. Its average width is 100 km. The most important feature of this plain is the Cauvery delta where the plain is 130 km wide.
The fertile soil and large scale irrigation facilities have made the Cauvery delta the granary of South
India.
1.11 THE ISLANDS
1.11.1 Andaman and Nicobar Islands
This archipelago is composed of 265 big and small islands [203 Andaman Islands + 62 Nicobar Islands] [Numbers are just for understanding. You need not remember trivial facts].
The Andaman and Nicobar islands extend from 6° 45′ N to 13° 45′ N and from 92° 10′ E to 94° 15′ E for a distance of about 590 km.
The Andaman Islands are divided into three main islands i.e. North, Middle and South.
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Duncan passage separates Little Andaman from South Andaman.
The Great Andaman group of islands in the north is separated by the Ten Degree Channel from the
Nicobar group in the south [Prelims 2014]. Port Blair, the capital of Andaman Nicobar
Islands lies in the South Andaman. Among the Nicobar Islands, the Great Nicobar is
the largest. It is the southernmost island and is very close to Sumatra island of Indonesia.
The Car Nicobar is the northernmost. Most of these islands are made of tertiary
sandstone, limestone and shale resting on basic and ultrabasic volcanoes [Similar to Himalayas].
THE BARREN AND NARCONDAM ISLANDS, north of Port Blair, are volcanic islands [these are the
only active volcanoes in India] [There are no active volcanoes in main land India].
Some of the islands are fringed with coral reefs. Many of them are covered with thick forests.
Most of the islands are mountainous.
Saddle peak (737 m) in North Andaman is the highest peak.
1.11.2 Lakshadweep Islands
In the Arabian Sea, there are three types of islands. 1. Amindivi Islands (consisting of six main islands of Amini, Keltan, Chetlat, Kadmat, Bitra and
Perumul Par). [don’t have to remember all these names] 2. Laccadive Islands (consisting of five major islands of Androth, Kalpeni, Kavaratti, Pitti and
Suheli Par) and 3. Minicoy Island.
At present these islands are collectively known as Lakshadweep. The Lakshadweep Islands are a group of 25 small islands.
They are widely scattered about 200-500 km south-west of the Kerala coast.
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Amendivi Islands are the northern most while the Minicoy Island is the southernmost.
All are tiny islands of coral origin {Atoll} and are surrounded by fringing reefs.
The largest and the most advanced is the Minicoy Island with an area of 4.53 sq. km.
Most of the islands have low elevation and do not rise more than five metre above sea level (Extremely
Vulnerable to sea level change). Their topography is flat and relief features such as
hills, streams, valleys, etc. are absent. New Moore Island
It is a small uninhabited offshore sandbar landform {Marine Landforms} in the Bay of Bengal, off the coast
of the Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta region. It emerged in the Bay of Bengal in the aftermath of
the Bhola cyclone in 1970. It keeps on emerging and disappearing.
Although the island was uninhabited and there were no permanent settlements or stations located on it,
both India and Bangladesh claimed sovereignty over
it because of speculation over the existence of oil and natural gas in the region.
1.11.3 IMPORTANT ISLANDS OF INDIA
Name of the Islands Location Brief Facts
Sriharikota Island
Pulicat lake
(Andhra Pradesh)
It houses India's satellite launch centre, Satish Dhawan Space Centre
Abdul Kalam
Island
Bay of Bengal, off
the coast of Odisha
Formerly known as Wheeler Island, missile test facility for the most of Indian
missiles including long range ones is available here.
Sivasamudram Island
Kaveri river It is an island town dividing the Kaveri River into twin waterfalls, the
Gaganachukki and the Barachukki.
Cattle Island Mahanadi
river, Odisha
It is an island in the Hirakud reservoir
completely inhabited by wild cattle
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Name of the Islands
Location Brief Facts
which were once left behind by villagers
when the village was vacated for construction of the dam.
Sagar Island Bay of Bengal, West Bengal
The island is home to the endangered Royal Bengal Tiger. This island is a famous Hindu pilgrim place where every year on the day of Makar Sankranti (mid of January), thousands of Hindus gather to take a holy dip in the Ganga and offer puja in the Kapil Muni Temple.
Havelock Island Andamans
Havelock Island is the largest of the islands which comprise Ritchie's
Archipelago, a chain of islands to the east of Great Andaman in the Andaman
Islands. In Jan 2011, Jal Hans, India's 1st Seaplane Service was launched Pawan
Hans and the Administration of Andaman and Nicobar islands
connecting Port Blair and Havelock island.
Barren Island Andaman islands
Barren Island is located in the Andaman
Sea. It is the only confirmed active volcano in South Asia. Along with the rest of the Andamans, it is a part of the Indian Union Territory of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The first recorded eruption was in 1787 and the latest
being in May 2008.
Kachchatheevu Palk Strait
Kachchatheevu is an uninhabited island
originally belonging to India, but given to Sri Lanka in 1974 on a conditional basis.
It has a Catholic shrine and has been declared as a sacred area by the
government of Sri Lanka. Recently the island was in news when the Chief Minister of Tamil Nadu filed a petition in
the Supreme Court against India's ceding of the island to Sri Lanka.
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Name of the Islands
Location Brief Facts
Majuli Island Brahmaputra river
The island was formed due to course
changes by the river Brahmaputra and its tributaries, mainly the Lohit. A hotspot for flora and fauna, the island is under threat of erosion. The Government has sanctioned funds to save the island and also has nominated the island for inclusion in the natural sites list of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites list.
Salsette Island Arabian Sea Mumbai metropolis is located on the island, which is bounded by the Vasai Creek, Ulhas river and Thane Creek.
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2. DRAINAGE SYSTEM OF INDIA Drainage System is an integrated system of a trunk stream and tributaries, which collect funnel surface water to sea, lake or some other body of water. Drainage Basin: The total area that contributes water to a single drainage system is known as a drainage basin and they are distinguished from a neighbouring basin by ridges and highlands that from divides. Drainage Pattern: A geometric arrangement streams in a region; determined by slope, differing rock resistance to weathering erosion, climate, hydrological variability and structural controls of the
landscape known as drainage pattern.
Factors controlling drainage pattern: topography, slope, structural control, nature of rocks, tectonics activities, supply of water and above of all geologic history of the region controls the drainage
pattern. Every stream or river develops unique pattern of drainage with their tributaries.
2.1 DRAINAGE PATTERNS IN INDIA
A) Discordant Drainage Patterns:
Superimposed or Super induced: The Indus, Satluj, Ganga, Sarju/Kali, Arun, Tista,
Brahmaputra Antecedent / Inconsequent Drainage: The Indus, Satluj, Ganga, Sarju/Kali, Arun, Tista,
Brahmaputra
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b) Accordant/ Concordant Drainage Patterns
Consequent Rivers: Streams of Peninsular India Subsequent Rivers: Chambal, Sind, Ken, Betwa, Tons and Son meet the
Yamuna and the Ganga at right angles Dendritic Pattern: streams of Indo- Gangetic plains
Trellis Pattern: s of the Chotanagpur plateau
Barbed Pattern: Arun River Rectangular Pattern: Rivers of Vindhyan Mountains
Radial Pattern: The Amarkantak, Mikir hills & The Girinar hills Rivers: The Narmada, The Son, The Mahanadi
Annual Pattern: Streams of Pithorgarh ,Nilgiri hills Parallel Pattern: western Coastal rivers
Deranged Pattern: valley of Karakoram
Centripetal Pattern: streams of Ladakh, Tibet, & Baghmati
2.2 Classification of Drainage Systems of India
2.2.1 Drainage System Based on the Size of the Catchment Area:
Major River- 20,000 Sq. km Medium River- 20,000-2,000 Sq. km
Minor River - 2,000 and below Sq. km
2.2.2 Drainage Systems Based on Origin:
The Himalayan Rivers: Perennial rivers: The Indus, The Ganga, The Brahmaputra and their tributaries
The Peninsular Rivers: Non-Perennial rivers: Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Narmada and the Tapi and their tributaries
2.2.3 Drainage Systems Based on the Type of Drainage
Oceanic Drainage Basins: Rivers draining towards sea/ oceans. Himalayan rivers, Deccan Rivers and Coastal rivers drain into the sea
Internal/Endorheic Drainage Basins: Rivers draining into the inland basins or lakes; Stream like the Sambhar in western Rajasthan are mainly seasonal in character, draining into the inland basins and salt lakes. In the Rann of Kutch, the only river that flows through the salt desert is the Luni
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2.2.4 Drainage Systems Based on Orientation to the sea
The Bay of Bengal drainage: Rivers (East flowing rivers) that drain into Bay of Bengal. The Ganga, the Brahmaputra, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery, the Penneru, the Penneiyar, the Vaigai, etc. 77 per cent of the drainage area of the country is oriented towards the Bay of Benga90 per cent of the water drains into the Bay of Bengal; the rest is drained into the Arabian Sea or forms inland drainage
Arabian Sea drainage: Rivers (West flowing rivers) that drain into Arabian Sea. 23 % of the drainage area of the country is oriented towards the Arabian Sea. The Indus, the Narmada,
the Tapi, the Sabarmati, the Mahi and the large number of swift flowing western coast rivers descending from the Sahyadris
2.3 HIMALAYAN RIVER SYSTEM The Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra comprise the Himalayan river systems
The Himalayan Rivers existed even before the formation of Himalayas i.e. before the collision of Indian Plate with the Eurasian plate. {Antecedent Drainage}
They were flowing into the Tethys Sea. These rivers had their source in the now Tibetan region
The deep gorges of the Indus, the Satluj, the Brahmaputra etc. clearly indicate that these rivers are older than the Himalayas
They continued to flow throughout the building phase of the Himalayas; their banks rising steeply while the beds went lower and lower due to vertical erosion (Vertical down cutting was significant and was occurring at a rate faster than the rising of Himalayas), thus cutting deep gorges
Thus, many of the Himalayan Rivers are typical examples of antecedent drainage. Evolution
of Himalayan Drainage system: There was a mighty river called Shiwalik or Indo-Brahma traversed the entire longitudinal
extent of the Himalaya from Assam to Punjab and onwards to Sind, and finally discharged into the Gulf of Sind near lower Punjab during the Miocene period some million years ago
The remarkable continuity of the Shiwalik and its lacustrine origin and alluvial deposits consisting of sands, silt, clay, boulders and conglomerates support this viewpoint
Himalayan rivers later got dismembered into three major systems This dismembered was probably due to the Pleistocene upheaval in the western Himalayas,
including the uplift of the Potwar Plateau (Delhi Ridge), which acted as the water divide between the Indus and Ganga drainage systems
Likewise, the down-thrusting of the Malda gap (Garo- Rajmahal Gap) area between the
Rajmahal hills and the Meghalaya plateau during the mid-Pleistocene period, diverted the Ganga and the Brahmaputra systems to flow towards the Bay of Bengal
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2.3.1 THE INDUS RIVER SYSTEM
India got her name from Indus ‘The Indus Valley Civilization’ was born around this river It flows in north-west direction from its source (Glaciers of Kailas Range – Kailash range in
Tibet near Lake Manasarovar) till the Nanga Parbhat Range Its length is about 2,900 km. Its total drainage area is about 1,165,000 square km [more than
half of it lies in semiarid plains of Pakistan]. It is joined by Dhar River near Indo-China border After entering J&K it flows between the Ladakh and the Zaskar Ranges. It flows through the
regions of Ladakh, Baltistan and Gilgit The gradient of the river in J&K is very gentle (about 30 cm per km) Average elevation at which the Indus flows through JK is about 4000 m above sea level It is joined by the Zaskar River at Leh (these kind of points are important for prelims)
Near Skardu, it is joined by the Shyok at an elevation of about 2,700 m The Gilgit, Gartang, Dras, Shiger, Hunza are the other Himalayan tributaries of the Indus
It crosses the Himalayas (ends its mountainous journey) through a 5181 m deep gorge near Attock, lying north of the Nanga Parbat. It takes a sharp southerly bend here (syntaxial bend)
Kabul River from Afghanistan joins Indus near Attock. Thereafter it flows through the Potwar plateau and crosses the Salt Range (South Eastern edge of Potwar Plateau)
Some of the important tributaries below Attock include the Kurram, Toch and the Zhob- Gomal.
Just above Mithankot, the Indus receives from Panjnad (Panchnad), the accumulated waters of the five eastern tributaries—the Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas and the Satluj
The river empties into the Arabian Sea south of Karachi after forming a huge delta
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Fig. Indus drainage system
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2.3.1.1 VALLEY PROJECTS LINK WITH INDUS RIVER
The Bhakra Nangal Project
It is the largest and the most important multipurpose project named after the two dams built at Bhakra and Nangal on the Satluj River. It is the second highest dam in the World.
The project comprises of: (i) two dams at Bhakra and Nangal, (ii) Nangal Hydel Channel, (iii) power houses with a combined installed capacity of 1,204 megawatt (MW) (iv) Electric transmission lines and (v) Bhakra canal system for irrigation.
The Indira Gandhi Project or the Rajasthan
Canal
This is previously known as Rajasthan Canal Project. It is one of the biggest irrigation projects not only in India but in whole
World. It covers s an area 600 km long and 45 km wide of the Thar
Desert of Rajasthan. It is one of the most gigantic projects in the world aiming to de-
desertify and transform desert waste land into agriculturally productive area.
Pong Dam
It is also called the Beas Dam on the river Beas, near Talwara in Himachal Pradesh, is the highest (132 m high) rock-fill dam in the country.
The project is a joint venture of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. The dam has been designed to store 6.6 million acre feet of water.
The Baglihar Project It has been executed on the Chenab in Jammu & Kashmir.
Dul-Hasti Hydro-Electric Project
It is being built on river Chenab in Jammu and Kashmir. The foundation of the project was laid in September 1984. The project will consist of a power plant of 390 MW capacities.
The power house will be located underground.
Thien Dam (Punjab)
A 147 metre high dam built by the Punjab Government at Thien
village across the Ravi 25 km. upstream of Madhopur head works.
It will irrigate 8 lakh hectares land and generate 600 MW power. Renamed as Ranjit Sagar Dam it was dedicated to the nation on
March 4, 2001 by Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee.
Chamera Hydro-Electric Project
The 540 MW Chamera hydro-electric project on the Ravi River in Himachal Pradesh was implemented with Canadian credit offer of about Rs 335 crore.
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Nathpa-Jhakri Hydro-Electric Project
India’s largest hydro-electric project, it is located at Nathpa
Jhakri in Himachal Pradesh. It is built on Satluj River. The first of the six 250 MW units was commissioned on
December 30, 2002. The project is being executed by Satluj Jal Nigam (formerly
Nathpa Jhakri Power Corporation).
2.3.1.2 MAJOR TRIBUTARIES OF INDUS RIVER
1. THE JHELUM The Jhelum has its source in a spring at
Verinag in the south-eastern part of the Kashmir Valley.
It flows northwards into Wular Lake (north- western part of Kashmir Valley). From Wular Lake, it changes its course southwards. At Baramulla the river enters a gorge in the hills.
The river forms steep-sided narrow gorge through Pir Panjal Range below Baramula.
At Muzaffarabad, the river takes a sharp hairpin bend southward.
Thereafter, it forms the India-Pakistan boundary for 170 km and emerges at the
Potwar Plateau near Mirpur. After flowing through the spurs of the Salt
Range it debouches (emerge from a confined space into a wide, open
area) on the plains near the city of Jhelum.
It joins the Chenab at Trimmu. The river is navigable for about 160 km
out of a total length of 724 km
2. CHENAB RIVER The Chenab originates from near the Bara Lacha Pass in
the Lahul-Spiti part of the Zaskar Range. Two small streams on opposite sides of the pass, namely Chandra and Bhaga, form its
headwaters at an altitude of 4,900 m. The united stream Chandrabhaga flows in the north-west direction through the Pangi valley,
parallel to the Pir Panjal range. Near Kistwar, it cuts a deep gorge.
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It enters the plain area near Akhnur in Jammu and Kashmir. From here it through the plains of Pakistani Punjab to reach Panchnad where it joins
the Satluj after receiving the waters of Jhelum and Ravi rivers.
3. RAVI RIVER The Ravi has its source in Kullu hills near the Rohtang Pass in Himachal Pradesh. It drains the area between the Pir Panjal and the Dhaola Dhar ranges After crossing Chamba, it takes a south-westerly turn and cuts a deep gorge in the Dhaola
Dhar range It enters Punjab Plains near Madhopur and later enters Pakis tan below Amritsar It debouches into the Chenab a little above Rangpur in Pakistani Punjab
4. BEAS RIVER
The Beas originates near the Rohtang Pass, at a height of 4,062 m above sea level, on the southern end of the Pir Panjal Range, close to the source of the Ravi.
It crosses the Dhaola Dhar range and it takes a south- westerly direction and meets the Satluj River at Harike in Punjab.
It is a comparatively small river which is only 460 km long but lies entirely within the Indian Territory.
5. SATLUJ RIVER
The Satluj rises from the Manasarovar- Rakas Lakes in western Tibet at a height of 4,570 m within 80 km of the source of the Indus.
Like the Indus, it takes a north-westerly course up to the Shipki La on the Tibet- Himachal Pradesh boundary.
It cuts deep gorges where it pierces the Great Himalaya and the other Himalayan ranges. Before entering the Punjab plain, it cuts a gorge in Naina Devi Dhar, where the famous Bhakra
dam has been constructed. After entering the plain at Rupnagar (Ropar), it turns westwards and is joined by the Beas at
Harike. From near Ferozepur to Fazilka it forms the boundary between India and Pakistan for nearly
120 km. During its onward journey it receives the collective drainage of the Ravi, Chenab and Jhelum
rivers. It joins the Indus a few kilometres above Mithankot. Out of its total length of 1,450 km, it flows for 1,050 km in Indian Territory.
2.3.2 THE GANGA RIVER SYSTEM
Alaknanda River joins Bhagirathi at Devaprayag. From Devaprayag the river is called as Ganga. Pollution threatens many fish species and amphibian species and the endangered Ganges
river dolphin (Blind Dolphin).
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The Ganga Action Plan, an environmental initiative to clean up the river, has been a major failure thus far, due to corruption, lack of technical expertise, poor environmental planning, and lack of support from religious authorities.
It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad.
Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east. At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in
Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka). Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at
The total length of the Ganga River from its source to its mouth (measured along the Hugli) is 2,525 km.
It is joined by the Yamuna at Allahabad. Near Rajmahal Hills it turns to the south-east.
At Farraka, it bifurcates into Bhagirathi-Hugli in West Bengal and Padma-Meghna in Bangladesh (it ceases to be known as the Ganga after Farraka).
Brahmaputra (or the Jamuna as it is known here) joins Padma-Meghna at The total length of the Ganga River from its source to its mouth (measured along the Hugli) is
2,525 km.
2.3.2.1 Ganga – Brahmaputra Delta
Before entering the Bay of Bengal, the Ganga, along with the Brahmaputra, forms the largest delta of the world between the Bhagirathi/Hugli and the Padma/Meghna covering an area of 58,752 sq. km.
The coastline of delta is a highly indented area. The delta is made of a web of distributaries and islands and is covered by dense forests. A major part of the delta is a low-lying swamp which is flooded by marine water during high
tide.
2.3.2.2 RIVER VALLEY PROJECTS OF RIVER GANGA
Tehri Project It has been constructed at Tehri at the confluence of
the rivers Bhilangana and Bhagirathi.
Ramganga Project It is constructed on the river Ramganga, tributary of
Ganga.
Tanakpur Project It has been executed at Tanakpur (Uttarakhand) on
the river Kali that flows on the Indo-Nepal border.
Gandak Project It is joint project of Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Nepal.
Hydro-electricity is produced at Suratpura (Nepal) on
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the river Gandak. The dam has been built at
Bhaisalotan (Valmikinagar) in Bihar.
Kosi Project
It is a joint project of Bihar and Nepal. The main
objectives of this project are flood control, hydro-
electricity production and irrigation. Kataiya in Nepal
produced Hydro-electricity. The main canal in Bihar
has been drawn out from the Hanuman Nagar
Barrage.
Rihand Project
It has been executed at Pipri (Sonebhadra district,
Uttar Pradesh) on the river Rihand, a tributary of the
son.
Bansagar Project
It is joint project of Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh
and Bihar on the son. It has been built on the son in
the district of Shahdol in Madhya Pradesh.
Matatila Project
It is joint project of Madhya Pradesh and Uttar
Pradesh on the river Betwa. The dam has been built
in Uttar Pradesh.
Chambal Project
It is a joint undertaking by the Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh governments. The Rana Pratap Dam at
Bhata, 48 km from Kotah, was inaugurated on Feb 9,
1970. The project comprises construction of two
other dams: Gandhi Sagar Dam in Madhya Pradesh
and Jawahar Sagar (Kotah) Dam in Rajasthan.
Damodar Valley
Principal object of this multipurpose scheme is to
control the flowing of the Damodar which is
notorious for its vagaries and destructiveness. It is
designed on the lines of the Tennessee Valley
Authority (T.V.A.) in U.S.A.
Mayurakshi Project
It is joint project of undivided Bihar (Now Jharkhand)
and West Bengal. A dam has been built on the river
Mayurakshi at Masanjor in Dumka district of
Jhakhand. It is also known as the ‘Canada Dam’.
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2.3.2.3 Right Bank Tributaries of the Ganga
Most of them except Yamuna originate in the peninsular region.
1. YAMUNA RIVER Largest and the most important tributary . It originates from the Yamnotri glacier on the Bandarpunch Peak in the Garhwal region in
Uttarakhand at an elevation of about 6,000 meters. It cuts across the Nag Tibba, the Mussoorie and the Shiwalik ranges.
It emerges out of the hilly area and enters plains at Dak Pathar in Uttaranchal. Its main affluent in the upper reaches is the Tons which also rises from the Bandarpunch
glacier. At this site, the water carried by the Tons is twice the water carried by the Yamuna.
It unites with the Ganga near Triveni Sangam, Allahabad The total length of the Yamuna from its origin till Allahabad is 1,376 km.
It creates the highly fertile alluvial, Yamuna-Ganges Doab region between itself and the Ganges in the Indo-Gangetic plain.
2. CHAMBAL RIVER
The Chambal rises in the highlands of Janapao Hills (700 m) in the Vindhyan Range.
It flows through the Malwa Plateau. It joins the Yamuna in Etawah district of Uttar Pradesh.
The river flows much below its banks due to severe erosion because of poor rainfall and numerous deep ravines have been formed in the Chambal Valley, giving rise to badland
topography. {Arid Landforms} The total length of the river is 1,050 km.
Dams on the Chambal
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The Gandhi Sagar dam is the first of the four dams built on the Chambal River, located on the Rajasthan-Madhya Pradesh border.
The Rana Pratap Sagar dam is a dam located 52 km downstream of Gandhi Sagar dam on across the Chambal River in Chittorgarh district in Rajasthan.
The Jawahar Sagar Dam is the third dam in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located 29 km upstream of Kota city and 26 km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam.
The Kota Barrage is the fourth in the series of Chambal Valley Projects, located about 0.8 km upstream of Kota City in Rajasthan.
Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar dam, Rana Pratap Sagar dam and Jawahar Sagar Dams, is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya
Pradesh through canals.
3. BANAS RIVER The Banas is a tributary of the Chambal.
It originates in the southern part of the Aravalli Range. It join the Chambal on Rajasthan – Madhya Pradesh border near Sawai Madhopur.
4. SIND RIVER The Sind originates in Vidisha Plateau of Madhya Pradesh.
It flows for a distance of 415 km before it joins the Yamuna.
5. BETWA RIVER
The Betwa rises in Bhopal district (Vindhyan Range) and joins the Yamuna near Hamirpur. It has a total length of 590 km.
The Dhasan is its important tributary.
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6. KEN RIVER The Ken River rising from the Barner Range of Madhya Pradesh joins the Yamuna near Chila.
7. SON RIVER The Son River rises in the Amarkantak Plateau. Its source is close to the origin of the Narmada. It passes along the Kaimur Range. It joins the Ganga near Danapur in Patna district of Bihar. It flows for a distance of 784 km from its source. The important tributaries of the Son are the Johilla, the Gopat, the Rihand, the Kanhar and
the North Koel. Almost all the tributaries join it on its right bank.
8. DAMODAR RIVER The Damodar River rises in the hills of the Chotanagpur plateau and flows through a rift
valley. Rich in mineral resources, the valley is home to large-scale mining and industrial activity.
It has a number of tributaries and sub tributaries, such as Barakar, Konar, Bokaro, Haharo, etc.
The Barakar is the most important tributary of the Damodar. Several dams have been constructed in the valley, for the generation of hydroelectric power.
The valley is called “the Ruhr of India”.
The first dam was built across the Barakar River, a tributary of the Damodar River. It used to cause devastating floods as a result of which it earned the name ‘Sorrow of Bengal’.
Now the river is tamed by constructing numerous dams. It joins the Hugli River 48 km below Kolkata.
The total length of the river is 541 km.
2.3.2.4 Left Bank Tributaries of the Ganga River These rivers originate in the Himalayas. The major tributaries apart from the Yamuna, are the Ramganga, the Gomati, the Ghaghra,
the Gandak, the Burhi Gandak, the Bagmati, and the Kosi.
1. RAMGANGA RIVER The Ramganga River rises in the Garhwal district of Uttarakhand.
It enters the Ganga Plain near Kalagarh.
It joins the Ganga near Kanauj in Fatehgarh district. The Khoh, the Gangan, the Aril, the Kosi, and the Deoha (Gorra) are important tributaries of
Ramganga.
2. GHAGHRA RIVER Its source is near Gurla Mandhata peak, south of Manasarovar in Tibet (river of the trans-
Himalayan origin). It is known as the Karnaili in Western Nepal.
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Its important tributaries are the Sarda, the Sarju (Ayodhya is located on its bank) and the Rapti.
The Ghaghara joins the Ganga a few kilometres downstream of Chhapra in Bihar. After reaching the plain area, its stream gets divided into many branches of which, Koriyab
and Garwa are important. The river bed is sandy and sudden bends start occurring in the stream.
The river has a high flood frequency and has shifted its course several times.
3. KALI RIVER Rises in the high glaciers of trans-Himalaya. It forms the boundary between Nepal and Kumaon. It is known as the Sarda after it reaches the plains near Tanakpur.
4. GANDAK RIVER Originates near the Tibet-Nepal border at a height of 7,620 m
It receives a large number of tributaries in Nepal Himalaya. Its important tributaries are the Kali Gandak, the Mayangadi, the Bari and the Trishuli.
It flows into Ganga at Hajipur in Bihar.
5. BURHI GANDAK Originates from the western slopes of Sumesar hills near the India-Nepal border.
It joins the Ganga near Monghyr town.
6. KOSI RIVER The Kosi River consists of seven streams namely Sut Kosi, Tamba Kosi, Talkha, Doodh Kosi,
Botia Kosi, Arun and Tamber and is popularly known as Sapt Kosi in Nepal. These streams flow through eastern Nepal which is known as the Sapt Kaushik region. The sources of seven streams of the Kosi are located in snow covered areas which also receive
heavy rainfall. Consequently, huge volume of water flows with tremendous speed. Seven streams mingle with each other to form three streams named the Tumar, Arun and
Sun Kosi. They unite at Triveni north of the Mahabharata Range to form the Kosi.
The river enters the Tarai of Nepal after cutting a narrow gorge in the Mahabharata Range. Joins Ganga near Kursela. Soon after debouching onto the plain the river becomes sluggish. Large scale deposition of eroded material takes place in the plain region. The river channel is braided and it shifts its course frequently. This has resulted in frequent
devastating floods and has converted large tracts of cultivable land into waste land in Bihar. Thus the river is often termed as the ‘Sorrow of Bihar’.
In order to tame this river, a barrage was constructed in 1965 near Hanuman Nagar in Nepal. Embankments for flood control have been constructed as a joint venture of India and Nepal.
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2.3.3 THE BRAHMAPUTRA RIVER SYSTEM
The Brahmaputra (meaning the son of Brahma). It is 2,900 km in length. Source: Chemayungdung glacier (Kailas Range) at an elevation of about 5,150 m. Its source is
very close to the sources of Indus and Satluj. Mariam La separates the source of the Brahmaputra from the Manasarovar Lake. Brahmaputra flows eastwards in Southern Tibet for about 1,800 km. In Tibet it passes through the depression formed by the Indus-Tsangpo Structure Zone
between the Great Himalayas in the south and the Kailas Range in the north. In spite of the exceptionally high altitude, the Tsangpo has a gentle slope. The river is
sluggish and has a wide navigable channel for about 640 km.
It receives a large number of tributaries in Tibet. The first major tributary is the Raga Tsangpo
meeting the Tsangpo near Lhatse Dzong. The river Ngangchu flows through the trade centre of Gyantse in the south and joins the main
river.
Towards the end of its journey in Tibet, its course abruptly takes a south ward turn around Namcha Barwa (7,756 m) (Syntaxial Bend).
Here it cuts across the eastern Himalaya through the Dihang or Siang Gorge and emerges from the mountains near Sadiya in the Assam Valley.
Here it first flows under the name of Siong and then as the Dihang. In the north-eastern parts of Assam Valley, it is joined by two important tributaries viz, the
Dibang (or Sikang) from the north and Lohit from the south. The main streams merging with the Brahmaputra from the north are, Subansiri, Kameng,
Dhansiri (north), Raidak, Tista etc.
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The Tista was a tributary of the Ganga prior to the floods of 1787 after which it diverted its course eastwards to join the Brahmaputra.
The Brahmaputra has a braided channel (flow into shallow interconnected channels divided by deposited earth) for most of its passage through Assam where channels keep shifting. It
carries a lot of silt and there is excessive meandering. The river is nearly 16 km wide at Dibrugarh and forms many islands, the most important of
which is MAJULI. It is 90 km long and measures 20 km at its widest. With rainfall concentrated during the monsoon months only the river has to carry enormous
quantities of water and silt which results in disastrous floods. The Brahmaputra is thus truly a River of Sorrow.
The river is navigable for a distance of 1,384 km up to Dibrugarh from its mouth and serves as an excellent inland water transport route.
Brahmaputra bends southwards and enters Bangladesh near Dhubri. It flows for a distance of 270 km in the name of Jamuna river and joins the Ganga at
The united stream of the Jamuna and the Ganga flows further in the name of Padma. About 105 km further downstream, the Padma is joined on the left bank by the Meghna,
originating in the mountainous region of Assam. From the confluence of Padma and Meghna, the combined river is known as
the Meghna which makes a very broad estuary before pouring into the Bay of Bengal
Region Name
Tibet Tsangpo (meaning ‘The Purifier’)
China Yarlung Zangbo Jiangin
Assam Valley Dihang or Siong, South of Sadiya: Brahmaputra
Bangladesh
Jamuna River
Padma River: Combined Waters of Ganga and Brahmaputra
Meghana: From the confluence of Padma and Meghna.
2.3.3.1 DAMS BUILT ON THE BRAHMAPUTRA BASIN
Name Purpose River State Type
Doyang Hep Dam Hydroelectric, Drinking / Water Supply
Doyang Nagaland Earthen
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Karbi Langpi Dam Hydroelectric Borpani Assam Gravity & Masonry
Khandong Dam Hydroelectric Kopili Meghalaya Earthen
Kyrdemkulai (Umiam
st-III) Dam
Hydroelectric, Irrigation,
Drinking / Water Supply Umtru Meghalaya Gravity & Masonry
Nongkhyllem Dam Hydroelectric Umtru Meghalaya -
Ranganadi Dam Hydroelectric Arunachal Pradesh
Gravity & Masonry
Rangit III Dam Hydroelectric, Drinking / Water Supply
Rangit Sikkim Gravity & Masonry
Rangpo Dam Hydroelectric Rongpo Sikkim -
Rongli Dam Hydroelectric Rongli Sikkim -
Subansiri Lower HE
(Nhpc) Dam Hydroelectric Subansiri
Arunachal
Pradesh Gravity & Masonry
Teesta -V (NHPC)
Dam Hydroelectric Teesta Sikkim Gravity & Masonry
Teesta-III Dam Teesta Sikkim Rockfill
Teesta-III Lower Dam Hydroelectric Teesta West Bengal Gravity & Masonry
Teesta-IV Dam Not mentioned Teesta Sikkim Gravity & Masonry
Teesta-IV Lower Dam Hydroelectric Teesta West Bengal Gravity & Masonry
Umiam Dam Hydroelectric Umiam Meghalaya Earthen / Gravity & Masonry
Umrong Dam Hydroelectric Umrong Assam Earthen
Umtru Dam Hydroelectric,Irrigation,Drinking / Water Supply
Umtru Meghalaya Earthen / Gravity & Masonry
2.4 Himalayan River System vs. Peninsular River System
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Himalayan Rivers Peninsular Rivers
Origin These rivets originate from the lofty Himalayan ranges and are named as the Himalayan rivers.
These rivers originate in the Peninsular Plateau and are named as Peninsular rivers.
Catchment area
These rivers have large basins and
catchment areas. The total basin area of the Indus, the Ganga and the Brahmaputra
is 11.78, 8.61 and 5.8 lakh square kilometres respectively.
These rivers have small basins and
catchment areas. The Godavari has the largest basin area of 3.12 lakh square
kilometres only which is less than one-third the basin area of the Indus.
Valleys
The Himalayan rivers flow through deep V – shaped valleys called gorges. These
gorges have been carved out by down
cutting carried on side by side with the uplift of the Himalayas.
The Peninsular rivers flow in comparatively shallow valleys. These are
more or less completely graded valleys.
The rivers have little erosional activity to perform.
Drainage Type
These are examples of antecedent drainage.
These are examples of consequent drainage.
Water Flow
The Himalayan rivers are perennial in nature, i.e., water flows throughout the year in these rivers. These rivers receive water both from the monsoons and snow-melt. The perennial nature of these rivers makes them useful for irrigation.
The Peninsular rivers receive water only from rainfall and water flows in these rivers in rainy season only. Therefore, these rivers are seasonal or non-perennial. As such these rivers are much less useful for irrigation.
Stage These rivers flow across the young fold mountains and are still in a youthful stage.
These rivers have been flowing in one of the oldest plateaus of the world and have
reached maturity.
Meanders
The upper reaches of the Himalayan rivers
are highly tortuous. When they enter the plains, there is a sudden reduction in the speed of flow of water. Under these circumstances these rivers form meanders and often shift their beds.
The hard rock surface and non-alluvial character of the plateau permits little scope for the formation of meanders. As such, the rivers of the Peninsular Plateau follow more or less straight courses.
Deltas and
Estuaries
The Himalayan rivers form big deltas at their mouths. The Ganga-Brahmaputra
delta is the largest in the world.
Some of the Peninsular rivers, such as the Narmada and
the Tapi form estuaries.
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2.5 PENINSULAR RIVER SYSTEM Peninsular rivers are much older than the Himalayan Rivers.
The peninsular drainage is mainly Concordant except for few rivers in the Upper Peninsula region. They are non-perennial rivers with a maximum discharge in the rainy season.
The peninsular rivers have reached mature stage {Fluvial Landforms} and have almost reached their base level. [Vertical down cutting is negligible] which are characterized by broad and shallow valleys.
The river banks have gentle slopes except for a limited tract where faulting forms steep sides. The main water divide in peninsular rivers is formed by the Western Ghats, which run from
north to south close to the western coast. The velocity of water in the rivers and the load carrying capacity of the streams is low due to
low gradient. Most of the major rivers of the peninsula such as the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna
and the Cauvery flow eastwards and drain into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers make deltas at their mouths.
But the west flowing rivers of Narmada and Tapi as well as those originating from the Western Ghats and falling in the Arabian Sea form estuaries in place of deltas.
There are few places where rivers form superimposed and rejuvenated drainage which are represented by waterfalls.
Examples: The Jog on the Sharavati (289 m), Yenna of Mahabaleshwar (183 m), Sivasamundram on the Cauvery (101 m), Gokak on the Gokak (55 m), Kapildhara (23 m) and Dhuandar (15 m) on the Narmada are the major waterfalls in the Peninsular India.
Rivers that drain into Bay of Bengal: The Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna, the Cauvery and several smaller rivers drains south-east into the Bay of Bengal.
Rivers that drain into Arabian Sea: The Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahi flowing west as well as several small streams originating from the Western Ghats flow westwards into the Arabian Sea.
Rivers that drain into the Ganges: Tributaries of the Ganga and the Yamuna such as the
Chambal, the Betwa, the Ken, the Son and the Damodar flow in the north-easterly direction.
East Flowing Peninsular Rivers 1. Mahanadi River
Other rivers such as the Mahanadi, the
Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery form deltas.
Several small streams originating from the Western Ghats and flowing towards the west enter the Arabian Sea without
forming any delta.
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2. Godavari River 3. Krishna River 4. Kaveri (Cauvery) River 5. Pennar River
6. Subarnarekha River 7. Brahmani River
8. Sarada River 9. Ponnaiyar River
10. Vaigai River
West Flowing Peninsular Rivers 1. Narmada River
2. Tapti River 3. Sabarmati River
4. Mahi River 5. Luni River
6. Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage
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2.5.1 EVOLUTION OF THE PENINSULAR DRAINAGE
A. Theory 1 Geologists believe that the Sahyadri- Aravalli axis was the main water divide in the past. According to one hypothesis, the existing peninsula is the remaining half of bigger landmass. The Western Ghats were located in the middle of this landmass. So one drainage was towards east flowing into Bay of Bengal and the other towards west
draining into Arabian Sea.
The western part of the Peninsula cracked and submerged in the Arabian Sea during the early Tertiary period (coinciding with the formation of Himalayas).
During the collision of the Indian plate, the peninsular block was subjected to subsidence in few regions creating a series of rifts (trough, faults).
The now west flowing rivers of the Peninsula, namely the Narmada and the Tapi flow through these rifts.
Straight coastline, steep western slope of the Western Ghats, and the absence of delta
formations on the western coast makes this theory a possibility. B. Theory2
It is believed that the west flowing peninsular rivers do not flow in the valleys formed by the rivers themselves.
Rather they have occupied two fault rifts in rocks running parallel to the Vindhyas.
These faults are supposed to be caused by bend of the northern part of the Peninsula at the time of upheaval of the Himalayas.
Peninsular block, south of the cracks, tilted slightly eastwards during the event thus giving the orientation to the entire drainage towards the Bay of Bengal.
Criticism: Tilting should have increased the gradient of the river valleys and caused some rejuvenation of the rivers. This type of phenomenon is absent in the Peninsula, barring a few exceptions such as waterfalls
2.5.2 Mahanadi River
The Mahanadi basin extends over states of Chhattisgarh and Odisha and comparatively smaller portions of Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh, draining an area of 1.4 lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Central India hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and
east and by the Maikala range on the west. The Mahanadi (“Great River”) follows a total course of 560 miles (900 km).
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It has its source in the northern foothills of Dandakaranya in Raipur District of Chhattisgarh at an elevation of 442 m.
The Mahanadi is one of the major rivers of
the peninsular rivers, in water potential and flood producing capacity, it ranks second to
the Godavari. Other small streams between the Mahanadi
and the Rushikulya draining directly into the Chilka Lake also forms the part of the basin.
The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 54.27% of the
total area. It is one of the most-active silt-depositing
streams in the Indian subcontinent. After receiving the Seonath River, it turns east and enters Odisha state.
At Sambalpur the Hirakud Dam (one of the largest dams in India) on the river has formed a man-made lake 35 miles (55 km) long.
It enters the Odisha plains near Cuttack and enters the Bay of Bengal at False Point by several channels.
Puri, at one of its mouths, is a famous pilgrimage site.
Its upper course lies in the saucer-shaped basin called the ‘Chhattisgarh Plain’. This basin is surrounded by hills on the north, west and south as a result of which a large
number of tributaries join the main river from these sides.
Tributaries of Mahanadi Left bank Tributaries: The Seonath, the Hasdeo, the Mand and the Ib.
Right bank Tributaries: The Ong, the Tel and the Jonk.
Projects on Mahanadi River Two important projects completed during pre-plan period in the basin are the Mahanadi
main canal and Tandula reservoir in Chhattisgarh. During the plan period, the Hirakud dam, Mahanadi delta project, Hasdeo Bango, Mahanadi
Reservoir Project were completed.
Industry in Mahanadi River Basin Three important urban centres in the basin are Raipur, Durg and Cuttack. Mahanadi basin, because of its rich mineral resource and adequate power resource, has a
favourable industrial climate. The Important industries presently existing in the basin are the Iron and Steel plant at
Bhilai, aluminium factories at Hirakud and Korba, paper mill near Cuttack and cement factory at Sundargarh.
Other industries based primarily on agricultural produce are sugar and textile mills. Mining of coal, iron and manganese are other industrial activities.
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Floods in Mahanadi River Basin
The basin is subject to severe flooding occasionally in the delta area due to inadequate carrying capacity of the channels.
The multi-purpose Hirakud dam provides some amount of flood relief by storing part of flood water.
However, the problem still persists and a lasting solution need to be evolved.
2.5.3 Godavari River
The Godavari is the largest river system of the Peninsular India and is
revered as Dakshina Ganga. The Godavari basin extends over
states of Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Chhattisgarh and Odisha in addition to smaller parts in Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Union territory of Puducherry (Yanam) having a total area of ~ 3 lakh Sq.km.
The basin is bounded by Satmala hills, the Ajanta range and the Mahadeo hills on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
The Godavari River rises
from Trimbakeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra about 80 km from the Arabian Sea at an elevation of 1,067 m.
The total length of Godavari from its origin to outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,465 km.
Tributaries of Godavari River The left bank tributaries are more in number and larger in size than the right bank tributaries.
The Manjra (724 km) is the only important right bank tributary. It joins the Godavari after passing through the Nizam Sagar.
Left Bank Tributaries: Dharna, Penganga, Wainganga, Wardha, Pranahita [conveying the combined waters of Penganga, the Wardha and Wainganga], Pench, Kanhan, Sabari,
Indravati etc. Right Bank Tributaries: Pravara, Mula, Manjra, Peddavagu, Maner etc.
Below Rajahmundry, the river divides itself into two main streams, the Gautami Godavari on the east and the Vashishta Godavari on the west and forms a large delta before it pours into
the Bay of Bengal. The delta of the Godavari is of lobate type with a round bulge and many distributaries.
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Mineral Resources in Godavari Basin The upper reaches of the Godavari drainage basin are occupied by the Deccan
Traps containing minerals like magnetite, epidote, biotite, zircon, chlorite etc (metallic minerals)..
The middle part of the basin is principally composed of phyllites, quartzites, amphiboles and granites (rocks).
The downstream part of the middle basin is occupied mainly by sediments and rocks of the Gondwana group.
The Gondwanas are principally detritals (waste or debris, in particular organic matter produced by decomposition or loose matter produced by erosion) with some thick coal
seams. [Singareni Coal Seam] The Eastern Ghats dominate the lower part of the drainage basin and are formed mainly from
the Khondalites. Projects on Godavari River
Important projects completed during the plan period are Srirama Sagar, Godavari barrage, Upper Penganga, Jaikwadi, Upper Wainganga, Upper Indravati, Upper Wardha.
Among the on-going projects, the prominent ones are Prnahita-Chevala and Polavaram.
Industry in Godavari Basin The major urban Centres in the basin are Nagpur, Aurangabad, Nashik, and Rajhmundry.
Nashik and Aurangabad have large number of industries especially automobile.
Other than this, the industries in the basin are mostly based on agricultural produce such as rice milling, cotton spinning and weaving, sugar and oil extraction.
Cement and some small engineering industries also exist in the basin.
Floods and Droughts in Godavari Basin Godavari basin faces flooding problem in its lower reaches.
The coastal areas are cyclone-prone. The delta areas face drainage congestion due to flat topography.
A large portion of Maharashtra falling (Marathwada) in the basin is drought prone.
2.5.4 Krishna River
The Krishna is the second largest east flowing river of the Peninsula.
The Krishna Basin extends over Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka having a total area of ~2.6 lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by Balaghat range on the north, by the Eastern Ghats on the south and the east and by the Western Ghats on the west.
The Krishna River rises from the Western Ghats near Jor village of Satara district of Maharashtra at an altitude of 1,337 m just north of Mahabaleshwar.
The total length of river from origin to its outfall into the Bay of Bengal is 1,400 km. The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 75.86% of the total
area.
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The Krishna forms a large delta with a shoreline of about 120 km. The Krishna delta appears to merge with that formed by the Godavari and
extends about 35 km into the sea.
Tributaries of Krishna River Right bank: the Ghatprabha, the
Malprabha and the Tungabhadra. Left Bank: the Bhima, the Musi and
the Munneru. The Koyna is a small tributary but is
known for Koyna Dam. This dam was perhaps the main cause of the
devastating earthquake (6.4 on Richter scale) in 1967 that killed 150 people.
The Bhima originates from the Matheron Hills and joins the Krishna near Raichur after for a distance of 861 km.
The Tungabhadra is formed by the unification of the Tunga and the Bhadra originating from Gangamula in the Central Sahyadri. Its total length is 531 km.
At Wazirabad, it receives its last important tributary, the Musi, on whose banks the city of
Hyderabad is located.
Projects on Krishna River Important ones are the Tungabhadra, Ghataprabha, Nagarjunasagar, Malaprabha, Bhima,
Bhadra and Telugu Ganga. The major Hydro Power stations in the basin are Koyna, Tungabhadara, Sri Sailam,
Nagarjuna Sagar, Almatti, Naryanpur, and Bhadra. Tunagabhadra is a major inter-States project in the basin. In order to operate the project and
to regulate the flows among the beneficiary States of Karnataka and Andhara Pradesh.
Resources in Krishna Basin The basin has rich mineral deposits and there is good potential for industrial development.
Iron and steel, cement, sugar cane, vegetable oil extraction and rice milling are important industrial activities at present in the basin.
Recently oil has been struck in this basin which is bound to have an effect on the future industrial scenario of this basin. Industry in Krishna Basin
The major Urban Centres in the Basin are Pune, Hyderabad.
Hyderabad is the state capital of Telangana and is now a major IT hub. Pune in Maharashtra has number of automobile and IT industry and is major education
centre.
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Drought and Floods in Krishna Basin Some parts of the basin, especially the Rayalaseema area of Andhra Pradesh, Bellary,
Raichur, Dharwar, Chitradurga, Belgaum and Bijapur districts of Karnataka and Pune, Sholapur, Osmanabad and Ahmednagar districts of Maharashtra are drought-prone.
The delta area of the basin is subject to flooding. It has been observed that the river bed in delta area is continuously raised due to silt deposition resulting in reduction in carrying
capacity of the channel. The coastal cyclonic rainfall of high intensity and short duration makes the flood problem
worse.
2.5.5 Cauvery River
The Kaveri (Cauvery) is designated as the ‘Dakshina Ganga’ or ‘the
Ganga of the South’. The Cauvery River rises at an
elevation of 1,341 m at Talakaveri on the Brahmagiri range near Cherangala village of Kodagu (Coorg) district of Karnataka.
The total length of the river from origin to outfall is 800 km.
The Cauvery basin extends over states of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Kerala and Union Territory of Puducherry draining an area of 81
thousand Sq.km. It is bounded by the Western Ghats
on the west, by the Eastern Ghats on the east and the south and by the ridges separating it from Krishna basin and Pennar basin on the north.
The Nilgiris, an offshore of Western Ghats, extend Eastwards to the Eastern Ghats and divide the basin into two natural and political regions i.e., Karnataka plateau in the North and the
Tamil Nadu plateau in the South. Physiographically, the basin can be divided into three parts – the Western Ghats, the Plateau
of Mysore and the Delta. The delta area is the most fertile tract in the basin. The principal soil types found in the basin
are black soils, red soils, laterites, alluvial soils, forest soils and mixed soils. Red soils occupy large areas in the basin. Alluvial soils are found in the delta areas.
The basin in Karnataka receives rainfall mainly from the S-W Monsoon and partially from N-E Monsoon. The basin in Tamil Nadu receives good flows from the North-East Monsoon.
Its upper catchment area receives rainfall during summer by the south-west monsoon and the lower catchment area during winter season by the retreating north-east monsoon.
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It is, therefore almost a perennial river with comparatively less fluctuations in flow and is very useful for irrigation and hydroelectric power generation.
Thus the Cauvery is one of the best regulated rivers and 90 to 95 per cent of its irrigation and power production potential already stands harnessed.
The river drains into the Bay of Bengal. The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 66.21% of the total area.
Tributaries of the Cauvery River
Left Bank: the Harangi, the Hemavati, the Shimsha and the Arkavati. Right Bank: Lakshmantirtha, the Kabbani, the Suvarnavati, the Bhavani, the Noyil and
the Amaravati joins from right. The river descends from the South Karnataka Plateau to the Tamil Nadu Plains through
the Sivasamudram waterfalls (101 m high). At Shivanasamudram, the river branches off into two parts and falls through a height of 91 m.
in a series of falls and rapids. The falls at this point is utilized for power generation by the power station at
Shivanasamudram. The two branches of the river join after the fall and flow through a wide gorge which is known
as ‘Mekedatu’ (Goats leap) and continues its journey to form the boundary between Karnataka and Tamil Nadu States for a distance of 64 km.
At Hogennekkal Falls, it takes Southerly direction and enters the Mettur Reservoir.
A tributary called Bhavani joins Cauvery on the Right bank about 45 Kms below Mettur Reservoir. Thereafter it enters the plains of Tamil Nadu.
Two more tributaries Noyil and Amaravathi join on the right bank and here the river widens with sandy bed and flows as ‘Akhanda Cauvery’.
Immediately after crossing Tiruchirapalli district, the river divides into two parts, the Northern branch being called ‘The Coleron’ and Southern branch remains as Cauvery and from here
the Cauvery Delta begins. After flowing for about 16 Kms, the two branches join again to form ‘Srirangam Island’.
On the Cauvery branch lies the “Grand Anicut” said to have been constructed by a Chola King in 1st Century A.D.
Below the Grand Anicut, the Cauvery branch splits into two, Cauvery and Vennar. These branches divide and sub-divide into small branches and form a network all over the
delta.
Floods in Cauvery Basin The Cauvery basin is fan shaped in Karnataka and leaf shaped in Tamil Nadu. The run-off does
not drain off quickly because of its shape and therefore no fast raising floods occur in the basin.
Projects on Cauvery River During the pre-plan period many projects were completed in this basin which
included Krishnarajasagar in Karnataka, Mettur dam and Cauvery delta system in Tamil Nadu.
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Lower Bhavani, Hemavati, Harangi, Kabini are important projects completed duing the plan period. Industry in Cauvery Basin
The city of Bangalore is situated just outside this basin. Important industries in the basin include cotton textile industry in Coimbatore and Mysore,
cement factories in Coimbatore and Trichinapally and industries based on mineral and metals.
The Salem steel plant and many engineering industries in Coimbatore and Trichinapally are also situated in this basin.
2.5.6 Pennar River
The Pennar (also known as Uttara
Pinakini) is one of the major rivers of the peninsula.
The Pennar rises in the Chenna Kasava hill of the Nandidurg range, in Chikkaballapura district of Karnataka and flows towards east eventually draining into the Bay of Bengal.
The total length of the river from origin to its outfall in the Bay of Bengal is 597 km.
Located in peninsular India, the Pennar basin extends over states
of Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka having an area of ~55 thousand Sq.km
The fan shaped basin is bounded by the Erramala range on the north, by the Nallamala and Velikonda ranges of the Eastern Ghats on the east, by the Nandidurg
hills on the south and by the narrow ridge separating it from the Vedavati valley of the Krishna Basin on the west.
The other hill ranges in the basin to the south of the river are the Seshachalam [famous for Red Sanders] and Paliconda ranges.
The major part of basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 58.64% of the total area.
Tributaries of Pennar River Left Bank: the Jayamangali, the Kunderu and the
Right bank: the Chiravati, the Papagni etc.
Projects on Pennar River Tungabhadra high level canal in Krishna basin irrigated areas in Pennar basin also. The only
major project in the basin is the Somasila project.
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Industry in Pennar Basin
The only important town in the basin is Nellore With limited water and power potential and mineral resources, the scope for industrial
development is limited in the basin. There are no major industries. The existing small industries are mostly based on agricultural
produce such as cotton weaving, sugar mills, oil mills, rice mills etc.
2.5.7 Subarnarekha
The Subarnarekha originates from the Ranchi Plateau in Jharkhand forming the boundary between West Bengal and Odisha in its lower course.
It joins Bay of Bengal forming an estuary between the Ganga and Mahanadi deltas. Its total length is 395 km.
2.5.8 Brahamani River
The Brahmani River comes into existence by the confluence of the Koel and the Sankh rivers near Rourkela. It has a total length of 800 km.
The basin is bounded in the North by Chhotanagpur plateau, in the West and South by the Mahanadi basin and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
The basin flows through Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Orissa States and drains into Bay of Bengal.
2.5.9 Ponnaiyar River
The Ponnaiyar is a small stream which is confined to the coastal area only. It covers a small area in the state of Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh.
The Basin is bounded on the North -West and South by various ranges of the Eastern Ghats like the Velikonda Range, the Nagari hills, the Javadu hills, the Shevaroy hills, the Chitteri hills
and the Kalrayan hills and in the East by the Bay of Bengal.
2.5.10 Vaigai River
South of the Cauvery delta, there are several streams, of which the Vaigai is the longest. The Vaigai basin is an important basin among the 12 basins lying between the Cauvery and
Kanyakumari. This basin is bounded by the Varushanadu hills, the Andipatti hills, the Cardaman hills and the
Palani hills on the West and by the Palk Strait and Palk Bay on the East. The Vaigai drains an area of 7,741 Sq.Km, which entirely lies in the state of Tamil Nadu.
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2.5.11 West Flowing Peninsular Rivers
The west flowing rivers of the Peninsular India are fewer and smaller as compared to their east flowing counterparts.
The two major west flowing rivers are the Narmada and the Tapi. This exceptional behaviour is because these rivers didn’t form valleys and instead they flow
through faults (linear rift, rift valley, and trough) created due to the bending of the northern peninsula during the formation process of Himalayas.
These faults run parallel to the Vindhyas and the Satpuras. The Sabarmati, Mahi and Luni are other rivers of the Peninsular India which flow westwards. Hundreds of small streams originating in the Western Ghats flow swiftly westwards and join
the Arabian Sea. It is interesting to note that the Peninsular Rivers which fall into the Arabian Sea do not form
deltas, but only estuaries. {Fluvial Depositional Landforms} This is due to the fact that the west flowing rivers, especially the Narmada and the Tapi flow
through hard rocks and hence do not carry any good amount of silt. Moreover, the tributaries of these rivers are very small and hence they don’t contribute any
silt. Hence these rivers are not able to form distributaries or a delta before they enter the sea.
Estuary
An estuary is a partially enclosed body of water along the coast where freshwater from rivers and streams meets and mixes with salt water from the ocean. [Primary productivity in estuaries is very high. Fishing is a dominant occupation around estuaries. Most of the estuaries are good bird sanctuaries].
Estuaries and the lands surrounding them are places of transition from land to sea and freshwater to salt water.
Although influenced by the tides, they are protected from the full force of ocean waves,
winds, and storms by such land forms as barrier islands or peninsulas. Estuarine environments are among the most productive on earth, creating more organic
matter each year than comparably-sized areas of forest, grassland, or agricultural land.
The tidal, sheltered waters of estuaries also support unique communities of plants and animals especially adapted for life at the margin of the sea.
Estuaries have important commercial value and their resources provide economic benefits for tourism, fisheries, and recreational activities.
The protected coastal waters of estuaries also support important public infrastructure, serving as harbours and ports vital for shipping and transportation.
Estuaries also perform other valuable services. Water draining from uplands carries sediments, nutrients, and other pollutants to estuaries. As the water flows through wetlands
such as swamps and salt marshes, much of the sediments and pollutants are filtered out. Salt marsh grasses and other estuarine plants also help prevent erosion and stabilize
shorelines.
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2.5.11.1 Narmada River Narmada is the largest
west flowing river of the peninsular India.
Narmada flows westwards through a rift
valley between the Vindhyan Range on the
north and the Satpura Range on the south.
It rises from Maikala range near Amarkantak in Madhya Pradesh, at an elevation of about 1057 m.
Narmada basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh having an area ~1 Lakh Sq.km.
It is bounded by the Vindhyas on the north, Maikala range on the east, Satpuras on the south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
Its total length from its source in Amarkantak to its estuary in the Gulf of Khambhat is 1,310
km. The hilly regions are in the upper part of the basin, and lower middle reaches are broad and
fertile areas well suited for cultivation. Jabalpur is the only important urban centre in the basin.
The river slopes down near Jabalpur where it cascades (a small waterfall, especially one in a series) 15 m into a gorge to form the Dhuan Dhar (Cloud of Mist) Falls.
Since the gorge is composed of marble, it is popularly known as the Marble Rocks. It makes two waterfalls of 12 m each at Mandhar and Dardi. Near Maheshwar the river again
descends from another small fall of 8 m, known as the Sahasradhara Falls. There are several islands in the estuary of the Narmada of which Aliabet is the largest.
The Narmada is navigable up to 112 km from its mouth. Tributaries of Narmada River
Since the river flows through a narrow valley confined by precipitous (dangerously high or steep) hills, it does not have many tributaries.
The absence of tributaries is especially noted on the right bank of the river where the Hiran is the only exception.
The other right bank tributaries are the Orsang, the Barna and the Kolar. A few left bank tributaries drain the northern slopes of the Satpura Range and join the
Narmada at different places. The major Hydro Power Project in the basin are Indira Sagar, Sardar Sarovar, Omkareshwar,
and Bargi & Maheshwar.
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2.5.11.2 Tapti River
The Tapti (also known as the Tapi) is the second largest west flowing river of the Peninsular India and is known as ‘the twin’ or ‘the handmaid’ of the Narmada.
It originates near Multai reserve forest in Madhya Pradesh at an elevation of 752 m.
Flows for about 724 km before
out falling into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Cambay [Gulf
of Khambhat]. The Tapti River along with its tributaries flows over the plains of Vidharbha, Khandesh and
Gujarat and over large areas in the state of Maharashtra and a small area in Madhya Pradesh and Gujarat.
The basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra and Gujarat having an area of ~ 65,000 Sq.km
Situated in the Deccan plateau, the basin is bounded by the Satpura range on the north, Mahadev hills on the east, Ajanta Range and the Satmala hills on the south and by the Arabian Sea on the west.
The hilly region of the basin is well forested while the plains are broad and fertile areas suitable for cultivation.
There are two well defined physical regions, in the basin, viz hilly region and plains; the hilly regions comprising Satpura, Satmalas, and Mahadeo, Ajanta and Gawilgarh hills are well forested.
The plain covers the Khandesh areas (Khandesh is a region of central India, which forms the north-western portion of Maharashtra state) which are broad and fertile suitable for cultivation primarily. Tributaries of Tapti River
Right Bank: the Suki, the Gomai, the Arunavati and the Aner. Left Bank: the Vaghur, the Amravati, the Buray, the Panjhra, the Bori, the Girna, the Purna,
the Mona and the Sipna.
Projects on Tapti River
Hathnur Dam of Upper Tapi Project (Maharashtra) Kakrapar weir and Ukai Dam of Ukai Project (Gujarat)
Girna Dam and Dahigam Weir of Girna Project (Maharashtra) Industry in the Tapti Basin
Important industries in the basin are textile factories in Surat and paper and news print factory at Nepanagar.
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2.5.11.3 Sabarmati River The Sabarmati is the name given to the combined streams the Sabar and Hathmati.
The Sabarmati basin extends over states of Rajasthan and Gujarat having an area of 21,674 sq. km.
The basin is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and north-east, by Rann of Kutch on the west and by Gulf of Khambhat on the south.
The basin is roughly triangular in shape with the Sabarmati River as the base and the source of the Vatrak River as the apex point.
Sabarmati originates from Aravalli hills at an elevation of 762 m near village Tepur, in Udaipur district of Rajasthan.
The total length of river from origin to outfall into the Arabian Sea is 371 km. The major part of basin is covered with agriculture accounting to 74.68% of the total area.
Rainfall varies from a meagre few mm in Saurastra to over 1000 mm in southern part. Left bank tributaries: the Wakal, the Hathmati and the Vatrak. Right bank tributaries: the Sei. Projects: Sabarmati reservoir (Dharoi), Hathmati reservoir and Meshwo reservoir project are
major projects completed during the plan period.
Industry in Sabarmati Basin
Gandhinagar and Ahmedabad are the important urban centres in the basin. Ahmedabad is an industrial city situated on the banks of Sabarmati.
Important industries are textiles, leather and leather goods, plastic, rubber goods, paper, newsprint, automobile, machine tools, drugs and pharmaceuticals etc.
The industrial city of Ahmedabad poses the danger of water pollution.
2.5.11.4 Mahi River The Mahi basin extends over states of Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan and Gujarat having total
area of 34,842 sq. km. It is bounded by Aravalli hills on the north and the north-west, by Malwa Plateau on the east,
by the Vindhyas on the south and by the Gulf of Khambhat on the west. Mahi is one of the major interstate west flowing rivers of India. It originates from the northern slopes of Vindhyas at an altitude of 500 m in Dhar district of
Madhya Pradesh. The total length of Mahi is 583 km.
It drains into the Arabian Sea through the Gulf of Khambhat. The major part of basin is covered with agricultural land accounting to 63.63% of the total
area Hydro Power stations are located in Mahi Bajaj Sagar dam and at Kadana Dam.
Vadodara is the only important urban centre in the basin. There are not many industries in the basin.
Some of the industries are cotton textile, paper, newsprint, drugs and pharmaceuticals. Most of these industries are located at Tatlam.
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2.5.11.5 Luni River The Luni or the Salt River (Lonari or Lavanavari in Sanskrit) is named so because its water is
brackish below Balotra. Luni is the only river basin of any significance in Western Rajasthan, which form the bulk of
arid zone. Luni originates from western slopes of the Aravalli ranges at an elevation of 772 m
near Ajmer flowing in South West direction and traversing a course of 511 km in Rajasthan, it finally flow into the Rann of Kachchh (it gets lost in the marsh).
Most of its tributaries drain the steep north west of Aravalli hills and join it on left side. Its total catchment area falls in Rajasthan.
The peculiarity of this river is that it tends to increase its width rather than deepening the bed because the banks are of soils, which are easily erodible whereas beds are of sand. The
floods develop and disappear so rapidly that they have no time to scour the bed.
2.5.12 West flowing Rivers of the Sahyadris (Western Ghats)
About six hundred small streams originate from the Western Ghats and flow westwards to fall into the Arabian Sea.
The western slopes of the Western Ghats receive heavy rainfall from the south-west
monsoons and are able to feed such a large number of streams. Although only about 3% of the areal extent flow swiftly down the steep slope and some of
them make waterfalls. The Jog or Gersoppa Falls (289 m) made by the Sharavati river is the most famous waterfall
of India.
2.5.12.1 Ghaggar River – Inland Drainage Some rivers of India are not able to reach the sea and constitute inland drainage.
Large parts of the Rajasthan desert and parts of Aksai Chin in Ladakh have inland drainage. The Ghaggar is the most important river of inland drainage. It is a seasonal stream which rises
on the lower slopes of the Himalayas and forms boundary between Haryana and Punjab. It gets lost in the dry sands of Rajasthan near Hanumangarh after traversing a distance of
465 km. Earlier, this river was an affluent of the Indus, the dry bed of the old channel is s till traceable. Its main tributaries are the Tangri, the Markanda, the Saraswati and the Chaitanya. It contains a lot more water in rainy season when its bed becomes 10 km wide at places. Most of the streams draining western slopes of the Aravalli Range dry up immediately after
they enter the sandy arid areas to the west of this range.
Usability of Rivers Source of fresh water, irrigation, hydro-electric production, navigation etc.
The Himalayas, Vindhyas, Satpuras, Aravalis, Maikala, Chhotanagpur plateau, Meghalaya plateau, Purvanchal, Western and the Eastern Ghats offer possibilities of large scale water
power development.
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Sixty per cent of the total river flow is concentrated in the Himalayan rivers, 16 per cent in the Central Indian rivers (the Narmada, the Tapi, the Mahanadi, etc.), and the rest in the rivers of the Deccan plateau.
The Ganga and the Brahmaputra in the north and north eastern part of the country, the
Mahanadi in Odisha, the Godavari and the Krishna in Andhra and Telangana the Narmada and the Tapi in Gujarat, and the lakes and tidal creeks in coastal states possess some of the
important and useful waterways of the country
2.6 Interstate River Water Governance in India
India has 25 major river basins, with most rivers flowing across states. As river basins are shared
resources, a coordinated approach between the states, with adequate involvement of the Centre, is necessary for the preservation, equitable distribution and sustainable utilisation of river water.
Within India’s federal political structure, inter-state disputes require the involvement of the Union government for a federal solution at two levels: between the states involved, and between the
Centre and the states. However, interstate rivers in India have become sites of contestations, fuelled by conflicting
perceptions of property rights, flawed economic instruments for food security, the lack of an integrated ecosystems approach, and the prevalence of reductionist hydrology for water resource
development. Such conflicts over the possession and control of river water have persisted since the inception of the Indian republic, with prolonged delays in resolution due to historical, institutional
and political factors. In recent years, increasing water scarcity, a rapid rise in urban and rural demands for freshwater, and contentious political dynamics have further exacerbated the problem.
Table 1: Water Disputes Tribunals
Tribunal States Concerned
Date of
Constitution Current Status
Godavari Water Disputes Tribunal
Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa April 1969 Report and decision given in July 1980.
Krishna Water
Disputes
Tribunal – I
Maharashtra,
Andhra Pradesh,
Karnataka, April 1969 Report and decision given in May 1976.
Narmada
Water Disputes Tribunal
Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra October 1969
Report and decision given in December 1979. Narmada Control Authority (NCA) was constituted to implement the decision.
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Ravi & Beas
Water Tribunal
Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan
April 1986
Report and decision given in April 1987. Further Report is pending.
Cauvery
Water Disputes
Tribunal
Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,
Puducherry June 1990
Report and Decision given on 5 February 2007. Supreme Court modified the decision on 16 February 2018. The Cauvery Water Management Authority (CWMA) and Cauvery
Water Regulation Committee (CWRC) were constituted to implement the modified
decision.
Krishna Water
Disputes Tribunal -II
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh,
Maharashtra, Telangana April 2004
Report and decision given on 30 December 2010. SLPs filed pending in the Court. The term of the Tribunal has been extended after
the bifurcation of Andhra Pradesh. The matter is under adjudication in the Tribunal.
Vansadhara Water
Disputes Tribunal
Andhra Pradesh, Odisha February 2010
Report and decision submitted on 13 September 2017. Further Report is pending.
Mahadayi Water Disputes Tribunal
Goa, Karnataka, Maharashtra
November 2010
Report and decision submitted on 14 August 2018. Further Report is pending.
Mahanadi Water
Disputes Tribunal
Chhattisgarh, Odisha March 2018
Under adjudication by the Tribunal. Report and decision are awaited.
Source: Central Water Commission.
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2.7 The River Basins of India
Note: Coding according to the scheme used by CWC. Table 2.
River Basins of India (CWC Scheme)
Basin Code (CWC) Basin Name (CWC)
Interstate or Intrastate
Total Live Storage Capacity (MCM) (Projects with Live Storage Capacity > 10 MCM)
1 Indus (Up to border) Interstate 16,568.43
2 a Ganga Interstate 60,660.38
2 b Brahmaputra Interstate
11,680.56 2 c Barak and others Interstate
90
3 Godavari Interstate 31,330.39
4 Krishna Interstate 49,547.52
5 Cauvery Interstate 8867.02
6 Subarnarekha Interstate 2,322.21
7 Brahmani and Baitarani Interstate 5,523.69
8 Mahanadi Interstate 14,207.80
9 Pennar Interstate 4,820.11
10 Mahi Interstate 4,984.03
11 Sabarmati Interstate 1367.54
14 12 Narmada Interstate 23,604.60
15 13 Tapi Interstate 10,255.79
16 14 West flowing rivers from Tapi to Tadri
Mostly Intrastate 14,732.41
17 15 West flowing rivers from Tadri to Kanyakumari
Mostly Intrastate 11,553.70
18 16 East flowing rivers between Mahanadi and Pennar Interstate 3,026.41
19 17 East flowing rivers between Pennar and Kanyakumari Interstate 1,906.90
20 18 West flowing rivers of Kutch and Saurashtra including Luni Interstate 5,524.15
21 19 Area of inland drainage in Rajasthan Intrastate –
22 20 Minor rivers draining into Myanmar (Burma and Bangladesh) Interstate 312.00
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3. TYPES OF NATURAL VEGETATION IN INDIA It refers to a plant community which has grown naturally without human aid and has been left undisturbed by humans for a long time. Natural vegetation grow naturally and follow the climatic variables. Due to a variety of climates, a wide range of natural vegetation grows in India. A study of the distribution of the forests in India reveals that there is a marked relation between the rainfall zones and their belts of natural vegetation.
3.1 Factors which affect the growth of natural vegetation:
a) RELIEF
Land: Nature of land influences the type of vegetation. If the land is level and fertile, it is mainly
used for farming. If the land is uneven then grassland and woodlands develop over it. Soil: Different types of soil are fit for different types of vegetation. For example; sandy soil is fit for
cactus and thorny bushes, while wet and marshy soil is fit for mangrove vegetation.
b) CLIMATE
Temperature and Humidity: determine the character and extent of vegetation. Area with high temperature and high humidity supports evergreen forest.
Area with high temperature and low humidity supports thorny bushes. Photoperiod (Sunlight): Photoperiod depends on latitude, altitude, season and duration of
the day. Trees grow faster in summer because of longer photoperiod. Precipitation: If an area gets heavy rainfall, it is suitable for the growth of dense vegetation.
On the other hand, an area with scanty rainfall is suitable for thorny bushes.
3.2 Types of Natural Vegetation in India: Classification of Natural Vegetation of India is primarily based on spatial and annual variations in
rainfall. Temperature, soil and topography are also considered. India’s vegetation can be divided into 5 main types and 16 sub-types as given below.
A. Moist Tropical Forests
Tropical Wet Evergreen Tropical Semi-Evergreen
Tropical Moist Deciduous
Littoral and Swamp
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B. Dry Tropical Forests
Tropical Dry Evergreen
Tropical Dry Deciduous
Tropical Thorn C. Montane Sub-tropical Forests
Sub-tropical broad leaved hill
Sub-tropical moist hill (pine) Sub-tropical dry evergreen
D. Montane Temperate Forests Montane Wet Temperate
Himalayan Moist Temperate
Himalayan Dry Temperate E. Alpine Forests
Sub-Alpine Moist Alpine scrub
Dry Alpine scrub
A. Moist Tropical Forests
1. Tropical Wet Evergreen Forests or Rain Forests
Climatic Conditions Annual rainfall exceeds 250 cm
The annual temperature is about 25°-27°C The average annual humidity exceeds 77 per cent and
The dry season is distinctly short.
Characteristics Evergreen: Due to high heat and high humidity, the trees
of these forests do not shed their leaves together. Mesosphytic: Plants adopted to neither too dry nor too
wet type climate. Lofty: The trees often reach 45 – 60 metres in height.
Thick Canopy: From the air, the tropical rain forest appears
like a thick canopy of foliage, broken only where it is crossed by large rivers or cleared for cultivation.
All plants struggle upwards (most ephiphytes) for sunlight resulting in a peculiar layer arrangement. The entire
morphology looks like a green carpet when viewed from above.
What are Mesophytes?
Unlike hydrophytic plants, such
as water lily or pondweed, that grow in saturated soil or water,
or xerophytic plants, such as cactus, that grow in extremely dry
soil, mesophytes are ordinary plants that exist between the two
extremes.
Mesophytic environments are marked by average to hot temperatures and soil that
is neither too dry nor too wet.
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Less undergrowth: The sun light cannot reach the ground due to thick canopy. The undergrowth is formed mainly of bamboos, ferns, climbers, orchids, etc.
Distribution
Western side of the Western Ghats (500 to 1370 metres above sea level). Some regions in the Purvanchal hills.
In the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Timber Hardwood: The timber of these forests is fine-grained, hard and durable.
It has high commercial value but it is highly challenging to exploit due to dense undergrowth, absence of pure stands and lack of transport.
The important species of these forests are mahogany, mesua, white cedar, jamun, canes, bamboo etc.
2. Tropical Semi-Evergreen Forests
They are transitional forests between tropical wet evergreen forests and tropical deciduous forests.
They are comparatively drier areas compared to tropical wet evergreen forests. Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall is 200-250 cm
Mean annual temperature varies from 24°C to 27°C The relative humidity is about 75 per cent
The dry season is not short like in tropical evergreen forests.
Distribution Western coast
Assam Lower slopes of the Eastern Himalayas
Odisha and Andamans.
Characteristics
The semi-evergreen forests are less dense. They are more gregarious [living in flocks or colonies – more pure stands] than the wet
evergreen forests. These forests are characterized by many species. Trees usually have buttressed trunks with abundant epiphytes.
Buttressed Trunks
The important species are laurel, rosewood, mesua, thorny bamboo – Western Ghats, white cedar, Indian chestnut, champa, mango, etc. – Himalayan region.
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Timber Hardwood: Similar to that in tropical evergreen forests except that these forests are less
dense with more pure stands (timber industry here is better than in evergreen forests).
3. Tropical Moist Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions Annual rainfall 100 to 200 cm.
Mean annual temperature of about 27°C The average annual relative humidity of 60 to 75 per cent.
Spring (between winter and summer) and summer are dry.
Characteristics The trees drop their leaves during the spring and early summer when sufficient moisture is
not available. The general appearance is bare in extreme summers (April-May). Tropical moist deciduous forests present irregular top storey [25 to 60 m]. Heavily buttressed trees and fairly complete undergrowth. These forests occupy a much larger area than the evergreen forests but large tracts under
these forests have been cleared for cultivation.
Distribution Belt running along the Western Ghats surrounding the belt of evergreen forests.
A strip along the Shiwalik range including terai and bhabar from 77° E to 88° E. Manipur and Mizoram.
Hills of eastern Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh. Chota Nagpur Plateau.
Most of Odisha. Parts of West Bengal and
Andaman and Nicobar islands.
Timber These provide valuable timber like Teak.
The main species found in these forests are teak, sal, laurel, rosewood, amla, jamun, bamboo, etc.
It is comparatively easy to exploit these forests due to their high degree of gregariousness (more pure stands).
4. Littoral and Swamp Forests
They can survive and grow both in fresh as well as brackish water (The mixture of seawater and fresh water in estuaries is called brackish water and its salinity can range from 0.5 to 35
ppt).
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Occur in and around the deltas, estuaries and creeks prone to tidal influences (delta or tidal forests).
Littoral (relating to or on the shore of the sea or a lake) forests occur at several places along the coast.
Swamp forests are confined to the deltas of the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery.
Dense mangroves occur all along the coastline in sheltered estuaries, tidal creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mudflats. It provides useful fuel wood.
The most pronounced and the densest is the Sunderban in the Ganga delta where the predominant species is Sundri (Heriteera).
Timber
It provides hard and durable timber which is used for construction, building purposes and making boats.
The important species found in these forests are Sundri, agar, rhizophora, screw pines, canes and palms, etc.
Important Species of Trees and their Uses
Rosewood: It is used for making furniture and is used as decorative wood for carving and for making
ornamental ply boards.
Ebony: It is used for ornamental carving and for making musical instruments, sports goods, piano keys and caskets.
Chaplas: It is used for ship building and making furniture and packing boxes.
Gurjan: It is used for construction work, for making packing boxes, tea boxes, panelling and flooring. It is also used for carriage and wagon construction.
Telsur: It is used for making bridges, boats and carts.
Sissoo: As the wood is hard and heavy, it is used in construction, furniture making and for making bullock carts, agricultural implements and musical instruments.
Toon: It is used for making tea boxes, toys and furniture.
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B. Dry Tropical Forests
1. Tropical Dry Evergreen Forests Distribution
Along the coasts of Tamil Nadu. Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall of 100 cm [mostly from the north-east monsoon winds in October – December].
Mean annual temperature is about 28°C. The mean humidity is about 75 per cent. The growth of evergreen forests in areas of such low rainfall is a bit strange.
Characteristics
Short statured trees, up to 12 m high, with complete canopy. Bamboos and grasses not conspicuous. The important species are jamun, tamarind, neem, etc. Most of the land under these forests has been cleared for agriculture or casuarina
plantations.
Casuarina plantation
It resembles feathery conifer in general appearance. They are rapid-growing, carefree species for sites and climates as varied as coastal sand dunes,
high mountain slopes, hot humid tropics, and semi-arid regions. They have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. It grows 15 to 25 metres in height on an
average.
Distribution Casuarina is the most popular farm forestry in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,
Odisha, Maharashtra, Gujarat, and Karnataka. Benefits
Reduces damage in the event of natural calamities. Line planting in the coastal areas helps in controlling the wind force.
It is also used for tourism promotion in view of its ornamental appearance. It provides top quality firewood.
The wood is suitable for paper pulp and useful raw material for the manufacture of paper for writing, printing, and wrapping.
It is got some serious medicinal values as well. Wasteland development
The characteristics which make it a suitable species for wasteland development include adaptability to wide range of habitats, fast growth, salt tolerant, drought resistant, ability to
reclaim land and stabilize sand dunes. Intercrops such as groundnut, cucumber, watermelons, sesame, and pulses can also be raised
along with the plantation.
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2. Tropical Dry Deciduous Forests
Climatic Conditions Annual rainfall is 100-150 cm.
Characteristics
These are similar to moist deciduous forests and shed their leaves in dry season. The major difference is that they can grow in areas of comparatively less rainfall.
They represent a transitional type – moist deciduous on the wetter side and thorn forests on the drier side.
They have closed but uneven canopy. The forests are composed of a mixture of a few species of deciduous trees rising up to a height
of 20 metres. Undergrowth: Enough light reaches the ground to permit the growth of grass and climbers .
Distribution
They occur in an irregular wide strip running from the foot of the Himalayas to Kanniyakumari
except in Rajasthan, Western Ghats and West Bengal. The important species are teak, axlewood, rosewood, common bamboo, red sanders, laurel,
satinwood, etc. Large tracts of this forest have been cleared for agricultural purposes.
These forests have suffer from over grazing, fire, etc.
3. Tropical Thorn Forests
Climatic Conditions Annual rainfall less than 75 cm.
Humidity is less than 50 per cent. Mean temperature is 25°-30°C.
Characteristics
The trees are low (6 to 10 metres maximum) and widely scattered. Acacias and Euphorbias are very prominent. The Indian wild date is common. Some grasses also grow in the rainy season.
Distribution
Rajasthan, south-western Punjab, western Haryana, Kachchh and neighbouring parts of Saurashtra.
Here they degenerate into desert type in the Thar Desert. Such forests also grow on the leeside of the Western Ghats covering large areas of
Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu. The important species are neem, babul, cacti, etc.
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C. Montane Sub-Tropical Forests
1. Sub-tropical Broad-leaved Hill Forests
Climatic conditions
Mean annual rainfall is 75 cm to 125 cm. Average annual temperature is 18°-21°C.
Humidity is 80 per cent.
Distribution Eastern Himalayas to the east of 88°E longitude at altitudes varying from 1000 to 2000 m.
Characteristics
Forests of evergreen species. Commonly found species are evergreen oaks, chestnuts, ash, beech, sals and pines.
Climbers and epiphytes [a plant that grows non-parasitically on a tree or other plant] are common.
These forests are not so distinct in the southern parts of the country. They occur only in the Nilgiri and Palni hills at 1070-1525 metres above sea level.
It is a “stunted rain-forest” and is not as luxuriant as the true tropical evergreen. The higher parts of the Western Ghats such as Mahabaleshwar, the summits of the Satpura
and the Maikal Range, highlands of Bastar and Mt. Abu in the Aravalli Range carry sub-types of these forests.
2. Sub-tropical Moist Pine Forests
Distribution Western Himalayas between 73°E and 88°E longitudes at elevations between 1000 to 2000
metres above sea level. Some hilly regions of Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur, Naga Hills and Khasi Hills.
Timber
Chir or Chil is the most dominant tree which forms pure stands. It provides valuable timber for furniture, boxes and buildings.
It is also used for producing resin and turpentine.
3. Sub-tropical Dry Evergreen Forests
Distribution
Found in the Bhabar, the Shiwaliks and the western Himalayas up to about 1000 metres above sea level.
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Climatic Conditions Annual rainfall is 50-100 cm (15 to 25 cm in December-March). The summers are sufficiently hot and winters are very cold.
Characteristics Low scrub forest with small evergreen stunted trees and shrubs
Olive, acacia modesta and pistacia are the most predominant species.
D. Montane Temperate Forests
1. Montane Wet Temperate Forests
Climatic Conditions Grows at a height of 1800 to 3000 m above sea level
Mean annual rainfall is 150 cm to 300 cm Mean annual temperature is about 11°C to 14°C
Average relative humidity is over 80 per cent.
Distribution Higher hills of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, in the Eastern Himalayan region.
Characteristics
These are closed evergreen forests. Trunks have large girth. Branches are clothed with mosses, ferns and other epiphytes.
The trees rarely achieve a height of more than 6 metres. Deodar, Chilauni, Indian chestnut, birch, plum, machilus, cinnamomum, litsea, magnolia,
blue pine, oak, hemlock, etc. are important species.
2. Himalayan Moist Temperate Forests Climatic Conditions
Annual rainfall varies from 150 cm to 250 cm
Distribution Occurs in the temperate zone of the Himalayas between 1500 and 3300 metres.
Cover the entire length of this mountain range in Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Darjeeling and Sikkim.
Characteristics
Mainly composed of coniferous species. Species occur in mostly pure strands.
Trees are 30 to 50 m high.
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Pines, cedars, silver firs, spruce, etc. are most important trees. They form high but fairly open forest with shrubby undergrowth including oaks,
rhododendrons and some bamboos.
Timber It provides fine wood which is of much use for construction, timber and railway sleepers.
3. Himalayan Dry Temperate Forests Climatic Conditions
Precipitation is below 100 cm and is mostly in the form of snow.
Characteristics Coniferous forests with xerophytic shrubs in which deodar, oak, ash, olive, etc are the main
trees. Distribution
Such forests are found in the inner dry ranges of the Himalayas where south-west monsoon is very feeble.
Such areas are in Ladakh, Lahul, Chamba, Kinnaur, Garhwal and Sikkim.
E. Alpine Forests
Altitudes ranging between 2,900 to 3,500m. These forests can be divided into: (1) sub-alpine; (2) moist alpine scrub and (3) dry alpine
scrub. The sub-alpine forests occur lower alpine scrub and grasslands. It is a mixture of coniferous and broad-leaved trees in which the coniferous trees attain a
height of about 30 m while the broad leaved trees reach only 10 m.
Fir, spruce, rhododendron, etc. are important species. The moist alpine scrub is a low evergreen dense growth of rhododendron, birch etc. which
occurs from 3,000 metres and extends up to snowline. The dry alpine scrub is the uppermost limit of scrub xerophytic, dwarf shrubs, over 3,500
metres above sea level and found in dry zone. Juniper, honeysuckle, Artemisia etc. are important species.
Important Species of Mountain Trees
Deodar: It is used for construction work.
Chir: The wood is reddish brown and is used for making tea chests, furniture and match boxes.
Blue Pine: It is used for making doors, windows and furniture. Spruce: Its soft wood is used for construction work and for making cabinets, match boxes
and furniture.
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Walnut: Its wood is used for making musical instruments and cabinets. It is mostly used in Kashmir and North India for carving. It is also used for gun stocks.
Birch: It is used for making furniture, plywood and radio cabinets.
Cypress: It has durable wood which is used for making furniture.
Jamun: It is used for making furniture and cabinets, and in construction.
3.3 FORESTS AND ENVIRONMENT Forests affect our environment in the following ways:
They play an important role in controlling humidity, temperature and precipitation.
They help in maintaining the purity of air by absorbing carbon dioxide.
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They control soil erosion, soil degradation and prevent droughts and floods.
Forests help in water percolation.
Decayed leaves of plants provide humus to the soil and increase its fertility.
They provide habitation to plants and animals. Many factors have resulted in the depletion of forest cover or deforestation . Some of these are
Rapid growth of population has resulted in clearing land for cultivation activities Many forests have been cleared to convert them into pasture lands
Overgrazing Increasing demand for timber for industrial expansion and urbanisation
Construction of multipurpose river valleys has led to the submergence of lands and destruction of forests
3.4 Conservation of Forests
Some forest conservation methods are
Afforestation or special programmes like ‘Van Mahotsav’ should be launched and celebrated on a large scale. This will create awareness among the people regarding the protection of forests. One of the other ways of making people aware is the celebration of festivals should begin with a tree plantation.
The government should cautiously give permit to contractors for the cutting of timber.
One of the ways in which tribal protect the forests is by declaring a large patch of forests as ‘sacred groves’. Because these are worshipped by the tribals, trees in the sacred groves are considered
sacred and are not allowed to be cut.
An important factor which contributes towards the conservation of forests is the Joint Forest Management (JFM). Local communities are involved in the management of degrading forests. This
programme has been in existence since 1998. Because local communities undertake the responsibility of forest protection, they are given rights to use non-timber products and get a share in timber harvests by successful protection of forests. States such as Odisha and Gujarat have been practising forest conservation through JFM.
Developmental activities should be environment-friendly. If timber is required for any project, then the same or more number of trees which are felled should be planted.
Building of many multipurpose dams also leads to the submergence of land and forest area. Building of small check dams and reservoirs goes a long way not only in providing water to farmers
for irrigation but also in recharging the groundwater . This will ensure that forest cover is not depleted because of the building of large dams.
Using alternative sources of energy such as solar energy, wind power and tidal energy results in saving wood which is commonly used as a source of energy in the rural areas.
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3.5 National Forest Policy The National Forest Policy was adopted in 1952 by the government of India. The policy gives importance to sustainable forest management to conserve forests. Important objectives of the National Forest Policy are
To maintain the stability of the environment by preservation and restoration of ecological balance To check soil erosion and denudation in the catchment areas of rivers, lakes and reservoirs
To increase the productivity of forests to meet essential national needs To create people’s movement on a large-scale involving women for preserving forests
To conserve natural heritage of the country by preserving natural forests, flora and fauna.
3.6 Social Forestry Social forestry refers to the management and protection of forests with the help of local
communities. Three components of social forestry are To recognise, restore and reallocate the forest lands to the inhabitants for the management and protection of forests.
The forest department works in close cooperation with local communities.
To develop the required social and economic system to achieve the above aims. Important Objectives of Social Forestry
To provide wood, fodder, timber and other minor forest produce to rural people
To develop local cottage industries by providing raw materials
To conserve soil and water
To increase agricultural production by using cow dung as manure
Features of Social Forestry
Planting trees with the help and support of local communities
Using fallow lands to take away the pressure on forest lands
Practising sustainable forestry with short crop rotation
Distributing the benefits derived from various projects based on forestry among local communities
3.7 Agro Forestry Agro forestry is an agricultural practice which involves the cultivation of trees. It is a land management system in which trees or shrubs are planted and grown among crops or in
pasturelands. Objectives of agro forestry are
To make the best use of all the available resources such as soil.
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To obtain various forest products and agricultural crops on the same piece of land.
To check the possibility of soil erosion and floods by planting trees in crop lands
To maintain the ecological balance along with proper use of farm resources In traditional forestry, only trees are grown; however, in agroforestry, trees along with crops are planted. Agro forestry is also able to withstand the pressure of increasing population unlike traditional forestry. Agro forestry is a scientific system of managing land with the help of local communities which is absent in traditional forestry.
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4. SOILS OF INDIA: FACTORS OF SOIL FORMATION, CLASSIFICATION, DISTRIBUTION
AND CHARACTERISTICS
Soil can be simply defined as a mixture of small rock particles/debris and organic materials/ humus
which develop on the earth surface and support growth of plants.
Soils are formed through the interaction of five major factors: time, climate, parent material, topography and relief and organisms. The relative influence of each factor varies from place to
place, but the combination of all five factors normally determines the kind of soil developing in any given place.
4.1 Factors Contributing To Soil Formation The following are brief explanations of the factors contributing to soil formation in India.
1. Parent material: This refers to the mineral material, or organic material from which the soil is formed. Soils will carry the characteristics of its parent material such as colour, texture, structure, mineral composition and so on. For example, if soils are formed from an area with large rocks (parent rocks) of red sandstone, the soils will also be red in colour and have the same feel as its parent material.
2. Time: Soils can take many years to form. Younger soils have some characteristics from their
parent material, but as they age, the addition of organic matter, exposure to moisture and other environmental factors may change its features. With time, they settle and are buried
deeper below the surface, taking time to transform. Eventually they may change from one soil type to another.
3. Climate: This is probably the most important factor that can shape the formation of soils. Two important climatic components, temperature and precipitation. They determine: how
quickly weathering will be, what kind of organic materials may be available on and inside of the soils.
4. Moisture determines the chemical and biological reactions that will occur as the soils are
formed. Warmer climate with more rainfall means more vegetative cover and more animal action. It also means more runoff, more percolation and more water erosion. They all help to
determine the kind of soils in an area.
5. Relief: This refers to the landscape position and the slopes it has. Steep, long slopes mean water will run down faster and potentially erode the surfaces of slopes. The effect will be
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poor soils on the slopes, and richer deposits at the foot of the slopes. Also, slopes may be exposed to more direct sunlight, which may dry out soil moisture and render it less fertile.
6. Organisms: The source and richness of organic matter is down to the living things (plants and
animals) that live on and in the soils. Plants in particular, provide lots of vegetative residue that are added to soils
Their roots also hold the soils and protect them from wind and water erosion.
They shelter the soils from the sun and other environmental conditions, helping the soils to retain the needed moisture for chemical and biological reactions.
Fungi, bacteria, insects, earthworms, and burrowing animals help with soil aeration. Worms help breakdown organic matter and aid decomposition.
Animal droppings, dead insects and animals result in more decaying organic matter.
Microorganisms also help with mineral and nutrient cycling and chemical reactions.
4.2 Soil Classification In the modern period, when men started to know about the various characteristics of soil they began to classify soil on the basis of texture, colour, moisture etc. When the Soil survey of India was established in 1956, they studied soils of India and their
characteristics. The National Bureau of Soil Survey and the Land Use Planning , an institute under the control of
Indian Council of Agriculture Research did a lot of studies on Indian soil.
4.2.1 Soil Types
The soil is classified on the basis of the proportion of particles of various sizes. o If soil contains greater proportion of big particles it is called sandy soil. o If the proportion of fine particles is relatively higher , then it is called clayey soil. o If the amount of large and fine particles is about the same, then the soil is called
loamy soil. o Water can drain quickly through the spaces between the sand particles. So, sandy
soils tend to be light, well aerated and dry. o Clay particles, being much smaller, pack tightly together, leaving little space for air.
Unlike sandy soil, water can be held in the tiny gaps between the particles of clay. So
clay soils have little air. But they are heavy as they hold more water than the sandy soils.
o The best topsoil for growing plants is Loamy soil is a mixture of sand, clay and another type of soil particle known as silt. Silt occurs as a deposit in river beds. The size of the
silt particles is between those of sand and clay. The loamy soil also has humus in it. It has the right water holding capacity for the growth of plants.
o Clayey and loamy soils are both suitable for growing cereals like wheat, and gram. Such soils are good at retaining water.
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o For paddy, soils rich in clay and organic matter and having a good capacity to retain water are ideal.
o For lentils (masoor) and other pulses, loamy soils, which drain water easily, are required.
o For cotton, sandy loam or loam, which drain water easily and can hold plenty of air, are more suitable.
A vertical section through different layers of the soil is called the soil profile.
Each layer differs in feel (texture), colour, depth and chemical composition. A soil horizon is a layer generally parallel to the soil surface, whose physical characteristics
differ from the layers above and beneath. Horizons are defined in most cases by obvious physical features, chiefly colour and texture.
The uppermost horizon is generally dark in colour as it is rich in humus and minerals. The humus makes the soil fertile and provides nutrients to growing plants.
This layer is generally soft, porous and can retain more water. It is called the
topsoil or the A-horizon. The next layer has a lesser amount of
humus but more of minerals. This layer is generally harder and more compact
and is called the B-horizon or the
middle layer. The third layer is the C-horizon, which is
made up of small lumps of rocks with cracks.
O Horizon
Layers dominated by organic material. Some O layers consist of undecomposed or partially decomposed litter (such as leaves,
needles, twigs, moss, and lichens). They may be on top of either mineral or organic soils.
A Horizon or Surface soil
It is the part of top soil. In this layer, organic matter is mixed with mineral matter.
It is the layer of mineral soil with the most organic matter accumulation and soil life. This layer is depleted of (eluviated of) iron, clay, aluminum, organic compounds, and other
soluble constituents. When depletion is pronounced, a lighter coloured “E” subsurface soil horizon is apparent at
the base of the “A” horizon.
E horizon “E” stands for eluviated layer.
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It is the horizon that has been significantly leached of clay, iron, and aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and silt sizes.
These are present only in older, well-developed soils, and generally occur between the A and B horizons.
B Horizon or Subsoil
It is subsurface layer reflecting chemical or physical alteration of parent material. This layer accumulates all the leached minerals from A and E horizon.
Thus iron, clay, aluminum and organic compounds accumulate in this horizon [illuviation (opposite of eluviation)].
C Horizon or Parent rock
Weathered parent material accumulates in this layer, i.e. the parent material in sedimentary deposits.
It is a layer of large unbroken rocks. This layer may accumulate the more soluble compounds (inorganic material).
R Horizon or Bedrock
This layer denotes the layer of partially weathered bedrock at the base of the soil profile. Unlike the above layers, R horizons largely comprise continuous masses of hard rock.
Soils formed in situ will exhibit strong similarities to this bedrock layer.
These areas of bedrock are under 50 feet of the other profiles.
Major classification of Indian soils 1. Alluvial soil [43%]
2. Red soil [18.6%] 3. Black / regur soil [15%]
4. Arid / desert soil 5. Laterite soil
6. Saline soil 7. Peaty / marshy soil
8. Forest soil 9. Sub-mountain soil
10. Snowfields
Alluvial soil:
Mostly available soil in India (about 43%) which covers an area of 143
sq.km.
Widespread in northern plains and river valleys. In peninsular-India, they are mostly
found in deltas and estuaries.
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Humus, lime and organic matters are present.
Highly fertile.
Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc are examples.
They are depositional soil – transported and deposited by rivers, streams etc.
Sand content decreases from west to east of the country. New alluvium is termed as Khadar and old alluvium is termed as Bhangar.
Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey. Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
Rich in: potash
Poor in: phosphorous. Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed etc are cultivated mainly.
Red soil:
Seen mainly in low rainfall area.
Also known as Omnibus group.
Porous, friable structure. Absence of lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate).
Areas: peninsula from Tamil Nadu in the south to Bundelkhand in the north and Rajmahal hills in the east to Kachchh in the west (Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Southern Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh,
Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Jharkhand) Deficient in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
Colour: Red because of Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish yellow or yellow.
Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy. Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potato etc are cultivated.
Black soil / regur soil:
Regur means cotton – best soil for cotton cultivation. Most of the Deccan is occupied by Black soil.
Mature soil.
High water retaining capacity.
Swells and will become sticky when wet and shrink when dried. Self-ploughing is a characteristic of the black soil as it develops wide cracks when dried.
Rich in: Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum and magnesium.
Deficient in: Nitrogen, Phosphorous and organic matter.
Colour: Deep black to light black.
Texture: Clayey. Areas: developed by the weathering of the Deccan lava; Maharashtra, western Madhya
Pradesh, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
Laterite soil: Name from Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.
Become so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
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In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
Formed as a result of high leaching.
Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
Organic matters of the soil will be removed fast by the bacteria as it is high temperature and humus will be taken quickly by the trees and other plants. Thus, humus content is low. Rich in: Iron and Aluminum
Deficient in: Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus Colour: Red colour due to iron oxide.
Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are cultivated mainly. Areas: summits of Sahyadris, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Satpuras, Vindhyas etc.
Desert / arid soil: Seen under Arid and Semi-Arid conditions.
Deposited mainly by wind activities.
High salt content.
Lack of moisture and Humus.
Kankar or Impure Calcium carbonate content is high which restricts the infiltration of water.
Nitrogen is insufficient and Phosphate is normal. Texture: Sandy
Colour: Red to Brown. Areas: Rajasthan, Saurashtra, Kachchh, Haryana, south Punjab. Peaty / marshy soil:
Areas of heavy rainfall and high humidity .
Growth of vegetation is very less.
A large quantity of dead organic matter/humus which makes the soil alkaline.
Heavy soil with black colour. Areas: Kottayam and Alappuzha (Kerala), Orissa, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Bihar
Forest soil:
Regions of high rainfall.
Occur between 3000m-3100m in Himalayas
Rich in plant nutrients, deficient in potash, phosphorus and lime
Humus content is less and thus the soil is acidic.
Areas: eastern Ghats, tarai tract of U.P, Sahyadris
Mountain soil:
In the mountain regions of the country at 2100m to 3000 m. Immature soil with low humus and acidic.
Areas: Himalayas of Assam, Darjeeling, Uttarakhand, Himachal Pradesh, Kashmir.
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Alluvial Soil
Indo-gangetic plains, deltas of eastern coast and in the river valleys. Also plains of Gujarat and parts of Rajasthan.
Black Soil
Deccan Plateau i.e. parts of Maharashtra, M.P., Gujarat, A.P. and some parts of Tamil Nadu.
Red and Yellow Soil
Areas of low rainfall in the eastern and southern part of the Deccan Plateau, slopes of Western Ghats, parts of Odisha, Chattisgarh and in the southern parts of the middle Ganga plain.
Laterite Soil
Areas with high temperature and high rainfall in Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Madhya Pradesh and the hilly areas of Odisha and Assam.
Arid Soil
Western Rajasthan
Saline Soil
Western Gujarat (Rann of Kutch, deltas of the eastern coast and in Sunderban areas of West Bengal.
Peaty Soil
Northern part of Bihar, southern part of Uttaranchal and the coastal areas of West Bengal,
Orissa and Tamil Nadu.
Fact to remember Type of Soil
The soil most common in Indo-gangetic plains Alluvial Soil
The soil which swells when wet and develops cracks when dry Black Soil
The soil which owes its colour to oxides of iron Laterite
Soil
The soil which requires least use of fertilisers Alluvial Soil
The soil which requires least tilling because of its characteristic of self-
ploughing Black Soil
The kind of soil which is treated with gypsum to make it suitable for cropping Alkaline soil
The soil which is poor in soluble salts Laterite
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Fact to remember Type of Soil
The soil which is rich in surface accumulation of organic matter Peaty soil
The soil which is most suitable for cultivation of cotton Black Soil
Khadar and Bhangar are types of Alluvial Soil
The soil which also known as Regur Soil Black Soil
The soil which is generally unfit for cultivation Laterite Soil
The soil which is commonly used for making bricks Laterite Soil
4.3 Problems of Indian soil
Degradation of the soil is the most problematic problem of the India soil. Here, degradation refers
to variety of factors which leads to loss in the quality of the soil which includes lateritisation, alkalization and salinization of the soil along with soil erosion i.e., loss of top soil. The process of Soil
degradation is the result of natural forces and human activities. The torrential rains, flowing rivers, glaciers, wind etc are the natural agents for soil erosion leading
to the soil becoming useless for cultivation. They main causes of soil erosion are deforestation, over-grazing, shifting cultivation, faulty methods
of cultivation, rivers and removal of top soil for industrial purposes.
Categories of Degraded land Area in million hectare
Gullied lands 2.05
Land with/ Without scrub 19.40 Water logged and marshy lands 1.66
Land affected with salinity & alkalinity 2.05 Shifting cultivation area 3.51
Underutilised/ degraded forest 14.06
Degraded pastures and grazing lands 2.60 Degraded land under plantation crops 0.58
Sand (Inland/coastal) 5.00 Mining/ Industrial wasteland 0.12
Barren rock / strong waste sheet rock area 6.42
Steep sloping area 0.77
Snow covered glaciated area 5.58 Total degraded land 63
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4.4 Soil conservation The protection of soil from erosion and deterioration along with its management is called soil conservation.
All such measures can be divided into 2 types: 1) Biological measure and 2) Mechanical measures
1) Biological measures: Contour farming, mulching, dense growing crops, strip cropping, afforestation and reforestation along with control grazing are some of the biological measures.
o Contour farming involves practice of forming across the slopes in the hills reducing surface run-off thus conserving soil and moisture thus increasing crop-yield.
o Mulching on the other hand is spreading of materials like straw leaves, paddy husk, grass, over the soil surface to prevent erosion and evaporation.
o Dense growing crops involves method of providing cover for cultivated crops by growing legumes.
o Strip cropping is cultivation of crop in alternate strips which is very effective in controlling
run-off and thus erosion. o Afforestation and reforestation is a method of planting a new forest in areas w here
previously trees did not exist or where destroyed. Both help in checking soil erosion all along the hill slopes in and around the water bodies and base lands.
o Control grazing is a method by where in proper control on excessive grazing is maintained to prevent soil erosion
2) Mechanical Measures: It includes basin listing, sub-soil, contour bounding, channel trenching, and
bench terracing and gully control. o Basin listing consist of making small interrupted basins along contours which helps in
collecting and retaining rain water.
o Sub soil is another method in which hard impermeable sub soil is broken in order to allow more rain water thus improving the physical condition of the soil.
o Contour bunding consists of building narrow embankments at regular intervals across the slopes to prevent rapid flow of water.
o Channel trenching is a method in which series of deep pits are dug across the slopes at suit able distances.
o Bench terracing involves a series of platforms which run across the contour thus retaining water and controlling soil erosion.
o Gully control on the other hand is a method use to prevent erosion by using gully plugs such as boulders, sand bags, and plant hedges as materials to control soil erosion.
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5. INDIAN CLIMATE
India’s climate closely resembles the climate that of a tropical country although it’s northern part (north of tropic of cancer) is situated in the temperate belt.
Indian subcontinent is separated from the rest of Asia by the lofty Himalayan ranges which block the cold air masses moving southwards from Central Asia .
As a result, during winters, the northern half of India is warmer by 3°C to 8°C than other
areas located on same latitudes. During summer, due to over the head position of the sun, the climate in the southern parts
resemble equatorial dry climate. The north Indian plains are under the influence of hot dry wind called ‘loo’ blowing from the
Thar, Baloch and Iranian Deserts, increasing the temperatures to a level comparable to that of the southern parts of the country.
Thus the whole of India, south of the Himalayas can be climatically treated as a tropical country.
The seasonal reversal of winds in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal give India a typical tropical monsoon climate.
So Indian climate, to be precise, is tropical monsoon type (a distinct wet and dry climate) rather than just a tropical or half temperate climate.
5.1 Features of Indian Climate
5.1.1 Rainfall
The climate in most of the regions is characterized by distinct wet and dry seasons. Some places like Thar Desert, Ladakh have no wet season.
Mean annual rainfall varies substantially from region to region. Mawsynram and Cherrapunji in Meghalaya receives around 1,000 cm of annual rainfall while at Jaisalmer the annual rainfall rarely exceeds 12 cm.
The Ganga delta and the coastal plains of Odisha see intense rainfall in July and August while
the Coromandel Coast goes dry during these months. Places like Goa, Hyderabad and Patna receive south-west monsoon rains by the first quarter
of June while the rains are awaited till early July at places in Northwest India.
5.1.2 Temperature
Diurnal and annual temperature ranges are substantial. Highest diurnal temperature ranges occur in the Thar Desert and the highest annual
temperature ranges are recorded in the Himalayan regions. Both diurnal and mean annual temperature ranges are least in coastal regions.
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In December, the temperature may dip to – 40°C at some places in J&K while in many coastal regions average temperature is 20-25°C.
Winters are moderately cold in most of the regions while the summers are extremely hot. Himalayan regions experience brutal winters while the summers are moderate.
5.2 Factors Influencing Indian Climate 1. Latitudinal location 2. Distance from the Sea 3. The Himalayas 4. Physiography 5. Monsoon Winds 6. Upper Air Circulation 7. El Nino and La Nina
8. Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances
1. Latitudinal location
Indian climate resembles the climate of a tropical country.
The mainland of India extends between 8°N to 37°N. Areas south of the Tropic of Cancer are in tropics and hence receive high solar insolation. The
summer temperatures are extreme and winters temperatures are moderate in most of the regions.
The northern parts on the other hand lie in the warm temperate zone. They receive comparatively less solar insolation. But summer are equally hot in north India because of
hot local wind called ‘loo’. Winter are very cold due to cold waves brought by the western disturbances.
Some places in Himalayas record low temperatures particularly in winter.
Coastal regions see moderate climatic conditions irrespective of latitudinal position.
2. Distance from the Sea
Coastal regions have moderate or equable or maritime climate where as interior locations are deprived of the moderating influence of the sea and experience extreme or continental
climate. The monsoon winds first reach the coastal regions and hence bring good amount of rainfall.
3. Himalayas and Indian Climate
This is the most important factor that influences Indian Climate.
The Himalayas act as a climatic divide between India and Central Asia.
During winter, Himalayas protect India from cold and dry air masses of Central Asia.
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During monsoon months these mountain ranges act as an effective physical barrier for rain bearing south-west monsoon winds.
Himalayas divide the Bay of Bengal branch of monsoon winds into two branches – one branch flowing along the plain regions towards north-west India and the other towards South-East Asia.
If the Himalayas were not present, the monsoon winds would simply move into China and most of the north India would have been a desert.
The south-west monsoons from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the entire country.
The north-eastern winter monsoon do not cause much rainfall except along the Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
4. Physiography and Indian Climate
Physiography is the most important factor that determines the mean annual rainfall received by a region.
Places on the windward side of an orographic barrier receive great amount of rainfall where as those on the leeward side remain arid to semi-arid due to rain-shadow effect.
Example: The south-west monsoon winds from the Arabian sea strike almost perpendicular at the Western Ghats and cause copious rainfall in the Western Coastal plain and the western slopes of the Western Ghats.
On the contrary, vast areas of Maharashtra, Karnataka, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu lie in rain-shadow or leeward side of the Western Ghats and receive scanty rainfall.
Monsoons winds flowing in Rajasthan and Gujarat are not obstructed by any orographic barrier and hence these regions receive no rainfall.
Monsoon winds blow almost parallel to Aravalis and hence there is no orographic rainfall. No convection cell or vertical wind movements arise in Rajasthan and Gujarat : Monsoon
winds blow towards low pressure cells in Tibet and hence only horizontal wind movements exist in Gujarat and Rajasthan.
Sub-tropical high pressure belt: In winter the region experiences strong divergence because of the STJ – Sub-Tropical Jet.
Mawsynram and Cherrapunji are the wettest places on earth with mean annual rainfall over 1000cm. Copious rainfall in these places is due to funnelling effect followed by orographic upliftment. [Funnelling effect = clouds are channelled into a narrow region between mountains and hence the cloud density is extraordinary]
5. Monsoon Winds and Indian Climate
The most dominating factor of the Indian climate is the ‘monsoon winds’. Important features of Indian Monsoons are
1. Sudden onset (sudden burst) 2. Gradual progress 3. Gradual retreat
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4. Seasonal reversal of winds
The complete reversal of the monsoon winds brings about a sudden change in the seasons.
The harsh summer season suddenly giving way to monsoon or rainy season.
The south-west monsoons from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the entire country.
The north-eastern winter monsoon do not cause much rainfall except along the Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
6. Upper Air Circulation
The changes in the upper air circulation over Indian landmass is brought about by Jet streams.
Westerly Jet Stream Westerly jet stream blows at a very high speed during winter over the sub-tropical zone.
Southern branch of the jet stream exercises a significant influence on the winter weather conditions in India.
This jet stream is responsible for bringing western disturbances from the Mediterranean region in to the Indian sub-continent.
Winter rain and heat storms in north-western plains and occasional heavy snowfall in hilly
regions are caused by these disturbances. These are generally followed by cold waves in the whole of northern plains.
Easterly Jet Stream Reversal in upper air circulation takes place in summer due to the apparent shift of the sun’s
vertical rays in the northern hemisphere.
The westerly jet stream is replaced by the easterly jet stream which owes its origin to the heating of the Tibet plateau.
This helps in the sudden onset of the south-west monsoons.
7. El-Nino, La Nina, ENSO and Indian Climate
El Nino Adversely affects monsoon rainfall and cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
Good for cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea.
Droughts are common during El Nino events due to less monsoonal and cyclonic rainfall.
La Nina Good for monsoons and cyclogenesis in Bay of Bengal.
Suppressed cyclogenesis in Arabian Sea. Floods are common.
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ENSO Southern Oscillation is simply the oscillation or alternating positions of low pressure and
high pressure cells over eastern and western Pacific . Southern Oscillation coinciding with El Nino is called ENSO or El Nino Southern Oscillation.
(SO usually coincides with El Nino. This why El Nino is usually referred to as ENSO)
ENSO = [warm water in eastern Pacific + low pressure over eastern Pacific] + [cool water in western Pacific + high pressure in western Pacific]
Climatic conditions same as El Nino.
8. Tropical Cyclones and Western Disturbances
Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea and the influence large parts of the peninsular India.
Majority of the cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and influence the weather conditions during the south-west monsoon season (low intensity cyclones).
Some cyclones are born during the retreating monsoon season, i.e., in October and November (high intensity cyclones) and influence the weather conditions along the eastern coast of India.
The western disturbances originate over the Mediterranean Sea and travel eastward under the influence of westerly jet stream.
They influence the winter weather conditions over most of Northern-plains and Western Himalayan region.
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6. INDIAN MONSOON Monsoon is a system of winds has the following features:
A system of winds, with marked seasonal shifts, caused by differential heating of land and sea in response to incoming solar radiation on the earth’s surface.
A system of wind that is largely confined to the tropics, a region between 20’N and 20’ S on both the sides of equator.
Monsoons over northern hemisphere are the trade winds of southern hemisphere. On crossing the equator, the winds are deflected to the right due to earth’s rotation.
Consequently winds blow in south westerly direction. In the same way, on southern hemisphere, monsoons are the trade winds of northern hemisphere which, on crossing equator, are deflected to the left due to earth’s rotation. Consequently, winds blow in north westerly direction.
6.1 Theories of Origin of Indian Monsoon
6.1.1 Indian Monsoons – Classical Theory: Sir Edmund Halley’s Theory
6.1.1.1 Summer Monsoon In summer the sun’s apparent
path is vertically over the Tropic
of Cancer resulting in high temperature and low pressure in
Central Asia.
The pressure is sufficiently high over Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Hence winds flowed
from Oceans flow towards landmass in summer.
This air flow from sea to land bring heavy rainfall to the Indian
subcontinent.
6.1.1.2 Winter Monsoon In winter the sun’s apparent path is vertically over the Tropic of Capricorn .
The north western part of India grows colder than Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal and the flow of the monsoon is reversed.
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The basic idea behind Classical theory is similar to land and sea breeze formation except that in the case of monsoons the day and night are replaced by summer and winter.
6.1.1.3 Drawbacks of theory:
The monsoons do not develop equally everywhere on earth and the thermal concept of Halley fails to explain the intricacies of the monsoons such as the sudden burst of monsoons, delay in on set of monsoons sometimes, etc.
6.1.2 Dynamic Theory: by Flohn
It was propounded by Flohn, a German Meteorologist, in 1951. The theory was further enriched by
the research works of Krishna Rao (1952). Flohn, monsoon is the result of seasonal migration of planetary winds and pressure belts.
The trade winds from both the hemispheres converge near equator and form Inter Tropical Convergence (ITC) zone. The northern and southern limits of ITC are known as NITC and SITC
A narrow belt of doldrums lies in between NITC and SITC and is characterized by equatorial
westerly’s.
During summer solstice, trade winds of southern hemisphere (south-east trade winds) extend and shift northward. The south-east trades in association with equatorial westerly’s produce south-west or summer monsoon around summer solstice when sun is overhead at tropic of Cancer.
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During winter solstice trade winds of northern hemisphere (northeast trade winds) extend and shift southward from their normal position. Similarly, around winter solstice when sun is overhead at tropic of
Capricorn, north-east trades in association with
equatorial westerly’s produce north- west or
winter monsoon. Thus, shifting position of
pressure and wind belts due to dynamic motion of the earth is responsible for the origin of monsoon and reversal of wind patterns in the tropics.
6.1.2.1 Criticisms/ Limitations: Th1eory does not take into account the role of upper air circulation which remains significant
in maintaining the rhythm of monsoon for a fairly long period and over extensive areas in tropics.
Theory also seems to have ignored the oceanic circulation and temperature gradient in oceanic waters.
The position of air masses (warm/cold) and their gradual shift from tropics is one of the potent factors that affect the origin of monsoon. Theory does not seem to include these vital
elements.
6.2 Important features of Indian Monsoons
1. Sudden onset (sudden burst)
2. Gradual progress 3. Gradual retreat
4. Seasonal reversal of winds The complete reversal of the monsoon winds brings about a sudden change in the seasons.
The harsh summer season suddenly giving way to monsoon or rainy season. The south-west monsoons from the Arabian Sea and the Bay of Bengal bring rainfall to the
entire country.
The north-eastern winter monsoon do not cause much rainfall except along the Caromandel coast (TN coast) after getting moisture from the Bay of Bengal.
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6.3 Indian Climate – Seasons A. The winter season, B. The summer season, C. The south-west monsoon season or Rainy season, D. The season of the retreating monsoon or cool season.
6.3.1 WINTER SEASON IN INDIA
November – March. January is the coldest month. Sun’s apparent path is to the south of equator. Clear sky, pleasant weather, low temperature, low humidity, high range of temperature,
cool and slow north-east trade winds. The diurnal range of temperature, especially in interior parts of the country, is very high.
6.3.1.1 Temperature in Winter Season The isotherm of 20°C runs roughly parallel to the Tropic of Cancer. To the south of this isotherm the temperatures are above 20°C. Here there is no distinctly
defined winter weather. Some parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu typically experiences temperatures near 30°C.
To the north mean temperatures are below 21°C and the winter weather is distinct. The mean minimum temperature is about 5°C over north-west India and 10°C over the
Gangetic plains. Dras Valley in Kashmir is the coldest place in India. The minimum temperature recorded at
Dras was – 45°C in 1908.
6.3.1.2 Pressure in Winter Season High air pressure prevails over large parts of north-west India due to low temperatures
coupled with divergence induced by the ridge of the STJ. Pressure is comparatively lower in south India. The winds start blowing from high pressure area of north-west to low pressure area of south-
east. The wind velocity is low due to low pressure gradient. The path of the winds depend on pressure gradient and physiography.
6.3.1.3 Western Disturbances in Winter Season The spell of fine weather over north-western and northern India is often broken due to
inflow of western disturbances. They intensify over Rajasthan, Punjab, and Haryana. They move eastwards across the sub-Himalayan belt up to Arunachal Pradesh. They cause light rain in the Indus-Ganga plains and snowfall in the Himalayan belt.
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After the passage of the disturbance, widespread fog and cold waves lowering the minimum temperature by 5° to 10°C below normal are experienced.
Fog lowers visibility and causes great inconvenience for transportation.
6.3.1.4 Tropical Cyclones in Winter Season This is the season of least tropical cyclone activity. The frequency of tropical cyclones decreases with the advancement of the season. This is due to low sea surface temperature and exit of ITCZ farthest south. The storms which are born in the Bay of Bengal strike Tamil Nadu and bring heavy rainfall. Some of them cross the southern peninsula over to the Arabian Sea. Some storms originate in the Arabian Sea and move towards either north or west.
6.3.1.5 Precipitation in Winter Season The retreating winter monsoons pick up some moisture while crossing the Bay of Bengal and
cause winter rainfall in Tamil Nadu, south Andhra Pradesh, south-east Karnataka and south-east Kerala (Usually in the first weeks of November).
The highest seasonal rainfall of about 75 cm between October and December. Most of it occurs along the south-eastern coast of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra
Pradesh. Thereafter, it gradually decreases. The western disturbances also cause a little rainfall in north-west India. The amount of rainfall gradually decreases from the north and north-west to east (it is
opposite in rainy season). The north-eastern part of India also gets rainfall during the winter months.
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6.3.2 SUMMER SEASON IN INDIA
March to June. High temperature and low humidity are the chief characteristics. Sometimes referred to as pre-monsoon period.
6.3.2.1 Temperature in Summer Season High sun’s insolation due to apparent movement of sun between the equator and the Tropic
of Cancer. The southern parts of the country are distinctly warmer in March and April whereas in June,
north India has higher temperatures. In March, the highest temperatures occur in the southern parts (40-45°C). In April the highest temperature of about 45°C is recorded in the northern parts of Madhya
Pradesh. In May the highest temperature shifts to Rajasthan where temperatures as high as 48°C may
be recorded. In June the maximum temperature is in Punjab and Haryana. The highest temperatures recorded are 50.5°C at Alwar on 10th May, 1956 and 50.6°C at
Ganganagar on 14th June, 1935. The highest temperatures are recorded just before the onset of the southwest monsoons
(late May). The diurnal range of temperature is also very high. It may be as high as 18°C in some parts. The maximum summer temperatures are comparatively lower in the costal and southern
peninsular regions due to moderating effect of the sea. The temperatures along the west coast are comparatively lower than those prevailing on
the east coast due to the prevailing westerly winds. There is large contrast between land and sea temperatures. Northern and central parts of India experience heat waves in this season.
[A heat wave is an abnormally high temperature experienced by a regions. Temperature increase of the order of 6° to 7°C above normal is termed as ‘moderate’ and 8°C and more as ‘severe’ heat wave]
Most of the heat waves develop over Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana (location far away from the sea). From here they spread over Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.
The strong north westerly winds (caused due to strong divergence in north-west India) with a long land journey over hot regions check the onward march of the sea breeze over eastern coastal belt and create heat wave conditions over Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
The heat waves strike by the end of April and their maximum occurrence is in May. They last till the onset of southwest monsoon.
The normal duration of heat waves is 4 to 5 days. However, heat waves are rare over the peninsula south of 13°N latitude due to maritime conditions prevailing there.
6.3.2.2 Pressure in Summer Season The atmospheric pressure is low all over the country due to high temperature.
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But strong dynamically induced divergence over north-west India prevents the onset of south-west monsoons.
6.3.2.3 Winds in Summer Season There is a marked change in the direction and speed of the winds. The winds are by and large light and variable.
Loo Loo winds originate over Iranian, Baloch and Thar deserts. In May and June, high temperature in northwest India builds steep pressure gradient. Hot, dust laden and strong wind known as loo blows. Loo normally starts blowing by 9.00 A.M., increases gradually and reaches maximum intensity
in the afternoon. It blows with an average speed of 30-40 km per hour and persists for days.
Andhis The strong dust storms resulting from the convective phenomena are locally known
as andhis (blinding storms). They move like a solid wall of dust and sand. The wind velocity often reaches 50-60 kmph and the visibility is reduced to a few metres. Such dust storms are common in Rajasthan, Haryana, Punjab, and Jammu region, Delhi, Uttar
Pradesh, Bihar and Madhya Pradesh. They are short lived. The squall and showers which follow these storms bring down the
temperature sharply temporarily.
6.3.2.4 Frontal Thunderstorms in Summer Season The strong convectional movements related to the westerly jet stream lead to
thunderstorms in eastern and north-eastern part of the country. They normally originate over Chota Nagpur plateau and are carried eastwards by westerly
winds. The areas with highest incidence of thunderstorms are Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland,
Mizoram, Manipur, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Odisha and Jharkhand.
6.3.2.5 Nor westers and Thunderstorms in Summer Season In West Bengal and the adjoining areas of Jharkhand, Odisha and Assam, the direction of
squalls is mainly from the northwest, and they are called nor westers. They are often very violent with squall speeds of 60 to 80 km per hour . Hailstones sometimes accompany showers and occasionally attain the size of a golf ball. They cause heavy damage to standing crops, trees, buildings, livestock and even lead to loss
of human lives. However, they are, sometimes, useful for tea, jute and rice cultivation. In Assam, these
storms are known as ‘Barodoli Chheerha’.
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The period of maximum occurrence of these storms is the month of Vaisakh (mid-March to mid-April) and hence, they are locally known as Kalabaisakhis, the black storms or a mass of dark clouds of Vaiasakha.
6.3.2.6 Convectional Thunderstorms in Summer Season In the south the thunderstorms occur in Kerala (Mango Showers) and adjoining parts
of Karnataka (Blossom Showers) and Tamil Nadu, particularly during evenings and nights.
6.3.2.7 Western Disturbances in Summer Season Their frequency and intensity gradually decrease with advancement of summer . Approximately 4, 3 and 2 western disturbances visit north-west India in March, April and May
respectively. They cause snowfall in higher reaches of the Himalayas.
6.3.2.8 Tropical Cyclones in Summer Season Tropical cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. A few cyclones are formed in the Bay of Bengal in the month of March but they do not affect
the mainland of India. Their frequency rises steeply in April and the number of cyclones originating in May is more
than double than those originating in April. About three-fourths of the tropical cyclones are born in the Bay of Bengal and the rest
originate in the Arabian Sea. Most of the depressions in April originate to the south of 10°N while those originating in May
are born to the north of this latitude. Most of the storms of this season initially move west or north-west but later they recurve
northeast and strike Bangladesh and the Arakan Coast of Myanmar. Very few hit Indian coast while some dissipate over the sea itself. The whole of the east coast of India, the coastal areas of Bangladesh and Arakan Coast of
Myanmar are liable to be hit by tropical storms in May. Many of them are quite severe and cause heavy damage to life and property. In the Arabian Sea, major storms are formed in May between 7° and 12° N latitudes. Most of them move away from the Indian coast in a north-westerly direction and dissipate in
the sea. Few originate close to the Indian coast. They move towards the north-east and hit somewhere
along the west coast of India.
6.3.2.9 Precipitation in Summer Season This season is not totally rainless (only one per cent of the annual rainfall). In the north-eastern parts of the country, dust storms bring little rainfall. The precipitation in Kashmir is mainly in the form of snow caused by western disturbances. The nor westers bring some rainfall in Assam, West Bengal and Odisha. The intensity of rainfall
is high.
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The rainfall brought by the nor westers is known as the spring storm showers.
This small amount of rainfall is very useful for the cultivation of tea, jute and rice and is known as tea showers in Assam.
Coastal areas of Kerala and Karnataka receive rainfall from thunderstorms.
Such showers are called mango showers in Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh because they are very beneficial to mango crop.
In Karnataka they are called cherry blossoms due to their effect on the coffee plantations.
6.3.3 SOUTH WEST MONSOON SEASON
6.3.3.1 Isoline, Isobar, Isotherm & Isohyet ISOLINE : imaginary lines joining regions with equal rainfall or any other parameter.
ISOBAR : imaginary lines joining regions with equal pressure. ISOTHERM : imaginary lines joining regions with equal temperature. ISOHYET : imaginary lines joining regions with equal rainfall.
6.3.3.2 Rainy Season – South West Monsoon Season South West Monsoon Season – June to mid-September. South West Monsoon Season is also known as hot-wet season. Sudden onset is the important feature of South West Monsoons. With the onset of monsoons, temperature falls drastically and humidity levels rise.
6.3.3.3 Temperature during South West Monsoon Season
Sudden onset of South West Monsoons leads to significant fall in temperature [3° to 6°C]. The temperature remains less uniform throughout the rainy season. The temperature rises in September with the cease of south-west monsoons. There is rise in temperature whenever there is break in the monsoons. The diurnal range of temperature is small due to clouds and rains. The highest temperatures are experienced at places west of the Aravalli [38° to 40°C]. This
is due to lack of clouds and hot continental air masses. Other parts of Northwest India also have temperatures above 30°C. The temperatures are quite low over the Western Ghats due to heavy rainfall. The coastal areas of Tamil Nadu and adjoining parts of Andhra Pradesh have temperatures
above 30°C as they receive little rainfall during this season.
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6.3.3.4 Pressure and Winds during South West Monsoon Season Low pressure conditions prevail over northwest India due to high temperature. ITCZ (monsoon trough) lies along the Ganga plain. There are frequent changes in its location
depending upon the weather conditions. The atmospheric pressure increases steadily southwards. Over the peninsular region, due to pressure gradient between north and south, winds blow
in a southwest to northeast direction from Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Their direction undergoes a change in Indo-Gangetic plain where they move from east to
west. 6.3.3.5 Rainfall during South West Monsoon Season
Three fourths of the total annual rainfall is received during this season. The average rainfall over the plains of India in this season is about 87 per cent. Normal date of the arrival of the monsoon is 20th May in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The advance of the monsoon is much faster in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea. The normal date of onset of the southwest monsoon over Kerala i.e. the first place of entry
in the mainland of India is 1st June. The monsoons advance quickly accompanied with a lot of thunder, lightning and heavy
downpour. This sudden onset of rain is termed as monsoon burst. Sometimes monsoons are delayed or they come much earlier than normal. Normally the onset occurs between 29th May and 7th June. The earliest onset was on 11th May in 1918 and 1955, while the most delayed onset was on
18th June in 1972.
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6.3.3.6 South West Monsoons – Arabian Sea branch and Bay of Bengal branch Monsoon winds beyond south Kerala progress in the form of
two branches viz. the Arabian Sea branch and the Bay of Bengal branch.
The Arabian Sea branch gradually advances northwards. It reaches Mumbai by 10th June.
The Bay of Bengal branch spreads rather rapidly over most of Assam. The normal date of its arrival at Kolkata is 7th June.
On reaching the foothills of the Himalayas the Bay branch is deflected westward by the Himalayan barrier and it advances up the Gangetic plain.
The two branches merge with each other mostly around Delhi to form a single current.
Both the branches reach Delhi more or less at the same time. The combined current gradually extends to west Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and finally to Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir.
By the end of June the monsoon is usually established over most parts of the country. By mid-July, the monsoon extends into Kashmir and the remaining parts of the country. By this time it reaches Kashmir, it has shed most of its moisture. Arabian Sea branch of the monsoon is much powerful than the Bay of Bengal branch for
reasons: 1. The Arabian Sea is larger than the Bay of Bengal, and 2. The entire Arabian Sea current advances towards India, whereas only a part of the Bay of
Bengal current enters India, the remainder proceeding to Myanmar, Thailand and Malaysia.
The Arabian Sea branch of the southwest monsoons is divided into three distinct streams on arriving in the mainland of India. The first stream strikes the west coast of India and gives extremely heavy rainfall of
over 250 cm. It strike perpendicular to Western Ghats causing plentiful Orographic Rainfall [400 to 500 cm annual rainfall on the windward side].
Rainfall is drastically reduced to about 30-50 cm on the leeward side of the crest. There is a narrow belt of marked aridity on the immediate leeward side of the
Western Ghats. But once it is passed, the air starts rising again and the amount of rainfall increases further east.
The second stream enters Narmada—Tapi troughs (narrow rift valley) and reaches
central India. It does not cause much rain near the coast due to the absence of major orographic obstacle across the rift. Some parts of central India receive rainfall from
this stream (Ex: Nagpur). The third stream moves parallel to the Aravalli Range without causing much rainfall.
Consequently the whole of Rajasthan is a desert area.
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However, some orographic effect is occurs on the south-eastern edge of the Aravalli Range. Mt. Abu gets about 170 cm rainfall while the surrounding plains have only 60
to 80 cm rainfall.
The Bay of Bengal Branch of the southwest monsoon is divided into two distinct streams. The first stream crosses the Ganga-Brahmaputra delta and reaches Meghalaya. Here
that the orographic effect results in intense rainfall. Cherrapunji receives an annual
rainfall of 1,102 cm, major portion of which occurs from June to August. Mawsynram (present champion) located at 1,329 m above sea level just 16 km to the
west of Cherrapunji (X champion) records higher annual rainfall of 1,221 cm. Both the stations are located on the southern slopes of the Khasi hills at the northern
end of a deep valley running from south to north. The second stream of the Bay of Bengal branch moves along Himalayan foothills as
they are deflected to the west by the Himalaya and brings widespread rainfall to Ganga plain.
The rainfall by this stream is characterized by a steady decline as we move from east
to west up the plain. [Previous Prelims Question] The Tamil Nadu coast remains relatively dry during the south-west monsoon period because
of 1. rain shadow effect of the Arabian Sea current and 2. Bay of Bengal current which flows parallel to the coast.
6.3.3.7 Break in the South West Monsoons During the Monsoon season, there are periods when the Monsoon trough shifts to the
foothills of Himalayas, which leads to sharp decrease in rainfall over most parts of the country but increase along the Himalayas and parts of Northeast India and Southern
Peninsula. During July and August, there are certain periods when the monsoons become weak. Rainfall
practically ceases over the country outside the Himalayan belt and southeast peninsula. This is known as break in the monsoon.
Breaks are likely to occur during the second week of August and last for a week. The breaks are believed to be brought about by the northward shifting of the monsoon
trough (minimum low pressure cell in ITCZ). The axis of the trough lies at the foothills of the Himalayas during the break period.
The monsoon trough is a portion of the Intertropical Convergence Zone as depicted by a line on a
weather map showing the locations of minimum sea level pressure, and as such, is a convergence zone between the wind patterns of the southern and northern hemispheres.
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During the break period, heavy rainfall occurs over the sub-Himalayan regions and the southern slopes of the Himalayas.
On an average one or two breaks do occur during the rainy season. 85 out of 100 years there is a break in the monsoons.
6.3.3.8 Depressions in South West Monsoon Season A major part of the South West Monsoon rainfall is generated by depressions [intense low
pressure] originating in the Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal. Some depressions develop over land also.
About 3-4 depressions are formed per month from June to September. Almost all of them are sucked inward through the deltas of great rivers [They need moisture
to be alive], the Ganga, the Mahanadi, the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery and cause heavy rain in these areas.
The location of depressions strongly coincide with the latitudinal position of ITCZ . Most of the depression originate to the west of 90⁰ E in Bay of Bengal and move in north-
west direction. In the Arabian Sea in June-July, the depressions move either in north-west or in northerly
direction and may affect west Gujarat or Maharashtra. Storms during August and September are rare and are formed close to Maharashtra-Gujarat
coast. Most of the rainfall in central and northern parts of the country is caused by these
depressions. The absence of depressions or a change in their tracks result in deficit or no rain.
6.3.3.9 Advance and Withdrawal of South West Monsoons
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6.3.3.10 Chief Characteristics of South West Monsoon Rainfall Major part of monsoon rains are received between June and September. Monsoonal rainfall is largely governed by relief and is orographic in its mode. The amount of rainfall decreases with increasing distance from the sea. The rainless interval during south west monsoon season is known as ‘breaks’. The breaks in
rainfall are related to tropical cyclones which originate in the Bay of Bengal. There are large scale spatial variations in the distribution of rainfall. Monsoons often fail to keep date. Sometimes the monsoons withdraw before the scheduled
time causing considerable damage to the crops.
6.3.4 RETREATING MONSOON SEASON (NORTH EAST MONSOONS)
Starts with the beginning of the withdrawal of southwest monsoon [middle of September – November] and lasts till early January.
The monsoons withdraw from the extreme north-west end of the country in September, from the peninsula by October and from the extreme south-eastern tip by December.
In Punjab the south-west monsoons reach in the first week of July and withdraw from there in the second week of September.
The south-west monsoons reach Coromandel Coast in the first week of June and withdraw from there only in the middle of December.
Unlike the sudden burst of the advancing monsoons, the withdrawal is rather gradual and takes about three months.
6.3.4.1 Temperature during Retreating Monsoon Season With retreat of the monsoons, the clouds disappear and the sky becomes clear. The day temperature starts falling steeply. The diurnal range of temperature increases due to lack of cloud cover.
6.3.4.2 Pressure and Winds during Retreating Monsoon Season As the monsoons retreat, the monsoon trough weakens and gradually shifts southward.
Consequently the pressure gradient is low. Unlike south-west monsoon, the onset of the north monsoon is not clearly defined . The direction of winds over large parts of the country is influenced by the local pressure
conditions.
6.3.4.3 Cyclones during Retreating Monsoon Season Most severe and devastating tropical cyclones originate in the Indian seas especially in the
Bay of Bengal. The highest frequency of the cyclones is in the month of October and the first half of
November. More cyclones are born in October and then in November and more cyclones originate in the Bay of Bengal than in the Arabian Sea.
In October, the Cyclones of the Bay of Bengal originate between 8°N and 14°N.
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Initially they move in a west or north-westerly direction, but many of them later recurve and move towards the north-east.
Near 55 per cent of the Bay storms cross or affect the Indian coast. The area’s most vulnerable to these storms include the coastal belts of Tamil Nadu, Andhra
Pradesh, Odisha and West Bengal. Many of the cyclones which strike the eastern coast of India, south of 15°N latitude cross the
southern Peninsula and enter Arabian Sea. During this process, they may weaken, but on re-entry over the Arabian Sea they intensify
into cyclonic storms. The storms of Arabian Sea originate between 12°N and 17°N latitudes in October and
between 8° N and 13° N latitudes in November. Generally they move away from the coast in a north-westerly direction. But about 25% of
them later recurve northeast and strike the Maharashtra or Gujarat coast. In north-west India the western disturbances produce clouding and light rainfall in the
otherwise fine weather. The precipitation is in the form of snow in higher reaches of Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal
Pradesh and in Kumaon Hills.
6.3.4.4 Precipitation during Retreating Monsoon Season The humidity and cloud cover are much reduced with the retreat of the south-west
monsoons and most parts of the country remain without much rainfall. October-November is the main rainy season in Tamil Nadu and adjoining areas of Andhra
Pradesh to the south of the Krishna delta as well as a secondary rainy period for Kerala. The retreating monsoons absorb moisture while passing over the Bay of Bengal and cause
this rainfall.
6.4 Annual Rainfall [South West Monsoons + Retreating Monsoons]
6.4.1 Areas of very high rainfall
Areas receiving an annual rainfall of 200 cm and above. These include western side of Western Ghats [Thiruvananthapuram in the south to Mumbai
in the north]. The average annual rainfall in this belt is 200-400 cm. Assam, Nagaland, Meghalaya, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, Sikkim, parts of Manipur, Tripura
and north-eastern tip of West Bengal also receive 200 cm or more, with isolated pockets receiving over 400 cm.
Meghalaya (the abode of clouds) is the wettest part of the country with Mawsynram and Cherrapunji getting 1,221 and 1,102 cm of annual rainfall respectively.
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6.4.2 Areas of high rainfall
100-200 cm annual rainfall. Eastern slopes of the Western Ghats, major part of the northern plain, Odisha, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
6.4.3 Areas of low rainfall
50-100 cm annual rainfall. Large parts of Gujarat, Maharashtra, western Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
eastern Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana and parts of Uttar Pradesh .
6.4.4 Areas of very low rainfall
These are desert and semi-desert areas receiving less than 50 cm of annual rainfall. They include large areas of western Rajasthan, Kachchh and most of Ladakh region of Jammu
and Kashmir.
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7. CROPPING PATTERN IN INDIA
Multiplicity of cropping systems has been one of main features of Indian Agriculture and it is attributed to rain fed agriculture and prevailing socio-economic situations of farming community. Cropping systems of a region are decided by and large, by a number of soils and climatic parameters which determine overall agro-ecological setting for nourishment and appropriateness of a crop or set of crops for cultivation.
Nevertheless, at farmers’ level, potential
productivity and monetary benefits act as guiding principles while opting for a particular
crop/cropping system. These decisions with respect to choice of crops and cropping systems
are further narrowed down under influence of several other forces related to infrastructure
facilities, socio-economic factors and technological developments, all operating
interactively at micro-level.
There are four cropping systems in India which is discussed below:
1. Rainy Season Cropping Systems: In this system of cropping, Rice, Sorghum, Pearl Millet (Bajra), Maize, Groundnut and Cotton are grown.
2. Winter Cropping Systems: In this system, wheat, barley and oats, sorghum and chickpea are
grown. 3. Plantation and other commercial crops: Sugarcane, Tobacco, Potato, Jute, Tea, Coffee, Coconut,
Rubber, and Spices are important crops are grown in this system.
4. Mixed Cropping: In this system, pulses and some oilseeds are grown with maize, sorghum and pearl millet.
The crop which is sown in largest area in India Rice (43.9 million hectares as per
2013-14 estimates)
The crop whose production is the largest in India
Sugarcane (348.4 million tonnes as per 2013-14 estimates)
The cereal crop whose production is the largest
in India
Rice (106.3 million tonnes as per
2013-14 estimates)
The agricultural produce which has the highest percentage share of imports
Edible Oil (about 68% of imports of food and allied products)
The agricultural produce which has the highest
percentage share of exports Rice
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7.1 Types of Cropping System in India
There are three types of cropping system followed in India which is below:
1. Mono-Cropping or Monoculture: In this system, only one crop is grown on farm land year after year.
2. Multiple-Cropping: In this system, farmers grow two or more crops on farm land in one calendar
year with intensive input management practices. It includes inter-cropping, mixed- cropping and sequence cropping.
3. Inter-cropping: In this system, farmers grow two or more crops simultaneously on the same field in one calendar year.
The Indian agricultural practices are still lacking by intensive planning because India has diversified
agro-climatic zone, which is unfortunately not giving sufficient production. If our farming system relied on modern cropping pattern and cropping system, then we have a predominance of food grain
crops, our farming will also inclined towards commercial crops and most importantly it will noticeable increase in the production of individual crops.
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7.3 Top crop producing states Crop State
The largest producer of paddy in India West Bengal
The largest producer of wheat in India Uttar Pradesh
The largest producer of sugarcane in India Uttar Pradesh
The largest producer of potato in India Uttar Pradesh
The largest producer of groundnut in India Gujarat
The largest producer of tea in India Assam
The largest producer of coffee in India Karnataka
The largest producer of jute in India West Bengal
The largest producer of tobacco in India Andhra Pradesh
The largest producer of bananas in India Tamil Nadu
The largest producer of cassava in India Tamil Nadu
The largest producer of saffron in India Jammu & Kashmir
The largest producer of onion in India Maharashtra
The largest producer of cashew nuts in India Maharashtra
The largest producer of garlic in India Madhya Pradesh
The largest producer of black pepper in India Kerala
The largest producer of cotton in India Gujarat
The largest producer of bamboos in India Assam
The largest producer of litchis in India Bihar
The largest producer of small cardamom in India Kerala
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Crop State
The largest producer of large cardamom in India Sikkim
The largest producer of chilli in India Andhra Pradesh
7.4 Factors determining cropping pattern in India
1. Physical Factors :
Cropping pattern of any particular region of the country is depending on its soil content, weather,
climate, rainfall etc. As for example, in a wet area having chances of heavy rainfall and water-logging, people will like to cultivate rice whereas in a dry area, farmer can manage to cultivate coarse cereals
like bajra, jowar etc.
2. Technical Factors:
The cropping pattern also depend upon the technical factors such as nature and capacity of irrigation facilities available in a region, availability of improved seeds, chemical fertiliser etc. With
the development of irrigation facilities, the entire method of cultivation being followed from the traditional period is bound to change.
- With this, new and better crop rotation system can be followed and new and superior crops also can be grown.
- In India, due to the extension of irrigation facilities, the cultivation of sugarcane, tobacco, oilseeds etc. have increased substantially.
-Moreover, with the availability of irrigation water, even double or triple cropping is also
successfully done. Again, in the absence of irrigation facilities in some other parts of the country, the concept of “dry land farming” is also gaining its importance in recent year.
3. Economic Factors :
Economic factors are playing the major role in determining the cropping pattern in a country like
India. The following are some of the economic factors influencing the cropping pattern of our country:
a. Price and income aspect:
Movement of price of agricultural products is having some correlation with the changes in cropping pattern. A remunerative and steady price of a particular crop will provide a better
incentive to the producer to produce that crop and un-remunerative price will induce the farmer to change the cropping pattern.
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In India, fixed procurement price of wheat and rice and other controls imposed by the Government induced the farmers to shift to cash crops like sugarcane . Again, the un- remunerative prices of jute prevailing in Assam and other adjoining states also led to shift in the production of food crops.
Moreover, income maximisation aspect is also playing an important role in influencing the cropping pattern in the country. Relative profitability per acre is also having considerable influence on the cropping pattern of the country
b. Farm Size:
A good relationship also exists between farm size and cropping pattern. In a small farm, farmers are very much interested to produce food grains for household consumption. After
meeting their own food requirements small farmers may go for cash crops in order to maximise their money income. On the other hand, in a big farm farmers like to follow that
cropping pattern which maximise their income.
c. Tenure:
Land tenure system prevailing in the country also influences the cropping pattern. In a system of crop sharing, it is the landlord who finalizes the cropping pattern guided by profit maximising principle.
d. Availability affirm inputs:
Cropping pattern is also depending upon the farm inputs available, seeds, fertiliser,
controlled and assured water supply through irrigation etc. and among these irrigation is the most important.
e. Government Action:
Cropping pattern may also be influenced by government action undertaken in the form of administrative and legislative measure. Supply of inputs by the government, intensive
scheme for various crops, various government campaign like grow more food or any legislative provision by the government, transportation and marketing provision also help to
finalize the cropping pattern in the country.
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7.5 Agriculture and related fields
Type Related to
Agriculture Cultivation of the soil and rearing of animals
Horticulture Cultivation of fruits, vegetables, flowers, nuts, ornamental plants
Floriculture Cultivation of flowers
Arboriculture Cultivation of trees and shrubs
Apiculture Bee keeping
Aquaculture Cultivation or rearing of aquatic plants and animals
Aviculture Rearing of birds
Pisciculture Rearing of fish
Pomiculture Growing of fruits
Sericulture Breeding of silkworms
Viniculture/Viticulture Cultivation of grapevines
7.6 Green Revolution in India
Green revolution refers to a process that increases the production of food grains using the high-yielding varieties, fertilizers, pesticides, and modern equipment and technology .
For example, Prof. Norma Borlaug in Mexico developed high-yielding varieties of wheat that were resistant to diseases like rust. It increased wheat production by three times within three years. Later these varieties of wheat were adopted by many countries including India. For this achievement, he received the noble peach prize.
Green revolution in India refers to a period when agriculture production was increased tremendously using high-yielding varieties and modern tools and techniques such as tractors,
pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation facilities, etc.
After independence, India had to rebuild its economy and around 70 percent of the population was dependant on agriculture to make their living. The production of food grains was not sufficient as
compared to the rising population. Furthermore, the agriculture was dependent on monsoon due to the lack of irrigation facilities and pesticides, and machinery was also not available to increase the output in the fields.
India also had to face food crisis during the British Raj, who was only interested in promoting cash crops. India was determined to become self-sufficient in producing food grains and not to depend on other countries for food sufficiency.
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So, India launched Green Revolution in India in 1965 under the leadership of the Lal Bahadur Shastri and with the help of M.S. Swaminathan. M.S. Swaminathan has played a vital role in introducing high-yielding varieties of wheat in India to increase agriculture production in India. He is also known as the father of green revolution in India. He is an Indian geneticist; under his guidance and
supervision, high-yielding varieties of wheat and rice were grown in the fields of Indian states.
In India, the green revolution continued from 1965 to 1977. It mainly increased the food crops production in the state of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan and enabled India to change its status
from a food deficient country to one of the leading agricultural nations in the world.
Until 1967 (before the green revolution), the govt. of India was only focusing on increasing the farming land to increase food production. But, the increase in population was much higher than the food production and an increase in farming land. Consequently, the solution for this situation came in the form of green revolution and India became one of the countries where green revolution was most successful. The major factor behind the success of green revolution was the use of seeds of high-yielding and rust-resistant varieties of wheat.
Green revolution mainly focuses on three basic elements that include:
o Expansion of agricultural land
o Double-cropping (two crops in a year) in the existing farmland o Using high-yielding crops and seeds with improved genetics
7.6.1 Benefits of the green revolution in India
Increase in food grain production: It helped the Indian Government to become
independent and self-sufficient in producing food grains in the country instead of relying on import. Its food crops' output increased by tens of millions of extra tonnes per year. In 1979, it allowed the country to produce a record grain output of 131 million tonnes.
Increase in farmers' earnings: The earning of farmers was increased due to the increase
in farm production. However, it helped only those farmers who have more than 10 hectares
of land.
Less dependency on Imports: Import of food grains from other countries was reduced to
a greater extent. Sometimes, the country was in a position to export food grains. Besides this,
sufficient stock of food grains was also available to deal with the shortage of food. Furthermore, it also increased the per capita net availability of food-grains from 395 grams
per day to 436 grams despite the increase in population.
Promoted capitalistic farming: It promoted capitalistic farming in which farmers with
large agricultural land were able to get maximum profit by using green revolution technology. Thus, it enabled farmers to increase their level of income and live a prosperous
life.
Industry growth: It also promoted the growth of the industry that is involved in the
production of equipment required in farming on a large scale such as tractors, combines,
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harvesters, threshers, electric motors, diesel engines, etc. Furthermore, the industry engaged in the production of fertilizers, insecticides, pesticides, etc., was also grown considerably.
Employment: The growth in the agriculture industry due to commercial farming created
new jobs for the workforce.
7.6.2 Drawbacks of Green Revolution
However, according to some social activist and scientist, although it increased production, there were
also some drawbacks of green revolution such as
o High use of pesticides that caused some financial, sociological and environmental issues that were not good for human health and environment.
o Due to the increase or expanding the agricultural land, the salinity of the land was increased. The use of new high-yielding varieties also caused genetic erosion.
o It was focused on only some food crops, not able to generate high yield seed of other crops
in other parts of India. o It mainly helped the big farmers, the small farmers were not able to invest in the new
technology and fertilizers. o Besides this, it only helped some states to increase their food grain production. In other
parts of India, the results were not so impressive.
7.7 Second green revolution
In an effort to tackle sluggish long-term agricultural growth in India, Prime Minister Modi is calling for a second Green Revolution. One in every two Indians relies on agriculture for livelihood, yet India
still has the second highest number of undernourished people in the world. It is not surprising, therefore, that our government wants to promote a return to that golden era of the 1970s and 80s,
which saw record yields thanks to the technologies made available at the time — we had improved high yielding varieties of rice and wheat, better irrigation, fertilisers, and pesticides.
But the agricultural landscape has changed drastically since this intervention that a second Green Revolution is going to need an entirely new approach, and an entirely new set of technologies.
Climate change is tightening its grip and threatening food supply, not just in India but worldwide. It has never been more important to protect the scarce natural resources that are essential to
agriculture.
7.7.1 Focus on precision
A new approach, termed “precision agriculture”, will be key. We now have a wealth of data at our disposal, which, if harnessed appropriately, can help farmers make the most efficient use of vital
inputs such as water and fertiliser by applying them in precise amounts. A new mobile phone application called MITRA, for example, is being developed in Tamil Nadu, that will give site-specific
recommendations to farmers on the correct fertiliser dose, based on data from the local department
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of agriculture. It is able to operate offline for farmers in remote areas who do not have internet access. This prevents the farmer from wasting important inputs, and also reduces agriculture’s impact on the environment.
The correct type of fertiliser is, in fact, as important as the correct quantity, which should be an important consideration in any plan for a second Green Revolution in India. Modi’s call to reopen
fertiliser plants in Sindri (Jharkhand) and Gorakhpur (Uttar Pradesh), and open new ones in West Bengal must take into account that India’s soil is diverse, and fertiliser requirements will vary greatly
across the country. Just like humans, soils need a balanced diet of the right kind of nutrients in order to be healthy; this is a fact that has been overlooked by government subsidy programmes that only
favoured urea for a long time. The right kind of nutrients for a specific soil area needs to be applied, at the right rate, at the right time and in the right place for optimal soil health. This is called the 4Rs
or nutrient stewardship.
Testing of samples of soil from agricultural fields is vital for achieving nutrient stewardship. India has a vast network of 661 soil testing laboratories including 120 mobile vans operating in 608 districts that can carry out 7.2 million tests annually. Farmers will soon be able to access these reports online. Besides soil-testing, gadgets such as leaf colour charts and optical sensors are becoming popular with farmers to guide the application of urea. This nitrogen fertiliser, if used incorrectly, can affect groundwater reserves and contribute to emissions of the greenhouse gas, nitrous oxide.
7.7.2 Interactive applications
Mobile-based applications for farmers will form an important part of the data-driven precision agriculture approach. But it is important to ensure this meets the needs of the farmer. Research
carried out by the International Maize and Wheat Improvement Centre, Mexico, found that these applications need to be interactive; the farmer must have a way of asking questions and giving
feedback, either through a helpline or via “field scouts” who visit the villages receiving the mobile-based information. The research also showed that a wider range of issues needs to be tackled in
addition to input use, such as how to deal with pests, and new climate-resistant crop varieties. This signals an important area where governments and NGOs can intervene and offer this kind of detailed
advice on an ongoing basis. It will also be key to ensure that applications are affordable and accessible.
Another major challenge is the evidence that groundwater stocks are rapidly depleting. Groundwater sustains around 60 per cent of agriculture in India, while 80 per cent of the people
living in rural areas use groundwater for their domestic needs. Laser levelling is a technology that can grade an agricultural field to a flat surface by using a laser-guided scraper. Laser levelling has been shown to improve crop yields, reduce labour time spent weeding , and, in particular, reduce water use for irrigation by up to 20-25 per cent.
Although the challenges to bringing a second Green Revolution to India are immense, it is not impossible. India has led the charge before, and yielded phenomenal results. But we must recognise
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that success will be just as much about using resources efficiently, as about increasing yield . If we consider these two equally, we will succeed.
7.8 Rainbow Revolution
The word “revolution” emphasizes on the fact of a wide change in the existing conditions. For more
than five decades, this word has taken the forefront. This word has changed the era of livelihood. It has modified the whole concept of living.
7.8.1 The Rainbow Revolution
It was started in the year 2000 by the Government of India.
It was the first national agriculture policy. It is an integral part of today’s modern and advanced technology. It combines the effect of all other revolutions in the sector of agriculture and husbandry.
7.8.2 It includes:
Green Revolution White Revolution Yellow Revolution Blue Revolution Golden Revolution
Black/Brown Revolution Silver Revolution
Round Revolution Red Revolution
Grey Revolution
7.8.3 Benefits and effects of Rainbow Revolution
Rainbow Revolution plays an important role in the development of agriculture and husbandry sectors of India.
Green Revolution emphasizes on food grain production, White Revolution gives importance to milk production. Similarly Yellow and Blue Revolution gives emphasis on oilseeds and fish
production respectively. Black/Brown Revolution is responsible for non-conventional energy production. Silver and Round Revolution emphasizes on eggs and potato production
respectively. And, Red and Grey Revolution pays importance on tomato/meat and fertilizers production.
Rainbow Revolution is the collective result of all these revolutions. It keeps a check on the needs of the citizens and provide accordingly.
It is a good step in the path of sustainable growth and development of the nation.
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It has been an aid for the production of the best products.
It has always tried to advance the ways and techniques to make better supply to the consumers.
It’s a boon for the Indian agricultural and husbandry sector .
It has helped the Indian farmers and thus, Indian economy to take leaps over the years. Rainbow Revolution aims at increasing environmental sustainability as well as development
of resources. It promotes organic farming to decrease the use of chemicals and fertilizers. It has made practices like rain water harvesting compulsory.
It aims at improving soil testing techniques and other agricultural technologies. It promotes soil health schemes. It takes care of the income of the farmers. It keeps a check
on annual growth in agricultural sector.
It keeps the farmers informed about miscellaneous plans and programs of the government for their growth and development.
It ensures proper market facilities for the farmers without any restrictions on the movement of products. It supplies the farmers with adequate number of go-downs and warehouses.
It promotes the agricultural exports with the help of good quality of agri-products. It keeps on maintaining nutritional values of the products.
Rainbow Revolution aims at interlinking all sectors of agriculture and husbandry for better efficiency of generating and producing crops and other products.
A broad outlook for Indian farmers: Indian economy is an agro-based economy and the farmers are the pioneers of such a large economy. India’s moderate climate and weather
conditions support the growth of a large variety of crops .It has made way for their development.
Rainbow Revolution comprises of the factors which strengthens Indian economy and help in its
development. It has enabled the farmers to walk out of their fields and experience trading. Exports and imports have helped the Indian economy in numerous possible ways.
Farmers are able to gain knowledge about the exports and imports, thus strengthening their economy and in the other way, nation’s economy. Interlinking of all sectors in the form of Rainbow Revolution has driven the attention of the people towards those sectors of agriculture and husbandry which were left ignored and untouched.
Rainbow Revolution has really proved to be a boon for the country and farmers. It has a bright future in India. The Rainbow Revolution will surely advance the existing agricultural technologies and bring large changes in the future.
7.8.4 Details of each revolution within Rainbow
The information about Rainbow Revolution is incomplete without the information of its parts:
1. Green Revolution: M S Swaminathan is the founder of Green Revolution. It is one of the major
revolutions in the field of agriculture in India which led to both economic and social changes. It
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generated employment for the people and increased the food grain production .This revolution has enabled people to use HYV variety of seeds .It has also allowed multiple cropping to take place.
2. White Revolution: Verghese Kurien is the founder of White Revolution. It was started by the
Indian government for the sustainance of the dairy industry. The aim of this revolution is to make India self-sufficient in milk and other dairy products. It helped in increasing milk production and
improving techniques for the same
3. Yellow Revolution: Sam Pitroda is the founder of Yellow Revolution. It is started for the increase
in oilseed production. It is the immediate rise in the production of edible oil due to the plantation of hybrid oil seeds like mustard, sesame etc.
4. Blue Revolution: Dr.Arun Krishnan is the founder of this Revolution. It is the step taken to
cultivate the rising aquaculture in this modern age. It deals with the rising amount of fisheries and providing as well as maintaining the rightful amount of conditions for the growth and development
of this sector of the society.
5. Golden Revolution: Nirpakh Tutej is the founder of this revolution. It mainly deals with the
growth and development in honey production and the horticulture sector. This revolution helped the farmers to gain high profits with increase in the changing cropping patterns and construction of large farms.
6. Silver Revolution: Our former Prime Minister Indira Gandhi is the founder of this Revolution.
This deals with the increase in poultry farming and egg production. It has been able to meet the needs of the citizens successfully. The application of medical science and other technologies has
allowed the development of this sector of agriculture.
7. Red Revolution: Vishal Tewari is the founder of this Revolution. It mainly deals with the
cultivation and production of tomatoes and meat. This revolution has enabled the farmers to create a new era of cultivation. It is one of the recent types of revolution.
8. Black/Brown Revolution: This revolution speaks about the cultivation and large production of
non-conventional sources of energy. Black Revolution deals with the production and world-wide distribution of petroleum and other related products. Brown revolution deals with the leather production. It is an aid for the clothes and textile industries.
9. Round Revolution: This revolution deals with the production of potatoes. It is one of the major
parts of the Green Revolution. Due to the advancement in this sector, the whole agricultural sector
has found a new boost. This revolution has paved its way to the increase in economic condition of the nation.
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10. Grey Revolution: This revolution has brought massive changes in the whole agriculture sector.
It deals with the application of fertilizers to the crops for better crop production. Fertilizers have
brought a new change in the cultivation of crops. And many more.
7.8.5 White Revolution- Comments
"Operation Flood started the White Revolution in India and made our country self-sufficient in milk and this was achieved entirely through the cooperative structure. Today around 12 million farmers
in more than 22 states across the country own around 250 dairy plants handling around 20 million litres of milk a day. This is a remarkable achievement. While we in India tend to take our achievement
for granted, this feat elicited high praise and admiration throughout the world."
"In 1955 our butter imports were 500 tons per year; today our cooperatives alone produce more than 12,000 tons of butter. Similarly, we imported 3000 tons of baby food in 1955; today our cooperatives alone produce 38,000 tons of baby food. By 1975 all imports of milk and milk products
stopped. The import permitted was that of food aid under Operation Flood ."
"A separate agency called as the Indian Dairy Corporation (IDC) was created to receive grants of food aid and use it in the Operation Flood, this agency was also headed by the marvellous Dr.
Verghese Kurien."
"Milk powder production increased from 22,000 tons in the pre-Operational Flood year to 1, 40,000 tons by 1989."
"In 1998 the World Bank published a report on the impact of dairy development in India and looked at its own contribution to this. The audit revealed that of the Rs 200 crore the world bank invested in Operation Flood, the net return on India's rural economy was a massive Rs 24,000 crore each year over a period of 10 years to which no other dairy programme has ever matched."
"Moreover when Amul started there were so many competitors in the market like Polson and other foreign players but Amul stood the test of time and over the years emerged as India's favourite."
7.9 Livestock resources
Livestock plays an important role in Indian economy. About 20.5 million people depend upon livestock for their livelihood. Livestock contributed 16% to the income of small farm households as against an average of 14% for all rural households. Livestock provides livelihood to two-third of rural community. It also provides employment to about 8.8 % of the population in India. India has vast livestock resources. Livestock sector contributes 4.11% GDP and 25.6% of total Agriculture GDP .
India is
World’s highest livestock owner at about 535.78 million
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First in the total buffalo population in the world - 109.85 million buffaloes Second in the population of goats - 148.88 million goats Second largest poultry market in the world Second largest producer of fish and also second largest aquaculture nation in the world
Third in the population of sheep (74.26 millions) Fifth in in the population of ducks and chicken (851.81 million)
Tenth in camel population in the world - 2.5 lakhs
7.9.1 Contribution of livestock to people
The livestock provides food and non-food items to the people.
1. Food: The livestock provides food items such as Milk, Meat and Eggs for human
consumption. India is number one milk producer in the world. It is producing about 176.34 million tons of milk in a year (2017-18). Similarly it is producing about 95.22 billion of eggs,
7.70 million tonnes of meat in a year. The value of output of livestock sector at current prices was Rs 9, 17,910 crores at current prices during 2016-17 which is about 31.25% of the value
of output from agricultural and allied sector. At constant prices the value of output from livestock was about 31.11% of the value of the output from total agriculture and allied
sector. During the financial year 2017/18, the total fish production in India is estimated at 12.61 Million Metric tonnes.
2. Fibre and skins: The livestock also contributes to the production of wool, hair, hides, and pelts. Leather is the most important product which has a very high export potential. India is
producing about 41.5 million Kg of wool per annum during 2017-18. 3. Draught: Bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. Despite lot of advancements in the
use of mechanical power in Indian agricultural operations, the Indian farmer especially in rural areas still depend upon bullocks for various agricultural operations. The bullocks are
saving a lot on fuel which is a necessary input for using mechanical power like tractors, combine harvesters etc. Pack animals like camels, horses, donkeys, ponies, mules etc are
being extensively used to transport goods in different parts of the country in addition to bullocks. In situations like hilly terrains mules and ponies serve as the only alternative to transport goods. Similarly, the army has to depend upon these animals to transport various items in high areas of high altitude.
4. Dung and other animal waste materials: Dung and other animal wastes serve as very good farm yard manure and the value of it is worth several crores of rupees. In addition it is also used as fuel (bio gas, dung cakes), and for construction as poor man’s cement (dung).
5. Storage: Livestock are considered as 'moving banks' because of their potentiality to dispose off during emergencies. They serve as capital and in cases of landless agricultural labourers
many time it is the only capital resource they possess. Livestock serve as an asset and in case of emergencies they serve as guarantee for availing loans from the local sources such as
money lenders in the villages. 6. Weed control : Livestock are also used as Biological control of brush, plants and weeds.
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7. Cultural: Livestock offer security to the owners and also add to their self-esteem especially when they are owning prized animals such as pedigreed bulls, dogs and high yielding cows/ buffaloes etc.
8. Sports / recreation: People also use the animals like cocks, rams, bulls, etc. for competition
and sports. Despite ban on these animal competitions the cock fights, ram fights and bull fights (jalli kattu) are quite common during festive seasons.
9. Companion animals: Dogs are known for their faithfulness and are being used as companions since time immemorial. When the nuclear families are increasing in number and the old
parents are forced to lead solitary life the dogs, cats are providing the needed company to the latter thus making them lead a comfortable life.
7.9.2 Role of livestock in farmers’ economy
The livestock plays an important role in the economy of farmers. The farmers in India maintain
mixed farming system i.e. a combination of crop and livestock where the output of one enterprise becomes the input of another enterprise thereby realize the resource efficiency. The livestock serve the farmers in different ways.
1. Income: Livestock is a source of subsidiary income for many families in India especially the
resource poor who maintain few heads of animals. Cows and buffaloes if in milk will provide regular income to the livestock farmers through sale of milk. Animals like sheep and goat
serve as sources of income during emergencies to meet exigencies like marriages, treatment of sick persons, children education, repair of houses etc . The animals also serve
as moving banks and assets which provide economic security to the owners.
2. Employment: A large number of people in India being less literate and unskilled depend
upon agriculture for their livelihoods. But agriculture being seasonal in nature could provide employment for a maximum of 180 days in a year. The landless and less land people depend upon livestock for utilizing their labour during lean agricultural season .
Sl.
No
Species Number
(in millions)
Ranking in the world
population
01 Cattle 192.49 Second
02 Buffaloes 109.85 First
Total (including Mithun
and Yak)
302.79 First
03 Sheep 74.26 Third
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3. Food: The livestock products such as milk, meat and eggs are an important source of animal
protein to the members of the livestock owners. The per capita availability of milk is around
375 g / day; eggs is 74 / annum during 2017-18.
4. Social security: The animals offer social security to the owners in terms of their status in
the society. The families especially the landless which own animals are better placed than those who do not. Gifting of animals during marriages is a very common phenomenon in
different parts of the country. Rearing of animals is a part of the Indian culture. Animals are used for various socio religious functions. Cows for house warming ceremonies; rams, bucks and chicken for sacrifice during festive seasons; Bulls and Cows are worshipped during various religious functions. Many owners develop attachment to their animals.
5. Draught: The bullocks are the back bone of Indian agriculture. The farmers especially the
marginal and small depend upon bullocks for ploughing, carting and transport of both inputs and outputs.
6. Dung: In rural areas dung is used for several purposes which include fuel (dung cakes),
fertilizer (farm yard manure), and plastering material (poor man’s cement).
7.10 Dryland Agriculture
Dryland Agriculture refers to growing of crops entirely under rain fed conditions.
Based on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped into three
categories:
1. Dry Farming: Cultivation of crops in areas where rainfall is less than 750 mm per annum 2. Dryland Farming: Cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall above 750 mm
3. Rainfed Farming: Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm.
04 Goats 148.88 Second
05 Pigs 9.06 -
06 Others 0.91 -
Total livestock 535.78
Total poultry 851.81 Seventh
07 Duck -
Fifth 08 Chicken -
09 Camel 0.25 Tenth
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Dryland farming is agriculture dependent upon the vagaries of weather, especially precipitation. In its broadest aspects, dryland farming is concerned with all phases of land use under semiarid conditions. Not only how to farm but how much to farm and whether to farm must be taken into consideration. Above all else, dryland farming must emphasize the capture and efficient use of precipitation.
Rainfed farming and dryland farming are often used interchangeably, but this is a serious error. They both exclude irrigation, but beyond that, they can differ significantly.
Dryland farming is a special case of rain fed agriculture practiced in arid and semiarid regions in which annual precipitation is about 20–35% of potential evapotranspiration. Conditions of moderate-to-severe moisture stress occur during a substantial part of the year, greatly limiting yield potential, and in which farming emphasizes water conservation in all practices throughout the year.
Rainfed systems, although they include dryland systems, can also include systems which emphasize disposal of excess water, maximum crop yields, and high inputs of fertilizer.
There are three components of a successful dryland farming system:
1. retaining the precipitation on the land, 2. reducing evaporation from the soil surface to increase the portion of
evapotranspiration used for transpiration, and 3. Utilizing crops that have drought tolerance and that fit the precipitation patterns.
Although these components have been known for centuries, new technologies continue
to be developed that increase crop production in water-short areas.
7.11 AGRICULTURAL REGIONS OF INDIA
7.11.1 Various types of Agricultural Regions of India
An agricultural region is defined as an area having homogeneity in relief, soil type, climatic conditions, farming practices, crops produced and crop association.
India is a vast country and is endowed with diverse geographical conditions which are bound to bring in regional variations in agriculture.
Several scholars have attempted to delineate the agricultural regions of India. Prominent among
them are E. Simkins (1926), D. Thomer (1956), M.S. Randhawa (1958), L.D. Stamp (1958), Chen Hang-Seng (1959), O.H.K. Spate and A.T.A. Learmonth (1960), Ramchandran (1963), F. Siddiqui (1967), O.
Slampa (1968), Miss P. Sengupta (1968), R.L. Singh (1971) and Jasbir Singh (1975)
The scheme suggested by the Indian Council for Agricultural Research (ICAR) is simple and comprehensive and is reproduced here. It is based on the predominance of crops and crop associations. Accordingly India can be divided into following agricultural regions:
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1. Rice-Jute-Tea Region
This vast region includes lowlands, valleys and river deltas in the states of Assam, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Orissa, northern and eastern Bihar, parts of Jharkhand
and Chhattisgarh and Tarai region of Uttar Pradesh.
The rainfall vanes from 180 to 250 cm. Rice are the predominant crop due to fertile alluvial soils, abundant rainfall and high summer temperatures. Jute is mainly grown in the Hugli basin of West Bengal but some areas have been brought under jute cultivation in Assam, Meghalaya, Tripura, Orissa and Tarai region of U.P. Tea is mainly grown in Assam, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri areas of West Bengal and Tripura. Sugarcane and tobacco are grown in Bihar. Coconut is grown in coastal areas. Mango, pineapple, betel leaves, bananas, jack fruits, and oranges are the main fruit crops.
2. Wheat and Sugarcane Region
This region comprises Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Western Madhya Pradesh and north
eastern Rajasthan. Most of the areas have rich fertile alluvial soils with some parts having black and red soils. Rainfall is moderate, large part of which is caused by south-west monsoons in summer. Some rainfall is caused by western disturbances in winter.
Irrigation is a vital input in drier areas. As its name indicates, this region is dominated by wheat and
sugarcane cultivation. The main wheat belt of India extends over Punjab, Haryana, Ganga-Yamuna doab of Uttar Pradesh and north-eastern Rajasthan. Sugar-cane is mainly grown in Uttar Pradesh and
contiguous parts of Bihar. Rice, pulses and maize are the other important crops.
3. Cotton Region
It spreads on the regur or black cotton soil area of the Deccan plateau, where the rainfall varies from 75 to 100 cm. Obviously, cotton is the main crop but jowar, bajra, gram, sugarcane, wheat, etc. are
also grown.
4. Maize and Coarse Crops Region
Western Rajasthan and northern Gujarat are included in this region. The rainfall is scanty and is normally below 50 cm. Agriculture is possible only with the help of irrigation. Maize is mainly grown in the Mewar plateau where wheat and Ragi are also produced. In the southern part, rice, cotton
and sugarcane are grown. Bajra and pulses are grown throughout the region.
5. Millets and Oilseeds Region
This region includes areas of poor soils and broken topography in Karnataka plateau, parts of Tamil Nadu, southern Andhra Pradesh and eastern Kerala. The rainfall varies from 75 to 125 cm. The millets include bajra, ragi and jowar while the oilseeds grown are groundnut and caster. Pulses are also grown. Mangoes and bananas are important fruit crops.
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6. Fruits and Vegetable Region
This region extends from Kashmir Valley in the west to Assam in the east. The rainfall varies from 60 cm in the west to 200 cm in the east. Apple, peach, cherries, plum, apricot are grown in the west
while oranges are important in the east. Besides, rice, maize, ragi potatoes, chillies and vegetables are also grown.
7.11.2 Agricultural Region based on First Ranking Crops
Using the method of ‘least squares’ given by J.T. Coppock in 1964, eleven ‘crop zones’ or the regions
of first order and thirty-eight ‘crop combination regions’ can be delimited. These regions are based on eleven first ranking crops’—rice, jowar, wheat, maize, bajra, pulses, ragi, barley, cotton, groundnut and tea—i.e., those crops occupying the maximum percentage of total cropped area in one or more districts.
Other crops are grown in combination with the major crops. The absolute percentage under the major crop may vary from 100% to 40%. A survey of major crops in India, regions covered by them
and the other crops in the combination is given below.
1. Rice
There are seven regions in India where rice is the ‘first ranking crop’
(i ) Rice Monoculture Zone:
This region includes eastern Madhya Pradesh, Chhotanagpur plateau, coastal Orissa, West Bengal, Brahma-putra valley, Tripura, Manipur, Nagaland, Andaman and Nicobar Islands and the deltas of
Krishna, Godavari and Cauveri. Only rice is grown in these regions.
(i i ) Western Coast:
This zone includes Kerala and the Konkan coasts. Other crops of this region are betelnut, ragi, fodder, coconut, vegetables and rubber.
(i i i ) Eastern Coast:
This region includes the non-delta regions of Tamil Nadu. Groundnut, bajra, jowar, cotton, millets and pulses are other crops grown in this region.
(iv) Ganga Plains of Ea stern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar:
In these regions, pulses, wheat, barley, sugarcane and maize are the other crops grown.
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(v) Southern Karnataka Plateau:
The other crops of this region include coffee, ragi, pulses, cardamom, citrus fruits and coconut.
(vi ) Northern Hi l l Distr icts of West Bengal:
Tea and maize are other crops, while jute is grown in Jalpaigudi.
(vi i ) Meghalaya Plateau:
Potato, maize and cotton are other crops in the combination.
Conditions of Growth:
Rice cultivation is conditioned by temperature parameters at the different phases of growth. The critical mean temperature for flowering and fertilisation ranges from 16 °C to 20 °C whereas during
ripening the range is from 18 °C to 32 °C. Temperatures beyond 35 °C affect not only pollen shedding but also grain-filling. High temperatures and high light intensity adversely affect grain-filling.
A seasonal rainfall of 112 cm to 150 cm is required. Rice needs much water both in and upon the soil. As such the monsoonal lands are best suited for rice production or heavy irrigation is required. Alluvial soil suits cultivation. Deltas, estuaries, flood plains and valleys of rivers and coastal plains with heavy soils make excellent rice fields or lands.
Rice is sown in India in three ways by broadcast, drill, or transplantation from a seedbed. The first method is practised where labour is scarce and soil is infertile. The second method is mostly confined to peninsular India. The third method is common in river deltas and plains.
2. Wheat:
Wheat is the second most important food-crop after rice. There is no wheat monoculture zone,
because it is not double cropped. Wheat crop occupies 40% of the cropped area in the wheat zone.
There are four regions where wheat is the first ranking crop:
(i ) Ganga-Yamuna Doab:
Pulses, rice, maize, bajra, fodder and sugarcane are other crops entering this region.
(i i ) Eastern Haryana:
In this region, pulses, jowar, bajra, fodder and sugarcane are other crops.
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(i i i ) Himachal Pradesh and parts of Punjab:
These districts of Punjab are Gurdaspur and Hoshiarpur. Maize, rice and pulses are other crops of the region.
(iv) Rest of Punjab:
Fodder, maize, pulses, rice, cotton and groundnut are other crops entering the region.
Conditions of Growth:
The cool winters and the hot summers are conducive to a good crop of wheat. Wheat does not grow well in areas of high heat and high humidity. 15°C during summer is the lower limit of temperature. In India the Indo- Gangetic plains form the most important wheat area. It is grown in the Rabi season
when the temperatures are 10-15°C and the rainfall 5-15 cm. An annual precipitation of 50-100 cm is best suited for wheat cultivation.
In early stages of growth the wheat plant requires a fair amount of moisture with cool weather
followed by warm and sunny weather. A small amount of rainfall before ripening of the grains favours the production. Rainless days with clear and bright sunshine are essential during ripening
and harvesting periods so as to have better quality of grain. A well pulverised but compact seedbed for good and uniform germination is required for the wheat crop.
Three or four ploughings in the summer repeated harrowing in the rainy season, followed by three or four cultivations and planking immediately before sowing produce a good firm seabed for the dry crop on alluvial soils. In the black cotton soil, blade harrow (bakhar) is used instead of plough. Wheat can also be cultivated in areas of less than 50 cm of rainfall by practising irrigation or dry farming methods.
3. Jowar:
It covers a vast area which is second, in extent, only to rice. It is the first ranking crop in four regions.
(i ) Tamil Nadu Upland (Salem-Coimbatore):
Groundnut, rice, bajra, ragi, millets, pulses and cotton are the other crops entering the region.
(i i ) Northern Karnataka Plateau and Western Maharashtra:
The other crops entering this region include bajra, ragi, millets, rice, groundnut and pulses.
(i i i ) Northern Maharashtra and parts of Madhya Pradesh:
Pulses, wheat, cotton and rice are the other crops of this region.
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(iv) Telangana and Chandrapur (Maharashtra):
Besides jowar, rice and pulses are also grown in this region.
Conditions of Growth:
Generally most of the crop is grown on the plains; however, it can be raised successfully on gentle slopes up to 1,200 m height. The jowar belt receives an annual rainfall ranging from 40 to 100 cm per annum, usually distributed between the last week of June and the first week of October in most parts of the country. Medium and deep black soils are predominantly suitable for growing sorghums.
The Rabi sorghums or jowars are wholly confined to black cotton soils, while the kharif sorghums are grown on light soils also on a limited scale. The area under the Rabi jowar is concentrated in the Deccan plateau more or less in a continuous belt.
In the states of Maharashtra and Karnataka the Rabi jowar occupies about 55-60 per cent of the total acreage, whereas in Andhra Pradesh the distribution is 5O- 5O in both seasons. In the rest of
the states the kharif season is more important.
4. Maize:
It is the first ranking crop in the following two regions.
(i ) South-eastern Rajasthan, adjoining areas of Gujarat and Madhya Pradesh:
Pulses, groundnut, rice, wheat, gram and fodder are the other crops entering this region.
(i i ) Hi l ls of Himachal Pradesh and Kashmir:
Apart from maize, rice is grown on the valley floor and horticulture is practised on the slopes.
Conditions of Growth:
Maize is grown extensively in regions of humid subtropical climate. It may grow even in desert climate provided there is irrigation. Long and warm summer with considerable rainfall followed by autumns of little rain and cold winters are optimum climatic conditions for maize. During summer months the temperature should vary between 20 °C and 25 °C. The autumn months should have temperatures between 8 °C and 15 °C. Rainfall of 75 cm is required.
A growing season of 120 to 170 days is required. Fertile, deep and well-drained soils are the main requirements for maize cultivation. Though any type of soil ranging from deep heavy clays to light sandy can be used for maize cultivation, it is necessary that the PH of the soil does not deviate from the range 7.5 to 8.5. Manuring is necessary as it is a soil-exhausting crop.
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7.12 Infrastructural factors in agriculture
According to Wharton [1967] agricultural infrastructures are categorized into 1. capital intensive, like irrigation, roads, bridges 2. capital extensive, like extension services and 3. Institutional infrastructure, like formal and informal institutions.
Infrastructure, such as irrigation, watershed development, rural electrification, roads, and
markets, in close coordination with institutional infrastructure, such as credit institutions, agricultural research and extension, rural literacy determines the nature and the magnitude
of agricultural output in India. Adequate infrastructure raises farm productivity and lowers farming costs and its fast
expansion accelerates agricultural as well as economic growth rate. It is acknowledged that infrastructure plays a strategic role in producing larger multiplier
effects in the economy with agricultural growth . It is estimated that a 1% increase in the stock of infrastructure is associated with a 1% increase
in GDP across all countries. The level of both physical and institutional infrastructure significantly influences the spread
of proven and demonstrated yield enhancing agricultural technology .
Agricultural infrastructure primarily includes wide range of public services that facilitate production, procurement, processing, preservation and trade.
Agricultural infrastructure can be grouped under following broad based categories. Input based infrastructure: Seed, Fertilizer, Pesticides, Farm equipment and
machinery etc. Resource based infrastructure: Water/irrigation, Farm power/energy
Physical infrastructure: Road connectivity, Transport, storage, processing, preservation, etc
Institutional infrastructure: Agricultural research, extension & education technology, information & communication services, financial services, marketing, etc.
Development economists recognize the growing importance of agricultural infrastructure in its role not limited to agricultural development but expanding it to encompass economic
development of the country. Researchers have identified 11 components of infrastructure, such as
1. irrigation and public access to water 2. means of transportation
3. storage services 4. commercial infrastructure 5. processing infrastructure 6. public services 7. agricultural research and extension services
8. communication and information services 9. land conservation services 10. credit and financial institutions and 11. Health and education services.
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The infrastructure development of any economy includes development of both economic infrastructure and social infrastructure.
The economic infrastructure can be achieved through developing various sectors like Energy, Power, Telecommunication, Transport (including railways, roadways, airways and seaways), Irrigation, Information Technology and finance etc.
On the other hand, the social infrastructure development can be achieved through Education infrastructure development and Health infrastructure development.
7.13 Institutional Factors Affecting Agriculture in India
The term ‘institutional factors’ refers to the particular system under which land is owned and managed. The ownership and management have a direct bearing on agricultural productivity and efficiency. The government has given emphasis on institutional advancement through land
reforms, besides technological advancement.
A land reforms package broadly involves the following components
1. Abolition of intermediaries, 2. Tenancy reforms (i.e., providing security of tenure), 3. Ceiling and redistribution, 4. Consolidation, and 5. Updating of land records.
7.13.1 Abolition of Intermediaries:
Even during the struggle for independence, it was widely recognised that the stagnation in the Indian agricultural sector was primarily due to exploitative agrarian relations. Zamindars were the chief instrument of exploitation. Hence, abolition of zamindari system, along with other intermediary
tenure systems, became the topmost priority of land reforms immediately after independence.
The abolition of intermediaries started in 1948 with the enactment of legislation in Madras. In some
other states, the legislations for abolition of intermediaries were passed before 1951. West Bengal, the state worst affected by the ravages of absentee landlordism, adopted the legislation in 1954-55. In this way, most of the states had passed the Acts related to abolition of intermediaries by the end of the First Plan.
7.13.2 Tenancy Reforms:
Tenants can be classified into
(i) occupancy tenants, (ii) tenants-at-will, and (iii) Sub-tenants.
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The rights of tenancy of the occupancy tenants are permanent and heritable. Hence, the occupancy tenants do not face the fear of eviction so long as they pay rent on time. But the position of tenants-at-will and sub-tenants is very precarious, since such tenants depend on the mercy of landlords. Hence, special laws have had to be enacted and implemented to protect these people. These laws
relate to (i) regulation of rent, (ii) security of tenure, and (iii) conferment of ownership rights on tenants.
7.13.3 Regulation of Rent:
The First and the Second Plans recommended that rents should not exceed one-fourth or one-fifth of the gross produce. Various states have passed necessary legislation in this regard, but there are large variations in the rates of rents fixed in different states.
7.13.4 Security of Tenure:
Legislations have been passed in most of the states to protect tenants from ejectment and grant them permanent rights in land. The purpose of these legislations is to ensure that (i) ejectments are
lawful, (ii) land assumed by an owner is only for personal cultivation , and (iii) the tenant is assured of a prescribed minimum area in case of resumption.
In all tenancy laws, persons cultivating the lands of others on payment of rent are treated as tenants. However, in some states such as Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal, sharecroppers—who pay rent by division of produce—are not regarded as tenants. So tenancy laws are not applicable in their case.
7.13.4.1 Conferment of Ownership Rights on Tenants:
Legislative provisions have been made in many states for conferment of ownership rights on tenants. Some of the states have acquired ownership of land from landowners and transferred it to tenants. Sub-tenancies have generally been prohibited except in certain cases such as widows,
members of armed forces, minors, unmarried women, persons suffering from disabilities, etc.
7.13.5 Reorganisation of Agriculture:
Reorganisation of agriculture includes (i) ceiling on agricultural holdings, (ii) consolidation of holdings, and (iii) cooperative farming.
7.13.5.1 Ceilings on Agricultural Holdings:
The basic aim of the ceiling laws is to accomplish the elimination of excessive ownership of land .
Under the old ceiling laws (till 1972), only about 23 lakh acres were declared surplus in India, out of which only about 13 lakh acres were redistributed. Further, different states had adopted different
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policies regarding land ceiling. To bring uniformity in land ceiling policies, a conference of chief ministers was held in 1972. A new land ceiling policy was evolved in this conference.
The main features of the new policy were as follows:
(i) Lowering of ceilings to 18 acres of irrigated land and 54 acres of unirrigated land,
(ii) Making family and not the individual as the unit for determining land holding,
(iii) Lowering ceiling for a family of five,
(iv) Declaring benami transaction null and void , and
(v) Including the land reform laws in the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution, which places them
beyond any challenge in any courts of law on the grounds of infringement of Fundamental Rights
In the light of this policy, land ceiling legislations were enacted by all the states, except Goa and north-east states. But ceiling limits vary.
According to the Eleventh Plan document, the quantum of land declared surplus is far short of land which was estimated to be surplus on the basis of various national surveys. Thus, it is clear that reform measures have not been able to achieve the desired impact. The total area declared surplus so far has been 73.5 lakh acres only, of which 53.9 lakh acres have been distributed. The distribution of the remaining area of land declared surplus is held up mainly due to litigation.
7.13.5.2 Consolidation of Holdings:
Consolidation of fragmented agricultural land holdings has been an integral part of the land reform policy of the Indian government as fragmented holdings impede agricultural process. Initially, the programme of consolidation was started on a voluntary process but was later made compulsory.
Legislations have been passed in most of the states to prevent sub-division and fragmentation of lands beyond a certain limit. This minimum limit is known as the standard area and has been fixed
at different levels by different state governments. Necessary provisions have been made in the Consolidation Acts in Assam, Bihar, Rajasthan, Gujarat and parts of Andhra Pradesh, and in the Land
Reforms Acts in Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal to ensure that size of holdings does not fall below this minimum limit.
7.14 Cooperative Farming:
The Congress Agrarian Reforms Committee headed by J.C. Kumarappa, which was formed to study problems related to land reforms, concluded in its report (1949) that without cooperative moulds such as cooperative farming, “the efficiency of agriculture cannot be substantially increased”.
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Four kinds of cooperative farming were identified by the Cooperative Planning Committee, These are:
(i) cooperative collective farming in which members have to give up their lands for ever
but are paid wages and gain a share in the surplus produce; (ii) Cooperative tenant farming, in which land owned by a society—comprising many
farmers—is divided into holdings and then distributed among them. Each farmer has to pay a rent for his portion of the land. However, the producer of his holding is entirely
his own; (iii) cooperative better farming wherein farmers get together to perform agricultural
activities with improved methods but on their own separate lands; and (iv) Cooperative joint farming wherein small farmers pool their lands together for better
cultivation without giving up the ownership of their lands.
Cooperative farming has failed in the face of the existing in egalitarian economic structure. It has become a means of by-passing land reforms and is used for securing a preferential treatment in obtaining loans and grants from government. The lands pooled together are scarcely regarded as joint property.
7.14.1 Updating and Maintenance of Land Records:
In the absence of proper land records, the implementation of laws relating to regulation of rent, security of tenure, conferment of ownership rights on tenants and abolition of intermediaries
becomes problematic.
With a view to assisting the states/Union Territories in the task of updating of land records, a Centrally-sponsored Strengthening of Revenue Administration and Updating of Land Records
(SRA&ULR) scheme was started in 1987 with the following objectives:
1. strengthening the existing survey and settlement organisations for early completion and preparation of land records in areas where this work still remains to be done;
2. setting up survey and settlement organisations, especially in north-eastern region, where no land records exist;
3. imparting pre-service and in- service training to revenue survey and settlement staff and strengthening of training infrastructure for this purpose;
4. providing facilities for modernisation of survey and settlement operations, printing of survey maps, documents reports, copying and updating of land and crop records, and storage facilities by adopting the latest science and technology inputs; and
5. Strengthening revenue machineries at village and immediate supervisory levels on a selective basis so that workload of these functionaries is made manageable.
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7.14.2 Computerisation of Land Records:
The Centrally-sponsored scheme on computerisation of land records was started in 1988-89 with 100 per cent financial assistance as a pilot project in eight districts, viz., Rangareddy (Andhra Pradesh), Sonitpur (Assam), Singhbhum (Bihar, now in Jharkhand), Gandhinagar (Gujarat), Morena (Madhya Pradesh), Wardha (Maharashtra), Mayurbhanj (Orissa), and Dungarpur (Rajasthan) with a view to removing problems inherent in the manual system of maintenance and updating of land records and to meet requirements of various groups of users.
7.14.2.1 Objectives The main objectives of the scheme are:
(i) Computerisation of ownership and plot-wise details for issue of timely and accurate copy of the record of rights to the land owners;
(ii) To achieve low cost, easily reproducible storage media for reliable preservation for long time;
(iii) To have a fast and efficient retrieval of information, both graphical and textual; and
(iv) Creation of a land information system and data base for agricultural census.
During the Eighth Five-Year Plan period, the scheme was approved as a separate Centrally- sponsored scheme on computerisation of land records. The scheme is being implemented since 1994-95 in joint collaboration with the national informatics centre (NIC), which is responsible for
supply, installation and maintenance of hardware, software and other peripherals. It is being implemented in those districts except where there are no land records.
7.14.2.2 Evaluation:
Land reform programmes were started in the country with great enthusiasm. All progressive land legislations were incorporated within the Ninth Schedule of the Constitution to protect them from being challenged in any court of law on the ground of violation of Fundamental Rights (with special
reference to Articles 31A and Article 31C). But soon the enthusiasm began fading and the implementation of land reforms became a very tame affair.
7.14.2.3 Reasons for poor performance
The reasons for the poor performance of land reform programmes in India can be studied under three broad heads: legislative snags, lack of political will, and bureaucratic apathy.
(a) Legislative obstacles:
These include the following:
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(i) Ambiguous Definition of ‘personal cultivation’
(ii) Inadequate definition of ‘tenant’
(iii) The problem of voluntary surrender. The laws related to tenancy reforms cannot help tenants if they surrender their land voluntarily.
(iv) Inadequate ceiling laws. Though a uniformity in ceiling laws was brought about in 1972, considerable damage to the interests of tenants had already been done through various types of unscrupulous transfers of land and underhand dealings. The list of exemptions from ceiling was also unduly large.
(b) Lack of pol itical wi l l power:
Bringing reform in the age-old agrarian relations requires a substantial amount of courage and determination on the part of the authorities, which is unfortunately lacking in India.
(c) Bureaucratic apathy:
The bureaucracy is responsible for non-implementation of land reform measures. Its attitude towards land reforms has generally been lukewarm as it found it to be self- profitable to play safe by aligning with the large landlords and political power structure.
7.15 INDIAN AGRICULTURE AND ALLIED INDUSTRIES INDUSTRY REPORT (APRIL, 2
021)
7.15.1 Introduction
Agriculture is the primary source of livelihood for about 58% of India’s population. Gross Value Added by agriculture, forestry, and fishing was estimated at Rs. 19.48 lakh crore (US$ 276.37 billion) in FY20. Share of agriculture and allied sectors in gross value added (GVA) of India at current prices stood at 17.8 % in FY20. Consumer spending in India will return to growth in 2021 post the pandemic-
led contraction, expanding by as much as 6.6%.
The Indian food industry is poised for huge growth , increasing its contribution to world food trade every year due to its immense potential for value addition, particularly within the food processing
industry. Indian food and grocery market is the world’s sixth largest , with retail contributing 70% of the sales. The Indian food processing industry accounts for 32% of the country’s total food market, one of the largest industries in India and is ranked fifth in terms of production, consumption, export and expected growth. Principal agricultural commodities export for April 2020 - January 2021 was US$ 32.12 billion.
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7.15.2 Market Size
During 2019-20 crop year, food grain production reached a record of 296.65 million tonnes. In 2020-21, Government of India is targeting food grain production of 298 million tonnes.
Production of horticulture crops in India was estimated at a record 326.6 million metric tonnes (MMT) in FY20 as per third advance estimates, an increase of 5.81 million metric tonnes over FY20. India has the largest livestock population of around 535.78 million, which translates to around 31% of the world population. Milk production in the country is expected to increase to 208 MT in FY21 from 198 MT in FY20, registering a growth of 10% y-o-y. Area under horticulture is projected to rise by 2.7% in FY21.
Sugar production in India reached 26.46 MT between October 2019 and May 2020 sugar season according to Indian Sugar Mills Association (ISMA).
India is among the 15 leading exporters of agricultural products in the world . Agricultural export
from India reached US$ 38.54 billion in FY19 and US$ 35.09 billion in FY20.
The organic food segment in India is expected to grow at a CAGR of 10% during 2015-25 and is
estimated to reach Rs. 75,000 crore (US$ 10.73 billion) by 2025 from Rs. 2,700 crore (US$ 386.32 million) in 2015.
The Indian food processing industry is expected to reach US$ 535 billion by 2025-26 on the back of
government initiatives such as planned infrastructure worth US$ 1 trillion and Pradhan Mantri Kisan Sampada Yojna. The food processing industry employs about 1.77 million people. The sector allows
100% FDI under the automatic route.
7.15.3 Investments
According to the Department for Promotion of Industry and Internal Trade (DPIIT), the Indian food processing industry has cumulatively attracted Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) equity inflow of
about US$ 10.24 billion between April 2000 and December 2020.
Some major investments and developments in agriculture are as follows:
In March 2020, Fact, the oldest large-scale fertiliser manufacturer in the country, crossed one million production and sales mark.
Nestle India will invest Rs. 700 crore (US$ 100.16 million) in construction of its ninth factory in Gujarat.
In November 2019, Haldiram entered into an agreement for Amazon's global selling program
to E-tail its delicacies in the United States.
In November 2019, Coca-Cola launched ‘Rani Float’ fruit juices to step out of its trademark fizzy drinks.
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Two diagnostic kits developed by Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) - Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) and the Japanese Encephalitis lgM ELISA were launched in October 2019.
Investment worth Rs. 8,500 crore (US$ 1.19 billion) have been announced in India for ethanol
production.
7.15.4 Government Initiatives
Some of the recent major Government initiatives in the sector are as follows:
As per Union Budget 2021-22, Rs. 4,000 crore (US$ 551.08 million) was allocated towards implementing Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchayee Yojana (PMKSY-PDMC).
The Ministry of Food Processing has been allocated Rs. 1,308.66 crore (US$ 180.26 million) in the Union Budget 2021-22.
In November 2020, the government inaugurated a mega food park in Punjab worth Rs. 107.83 crores (US$ 14.6 million) that will be spread across over 55 acres of land.
In October 2020, the Tribal Cooperative Marketing Development Federation of India (TRIFED) included 100 new Forest Fresh Organic Products sourced from tribes across India on its e-marketplace (tribesindia.com).
In October 2020, Agri-lender Nabard (National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development) proposed plans to set up a subsidiary to provide guarantee for loans under agriculture and rural development.
In October 2020, the government announced that it is putting up a common data
infrastructure for farmers in the country. PMFBY (Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana), PM-Kisan and the Soil Health Card will be integrated through a common database, along with
land record details. In September 2020, the government launched the PM Matsya Sampada Yojana, e-Gopala
App and several initiatives in fisheries production, dairy, animal husbandry and agriculture. Under this scheme, an investment of Rs. 20,000 crore (US$ 2.7 billion) will be made in the
next 4-5 years in 21 states. In May 2020, Government announced the launch of animal husbandry infrastructure
development fund of Rs. 15,000 crore (US$ 2.13 billion). In September 2019, Prime Minister, Mr Narendra Modi launched National Animal Disease
Control Programme (NADCP), expected to eradicate foot and mouth disease (FMD) and brucellosis in livestock. In May 2020, Rs. 13,343 crore (US$ 1.89 billion) was allocated to the
scheme. The Government of India came out with Transport and Marketing Assistance (TMA) scheme
to provide financial assistance for transport and marketing of agriculture products in order to boost agriculture exports.
The Agriculture Export Policy, 2018 was approved by the Government of India in December
2018. The new policy aimed to increase India’s agricultural export to US$ 60 billion by 2022 and US$ 100 billion in the next few years with a stable trade policy regime.
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The Government of India is going to provide Rs. 2,000 crore (US$ 306.29 million) for computerization of Primary Agricultural Credit Society (PACS) to ensure cooperatives are benefitted through digital technology.
The Government of India launched the Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY) with
an investment of Rs. 50,000 crore (US$ 7.7 billion) aimed at development of irrigation sources for providing a permanent solution from drought.
Government plans to triple the capacity of food processing sector in India from the current 10% of agriculture produce and has also committed Rs. 6,000 crore (US$ 936.38 billion) as
investments for mega food parks in the country, as a part of the Scheme for Agro-Marine Processing and Development of Agro-Processing Clusters (SAMPADA).
The Government of India has allowed 100% FDI in marketing of food products and in food product E-commerce under the automatic route.
7.15.5 Achievements in the sector
Paddy procurement in Kharif Marketing Season (KMS) 2020-21 until January 10, 2020, reached over 534.44 lakh metric tonnes (LMT), an increase of 26.24% against the last year corresponding purchase of 423.35 LMT.
In November 2020, the planting of winter crops exceeded by 10% compared with the last year and witnessed 28% increase in area under pulses. The total area acreage under pulses increased to 8.25 million hectares from 6.45 million hectares last year.
Out of the total 37 mega food parks that were sanctioned, 22 mega food parks are operational, as of January 2021.
In November 2020, Minister of Consumer Affairs, Food and Public Distribution, Mr. Piyush Goyal announced that the Food Cooperation of India and state agencies are set to procure a record quantity of 742 LMT (lakh metric tonnes) paddy during the ongoing Kharif crop season as against 627 LMT paddy last year.
The Electronic National Agriculture Market (e-NAM) was launched in April 2016 to create a unified national market for agricultural commodities by networking existing APMCs. It had
16.9 million farmers and 157,778 traders registered on its platform until February 2021. Over 1,000 mandis in India are already linked to e-NAM and 22,000 additional mandis are expected
to be linked by 2021-22. Sale of tractors in the country stood at 880,048 units in 2020 with the export of 77,378 units.
During FY20 (till February 2020), tea export stood at US$ 709.28 million. Coffee export stood at US$ 742.05 million in FY20.
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8. DISTRIBUTION OF MINERAL RESOURCES Conventional wisdom and geological evidence suggest that India is richly endowed with mineral resources. Explorations have found over 20,000 known mineral deposits and recoverable reserves of more than 60 minerals. 11 states account for 90 % of the total number of operational mines (Andhra Pradesh, Orrisa, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, and Karnataka). If India’s forests, mineral-bearing areas, regions of tribal habitation and watersheds are all mapped together, a startling fact emerges – the country’s major mineral reserves lie under its richest forests and in the watersheds of its key rivers.
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Globally, the mining industry is in boom time. World prices of minerals, ores and metals have soared to record levels, a trend that began in 2002 with unprecedented demand from China. In 2006 alone, global prices of all minerals skyrocketed up 48%.
In 2002-2005, Index of world prices of minerals, ores and metals doubles (price of iron ore increased by 118%; copper up by 136%; lead 116%; and aluminum by 41%).
Indian mining is characterised by a large number of small mines, dominated by the public sector, which accounts for 75% of the total value of mineral production. Mining policy is pushing the industry to move toward privately owned, large-scale, mechanised mines. Foreign direct investors and multinational mining companies are being welcomed.
After services and manufacturing, the mineral sector in India is fast emerging as the next boom sector, with the burgeoning Chinese demand driving up prices. In India, the value of mineral production has more than tripled since the sector was ‘liberalised’, from about Rs 25,000 crore in 1993-94 to more than Rs 84,000 crore in 2005-06, an astounding growth rate of 10.7%. Production of coal, lignite, natural gas, bauxite, chromite, iron ore and limestone has been ramped up.
In 2003-04, India exported minerals worth Rs 49,911 crore (17% of the total value merchandised out of India). India’s exports of ores and minerals went up by 42% between
2001-02 and 2003-04; an increase mainly due to the rise in exports of cut diamonds and (76% of value of total minerals exported) and iron ore (10.5% of the value), the key minerals
exported from India. However, mining’s contribution to the nation’s GDP is stagnating at a mere 2.2-2.5% for
more than a decade now. The sector contributes very little to the exchequer through royalties and taxes -- minerals are cheap, and royalties low. Also, royalties are rarely used for
the benefit of the mined regions. India produced 90 minerals in 2005-06, valued at an estimated Rs 84,211 crore. Fuel minerals
– coal, lignite, crude petroleum & natural gas – constitute about 73% of the total value of minerals produced in the country. However, the contribution of fuel minerals is steadily
dipping over the years. Metallic minerals are the next biggest contributors to the total value of minerals, and are
the fastest growing segment of the mineral industry in India, with a compounded annual growth rate of 30%, among the highest in the world. Iron ore alone contributes three-fourth
of the total value. Minor minerals, mainly sand, gravel, brick, earth and stone, are also important contributors
(about 10% of the value of minerals produced in the country, although data is difficult to come by.)
Non-metallic minerals are minor players in the Indian minerals sector in terms of value, though they are big both in terms of area under mining and volume of minerals produced; their contribution to the value of total minerals produced in the country has remained at about 3.3 to 3.4% in the last few years. Limestone constitutes about two-thirds of the total value.
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8.1 Principle Minerals These principal minerals found in the country along with their estimated reserves/resources are given below:
8.1.1 BAUXITE The Total Resources of Bauxite as per United Nations Framework Classification (UNFC) in the country are placed at about 3,290 million tonnes as on 1.4.2005. These resources include 899 million tonnes
of Reserves and 2,391 million tonnes of Remaining resources. Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Maharashtra are the principal states where bauxite deposits are located. Major deposits are concentrated in the East Coast Bauxite deposits of Odisha and Andhra Pradesh.
8.1.2 CHROMITE
The total resources of Chromite in the country as per UNFC System as on 1.4.2005 are estimated at
213 million tonnes, comprising 66 million tonnes reserves (31%) and 147 million tonnes of remaining resources (69 per cent). In India 95 per cent resources are located in Orissa, mostly in
the Sukinda valley in Cuttack and Jaipur districts and the remaining 5% resources are distributed in
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Manipur and Karnataka and meagre quantities in the states of Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh.
8.1.3 COPPER
The total resources of copper ore as on 1.4.2005 as per UNFC system are placed at 1.39 billion tonnes with a metal content of 11,418 thousand tonnes. Of these 369.49 million tonnes with a total metal content of 4383.97 thousand tonnes fall under Reserves while balance 1.02 billion tonnes with a metal content of 7033.75 thousand tonnes are 'Remaining resources'. Rajasthan is credited with the largest resources of copper ore at 668.5 million tonnes with a metal content of 3982 thousand tonnes followed by Madhya Pradesh and Jharkhand. Copper resources are also available in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu,
Uttarakhand and West Bengal.
8.1.4 GOLD
There are three important gold fields in the country, namely, Kolar Gold Field, Kolar district and
Hatti Gold Field in Raichur district (both in Karnataka) and Ramgiri Gold Field in Anantpur district (Andhra Pradesh). As per UNFC as on 1.4.2005 the total resources of gold ore (primary) in the country were estimated at 390.29 million tonnes with a metal content of 490.81 tonnes. Out of these, 19.25 million tonnes with a metal content of 85.12 tonnes were placed under reserves category and the remaining 371.03 million tonnes with a metal content of 405.69 tonnes under Resources category. The resources include placer-type gold ore in Kerala estimated at 26.12 million tonnes containing 5.86 tonnes gold metal. Largest resources of gold ore (primary) are located in Bihar followed by
Karanataka, Rajasthan, West Bangal, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, etc. While in terms of metal content. Karnataka remained on the top followed by Rajasthan, West Bengal, Bihar and Andhra Pradesh.
8.1.5 IRON ORE
Iron & Steel is the crux for industrial development in a country. The vitality of the iron & steel industry largely influences the economic status of a country. Iron ore being the essential raw-
material for Iron & Steel Industry, its mining arguably is the cynosure of all mining activities undertaken by any country. With the total resources of over 28.5 billion tonnes of hematite (Fe203)
and magnetite (Fe304), India is one of the leading producers as well as exporters of iron ore in the world.
As per UNFC system, the total provisional resources of hematite as on 1.4.2010 are estimated at 17,882 million tonnes of which 8,093 million tonnes (45%) are under reserve' category and the
balance 9,789 million tonnes (55%) are under 'remaining resources' category. By grades, lumps constitute about 56% followed by fines (21%), lumps with fines (13%) and the remaining 10% are
black iron ore, others and not known grades.
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Major resources of hematite are located in Odisha-5,930 million tonnes (33%), Jharkhand-4,597 million tonnes (26%), Chhattisgarh-3,292 million tonnes (18%), Karnataka-2,159 million tonnes (12%) and Goa-927 million tonnes (5%). The balance resources of hematite are spread in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Meghalaya, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Magnetite is another principal iron ore that also occurs in the form of oxide, either in igneous or
metamorphosed banded magnetite-silica formation, possibly of sedimentary origin. As per UNFC system, the total resources of magnetite as on 1.4.2010 provisional are estimated at 10,644 million
tonnes of which 'reserves' constitute a mere 22 million tonnes while 10,622 million tonnes are placed under 'remaining resources'. Classification on the basis of grades show 21% resources of metallurgical
grade while 77% resources belong to unclassified, not-known and other grades.
The resources of coal washery and foundry grades constitute meagre proportions. India's 97% magnetite resources are located in its four states, namely, Karnataka-7812 million tonnes (73%)
followed by Andhra Pradesh-1,464 million tonnes (14%), Rajasthan-527 million tonnes and Tamil Nadu-507 million tonnes (5% each). Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, Maharashtra, Meghalaya
and Nagaland together account for the remaining 3% resources.
8.1.6 LEAD-ZINC
Lead-Zinc resources are located in Rajasthan, Bihar, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Uttarakhand, West Bengal, Odisha, Sikkim, Tamil Nadu and Meghalaya . The total resources of lead and zinc ores as on 1.4.2005 as per UNFC are estimated at 522.58 million tonnes with a metal content of 7207 thousand tonnes of lead metal and 24260 thousand tonnes of zinc metal. Of these, 125.75 million tonnes with a metal content of 2591 thousand tonnes of lead metal and 11093 thousand tonnes of zinc metal fall under 'Reserves' while balance 396.83 million tonnes are with a metal content of 4617 thousand tonnes lead metal and 13167 thousand tonnes of zinc
metal classified as 'Remaining resources'.
8.1.7 MANGANESE
The total resources of manganese ore in the country as on 01.04.2010 are placed at 430 million tonnes as per UNFC system. Out of these, 142 million tone are categorised as reserves and the balance 288 million tonnes are in the remaining resources category. Grade wise, ferro-manganese
grade accounts for only 8%, medium grade 11%, BF grade 34% and the remaining 47% are of mixed,
low, others, unclassified, and not-known grades including 0.35 million tonnes of battery/chemical grade. State wise, Odisha tops the total resources with 44% share followed by Karnataka 22%, Madhya Pradesh 13%, Maharashtra 8%, Andhra Pradesh 4% and Jharkhand & Goa 3% each. Rajasthan, Gujarat and West Bengal together shared about 3% of the total resources.
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8.1.8 NICKEL
Nickel, when added in small quantity to iron, increases its properties manifold and makes the product hard and stainless. The reason behind the demand of 66% primary nickel in the entire world is for the production of stainless steel. When it is used in plating, it makes the surface tarnish-resistant and provides polished appearance. As per UNFC, as on 1.4.2010, the total provisional resources of nickel ore have been estimated at 189 million tonnes. About 92% resources i.e., 175 million tonnes are in Odisha. The remaining 8% resources are distributed in Jharkhand (9 million tonnes), Nagaland (5 million tonnes) and Karnataka (0.23 million tonnes).
8.1.9 TUNGSTEN
The total resources of tungsten ore in the country, as per UNFC system, as on 1.4.2010 have been
estimated at 87.4 million tonnes containing 142,094 tonnes W03 content. All these resources are placed under remaining resources' category. Resources are mainly distributed in Karnataka (42%),
Rajasthan (27%), Andhra Pradesh (17%) and Maharashtra (9%). Remaining 5% resources are in Haryana, Tamil Nadu, Uttarakhand and West Bengal. At Degana, Rajasthan, W03 value in vein
deposits varies from 0.25 to 0.54% while in gravel deposit, it is, on an average 0.04%. In Sirohi deposit, Rajasthan, W03 content ranges from 0.02 to 2.2%. In West Bengal, Bankura deposit, Rajasthan, W03
content ranges from 0.02 to 2.2%. In West Bengal, Bankura Deposit contains, on an average, 0.1% W03. In Kuhi-Khobana-Agargaon belt, GSI has identified seven mineralised zones in Sakoli basin in
Bhandara and Nagpur districts, Maharashtra. The analysis showed 0.01 to 0.19% W03 in Kuhi block, 0.13 to 0.38% W03 in Khobana block and 0.48% W03 in Pardi Dahegaon-Pipalgaon block. The deposit contains 0.17% W03 on an average. Gold area at Mysore mine of BGML in Karnataka has been reckoned as a potential source of scheelite. The tailing dumps at Kolar Gold Fields contain about 0.035 to 0.18% W03.
8.1.10 BARYTES
The total resources of barytes in India as on 1.4.2005 as per UNFC system are placed at 74 million
tonnes of which about 46% (34 million tonnes) are in 'Reserves' category and 54% (40 million tonnes) are in 'Remaining Resources' category. The Mangampet deposit in Cuddapah district (Andhra
Pradesh) is the single largest barytes deposit in the world . Andhra Pradesh alone accounted for more than 94 per cent country's resources. Minor occurrences of barytes are located in Rajasthan,
West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra, Jharkhand, Uttarakhand, Karnataka and Haryana.
8.1.11 DIAMOND
Diamond deposits occur in three types of geological settings such as kimber lite pipes,
conglomerate beds and alluvial gravels. The main diamond bearing areas in India are Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh, Munimadugu-Banganapalie conglomerate in Kurnool district, Wajrakarur
kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district, the gravels of Krishna river basin in Andhra Pradesh and
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damondiferous kimberlite in Raipur, Bastar and Raigarh districts in Chhattisgarh . Reserves have been estimated in Panna belt, Madhya Pradesh; Krishna Gravels in Andhra Pradesh; and in Raipur district, Chhattisgarh. As per the UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 diamonds are placed at around 4582 thousand carats, out of which about 1206 thousand carats are under Reserve category and remaining
3376 thousand carats are under remaining Resources category.
8.1.12 DOLOMITE
Total resources of dolomite as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are placed at 7533 million tonnes, out of which Reserves are 985 million tonnes and the balance i.e. 6548 million tonnes are in the 'Remaining Resources'. Dolomite occurrences are widespread in almost all parts of the country The major share of about 90 per cent resources is distributed in the states of Madhya Pradesh, Andhra
Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Maharashtra.
8.1.13 FIRECLAY
Fireclay occurs as a bedded deposit, mostly associated with coal measures of Gondwana and
Tertiary periods. Important deposits are associated with Jharia and Raniganj coalfields in Jharkhand and West Bengal, Korba coalfield in Chhattisgarh and Neyveli Lignite field in Tamil Nadu. Notable occurrences of fireclay not associated with coal measures are known in the state of Gujarat, Jabalpur region of Madhya Pradesh and Belpahar-Sundergarh areas of Orissa. The total resources of fireclay as per UNFC system as on 1 April 2005, are about 705 million tonnes in India out of which 59 million tonnes and under Reserve category and about 646 million tonnes are under remaining Resources category. It is necessary to assess the fireclay reserves on priority basis, especially those associated
with coal measures in the leasehold areas. The reserves of fireclay are substantial but resources of high grade (non-plastic) fireclay containing more than 37 per cent alumina are limited.
8.1.14 FLUORSPAR
The total resources of fluorite as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 were estimated at 20.16 million
tonnes. Out of these, 9.21 million tonnes were placed under 'Reserves' category and the remaining 10.95 million tonnes under Remaining Resources category. Major deposits of Fluorspar are located
in Gujarat, Rajasthan, Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra.
8.1.15 GYPSUM
The total resources of mineral Gypsum as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 were estimated at 1,237 million tonnes. Of these 69 million tonnes have been placed under Reserve and 1,168 million tonnes
under 'Remaining Resources'. The main occurrences of gypsum are located in Rajasthan, Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu. Rajasthan alone accounts for more than 80 per cent country
resource. Minor occurrences of gypsum are in Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh and Uttarakhand.
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8.1.16 GRAPHITE
As per the UNFC the total resources of graphite in the country as on 1.4.2005 are placed at about 168.77 million tonnes comprising 10.75 million tonnes in the Reserve category and remaining 158.02 million tonnes under Resources category. Out of total resources, Arunachal Pradesh accounts 43% followed by Jammu and Kashmir (37%), Jharkhand (6%), Tamil Nadu (5%) and Odisha (3%). However, in term of reserves, Tamil Nadu has major share of about 37%.
8.1.17 ILMENITE
The resources of Ilmenite are 461.37 million tonnes as per Department of Atomic Energy. Ilmenite
occurs mainly in beach sand deposits right from Ratnagiri (Maharashtra) to coast in Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Orissa. The mineral is also found in Andhra Pradesh, Bihar and West Bengal.
8.1.18 KAOLIN
India possesses fairly large resources of china clay. The total resources as per UNFC system as on
1.4.2005 are about 2596 million tonnes out of which, 222 million tonnes are placed in Reserves category. The occurrences of china clay are distributed in Kerala, West Bengal, Rajasthan, Odisha,
Karnataka, Jharkhand, Gujarat Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu .
8.1.19 LIMESTONE
The total resources of limestone of all categories and grades as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are estimated at 175345 million tonnes. Of which 12715 million tonnes are under 'Reserves' category and 162630 million tonnes are under 'Remaining Resources' category. Karnataka is the leading state followed by Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Meghalaya, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Odisha, Maharashtra and Uttarakhand.
8.1.20 MICA
Important mica bearing pegmatite occurs in Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan. The total resources of Mica in the country as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are estimated at 393855 tonnes, out of which only 68570 tonnes are placed under 'Reserves' category. 'Remaining resources' are placed at 325285 tonnes. Rajasthan accounts for about 51 per cent
resources, followed by Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra and Bihar.
8.1.21 MAGNESITE
The total resources of magnesite as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are about 338 million tonnes, of which Reserves and Remaining resources are 76 million tonnes and 262 million tonnes,
respectively. Substantial quantities of resources are established in Uttarakhand (68%) followed by
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Rajasthan (16%) and Tamil Nadu (13%). Andhra Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Jammu and Kashmir, Karnataka and Kerala contribute for the balance.
8.1.22 KYANITE AND SILLIMANITE
The total resources of kyanite and sillimanite as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are 103 million tonnes and 74 million tonnes, respectively. Out of these the Reserves categories are 1.4 million tonnes for kyanite and 11 million tonnes for sillimanite. Kyanite deposits are located in Maharashtra, Karnataka, Jharkhand, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal . Sillimanite resources are located mainly in Odisha, Tamil Nadu, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Assam and West Bengal with minor occurrences in Jharkhand, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya and Rajasthan.
8.1.23 PHOSPHATE MINERALS
Deposits of phosphorites are located in Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, Jharkhand, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. Besides, apatite deposits of commercial importance are reported from
Jharkhand, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. The total resources of apatite as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are placed at 26.86 million tonnes, out of which 6 million tonnes are under Reserves category and about 21 million tonnes are under Remaining resources category. Out of the total resources, the bulk 61% are located in West Bengal . The total resources of rock phosphate as per UNFC system as on 1.4.2005 are placed at 305 million tonnes, out of which 53 million tonnes are placed under reserves and 252 million tonnes under remaining resources category. Bulk of reserves are located in Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh.
8.1.24 COAL
In India coal deposits are found mainly of two geological ages –
1. Gondwana coal deposits, which are about 200 million years old. The major coal deposits in India are Gondwana coal which are metallurgical coal and are located in Damodar Valley (West Bengal,
Jharkhand). These constitute mainly Jharia, Dhanbad, Ranigunj, and Bokaro coal fields. Besides, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Son and Wardha valley also contain coal deposits.
2. Tertiary coal deposits which are around 55 million years old. Tertiary coal deposits are found in the North-Eastern states of Meghalaya, Assam, Arunachal Pradesh and Nagaland .
Coal plays a pivotal role in sustainable development. It is the most widely used energy source for
electricity generation and an essential input for steel production. Coal is an essential resource for meeting the challenges facing the modern world. As per Integrated Energy Policy Committee of
Planning Commission, coal will remain India's most important energy source till 2031-32 and possibly beyond. In India, about 76% coal output is consumed in power sector. In addition, other industries
like cement, fertilizer, chemical, paper and thousands of medium and small -scale industries are dependent on coal for their process and energy requirements. The production of coal at 556.40 million tonnes in 2012-13 increased by 1.7% to 565.77 million tonnes in 2013-14. The production of
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lignite at 44.27 million tonnes in 2013-14 decreased by 4.7% from 46.45 million tonnes in the previous year. India ranks 3rd in world coal production. The coal deposits in India are primarily
concentrated in the Gondwana sediments occurring mainly in the eastern and central
parts of Peninsular India, although Gondwana coal deposits also occur in
Assam and Sikkim in north eastern part of the country.
The Tertiary coal-bearing sediments are found in Assam, Arunachal Pradesh,
Nagaland and Meghalaya. As a result of exploration carried out by GSI, CMPDIL
and other agencies, 301.56 billion tonnes (including that estimated in Sikkim) coal
reserves up to 1,200 m depth have been established in the country as on 1.4.2014.
Out of these reserves, 125.91 billion tonnes are proved reserves, 142.50 billion
tonnes are indicated reserves and the
remaining 33.15 billion tonnes are in inferred category.
Of the total reserves, the share of prime coking coal is 5.31 billion tonnes, medium-
coking & semi-coking is 28.76 billion tonnes and non-coking coal, including high sulphur is 267.49 billion tonnes.
LIGNITE
Indian lignite deposits occur in the Tertiary sediments in the southern and western parts of peninsular shield particularly in Tamil Nadu, Puducherry, Kerala, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Jammu & Kashmir. The total known geological reserves of lignite as on 1.4.2014 is about 43.25 billion tonnes, of which 79% reserves are located in Tamil Nadu with about 34.35 billion tonnes. Other states where lignite deposits have been located are Gujarat, Jammu & Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal and the Union Territory of Puducherry.
8.1.25 Iron Ore Distribution in India
Types of Iron Ore – Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite & Siderite. Distribution of Iron Ore in India –
Iron ore in Orissa, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Karnataka & other states.
8.1.25.1 Haematite Reddish; best quality; 70 per cent metallic content. Found in Dharwad and Cuddapah rock systems of the peninsular India.
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80 per cent of haematite reserves are in Odisha, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh and Andhra Pradesh.
In the western section, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Goa has this kind of ore.
8.1.25.2 Magnetite Black ore; 60 to 70 per cent metallic content .
Dharward and Cuddapah systems.
Magnetic quality.
Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil Nadu and Kerala .
8.1.25.3 Limonite Inferior ores; yellowish in colour; 40 to 60 per cent iron metal.
Damuda series in Raniganj coal field, Garhwal in Uttarakhand, Mirzapur in Uttar Pradesh and Kangra valley of Himachal Pradesh.
Advantage == open cast mines == easy and cheap mining.
8.1.25.4 Siderite ‘Iron carbonate’; inferior quality; less than 40 per cent iron.
Contains many impurities {previous post}; mining is not economically viable.
However, it is self-fluxing due to presence of lime.
8.1.25.5 Iron Ore Distribution in India Hematite and magnetite are the two most important iron ores in India
Exact Numbers not important. Remember 1st and 2nd position.
Haematite Magnetite
Reserves ~18,000 million tonnes
~10,500 million tonnes
Major states
Odisha 33% Jharkhand 26%
Chhattisgarh 18% Rest in Andhra Pradesh, Assam,
Bihar, Maharashtra, MP, Rajasthan, UP
Karnataka 73% Andhra Pradesh 14% Rajasthan 5% TN 4.9% Rest in Assam, Bihar, Goa, Jharkhand, Kerala, MH, Meghalaya and Nagaland
Iron Ore in Orissa
The ores are rich in haematites.
India’s richest haematite deposits are located in Barabil-Koira valley.
Others: Sundargarh, Mayurbhanj, Cuttack, Sambalpur, Keonjhar and Koraput districts.
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Iron Ore in Chhattisgarh Bailadila mine is the largest mechanised mine in Asia
[Ore beneficiation only done here]
A 270 km long slurry (a semi-liquid mixture) pipeline from the Bailadila to Vizag plant transports the ore slurry.
Smelting is done in Vizag [Vishakhapatnam] iron and steel factory.
Bailadila’s high grade ore is exported through Vishakhapatnam to Japan [No iron ore in Japan. But market is huge due to automobile industry] and other countries.
The Dalli-Rajhara range is 32 km long [ferrous content 68-69 per cent] range with significant reserves.
Iron Ore in Jharkhand
25 per cent of reserves.
First mine in Singhbhum district in 1904.
Iron ore of here is of highest quality and will last for hundreds of years.
Noamandi mines in Singhbhum are the richest. Magnetite ores occur near Daltenganj in Palamu district.
Iron Ore in Karnataka
Iron ores are widely distributed.
High grade ore deposits are those of Kemmangundi in Bababudan hills of Chikmagalur district and Sandur and
Hospet in Bellary [Lot of Mining Mafia].
Most of the ores are high grade haematite and
magnetite.
Iron Ore in other states Andhra Pradesh (1.02%): Kurnool, Guntur, Cuddapah,
Ananthapur, Nellore.
Maharashtra (0.88%): Chandrapur, Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg.
Madhya Pradesh (0.66%).
Tamil Nadu: Salem, Tiruchirapalli, Coimbatore, Madurai etc.
Rajasthan: Jaipur, Alwar, Sikar, Bundi, Bhilwara.
Uttar Pradesh: Mirzapur.
Uttaranchal: Garhwal, Almora, Nainital.
Himachal Pradesh: Kangra and Mandi.
Haryana: Mahendragarh.
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West Bengal: Burdwan, Birbhum, Darjeeling.
Jammu and Kashmir: Udhampur and Jammu.
Gujarat: Bhavnagar, Junagadh, Vadodara.
Kerala: Kozhikode.
8.1.26 Distribution of Coal in India
Gondwana coal fields [250 million years old]
Tertiary coal fields [15 – 60 million years old]
8.1.26.1 Gondwana Coal Gondwana coal makes up to 98 per cent of the total reserves and 99 per cent of the
production of coal in India. Satpuras, denudation [weathering + erosion] has exposed coal bearing Gondwana strata.
The carbon content in Gondwana coal [250 million years old] is less compared to the Carboniferous coal [350 million years old] [Almost Absent in India] because of its much
younger age. Gondwana coal forms India’s metallurgical grade as well as superior quality coal .
The Damuda series (i.e. Lower Gondwana) possesses the best worked coalfields accounting for 80 per cent of the total coal production in India. 80 out of 113 Indian coalfields are
located in the rock systems of the Damuda series [lower Gondwana Age].
Coking as well as non-coking and bituminous as well as sub-bituminous coal are obtained from Gondwana coal fields.
Anthracite is generally not found in the Gondwana coal fields.
The volatile compounds and ash (usually 13 – 30 per cent) and doesn’t allow Carbon percentage to rise above 55 to 60 per cent. [It requires few million years more if the quality has to get better. Remember Gondwana coal is 100 million years younger than Carboniferous
coal].
Gondwana coal is free from moisture, but it contains Sulphur and Phosphorous. These basins occur in the valleys of certain rivers viz.,
the Damodar (Jharkhand-West Bengal); the Mahanadi
(Chhattisgarh-Odisha); the Son (Madhya Pradesh Jharkhand); the Godavari and the Wardha
(Maharashtra-Andhra Pradesh); the Indravati, the Narmada, the Koel, the Panch, the Kanhan and many more.
Distribution of Gondwana Coal in India First coal mine was opened in 1774 at Raniganj in West
Bengal.
Coal industry was nationalized in 1973-74. [The present government made some serious changes during the last year [2015] by allowing private sector to play a bigger role in coal production].
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India is now the third largest coal producer in the world after China and the USA.
Coal industry provides employment to nearly seven lakh persons.
Gondwana Coalfields == exclusively found in the peninsular plateau of India.
Gondwana Coalfields in Chhattisgarh
Coalfield Extent
Korba coalfield Korba district.
Birampur coalfield
Surguja district. Hasdo-Arand coalfield
Chirmiri coalfield
Lakhanpur coalfield
Jhilmili coalfield Shandol district & Koriya district
Johilla coalfield Johilla valley
Sonhat coalfield Surguja district
Tatapani-Ramkota coalfields Surguja district
Gondwana Coalfields in Jharkhand
1st in reserves [28%].
2nd in production [20%]. Most of the coal fields are located in a narrow
belt running in east-west direction. Major coalfields are present in Dumka (Santhal
Parganas), Hazaribagh, Dhanbad and Palamu.
Jharia, Bokaro, Girdih and Karanpura are the major coal fields
Jharia coalfield Danbad district
One of the oldest and the richest coalfields of India; store house of the best metallurgical coal
[coking coal]
Jayanti coalfields inferior quality and has high ash content
Bokaro coalfield West Bokaro [900 m
deep] East Bokaro [600 m
deep]
Hazaribagh district It is a long but narrow strip in the catchment area of the Bokaro river.
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Girdih (Karharbari) coalfield
Gives out of the finest coking coal in India for metallurgical purposes.
Karanpura and
Ramgarh coalfields
Auranga coalfield
Palamu district inferior quality; used in cement furnaces and brick
kilns Hutar coalfield
Deltenganj coalfield
Devgarh coalfields Dumka district inferior quality
Rajmahal coalfield Rajmahal hills inferior quality
Gondwana Coalfields in Odisha
Talcher field Talcher town to Rairkhol in Dhenkanal and Sambalpur
districts
Ranks second in reserves (24,374 million tonnes) after Raniganj;
Coal from this field is most suitable for steam and gas production.
Most of the coal is utilised in thermal power and fertilizer plants at Talcher.
Rampur-Himgir coalfields
Sambalpur and Sundargarh Coal occurs here in middle and lower Barakar seams. inferior quality
Ib river coalfield Sambalpur and Jharsuguda district
Much of the coal is of inferior quality.
Gondwana Coalfields in Madhya Pradesh
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Singrauli
(Waidhian) coalfield
Sidhi and Shandol
districts
largest coalfield of Madhya Pradesh Jhingurda, Panipahari, Khadia, Purewa and Turra are important coal seams
Jhingurda with a total thickness of 131 m is the richest coal seam of the country.
thermal power plants at Singrauli and Obra
Pench-Kanhan-Tawa
Chhindwara district Ghoravari seam in Kanhan field is 4.6 m thick and contains coking coal
Sohagpur coalfield Shandol district
Umaria coalfield Umaria district Inferior quality with high percentage of moisture and ash.
Gondwana Coalfields in Andhra Pradesh
6th in reserves [7.07 %].
5th in production [9.69 %]. Most of the coal reserves are in
the Godavari valley.
Adilabad, Karimnagar, Warangal,
Khammam, East Godavari, and West Godavari.
The actual workable collieries are situated at Singareni and Kothagudam.
Almost the entire coal is of non-coking variety.
These are the southernmost coalfields of India and a source of coal supply to most of south India.
Gondwana Coalfields in Maharashtra
Per cent reserves.
7 per cent of the production.
Gondwana Coalfields in West Bengal
4 % of India’s coal.
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11 % of the coal reserves.
Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri are the chief producing districts.
RANIGANJ is the largest coalfield of West Bengal.
Raniganj == Bardhhaman, Bankura and Purulia districts; Small part of this field is in Jharkhand state.
The coal here is non-coking steam coal. Dalingkot coalfield == Darjeeling district.
Gondwana Coalfields in Uttar Pradesh
Do not possess coal reserves.
A small portion of the Singrauli field of Madhya Pradesh falls within Mirzapur district.
A high grade coal seam, about 1 to 1.5 m thick occurs near Kotah.
8.1.26.2 Tertiary Coal Tertiary coal 15 to 60 million years old. Carbon content is very low. Mainly confined to the extra-Peninsula [Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Assam,
Arunachal Pradesh etc.]
Coal generally has low carbon and high percentage of moisture and Sulphur. [It takes few hundred million years for the carbon content to improve].
Important areas of Tertiary coal include parts of Assam, Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Nagaland, Himalayan foothills of Darjeeling in West Bengal, Jammu and Kashmir, Uttar
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and the union territory of Pondicherry also bear tertiary coal reserves [exceptions].
Tertiary Coalfields in Assam
Makum, Nazira, Mikir Hills, Dilli-Jeypore and Lakhuni. Makum coalfield in Sibsagar district is the most developed field.
Assam coals contain very low ash and high coking qualities but the sulphur content is high,
as a result of which this coal is not suitable for metallurgical purposes.
But these coals are best suited for hydrogenation process and are used for making liquid fuels.
Tertiary Coalfields in Arunachal Pradesh
Upper Assam Coal belt extends eastwards as Namchick-Namrup coalfield.
High in volatiles and in sulphur.
Tertiary Coalfields in Meghalaya Garo, Khasi and Jaintia hills.
Darrangiri field == Garo hills. Siju, Cherrapunji, Liotryngew, Maolong and Langrin coalfields == Khasi and Jaintia hills.
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Tertiary Coalfields in Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh Kalakot and surrounding regions in Jammu, south of Pirpanjal.
Himachal Pradesh == Chamba district.
Tertiary Coal – Lignite
Tamil Nadu, Gujarat, Jammu and Kashmir, Kerala, Rajasthan, West Bengal and Puducherry. Tamil Nadu excels all other states regarding reserves and production of lignite .
Lignite in Tamil Nadu
90 per cent of the reserves. 57 per cent of the production.
Neyveli Lignite fields of Cuddalore district. These are the largest deposits of lignite in south – east Asia.
Neyveli mines suffer from the artesian structure [mining goes deep and deep].
Mining in Lignite coalfields is risky due to SPONTANEOUS COMBUSTION of lignite.
Lignite in Gujarat and Rajasthan Kachchh district and Dharuch district; poor quality.
Rajasthan == Palana in Bikaner district; The 250 MW thermal plant at Bikaner wholly depends upon lignite as the basic fuel.
Tertiary Coal – Peat
Confined to a few areas only. Occurs in Nilgiri hills.
Kashmir valley, peat occurs in the alluvium of the Jhelum. In West Bengal peat beds are noted in Kolkata and its suburbs.
In the Ganga delta, there are layers of peat which are composed of forest and rice plants.
8.1.26.3 Problems of Coal Mining in India The distribution of coal is uneven.
High ash content and low caloric value.
Large percentage of coal is taken out from underground mines. [Very few open cast mines]
Heavy losses due to fires in the mines.
Pilferage at several stages also adds to losses – bad transportation infrastructure.
Serious problem of environmental pollution. High ash, moisture == more smoke.
Safety measures against environmental pollution are very costly. Clean coal technology == Complex technology.
Misuse of good quality coal for burning into transport and industries.
Short life of metallurgical coal. Selective mining leading to large scale wastage of raw coal
Unscientific method of extraction of coal.
8.1.26.4 Measures to be taken Coking coal should be used for metallurgical industry only.
Low grade coal should be washed and blended with superior quality coal in requisite proportion and used in industries. [Clean Coal Technology]
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Selective mining should be discouraged and all possible coal from the mines should be taken out.
New reserves should be discovered and new techniques should be adopted.
Alternative energy sources should be encouraged.
8.1.26.5 Coking Coal vs. Non-Coking Coal Coking Coal or Metallurgical Coal Thermal Coal or Non-Coking Coal or Steaming
coal
High carbon content, less moisture, less sulphur,
less ash. Sulphur is very bad for iron and steel industry.
Sulphur content is high and hence cannot be
used in iron and steel industry.
Used to create coke. Coke is produced by heating bituminous coal
without air to extremely high temperatures. Coking == flushing out impurities and improving
the concentration of carbon.
Creating coke using this coal is not economical. Moreover traces of sulphur will remain even
after coking.
Coking coal is an essential ingredient in steel
production.
Thermal coal is used to generate power.
Major producers: Australia, Canada, United States. Major exporters: Australia, Canada, United States. China imports huge amount of coking coal from Australia. India also imports coking coal.
Major producers: China, Australia, USA, Russia. Major exporters: Australia, South Africa.
8.1.26.6 Coal Reserves in India by State Name of the state Reserves in billion tonne % of total reserves
1. JHARKHAND 80.71 26.76 2. ODISHA 75.07 24.89
3. CHATTISHGARH 52.53 17.42
4. WEST BENGAL 31.31 10.38
5. MADHYA PRADESH 25.67 8.51
6. ANDHRA PRADESH 22.48 7.45
7. MAHARASTRA 10.98 3.64
8. OTHERS 2.81 0.95
8.1.26.7 Coal Production in India by State All data from 2013-2014. For latest data you must follow newspapers or Reports published by
Ministry of Coal. Coking Coal Production by State
1. Jharkhand [More than 90% of India’s Coking coal comes from Jharkhand]
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2. West Bengal 3. Madhya Pradesh
Non Coking Coal Production By State 1. Chhattisgarh 2. Odisha 3. Madhya Pradesh 4. Jharkhand 5. Andhra Pradesh
Total Coal Production By State 1. Chhattisgarh 2. Jharkhand 3. Odisha 4. Madhya Pradesh 5. Andhra Pradesh
8.1.27 Petroleum and Mineral Oil in India Petra == rock; Oleum == oil. Petroleum or Mineral oil is
obtained from sedimentary rocks of the earth.
Petroleum fuels on burning gives little smoke and
leaves no ash. So they are better than coal.
Constituents of Petroleum and Mineral Oil
90 to 95 per cent Hydrocarbons.
10% organic compounds
containing oxygen, nitrogen,
sulphur and traces of organometallic compounds.
Formation of Petroleum and Mineral Oi l
All sedimentary rocks do not contain oil.
An oil reservoir must have three prerequisite conditions. 1. Porosity [tiny gaps in soil] so as to accommodate sufficiently large amounts of oil;
2. permeability [allowing liquids or gases to pass through it.] to discharge oil and/or gas
when well has been drilled; 3. The porous sandstone beds or fissured limestone containing oil should be capped
below by impervious beds [not allowing fluid to pass through].
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Most of the oil gets collected in the anticlines or fault traps.
Oil on a commercial scale is usually found in crests of anticlines [where the sedimentary rock strata are inclined and folded].
Distr ibution of Petroleum and Mineral Oi l in India
Process began in tertiary period [3 million years ago]. Most of the oil reserves in India are associated
with anticlines and fault traps in the sedimentary rock formations of tertiary times.
In tertiary period, aquatic life was abundant in various forms, especially the minor microscopic forms of flora and fauna.
Conditions for oil formation were favourable especially in the lower and middle Tertiary period.
Dense forests and sea organisms flourished in the gulfs, estuaries, deltas and the land surrounding them during this period.
Extent of Oi l Bearing Strata in India
1 lakh sq. km or 42 per cent of India covered with sedimentary rocks.
10 lakh sq. km form marine basins of Mesozoic and Tertiary times.
Total continental shelf of probable oil bearing rocks amounts to 2 lakh sq. km.
The total sedimentary area including both on shore and offshore comprises 27 basins.
Mumbai High, the Khambhat Gulf and the Assam are the most productive
areas.
On-shore Oi l Production in India
Brahmaputra valley of north-east India. Barmer area of Rajasthan.
Gujarat coast in western India.
Cauvery on-shore basin in Tamil Nadu.
Andhra Pradesh has both on-shore and offshore oil reserves.
Assam Oilfields
Oldest oi l producing state in India
The main oil bearing strata extend for a distance of 320 km in upper Assam along the Brahmaputra valley.
Oilfields of Assam are relatively inaccessible and are distantly located from the main
consuming areas.
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Oil from Assam is therefore, refined mostly in the refineries located at Digboi, Guwahati, Bongaigaon, Barauni and
The Digboi field Tipam hills, Dibrugarh district Oldest oil field of India
The Naharkatiya field Left bank of Burhi Dihing river 32 km southwest of Digboi Oil from this area is sent to oil
refineries at Noonamati in Assam (443 km) and Barauni in Bihar (724 km)
through pipeline. The Moran-Hugrijan
field
40 km south-west of Naharkatiya
Gujarat Oi l fields Ankleshwar, Khambhat or Lunej, Ahmedabad and Kalol, Nawgam, Kosamba, Kathana, Barkol,
Mahesana and Sanand are important oilfields of this region.
Ankleshwar: Oil from this field is sent to refineries at Trombay and Koyali.
Rajasthan Oi l fields One of the largest inland oil discoveries was made in Banner district of Rajasthan.
Other important discoveries == Mangala oil field, Sarswati and Rajeshwari. Rajasthan is the largest on shore oil producing state of India.
Off-Shore Production in India Western Coast
Mumbai High, Bassein and Aliabet.
Mumbai High: 1974; rock strata of Miocene age. Sagar Samrat, Bassein: south of Mumbai High.
Aliabet: Aliabet Island in the Gulf of Khambhat.
Eastern Coast
The basin and delta regions of the Godavari, the Krishna and the Cauvery rivers hold great potential for oil and gas production.
The Rawa field in Krishna-Godavari off-shore basin is an important one. The Narimanam and Kovilappal oilfields in the Cauvery on-shore basin are also important.
Petroleum Refining India’s first oil refinery started working way back in 1901 at Digboi in Assam.
1954: another refinery at Tarapur (Mumbai).
Refinery hub and refining capacity exceeds the demand. Excess refined oil and other petroleum products are exported.
Oil from wells is transported to nearest refineries through pipelines.
Advantages of Pipel ine
Ideal to transport liquids and gases.
Pipelines can be laid through difficult terrains as well as under water.
It needs very little maintenance. Pipelines are safe, accident-free and environmental friendly.
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Disadvantages of Pipel ines It is not flexible, i.e., it can be used only for a few
fixed points.
Its capacity cannot be increased once it is laid.
It is difficult to make security arrangements for pipelines.
Detection of leakage and repair is also difficult .
Crude Oi l Pipel ines
Salaya-Mathura Pipeline (SMPL) Paradip-Haldia-Barauni Pipeline (PHBPL)
Mundra-Panipat Pipeline (MPPL)
Petroleum Product Pipel ines Remember locations of Oil Refineries and Major
Oil producing centers. Pipeline are the ones that connect these centers.
Guwahati-Siliguri Pipeline (GSPL) Koyali-Ahmedabad Pipeline (KAPL)
Barauni-Kanpur Pipeline (BKPL)
Panipat-Delhi Pipeline (PDPL)
Panipat-Rewari Pipeline (PRPL) Chennai – Trichy – Madurai Product Pipeline (CTMPL)
Chennai-Bangalore Pipeline
Naharkatia-Nunmati-Barauni Pipeline == first pipeline constructed in India
Mumbai High-Mumbai-Ankleshwar-Koyali Pipeline.
Hajira-Bijapur-Jagdishpur (HBJ) Gas Pipeline == world’s largest underground pipeline Jamnagar-Loni LPG Pipeline == longest LPG pipeline in the world
Kochi-Mangalore-Bangalore pipeline Vishakhapatnam Secunderabad pipeline
Mangalore-Chennai pipeline
Vijayawada-Vishakhapatnam pipeline
Natural Gas Distr ibution in India
KG basin, Assam, Gulf of
Khambhat, Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu, Barmer in
Rajasthan etc.
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Petroleum and Gas Value Chain Oil & gas industry is divided in Upstre am, Midstream and Downstream sector.
Upstream Sector
Oil exploration, prospection and extraction/production from oil wells. New Exploration Licensing Policy, 1997
Promote exploration by providing a level playing field to private players against public enterprises.
Oil blocks are allotted under ‘Production Sharing Contracts’. In ‘Production Sharing Contracts’, investment and revenues is shared with government .
The private companies exaggerated or inflated their investment accounts and gobbled up public funds.
Open Acreage Licensing Policy (OALP) There are demands to replace NELP with OALP.
Under OALP, oil blocks will be available throughout for sale. [government makes money by selling oilfields]
It allows ample time for explorer to study the fields and bid for block of his choice. ‘National Data Repository’ is prerequisite for functioning of OALP.
It will be a ‘hydrocarbon data center’ which facilitate prospection of resources.
Revenue Sharing Contracts Seen as a better alternative to OALP and NELP.
Government gets share in revenue from the very beginning. In contrast PSC (Production Sharing Contracts), allows government to have revenue share
only after costs are recovered by the explorer.
In PSC, explorers inflate investment by classifying revenue expenditure (salaries, maintenance etc.) as capital expenditure (equipment, technology etc.).
This resulted in lower government share. It delays revenue to the government by decades.
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Kelkar Committee Recommendations Deep sea offshore Blocks – Production Sharing Contracts should be adopted.
Onshore and Shallow blocks – Revenue Sharing Model should be adopted. Rangarajan Committee Recommendations
Suggested linking gas price to price of imported gas and gas prices prevailing in exchanges of USA, UK and Japan (weighted average) so as to bring it at parity with international prices.
This would result in increase of price from $ 4.2 mmbtu to$ 8.4 mmbtu, this formulae was not implemented (it will do serious damage to vote bank).
Midstream sector
This sector involves transportation of oil and gas from blocks to refineries and from refineries to distribution centers.
Most cost effective way is through pipeline, in comparison to road and railways which higher economic and environmental costs.
Current pipeline infrastructure is skewed in favour of North and West India, which accounts for 60% of gas pipelines and 80 % of gas consumptions.
To remedy this, central government has proposed to set up National Gas Grid under which additional 15000 km of pipelines will be laid down.
It will be executed under PPP model and will be eligible for ‘Viability Gap Funding’.
Further, Gas Distribution networks are available in only few cities. In most of cities gas is transferred through bottling plants and distribution agency. This result in wastage by leakages
and theft. Viability Gap Funding
In some PPP projects in India, Central and state governments undertake to provide support funding to successful bidders.
Projects are awarded to those whose requirement for state funding is least.
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Indian Oil Corporation and Gas Authority of India are involved in this sector. Storage
Government is building underground storage capacity of 15 million metric tons for petroleum and related products.
The first phase construction is in progress in Vishakhapatnam, Mangalore and Padur [All coastal cities].
Storage facilities are essential for safeguard against shortages or supply disruptions.
Downstream sector
This sector involves refining, processing and marketing of products and by-products of crude oil.
8.1.28 Gold Distribution across India
Gold usually occurs in auriferous [(of rocks or minerals) containing gold] rocks.
It is also found in sands of several rivers. Gold is also known as international currency.
Resources in terms of the metal ore (primary) are located in Bihar (45 per cent) Rajasthan (23 per cent) Karnataka (22 per cent) West Bengal (3 per cent)
Andhra Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh (2 per cent each)
Resources in terms of metal content Karnataka, Rajasthan,
Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, etc. Kolar Gold Field, Hutti Gold Field and Ramgiri Gold Field are the most important gold fields.
Karnataka Karnataka is the largest producer of gold in India. Gold mines are located in Kolar [Kolar Gold Field], Dharwad, Hassan and Raichur [Hutti Gold
Field] districts. Kolar Gold Fields is one of the deepest mines of the world. [Usually, gold mines are the
deepest mines in the world. Mponeng Gold Mine in South Africa is the deepest mine in the world (3.9 km deep)]
Hutti mines are exploited to their maximum levels and the ore left behind is of very low grade. The mining has almost ceased due to little or no profitability.
The Kolar Gold Field has also run out of quality reserves and is on the verge of closure.
Andhra Pradesh Second largest producer of gold in India.
Ramgiri in Anantapur district is the most important gold field in AP.
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Alluvial Gold [gold scattered in silt] and Placer deposits [gold bearing rocks] in small quantity are widely spread in a large number of rivers
Jharkhand Sands of the Subarnarekha (gold streak) river have some alluvial gold.
Sona nadi in Singhbhum district is important.
Sonapat valley is another major site with alluvial gold.
8.1.29 Copper & Nickel Distribution across India
Copper is a good conductor of electricity and is ductile [able to be drawn out into a thin wire].
It is an important metal used by automobile and defence industries.
Alloyed with iron and nickel to make stainless steel.
Alloyed with nickel to make ‘morel metal’. Alloyed with aluminium to make ‘duralumin’.
When alloyed with zinc it is known as ‘brass’ and with tin as ‘bronze’. Iron + Nickel + Copper + Chromite +…..== Stainless Steel.
Copper + Nickel == Morel Metal.
Copper + Aluminium == Duralumin. Copper + Zinc == Brass.
Copper + Tin == Bronze. Copper ore is found in ancient as well as in younger rock formations and occurs as veins and
as bedded deposits
Mining for copper is costly and tedious affair because most of the copper ores contain a small percentage of the metal.
India has low grade copper ore [less than 1% metal content][international average 2.5%]
The major part of supply comes from the USA, Canada, Zimbabwe, Japan and Mexico.
Copper Reserves in India 46 million tonnes.
Rajasthan (50%)
Madhya Pradesh (24%)
Jharkhand (19%)
The rest 7 per cent in AP, Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka etc.
Madhya Pradesh 1st in production [59.85 %].
Malanjkhand copper mines of Balaghat district are the most important ones. Reserves of moderate size are also found in Betul district.
Rajasthan 2nd in production [28%] Found along the Aravalli range.
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Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Chittorgarh, Dungarpur, Jaipur, Jhunjhunu, Pali, Sikar, Sirohi and Udaipur districts.
Khetri-Singhana belt in Jhunjhunu district is the most important copper producing area.
Jharkhand 3rd in production [11 %].
Singhbhum is the most important copper producing district.
Found in Hazaribagh district, Santhal Parganas and Palamu districts.
Nickel Nickel does not occur free in nature.
It is found in association with copper, uranium and other metals.
Important alloying material. Iron + Nickel == stainless steel.
It is hard and has great tensile strength.
Hence nickel steel is used for manufacturing armoured plates, bullet jackets
Nickel + Copper or Silver == Coins.
Nickel-aluminium alloys are used for manufacturing
aeroplanes and internal combustion engines.
Metallic nickel is used for making storage batteries and as a catalyst for hydrogenation or hardening of fats and oils intended for use in soap and foodstuffs and in making vanaspati.
Important occurrences of nickeliferous limonite are found in the Sukinda
valley of Jajapur district, Odisha. Here it occurs as oxide.
Nickel also occurs in sulphide form along with copper mineralization in
east Singhbhum district, Jharkhand.
In addition, it is found associated with uranium deposits at Jaduguda, Jharkhand.
Other important occurrences of nickel are in Karnataka, Kerala and Rajasthan.
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Polymetallic sea nodules are another source of nickel.
About 92 per cent resources are in Odisha.
The remaining 8 per cent resources are distributed in Jharkhand, Nagaland and Karnataka
8.1.30 Uranium & Thorium Distribution across India
Uranium and Thorium are the main atomic minerals. Other
atomic minerals are beryllium, lithium and zirconium.
Uranium deposits occur in Singhbhum and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand, Gaya district of Bihar, and in the sedimentary rocks in Saharanpur district of Uttar Pradesh.
But the largest source of uranium comprise the monazite sands.
Monazite sands occur on east and west coasts and in some places in Bihar. But the largest concentration of monazite sand is on the Kerala coast.
Over 15,200 tonnes of uranium is estimated to be contained in monazite.
Some uranium is found in the copper mines of Udaipur in Rajasthan.
India produces about 2 per cent of world’s uranium. The total reserves of uranium are estimated at 30,480 tonnes.
Thorium is also derived from monazite. The other mineral carrying thorium is thorianite. The known reserves of thorium in India are estimated to be between 457,000 and 508,000
tonnes. Kerala, Jharkhand, Bihar, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan are the main producers.
Beryllium oxide is used as a ‘moderator’ in nuclear reactors. India has sufficient reserves of beryllium to meet her requirement of atomic power generation.
Lithium is a light metal which is found in lepidolite and spodumene. Lepidolite is widely distributed in the mica belts of Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan .
Zirconium is found along the Kerala coast and in alluvial rocks of Ranchi and Hazaribagh districts of Jharkhand.
Uranium Uranium is a silvery-grey metallic radioactive chemical element. It is only naturally formed
in supernova explosions.
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Uranium, thorium, and potassium are the main elements contributing to natural terrestrial radioactivity.
Uranium has the chemical symbol U and atomic number 92.
Uranium isotopes in natural uranium are 238U (99.27%) and 235U (0.72%).
All uranium isotopes are radioactive and fissionable. But only 235U is fissile (will support a neutron-mediated chain reaction).
Traces of Uranium are found everywhere. Commercial extraction is possible only in locations where the proportion of Uranium is adequate
Uranium in India India has no significant reserves of Uranium. All needs are met through imports.
India imports thousands of tonnes of uranium from Russia, Kazakhstan, and France.
India is trying hard to import uranium from Australia and Canada. There are some concerns regarding nuclear proliferation and other related issues which India is trying to sort out.
Some quality reserves were recently discovered in parts of Andhra Pradesh and Telangana between Seshachalam forest and Sresailam [Southern edge of Andhra to Southern edge of
Telangana].
Nuclear Power Plants in India
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Thorium Thorium is a chemical element with symbol Th and atomic number 90.
It is one of only two significantly radioactive elements that still occur naturally in large quantities [other being uranium].
Thorium metal is silvery and tarnishes black when exposed to air.
Thorium is weakly radioactive: all its known isotopes are unstable, with the seven naturally occurring ones (thorium-227, 228, 229, 230, 231, 232, and 234).
Thorium-232 is the most stable isotope of thorium and accounts for nearly all natural thorium, with the other five natural isotopes occurring only in traces.
Thorium is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant than uranium in the Earth’s crust, and is chiefly refined from monazite sands [Monazite contains 2.5%
thorium][Monazite is a widely scattered on the Kerala Coast]. Thorium is predicted to be able to replace uranium as nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors, but
only a few thorium reactors have yet been completed.
Monazite – Rare Earth Metals Monazite is a reddish-brown phosphate mineral containing rare earth metals. Rare earths are a series of chemical elements found in the Earth’s crust that are vital to many
modern technologies, including consumer electronics, computers and networks, communications, clean energy, advanced transportation, health care, environmental mitigation, national defence, and many others.
Because of their unique magnetic, luminescent, and electrochemical properties, these elements help make many technologies perform with reduced weight, reduced emissions,
and energy consumption; or give them greater efficiency, performance, miniaturization, speed, durability, and thermal stability.
There are 17 elements that are considered to be rare earth elements. [Scandium, Yttrium etc. –– (names are very strange and hence I am avoiding them)]
Advantages of Thorium Proliferation is not easy: Weapons-grade fissionable material (U-233) is harder to retrieve
safely from a thorium reactor [U-233 produced by transmuting thorium also contains U-232, a strong source of gamma radiation that makes it difficult to work with. Its daughter product,
thallium-208, is equally difficult to handle and easy to detect]. Thorium reactors produce far less waste than present-day reactors.
Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less long-lived radioactive waste [minuscule waste that is generated is toxic for only three or four hundred years rather than thousands of years].
They have the ability to burn up most of the highly radioactive and long-lasting minor
actinides [fifteen radioactive metallic elements from actinium (atomic number 89) to lawrencium (atomic number 103) in the periodic table] that makes nuclear waste from Light
Water Reactors a nuisance to deal with. Thorium reactors are cheaper because they have higher burn up.
Thorium mining produces a single pure isotope, whereas the mixture of natural uranium isotopes must be enriched [enriching is costly] to function in most common reactor designs.
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Thorium cannot sustain a nuclear chain reaction without priming , so fission stops by default in an accelerator driven reactor.
8.1.31 Diamond & Graphite Distribution across India
Graphite Graphite is a naturally-occurring form of crystalline carbon.
It is also known as plumbago or black lead. The carbon content in Graphite is never less than 95%.
Graphite may be considered the highest grade of coal, just above anthracite. Carbon content in Peat < Lignite < Bituminous < Anthracite < Graphite < Diamond
It is not normally used as fuel because it is difficult to ignite.
It is found in metamorphic and igneous rocks.
Graphite is extremely soft, cleaves [splits into layers] with very light pressure.
It is extremely resistant to heat and is highly unreactive.
Most of the graphite is formed at convergent plate boundaries where organic-rich shales and limestones were subjected to metamorphism due to heat and pressure.
Metamorphism produces marble, schist and gneiss that contains tiny crystals and flakes of graphite.
Some graphite forms from the metamorphism of coal seams. This graphite is known as “amorphous graphite”.
Graphite is a non-metal and it is the only non-metal that can conduct electricity.
Applications of Graphite Natural graphite is mostly consumed for refractories, batteries, steelmaking, expanded
graphite, lubricants etc. A refractory material is one that retains its strength at high temperatures.
Natural and synthetic graphite are used to construct the anode of all major battery technologies
The lithium-ion battery utilizes roughly twice the amount of graphite than lithium carbonate.
Natural graphite in this end use mostly goes into carbon raising in molten steel. [to make steel stronger]
Natural amorphous graphite are used in brake linings for heavier vehicles, and became important with the need to substitute for asbestos.
Graphite lubricants are specialty items for use at very high or very low temperatures.
Modern pencil lead is most commonly a mix of powdered graphite and clay.
Major Producers of Graphite – India India is a major global producer of flake graphite.
Total Indian Graphite Resources Arunachal Pradesh (43%), Jammu & Kashmir (37%), Jharkhand (6%),
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Tamil Nadu (5%) and Odisha (3%)
Operational Indian Graphite Resources - Most of the Graphite Production is concentrated in these states
Tamil Nadu (37%), Jharkhand (30%), [Palamu district in Jharkhand is the most important] Odisha (29%).
Diamonds Diamond is the hardest naturally
occurring substance found on Earth.
Diamonds are formed in mantle. They
brought to the earth’s crust due to volcanism. Most of the diamonds
occur in dykes, sill etc. [Volcanic Landforms].
Diamond is the Diamonds are used in ornaments, polishing the surfaces of
metals and in gem cutting. The most important industrial use of
diamonds is in cutting-edges of drills used for exploration and mining of
minerals [Diamond is the hardest substance and it can break other
substances without itself getting broken].
Diamonds in India The Vindhayan system have diamond bearing regions from which Panna and Golconda
diamonds have been mined.
Panna belt in Madhya Pradesh;
Wajrakarur Kimberlite pipe in Anantapur district and
Gravels of the Krishna river basin in Andhra Pradesh. Reserves have been estimated only in Panna belt and Krishna Gravels in Andhra Pradesh.
The new kimberlite fields are discovered recently in Raichur-Gulbarga districts of Karnataka. Reserves of diamonds in India are not yet exhausted and modern methods are being applied
for intensive prospecting and mining. Cutting and polishing of diamonds is done by modem techniques at important centres like
Surat, Navasari, Ahmedabad, Palampur etc.
Differences between Graphite and Diamond Graphite and Diamond are the major allotropes of carbon. Other important allotrope being anthracite coal.
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[Allotrope → each of two or more different physical forms in which an element can exist (e.g. graphite, charcoal, and diamond as forms of carbon).] Graphite and diamond share the same composition but have very different structures.
Graphite Diamond Graphite contains 95% or more carbon. Diamond is 100% carbon.
Graphite is a non-metallic mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to extreme heat and
pressure in Earth’s crust and in the upper mantle.
Diamond is also a non-metallic mineral that forms when carbon is subjected to extreme
heat and pressure in the mantle.
Graphite is one of the most stable substances on earth.
Diamond (one of the most stable) is less stable than graphite.
The carbon atoms in graphite are linked in a hexagonal network that forms sheets that are one atom thick. These sheets are poorly connected and easily cleave or slide over one another if subjected to a small amount of force.
This gives graphite it’s very low hardness, its perfect cleavage and its slippery feel.
8.1.31 Mica, Limestone & other Non-Metallic Minerals in India
Non-Metallic Mineral Distribution in India – Mica, Limestone, Dolomite, Asbestos, Magnesite, Kyanite, Sillimanite and Gypsum.
Mica Mica is a naturally occurring non-metallic mineral that is based on a collection of silicates.
Mica is a very good insulator that has a wide range of applications in electrical and electronics industry.
It can withstand high voltage and has low power loss factor.
It is used in toothpaste and cosmetics because of its glittery appearance. It also acts as a mild abrasive in toothpaste.
India is one of the foremost suppliers of mica to the world. Mica-bearing igneous rocks occur in AP, Bihar, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, and Rajasthan.
Mica Reserves in India Andhra Pradesh (41 per cent)
Rajasthan (21 per cent) Odisha (20 per cent)
Maharashtra (15 per cent)
Bihar (2 per cent)
Jharkhand (Less than 1 per cent)
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Mica Distribution and Production in India India has a near monopoly in the
production of mica [60 % of world’s total]. Production decreased in recent times due
to fall in demand in the international market. Fall in demand is due to better
synthetic alternatives that are available.
Andhra Pradesh
1st in production [93 %].
The mica belt lies in Nellore district [Gudur Mica mines].
Vishakhapatnam, West Godavari and Krishna are other important mica producing districts.
Rajasthan
2nd in production [6.3 %].
The main mica belt extends from Jaipur to Udaipur [Along Aravalis].
Jharkhand 3rd in production.
Mica is found in a belt extending for about 150 km in length and 32 km in width from Gaya district of Bihar to Hazaribagh and Koderma districts of Jharkhand. This belt contains the richest deposits of high quality ruby mica.
Koderma is a well-known place for mica production in Jharkhand.
Mica Exports India is the largest exporter of mica. Certain grades of Indian mica are and will remain vital to the world’s electrical industries.
Major exports are carried out through Kolkata and Vishakhapatnam ports. Important imports of Indian mica are Japan (19%), the USA (17%), U.K, etc.
Limestone Limestone rocks are composed of either calcium carbonate, the double carbonate of calcium
and magnesium, or mixture of both.
Limestone also contains small quantities of silica, alumina, iron oxides, phosphorus and sulphur.
Limestone deposits are of sedimentary origin and exist in all the geological sequences from Pre-Cambrian to Recent except in Gondwana.
75 per cent Limestone is used in cement industry, 16 per cent in iron and steel industry [It acts as flux] and 4 per cent in the chemical industries.
Rest of the limestone is used in paper, sugar, fertilizers, etc.
Almost all the states of India produce some quantity of limestone.
Over three-fourths of the total limestone of India is produced by Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Chhattisgarh and Tamil Nadu.
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Madhya Pradesh Madhya Pradesh is the largest producer of limestone [16 per cent].
Large deposits occur in the districts of Jabalpur, Satna, Betul, etc.
Rajasthan
Rajasthan has about 6 per cent of the reserves and produces over 16 per cent of the total limestone of India. Production occurs in almost all districts .
Andhra Pradesh Andhra Pradesh possesses about one-third of the total reserves of the cement grade
limestone in the country.
Extensive deposits occur in Cuddapah, Kumool, Guntur, etc.
Gujarat
Gujarat produces only about 11 per cent of the total limestone of India. High grade limestone deposits occur in Banaskantha district.
Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh accounts for more than nine per cent of total limestone of India .Deposits of
limestone occur in Bastar, Durg and surrounding districts.
Tamil Nadu
Large scale reserves in Ramnathapuram, Tirunelveli, Salem, Coimbatore and Madurai districts.
Karnataka
Gulbarga, Bijapur and Shimoga districts.
Dolomite Limestone with more than 10 per cent of magnesium is called dolomite.
When the percentage rises to 45, it is true dolomite.
Dolomite is mainly used as blast furnace flux, as a source of magnesium salts and in fertilizer and glass industries.
Iron and Steel industry is the chief consumer of dolomite [90 per cent] followed by fertilizer,
ferro-alloys and glass. Dolomite is widely distributed in the all parts of the country .
Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Andhra Pradesh, Jharkhand, Rajasthan and Karnataka are the main producing states and contribute more than 90 per cent of the total production.
Orissa and Chhattisgarh together account for about 57 per cent dolomite of India.
Orissa
Orissa is the largest producer of dolomite [29 per cent]. The main deposits occur in Sundargarh, Sambalpur and Koraput districts.
Chhattisgarh Closely following Orissa is the state of Chhattisgarh which produces about 28 per cent
dolomite of India.
The main deposits occur in Bastar, Bilaspur, Durg and Raigarh districts.
Jharkhand
Dolomite occurs in bands to the north of Chaibasa in Singhbhum district and Palamu district.
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Rajasthan Ajmer, Alwar, Bhilwara, Jaipur, Jaisalmer etc. are the main producing districts.
Karnataka
Belgaum, Bijapur, Chitradurga, Mysore, etc.
Asbestos Two quite different minerals are included under this name; one, a variety of amphibole, and
the other, more important, a fibrous variety of serpentine (chrysotile).
Chrysotile is more important variety and accounts for 80 per cent of the asbestos of commercial use.
Asbestos has great commercial value due to its fibrous structure, filaments of high tensile strength and its great resistance to fire.
It is widely used for making fire-proof cloth, rope, paper, millboard, sheeting, etc. It is also used in making aprons, gloves, brake-linings in automobiles etc.
Asbestos cement products like sheets, pipes and tiles are used for building purposes. When asbestos is brittle, it is made into filter pads for filtering acids.
Mixed with magnesia, it is used for making ‘magnesia bricks’ used for heat insulation. Two states of Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh produce almost the whole of asbestos of India.
Rajasthan is the largest producer. Important occurrences are known in Udaipur, Dungarpur, Alwar, Ajmer and Pali districts.
In Andhra Pradesh, asbestos of fine quality occurs in Pulivendla taluk of Cuddapah district .
In Karnataka, the main deposits occur in Hassan, Mandya, Shimoga, Mysore and Chikmaglur districts.
Magnesite It is an alteration product of dunites (peridotite) and other basic magnesian rocks.
It is primarily used for manufacturing refractory bricks.
It is also used as a bond in abrasives, manufacture of special type of cement for artificial stone, tiles and for extraction of the metal magnesium.
Steel industry also uses magnesite.
Major deposits of magnesite are found in Uttaranchal, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan. Tamil Nadu is the largest producer [three-fourth] of magnesite in India.
Tamil Nadu has one of the largest deposits of magnesite in the world and the largest in India are found at Chalk Hills near Salem town.
Kyanite Kyanite occurs in metamorphic aluminous rocks.
It is primarily used in metallurgical, ceramic, refractory, glass, cement industries due to its ability to stand high temperatures.
It is also used in making sparking plugs in automobiles.
India has the largest deposits of kyanite in the world. All the three grades of kyanite are found here. Kyanite grades depend on aluminium content. Greater the aluminium content,
greater the quality. Jharkhand, Maharashtra and Karnataka produce practically the whole of kyanite of India.
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Sillimanite The occurrence and uses of sillimanite are almost the same as those of kyanite.
The main concentration of Sillimanite is found in Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh and West Bengal.
Orissa is the largest producer of sillimanite in India. Ganjam district is an important sil limanite producing district.
Kerala is the second largest producing state. The beach sands of Kerala contain 5 to 6 per cent of sillimanite.
Gypsum Gypsum is a hydrated sulphate of calcium. It is a white opaque or transparent mineral.
It occurs in sedimentary formations such as limestones, sandstones and shales. It is mainly used in making ammonia sulphate fertilizer and in cement industry.
It makes up to 4-5 per cent of cement.
It is also used in making plaster of Paris, moulds in ceramic industry, tiles, plastics, etc.
It is applied as surface plaster in agriculture for conserving moisture in the soil and for aiding nitrogen absorption.
Rajasthan is by far the largest producer of gypsum in India [99 per cent of the total production of India].
The main deposits occur in the Tertiary clays and shales of Jodhpur, Nagaur and Bikaner. Jaisalmer, Barmer, Chum, Pali and Ganganagar also have some gypsum bearing rocks.
The remaining gypsum is produced by Tamil Nadu [Tiruchirapalli district], Jammu and Kashmir, Gujarat and Uttar Pradesh in order of production.
Water and phosphoric acid plants are important sources of by product gypsum.
Marine gypsum is recovered from salt pans during the processing for common salt in Gujarat and Tamil Nadu.
Phospho-gypsum is obtained as a by-product while manufacturing phosphoric acid whereas fluro-gypsum is obtained while manufacturing aluminium fluoride and hydro-fluoric acid.
The recovery of by-product phospho-gypsum, fluro- gypsum, and marine gypsum together is higher than mineral gypsum.
Salt Salt is obtained from sea water, brine springs [salt water springs], wells and salt pans in lakes
and from rocks.
Rock salt is taken out in Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh and in Gujarat. It is less than 1
per cent of the total salt produced in India.
Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan produces about 10 per cent of our annual production.
Sea brine is the source of salt in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu.
Gujarat coast produces nearly half of our salt.
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8.2 What is Mining? The branch of industry concerned with the search for, and extraction of, minerals from the Earth is called mining. The site in which minerals are found is usually called a mine—two exceptions are oil wells and rock
quarries. The kinds of minerals dug from the Earth vary widely. They include the ores of iron, aluminum, chromium, tungsten, gold, silver, copper, coal, diamonds, lead, nickel, platinum, tin, and zinc. Some of the less familiar products taken from mines are arsenic, antimony, asphalt, cobalt, molybdenum, sulphur, and vanadium. These and other minerals have, for 6,000 years, provided the raw materials by which human civilizations have been built. Today, apart from food, paper, and some clothing, there is hardly a product that is not derived from the Earth's
store of minerals. Nearly every building in modern industrial societies such as Canada, Japan, Germany, and the United States is constructed primarily from processed raw materials dug out of the ground . Highways are paved with asphalt and the cars, trucks, and buses that ride on them are made mostly from steel and other metals. Appliances such as radios, television sets, telephones, toasters, refrigerators, computers, compact disc players, and microwave ovens would not be possible without the assorted metals and plastics used to make them. Without minerals the production of goods and the creation of wealth would be impossible.
8.2.1 Mining Methods
The method used to mine a specific commodity depends chiefly on the shape and location of the deposit. In many
instances, the deposit is relatively flat and continuous over a large area. Examples of flat, or tabular, deposits are those of coal, potash, salt, and oil shale. These deposits are found in beds, or seams, between layers of rock . The material above the seam is called the overburden ; the seam itself can vary in thickness from a few inches to more than 100 feet (30 meters). The mining method used to extract these flat deposits is rather straightforward.
Mining of deposits that are not flat and continuous, however, requires using one of a variety of methods to extract these deposits either from the surface or from under the ground. The method used depends on the geometry, size, and altitude of the deposit.
The main objective in any kind of mining is to remove the valuable material economically and safely with minimum damage to the surrounding environment. Some of the minerals produced, such as coal and salt, are ready to use right after they have been mined. It may be necessary to wash or treat these commodities in different ways to enhance their quality, but their properties remain essentially unchanged. Metals and some mineral commodities, conversely, usually occur in nature as ores—that is, combined with other materials. This means that they must be treated, usually with chemicals or heat, to separate the desired metal from its host material. These processing techniques can be very complex and expensive, but they are necessary to recover the metal or other mineral commodity of interest.
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8.2.1.1 Mining Flat, or Tabular, Deposits
Coal was formed from plant and animal remains deposited millions of years ago . There are several types of coal, and their characteristics, and thus the methods by which they are mined, depend largely on how many millions of years it took them to form and the levels of heat and pressure to which they were exposed. Coal deposits range from a soft peat, also called precoal, to a hard, shiny anthracite. Most of the coal mined in the United States is a mid-range bituminous coal.
Coal is the most abundant fossil fuel in the United States. It is used to heat homes and offices, power electric plants, and supply energy to many industries. When heated in the absence of air in a process called carbonization, coal produces coke, which is used to manufacture iron into steel. Coal is also used to produce synthetic products that can be substituted for less abundant natural gas and petroleum or for the many plastic items one uses daily.
Coal and other flat deposits can be mined underground by various tunnelling methods or from the surface by
simply removing the covering rocks, called overburden . Underground mining is usually done when the deposit is more than 150 feet (45 meters) below the surface, in which case the overburden is simply too thick and expensive to remove. Access to deep coal seams is achieved either via shafts or via slopes driven down to the seam or through drifts driven directly into the coalbed if it is exposed on a hillside. Many years ago, underground coal was mined by pick and shovel and hauled out in carts by people, sometimes even by children. Later, horses and mules were used to drag the carts. Today, powerful machines help miners to cut and transport the coal out of the mine to preparation plants, where it is cleaned, sorted, and readied for industrial use.
Coal is usually recovered from underground mines in either of two tunnelling methods. One is the room-and-pillar method, and the other is longwall mining.
1. Room-and-pi l lar Mining
In the room-and-pillar mining method, interconnected tunnels
are formed. These tunnels result from the excavation of a series of “rooms” into the coalbed, leaving “pillars” or columns of coal to help support the mine roof. In conventional room-and-pillar mining, the coal is broken up by explosives, loaded onto a vehicle by a mechanized loading machine, and transported from the production area by shuttle cars.
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Slope mine: conveyor belt - A continuous conveyor belt gradually carries
coal from all levels of an underground mine to the surface where it can be loaded into rail ore cars. In a slope mine, the conveyor moves on a
diagonal slant. -Courtesy of Consolidation Coal Company
Continuous mining is a kind of room-and-pillar method in which a powerful machine called a continuous miner cuts and loads the coal into shuttle cars or onto conveyor belts that remove the coal from the mine. Bolts several feet long installed in the mine roof help to ensure that the roof is consolidated and properly supported , thereby preventing dangerous roof cave-ins that could injure or kill the miners.
2. Longwal l Mining
The second underground coal mining system is longwall mining. Originally developed in Europe, longwall mining is now also popular in the United States because of the greater safety and productivity it affords.
This method involves pulling a cutting machine across a 400 to 600 foot long face (longwall) of the coal seam. This machine has a revolving cylinder with tungsten bits that shear off the coal. The mining machine shaves blocks or panels of coal from the mine wall in a back-and-forth motion, similar to that of a meat slicer, and dumps the broken coal onto a conveyor belt that extends across much of the mine which carries it out of the mine. Perhaps the most attractive feature of modern longwall mining is the shielded roof supports , the roof is supported by
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large steel supports, attached to the longwall machine that can be moved with the mining operation, as the machine moves forward, the roof supports are advanced providing maximum protection to the miners. As the mining
machine advances, the roof behind it caves in i.e. the roof behind the supports is allowed to fall. Miners call the collapsed area the gob.
Nearly 80 percent of the coal can be removed using this method . The remaining 11 percent of underground production is produced by conventional mining which uses explosives to break up the coal for removal.
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9. NATURAL DISASTER IN INDIA Disaster is defined as ‘Catastrophic situation in which the normal pattern of life or ecosystem has been disrupted and extra- ordinary emergency interventions are required to save and preserve lives and or the environment’ (Ministry of Home Affairs, 2011). The Disaster Management Act has included man-made disasters also and defines disaster as ‘a catastrophe, mishap, calamity or grave occurrence in any area, arising from natural or man-made causes or by accident or negligence which result in substantial loss of life or human suf ferings or damage to, and destruction of, property or damage to, or degradation of environment and is of such a nature or magnitude as to be beyond the coping capacity of the community of an affected area’.
India is a country highly vulnerable to natural disasters. Enormous population pressures and
urbanization have forced people to live on marginal lands or in cities where they are at greater risk to disasters and the damage they can cause. Whether a flood, a regional drought or a devastating
earthquake, millions of Indians are effected each time a disaster occurs. In addition to large-scale displacement and the loss of life, these events result in the loss of property and agricultural crops
worth millions of dollars annually. These catastrophes typically result in the substantial loss of hard won development gains. India is a nation with varied climatologically and hypsographic conditions. Therefore 68 percent of
the land is drought prone, 60 percent is prone to earthquake, 12 percent to Floods, 8 percent to Cyclones. This count to almost 85 percent of the land area in India is vulnerable to natural hazards
while 22 States have been marked as hazards prone states. The main natural disasters in India includes floods, earthquakes, droughts, and cyclones while the minor natural hazards in India are
landslides, avalanches, hailstorms, forest fires and bushfires. In India most of the states experience more than one type of disaster
9.1 List of major natural disasters that have occurred over the last 20 years in India
Date Place Nature of the
event
Economic
losses
Insured
losses
Number
of fatalities
Number of
affected persons (in billion USD)
May 2020 West Bengal Hurricane Amphan
13.5 ND 103 500 000 homeless
August 2018
Kerala Floods 3.52 0.37 504 223 139 homeless
November 2015
Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
Floods 2.37 0.98 289 -
April 2015 Himalaya Storm - - 78 20 000 injured October 2014
Andhra Pradesh
Storm 7.56 0.68 68 43 injured
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September 2014
Jammu and Kashmir
Floods 6.45 0.26 665 -
June 2013 Uttarranchal Floods 1.21 0.55 5 748 4 473 injured 271 931
homeless September 2009
Andhra
Pradesh
Floods 5.63 0.06 300 2 000 000
homeless August 2006
Gujarat Floods 4.3 0.52 350 4 000 000 homeless
July 2005 Maharashtra Floods 4.36 0.93 1 150 15 000 homeless
January 2001
Gujarat Earthquake 6.13 0.14 19 737 166 850 injured
1 790 000 homeless
9.2 Types of Disasters
Due to the increasing frequency of natural and man-made disasters and their severe impact on the individuals, society, economy, natural resources and environment, Government of India constituted
a High Powered Committee (HPC) on Disaster Management in August 1999 to prepare comprehensive plans for National, State and District levels.
The HPC has rightly stressed on the need for a comprehensive and holistic approach towards
dealing with all kinds of disasters. From a compartmentalized response oriented approach, a coordinated, holistic and participatory approach has been recommended. HPC identified thirty one disasters in the country. These disasters have been categorized into following five sub-groups depending on generic (origin) considerations and various departments/ ministries dealing with various aspects:
1. Water and Climate Related Disasters
Floods and Drainage Management, Cyclones, Tornadoes and Hurricanes, Hailstorm, Cloud Burst, Heat Wave and Cold Wave, Snow Avalanches, Droughts, Sea Erosion and Thunder and Lightning.
2. Geologically related disasters
Landslides and Mudflows, Earthquakes, Dam Failures/ Dam Bursts and Mine Fires
3. Chemical, Industrial & Nuclear related disasters
Chemical and industrial and nuclear disasters have been included.
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4. Accident related disasters
Forest Fires, Urban Fires, Mines Flooding Oil Spill, Major Building Collapse, Serial Bomb Blasts, Festival related disasters, Electrical disasters and Fires, Air, Road and Rail Accidents, Boat
Capsizing and Village Fire have been included in this sub-group by HPC.
5. Biologically related disasters
Epidemics, Pest Attacks, Cattle epidemics and Food poisoning.
Natural disasters are natural phenomenon and occur without any intention while man-made disasters are events which, either intentionally or by accident cause severe threats to public health and well-being.
Because their occurrence is unpredictable, man- made disasters pose an especially challenging threat that must be dealt with through vigilance, and proper preparedness and response.
9.3 NATURAL DISASTERS
9.3.1 Floods
Floods in the Indo-Gangetic Brahmaputra plains are an annual feature. Seventy five percent of rainfall is concentrated over four months of monsoon (June - September) and as a result
almost all the rivers carry heavy discharge during this period. Brahmaputra and the Gangetic
Basin are the most flood prone areas.
The other flood prone areas are the north-west region of west due to over flowing rivers such as the Narmada and Tapti, Central India and the Deccan region with major eastward
flowing rivers like Mahanadi, Krishna and Cauvery. The average area affected by floods annually is about 8 million hectares while the total area in India liable to floods is 40 million
hectares in which Uttar Pradesh has 21.9 percent, Bihar (12.71 percent), Assam (9.4 percent),
West Bengal (7.91 percent), Orissa (4.18 percent) and other states have 43.9 percent flood prone area.
An analysis of data of different states for the period of 1953- 2009 reveals that average annual damage to crops, houses and public utilities in the country was around Rs. 1649.77
crore and maximum reported 8864.54 crore was in the year of 2000. On an average, an area of about 7 million hectares (17.50 mha maximum in 1978) was flooded, of which, on average
crop area affected was of the order of 3.302 million hectares (10.15 mha in 1988). The floods claimed on an average 1464 human life and 86288 heads of cattle dead every year .
After China, India is the second country hardest hit by floods with no less than 17 of such events annually, affecting 345 million Indians.
This scourge has caused a significant number of casualties and major economic damage to infrastructure, property, livelihoods and crops.
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Heavy monsoon rains in the eastern part of the country often cause the Brahmaputra River to overflow, with disastrous consequences.
According to the 2019 Global Climate Risk Index report, floods account for 52% of the total calamities affecting India, claiming 63% of the material damage and 32% of the human losses reported as natural disasters.
On an annual average, 7.500.000 hectares are flooded, and 1.600 lives are lost.
9.3.2 Droughts
We have a largely monsoon dependant irrigation network. An erratic pattern, both low (less than 750 mm) and medium (750 - 1125 mm) makes 68 percent of the total sown area vulnerable to periodic droughts. Severe and rare droughts occur in arid and semi-arid zones once in almost every 8-9 years. Drought is a perennial feature in some states of India. 16 percent of the country’s total area is drought prone and approximately 50 million people are
annually affected by droughts. In fact, persistent drought with less than average rainfall over a long period of time gives rise to serious environmental problems. Extreme temperatures
and resulting weather conditions significantly affect the health of residents and the agricultural sector. With global warming, these episodes of intense heat, more than 50
degrees, are becoming increasingly frequent. According to Indian authorities, in the last four years the country has reported no less than
4 620 deaths caused by heat waves which generally occur between March and June. The last event of this kind occurred in June 2019, claiming the lives of 50 people in 24 hours.
Over the past 20 years, India has also sustained the two most severe droughts in the world. They took place in 2002 and 2015 and affected 300 and 330 million Indians, respectively.
Despite the affordability of coverage and the intensity and frequency of natural events, the penetration rate of natural catastrophe insurance in India is almost nil, with less than 1% of the population contracting an insurance policy for this type of risk.
For several years, the authorities have been planning to set up a national pool dedicated to natural disasters, a structure struggling to see the light of day.
9.2.3 Cyclones
India has a long coastline of approximately 8,000 km. There are two distinct cyclone seasons: pre-monsoon (May-June) and post- monsoon (October-November). The impact of these
cyclones is confined to the coastal districts, the maximum destruction being within 100 km from the centre of the cyclones and on either side of the storm track. Most casualties are
caused due to coastal inundation by tidal waves, storm surges and torrential rains. The occurrence of tropical cyclone is almost a common natural phenomenon.
The Indian Ocean is one of the six major cyclones–prone regions of the world. In India, cyclones from Indian Ocean usually occur between April and May, and also between October
and December. The eastern coastline is more prone to cyclones than the western coast.
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About 80 percent of total cyclones generated in the region hit the eastern coast. Out of approximate six cyclones formed every year, two to three may be severe. Located in the intertropical convergence zone, the Indian subcontinent is one of the regions most affected by cyclones. Its coastline stretching over more than 8 000 kilometres accounts for nearly 10%
of the world's tropical cyclones, the majority of which emerge over the Bay of Bengal and strike the east coast of India.
On average, six to eight depressions form each year, two or three of which turn into tropical cyclones. A major cyclone (category 3 or more) develops every two years.
In May 2020, Cyclone Amphan, devastated India and Bangladesh, killing 84 people and devastating the coastal areas of both countries. It was the most powerful cyclone to hit the Bay of Bengal since the 1999 cyclone that killed 10 000 people in Odisha State (northeast India).
9.2.4 Earthquakes
The Himalayan mountain ranges are considered to be the world’s youngest fold mountain
ranges. The subterranean Himalayas are geologically very active. In a span of 53 years four earthquakes exceeding magnitude 8 have occurred in this region. The peninsular part of India
comprises stable continental crust. Although these regions were considered seismically least active, earthquakes, which occurred in Latur in Maharashtra on September 30, 1993 of
magnitude 6.4 on the Richter scale and Gujarat 2001 of magnitude 6.9 on the Richter scale caused substantial loss of lives and damage to infrastructure.
India has a large part of its land area liable to wide range of probable maximum seismic intensities where shallow earthquake of magnitudes of 5.0 or more on Richter Scale have
been known to occur in the historical past or recorded in the last about 100 years. The Himalayas frontal that are flanked by the Arakan Yoma fold belt in the east and the Chaman
fault in the west constitute one of the most seismically active regions in the world. The probability of an earthquake is high in India, with nearly 60% of the territory being classified
as a moderate to severe seismic risk zone.
According to seismologists, the Himalayas, one of the regions most exposed to earthquakes, should one day suffer a mega-shock caused by the pressure accumulated in the subsoil of the Himalayan arc.
The last earthquake to date occurred in 2015. With a magnitude of 7.8, the earthquake killed 9 000 people and injured more than 20 000 others. More than 600 000 homes were also
destroyed by the tremor.
9.2.5 Landslides
The Himalayas, the Northeast hill ranges and the Western Ghats experience considerable landslide activity of varying intensities. River erosions, seismic movements and heavy rainfalls cause considerable landslide activity. Heavy monsoon rainfall often in association
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with cyclonic disturbances results in considerable landslide activity on the slopes of the Western Ghats. The Himalayan, the north-east hill and the Western Ghats experience considerable land-slides activities of varying intensities. The rock and debris carried by the rivers like Kosi originating in the Himalayas cause enormous landslide in the valleys.
The seismic activity in the Himalayan region also results in considerable landslide movement. The Government of India is collaborating with a wide range of Indian academic institutions on hill research.
Landslides zonation Mapping is a modern method to identify landslide prone areas and has been in use in India since 1980s.
9.2.6 Avalanches
Avalanches constitute a major hazard in the higher elevations of Himalayas. Parts of the
Himalayas receive snowfall round the year and adventure sports are in abundance in such locations.
Severe snow avalanches occur in States like Jammu & Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh and Uttrakhand. Losses of life and property have been reported due to avalanches.
9.3 MANMADE DISASTERS
The fast pace of growth and expansion in the name of development without comprehensive understanding or preparedness has brought forth a range of issues that seek urgent attention at
all levels. In the absence of such measures growing numbers in our population are at a risk of prospective hazards such as air accidents, boat capsizing, building collapse, electric fires, festival
related disasters, forest fires, mine flooding, oil spills, rail accidents, road accidents, serial bomb blasts, and fires. The safeguards within existing systems are limited and the risks involved high. Nuclear, Chemical and Biological threats are apparent in the present scenario. Deliberate international terrorism or accidental secondary fallout can be fatal. Creation of specific infrastructure is imperative to avoid a catastrophe in the future. However, rapid and effective response needs intensive research and laboratory support.
9.3.1 Forest Fires
Forests face many hazards but the most common hazard is fire. Forests fires are as old as the forests themselves. They pose a threat not only to the forest wealth but also to the entire
regime of fauna and flora seriously disturbing the bio-diversity and the ecology and environment of a region.
Forest fires are usually seasonal. They usually start in the dry season and can be prevented by adequate precautions. State Governments are aware of the severe damage caused by fires
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not only trees but also to forests and ecology of the area. Successive Five Year Plans have provided funds for forest fire fighting.
9.4 National Disaster Management System in India
Indeed, concurrent to these occurrences, the government at various levels too, has responded by taking appropriate measures for prevention and mitigation of the effects of disasters. While long
term preventive and preparedness measures have been taken up, the unprecedented nature of the disasters has called in for a nationwide response mechanism wherein there is a pre-set assignment
of roles and functions to various institutions at central, state and the district level.
9.4.1 The Administrative Response
In the federal set-up of India, the responsibility to formulate the Governments response to a natural calamity is essentially that of the concerned State government . However, the
Central Government, with its resources, physical and financial does provide the needed help and assistance to buttress relief efforts in the wake of major natural disasters. The
dimensions of the response at the level of Central Government are determined in accordance with the existing policy of financing the relief expenditure and keeping in view the factors like:
1. the gravity of a natural calamity, 2. the scale of the relief operation necessary, and 3. the requirements of Central assistance for augmenting the financial resources at the
disposal of the State Government.
The Division of Disaster Management of Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India is the nodal ministry for all matters concerning disasters at the Centre except the drought. The Drought Management is looked after by the Ministry of Agriculture, Government of
India. The National Contingency Action Plan (NCAP) facilitates launching of relief and rescue operations without delay. The CAP identifies initiatives required to be taken by various Central Ministries, and Public Departments like in the wake of natural calamities, sets down
the procedures and determines the focal points in the administrative machinery. As pointed out earlier, the central government only supplements the efforts of the State
Government. State Governments are autonomous in organizing relief operations in the event of natural disaster and in the long-term preparedness/ rehabilitation measures. The States have Relief Commissioners who are in charge of the relief measures in the wake of natural disasters in their respective states . In the absence of the Relief Commissioner, the
Chief Secretary or an Officer nominated by him is overall in-charge of the Relief operations in the concerned State.
The Chief Secretary is the head of the State Administration. The State Headquarters has, in addition, a number of Secretaries who head the various Departments handling specific
subjects under the overall supervision and co-ordination of the chief Secretary. At the level of the State Government natural disasters are usually the responsibility of the Revenue Department or the Relief Department.
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States are further divided into districts, each headed by a District Collector (also known as District Magistrate or Deputy Commissioner). It is the District Collector who is the focal point at the district level for directing, supervising and monitoring relief measures for disaster and for preparation of district level plans.
9.4.2 Non- governmental Organizations
Emerging trends in managing natural disasters have highlighted the role of Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) as one of the most effective alternative means of achieving an efficient communication link between the Disaster Management agencies and the affected community.
Many different types of NGOs are already working at advocacy level as well as grassroots level; in typical disaster situations they can be of help in preparedness, relief and rescue,
rehabilitation and reconstruction and also in monitoring and feedback .
9.4.3 The Community
It has now been revealed that the community as an institution in itself is emerging as an effective player in the entire mechanism of disaster administration .
In the event of actual disasters, the community, if well aware of the preventive actions it is required to take can substantially reduce the damage caused by the disaster. Awareness and training of the community is particularly useful in areas that are prone to frequent disasters.
9.5 New Strategies for a Safer Future
9.5.1 Preparedness, Mitigation and Prevention
In disaster situations, a quick rescue and relief mission is inevitable; however damage can be considerable minimized if adequate preparedness levels are achieved. Indeed, it has been
noticed in the past that as and when attention has been given to adequate preparedness measures, the loss to life and property has considerably reduced . Going along this trend, the
disaster management setup in India has, in the recent years, oriented itself towards a strong focus on preventive approaches, mainly through administrative reforms and participatory
methods.
Preparedness measures such as training of role players including the community,
development of advanced forecasting systems, effective communications, and above all a sound and well networked institutional structure involving the government organizations,
academic and research institutions, the armed forces and the non- governmental organizations have greatly contributed to the overall disaster management in the country.
This can clearly be seen from the various instances of reduced damages from disasters due to better preparedness and coordinated inter- agency response. Preparedness is the key to
breaking the disaster cycle.
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The good practices are a result of the heightened awareness and sensitivity towards communities at risk. The approach of reducing community vulnerability for reducing disasters has paid rich dividends. The first step in this direction has been of identification of vulnerable communities. Those communities periodically exposed to natural hazards, and within them those with low levels of coping powers, such as economically weaker sections, are the first focus of preparedness efforts. Marginal sections of rural communities and dwellers of informal settlements and slums in urban areas fall within this class.
Efforts in the direction of integrating disaster prevention into habitat planning processes are one of the most viable disaster prevention means. The National Centre for Disaster Management’s work on developing and testing methods for integrating risk reduction using community participation into urban planning is one such initiative. The general direction of current efforts is one of multi-pronged approach of mobilization of community perceptions towards a culture of prevention of natural disasters.
9.5.2 Role of Local Bodies
The Constitution 73rd and 74th Amendments paved the way for a constitutional status for
local governments - Urban Local Bodies and Panchayati Raj institutions, to play a greater role in matters of immediate concern. While they have started taking active interest and
initiatives in most of the subjects under their jurisdiction, disaster management is a topic that has not captured their attention so far.
Local governance institutions, with their grass-root level contacts with the common people, can make a substantial contribution to the process of spreading awareness and ensuring an
active people’s participation in disaster mitigation activities. They are the ideal channels for NGOs and other agencies that conduct any disaster management programme , right from
relief, recovery and rehabilitation to planning for mitigation and prevention.
9.5.3 Institutional and Policy Framework
The institutional and policy mechanisms for carrying out response, relief and rehabilitation have been well-established since Independence. These mechanisms have proved to be robust and effective insofar as response, relief and rehabilitation are concerned.
At the national level, the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal Ministry for all matters concerning disaster management. The Central Relief Commissioner (CRC) in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the nodal officer to coordinate relief operations for natural disasters. The CRC receives information relating to forecasting/ warning of a natural calamity from India Meteorological Department (IMD) or from Central Water Commission of Ministry of Water Resources on a continuing basis.
Each Ministry/Department/ Organization nominates their nodal officer to the Crisis
Management Group chaired by Central Relief Commissioner. The nodal officer is responsible for preparing sectoral Action Plan/Emergency Support Function Plan for managing disasters.
National Crisis Management Committee (NCMC): Cabinet Secretary, who is the highest executive officer, heads the NCMC. Secretaries of all the concerned Ministries /Departments
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as well as organizations are the members of the Committee. The NCMC gives direction to the Crisis Management Group as deemed necessary.
Crisis Management Group: The Central Relief Commissioner in the Ministry of Home Affairs is the Chairman of the CMG, consisting of senior officers (called nodal officers) from various concerned Ministries. The CMG’s functions are to review every year contingency plans formulated by various Ministries/ Departments/Organizations in their respective sectors, measures required for dealing with natural disasters coordinate the activities of the Central Ministries and the State Governments in relation to disaster preparedness and relief and to
obtain information from the nodal officers on measures relating to above. Control Room (Emergency Operation Room): An Emergency Operations Center (Control
Room) exists in the nodal Ministry of Home Affairs, which functions round the clock, to assist the Central Relief Commissioner in the discharge of his duties. The activities of the Control Room include collection and transmission of information concerning natural calamity and relief, keeping close contact with governments of the affected States, interaction with
other Central Ministries/ Departments/Organizations in connection with relief, maintaining records containing all relevant information relating to action points and contact points in
Central Ministries etc., keeping up-to-date details of all concerned officers at the Central and State levels.
Contingency Action Plan: A National Contingency Action Plan (CAP) for dealing with contingencies arising in the wake of natural disasters has been formulated by the Government of India and it had been periodically updated. It facilitates the launching of relief operations without delay. The CAP identifies the initiatives required to be taken by various Central Ministries/Departments in the wake of natural calamities, sets down the procedure and determines the focal points in the administrative machinery.
State Relief Manuals: Each State Government has relief manuals/codes which identify that role of each officer in the State for managing the natural disasters. These are reviewed and updated periodically based on the experience of managing the disasters and the need of the State.
Funding mechanisms: The policy and the funding mechanism for provision of relief assistance to those affected by natural calamities are clearly laid down. These are reviewed by the Finance Commission appointed by the Government of India every five years. The Finance Commission makes recommendation regarding the division of tax and non-tax revenues between the Central and the State Governments and also regarding policy for provision of relief assistance and their share of expenditure thereon. A Calamity Relief Fund (CRF) has been set up in the State as per the recommendations of the Eleventh Finance Commission (Centre contribute 75 percent whereas State 25 percent). State can get assistance through National Calamity Contingency Fund (NCCF), also through Prime Minister Fund.
At the State level, response, relief and rehabilitation are handled by Departments of Relief & Rehabilitation. The State Crisis Management Committee is set up under the Chairmanship
of Chief Secretary in the State. All the concerned Departments and organizations of the State and Central Government Departments located in the State are represented in this Committee.
This Committee reviews the action taken for response and relief and gives guidelines/ directions as necessary. A control room is established under the Relief Commissioner. The
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control room is in constant touch with the climate monitoring/forecasting agencies and monitors the action being taken by various agencies in performing their responsibilities.
The district level is the key level for disaster management and relief activities. The Collector/ Dy. Commissioner is the chief administrator in the district. He is the focal point in the preparation of district plans and in directing, supervising and monitoring calamities for relief. A District Level Coordination and Relief Committee is constituted and is headed by the Collector as Chairman with participation of all other related government and non-governmental agencies and departments in addition to the elected representatives.
9.5.4 National Disaster Management Act 2005
The Parliament of India has enacted the National Disaster Management Act in November 2005 , which brings about a paradigm shift in India’s approach to disaster management. The centre of
gravity stands visibly shifted to preparedness, prevention and planning from earlier response and relief centric approach. The Act provides for establishment of:
1. National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) 2. State Disaster Management Authority (SDMA) 3. District Disaster Management Authority (DDMA)
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10. WILDLIFE CONSERVATION IN INDIA Wildlife resources constitute a vital link in the survival of the human species and have been a subject of much fascination, interest, and research all over the world. Today, when wildlife habitats are under severe pressure and a large number of species of wild fauna have become endangered, the effective conservation of wild animals is of great significance. Because every one of us depends on plants and animals for all vital components of our welfare, it is more than a matter of convenience that they continue to exist; it is a matter of life and death. Being living units of the ecosystem, plants and animals contribute to human welfare by providing
material benefit to human life;
knowledge about genetic resources and their preservation; and
Significant contributions to the enjoyment of life (e.g., recreation). Human society depends on genetic resources for virtually all of its food; nearly half of its medicines; much of its clothing; in some regions, all of its fuel and building materials; and part of its mental and spiritual welfare.
Considering the way we are galloping ahead, oblivious of what legacy we plan to leave for future generations, the future does not seem too bright. Statisticians have projected that by 2020, the human population will have increased by more than half, and the arable fertile land and tropical forests will be less than half of what they are today . Genetic resources are treated as inexhaustible mineral resources, but we need to care about them. It is here that the concept of management and
conservation of wildlife comes into play, because anything that is not human or undomesticated is ‘wildlife’.
Presence or absence of an animal or plant in a region is determined by ecological and historical factors. Animals and plants are living indicators of the characterist ics of their environment; their
ranges mark the places where environmental conditions are the same or similar. To interpret the range of a species properly, it is necessary to know, in detail, the conditions required for the species to live and thrive. The science of zoogeography has both ecological and historical aspects. On this basis, the world can be divided into six zoogeographical regions:
1. Nearctic North America and Greenland 2. Palaearctic Eurasia, without India 3. Ethiopian Africa, south of the Sahara 4. Oriental India and Indochina
5. Australian Australia and New Zealand 6. Neotropical South and Central America, and the Antilles
10.1 Wildlife Conservation in India India is the seventh largest country in the world and Asia’s second largest nation with an area of 3,287,263 km2, a national border of 15,200 km, and a coastline of 7516 km. For administrative
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purposes, India is divided into 28 states and union territories and is home to more than 1 billion people, which is approximately 16% of the world’s population . Ecologically, India can be divided into three main regions:
the Himalayan Mountain system;
the peninsular India sub region (woodlands and desert); and
The tropical rain forest region. A great wealth of biological diversity exists in these regions and in India’s wetlands and marine areas. The people of the Indian subcontinent were once blessed with some of the most profuse natural gifts: verdant forests, water-stocked Himalayan ranges, rich coastal fish resources, productive estuaries, grassy pastures, and bountiful river systems. Abundant rain and fertile soils added to this plentitude. Years of mismanagement, however, have degraded our forests, wounded our coastline, and poisoned our aquifers with devastating results. Today, India contains 172 species (2.9% of the world’s total number) of animals that are considered to be globally threatened by the IUCN. These include 53 species of mammals, 69 species of birds, 23 species of reptiles, and 3 species of amphibians.
Extinction is somehow classified as ‘biological reality’ because no species has, as yet, existed for more than a few million years without evolving into something different or dying out completely. Extinction is threatening all species, but most of the time smaller animals, like bats and rodents, face this threat more than other animals. We, however, tend to focus on the charismatic flagship species, which we like to see and which fascinate us. Success in evolution is measured in terms of survival: failure, by extinction. Most recent extinctions can be attributed, either directly or indirectly, to human demographic and technological expansion, commercialized exploitation of species, and human-caused environmental change. These factors, in turn, have affected the reproductive rate of endangered species and their adaptability to changing environmental conditions. Concern for wildlife is, in fact, a concern for ourselves.
10.1.1 Project Tiger
It is a tiger conservation programme launched in 1973 by the Government of India during Prime Minister Indira Gandhi’s tenure. The Project Tiger aims to foster an exclusive tiger agenda in the core areas of tiger reserves, with an inclusive people-oriented agenda in the buffer.
It is a Centrally Sponsored Scheme of the Ministry of Environment and Forests.
It is administered by the National Tiger Conservation Authority.
The government has set up a Tiger Protection Force under PT to combat poachers. PT funds relocation of villagers to minimize human-tiger conflicts.
The Tiger Reserves are constituted on a ‘core-buffer strategy’
Core Zone The core area is kept free of biotic disturbances and forestry operations, where collection of minor forest produce, grazing, human disturbances are not allowed within. These areas are required to be
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kept for the purposes of tiger conservation, without affecting the rights of the Scheduled Tribes or such other forest dwellers. These areas are notified by the State Government in consultation with an Expert Committee (constituted for that purpose).
Buffer Zone The Act defines buffer zone as the area peripheral to the critical tiger habitat or core area providing supplementary habitat for dispersing tigers, besides offering scope for co-existence of human
activity (tribals).The limits of such areas are determined with the concerned Gram Sabha and an Expert Committee constituted for the purpose.
Tiger Task Force The implementation of Project Tiger over the years has highlighted the need for a statutory authority with legal backing to ensure tiger conservation. On the basis of the recommendations of National Board for Wild Life, a Task Force was set up to look into the problems of tiger conservation in the country. The recommendations of the Task Force include strengthening of Project Tiger by giving it statutory and administrative powers.
10.1.2 Project Elephant
It was launched in 1992 by the Government of India Ministry of Environment and Forests to provide financial and technical support of wildlife management efforts by states for their free ranging populations of wild Asian Elephants. The project aims to ensure the long-term survival of viable conservation reliant populations of elephants in their natural habitats by protecting the elephants, their habitats, and migration corridors. Other goals of Project Elephant are supporting research of the ecology and management
of elephants, creating conservation awareness among local people, providing improved veterinary care for captive elephants.
Main activities under the Project are as follows: 1. Ecological restoration of existing natural habitats and migratory routes of elephants
2. Development of scientific and planned management for conservation of elephant habitats and viable population of Wild Asiatic elephants in India
3. Promotion of measures for mitigation of man elephant conflict in crucial habitats and moderating pressures of human and domestic stock activities in crucial elephant habitats;
4. Strengthening of measures for protection of Wild elephants from poachers and unnatural causes of death
5. Research on Elephant management related issues 6. Public education and awareness programmes 7. Eco-development 8. Veterinary care 9. Elephant Rehabilitation/Rescue Centers
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10.1.3 Indian Rhino Vision 2020
Phase 1 of IRV 2020 was conducted from 2005 to 2008.Its goal is to have a wild population of at least 3,000 Greater one-horned rhinos in the Indian state of Assam – spread over seven protected areas – by the year 2020.Its main initiatives include:
Improving the protection and security of rhinos in all rhino areas in Assam.
Expanding the distribution of rhinos over seven protected areas to reduce the risks associated with having a whole population in one area.
Translocating rhinos from two source populations (Kaziranga and Pabitora) into five target protected areas (Manas, Laokhowa, Buracharpori-Kochmora, Dibrusaikhowa and
Orang)
The project also aims to reduce the rhino population pressures in any single habitat by ensuring a better distribution of the rhino population over suitable ranges.
In addition, the project concentrates on integrating the local communities into the conservation effort. It aims to provide jobs for people living around the national parks (in conservation or tourism), to help to protect crops from being raided and to implement
further educational methods.
10.1.4 Project Snow Leopard
This project was launched in 2009 to safeguard and conserve India’s unique natural heritage of high-altitude wildlife populations and their habitats by promoting conservation through participatory policies and actions.
It is an initiative for strengthening wildlife conservation in the Himalayan high altitudes,
covering Jammu and Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Arunachal Pradesh and Sikkim.
It aims at promoting a knowledge-based and adaptive conservation framework that fully involves the local communities, who share the snow leopard’s range, in conservation efforts.
The project is facilitating a landscape-level approach to wildlife conservation by developing scientific frameworks for comprehensive surveys, rationalising the existing
protected area network and improving protected area management. It has developed a framework for wildlife conservation outside protected areas and promote
ecologically responsible development.
10.1.5 Sea Turtle Project
MoEF initiated the Sea Turtle Conservation Project in collaboration of UNDP in 1999 with Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun as the Implementing Agency.
The objective of conservation of olive ridley turtles and other endangered marine turtles.
The project is being implemented in 10 coastal States of the country with special emphasis in State of Orissa.
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The project has helped in preparation of inventory map of breeding sites of Sea Turtles, identification of nesting and breeding habitats along the shore line, and migratory routes taken by Sea Turtles, development of guidelines to safeguard and minimize turtle mortality.
One of the important achievements have been demonstration of use of Satellite Telemetry to locate the migratory route of Olive Ridley Turtles in the sea and sensitizing the fishermen and State Government for the use of Turtle Exclusion Device (TED) in fishing trawlers to check turtle mortality in fishing net.
10.1.6 Indian Crocodile Conservation Project
Project Crocodile began in 1975 under the auspices of the Government of India with the aid of
the United Nations Development Fund and Food and Agriculture Organization.
The broad objectives of activities under crocodile project were to protect the remaining population of crocodilians in their natural habitat by creating
sanctuaries; to rebuild natural population quickly through `grow and release’ or `rear and release’
technique to promote captive breeding;
to take-up research to improve management; and To involve the local people in the project intimately.
The project included an intensive captive breeding and rearing program intended to restock habitats with low numbers of gharials.
10.1.7 Project Hangul
‘Hangul’ (Kashmiri stag) is the only surviving species of the red deer family in Kashmir. The rare
animal’s strength fell from 5,000 in the beginning of last century to 900 in 1980s, when militancy broke out in the border state.
With the help of World Wildlife Fund’s ‘Project Hangul’ started in the 70’s, their population
had gone to 340 by the 80’s. But it was short lived.
Objective: To conserve ‘Hangul’ (Kashmiri Stag) in its natural habitat.
Later the project was rechristened as “Save Kashmir’s Red Deer Hangul” in 2009. Another attempt to save the Hangul was to breed it in captivity. Funds were sanctioned for captive breeding. Under the Species Recovery Programme, conservation breeding centers are opened at Sikargah Tral,
Pulwama District and Kangan. But there not much progress on increasing the numbers.
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10.1.8 Ganges Dolphin
The Wildlife Institute of India (WII) has chalked out a project to develop a conservation action plan for the Gangetic River Dolphin to save the national aquatic animal from extinction. (In 2016) Objective: The project is aimed at ensuring a recovery plan of the Gangetic River Dolphin and their habitat in the country and engage stakeholders in conservation of river ecosystem.
The project would develop monitoring protocols for River Dolphins and river fauna, quality assessment of river habitat and assessment of invasive species and involve stakeholders in River Dolphin and associated aquatic animal conservation.
The project with a duration of five years would be carried out in partnership with respective
state forest departments, national and state academic institutions and NGOs
10.2 Government Bodies related to environment conservation in India
10.2.1 Central Pollution Control Board
It was established in 1974 under the Water (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1974 to provide technical services to the Ministry of Environment and Forests under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986.
Advise the Central Government on any matter concerning prevention and control of water and air pollution and improvement of the quality of air.
Plan and cause to be executed a nation-wide programme for the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
Coordinate the activities of the State Board and resolve disputes among them Provide technical assistance and guidance to the State Boards, carry out and
sponsor investigation and research relating to problems of water and air pollution, and for their prevention, control or abatement
Plan and organise training of persons engaged in the programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
Organise through mass media, a comprehensive mass awareness programme on the prevention, control or abatement of water and air pollution
Collect, compile and publish technical and statistical data relating to water and air pollution and the measures devised for their effective prevention, control or abatement;
Prepare manuals, codes and guidelines relating to treatment and disposal of sewage and trade effluents as well as for stack gas cleaning devices, stacks and ducts;
Disseminate information in respect of matters relating to water and air pollution and
their prevention and control
Lay down, modify or annul, in consultation with the State Governments concerned, the standards for stream or well, and lay down standards for the quality of air.
Perform such other functions as may be prescribed by the Government of India.
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10.2.2 National Biodiversity Authority
It is a statutory autonomous body under the Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India established in 2003, after India signed Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 The objective of the body is to implementation of Biological Diversity Act, 2002.It acts as a facilitating, regulating and advisory body to the Government of India “on issues of conservation, sustainable use of biological resources and fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising out of the use of biological resources.” Additionally, it advises State Governments in identifying the areas of biodiversity importance (biodiversity hotspots) as heritage sites.
10.2.3 National Tiger conservation authority
It was established in December 2005 following a recommendation of the Tiger Task Force, constituted by the Prime Minister of India for reorganised management of Project Tiger and the
many Tiger Reserves in India. Providing statutory authority to Project Tiger so that compliance of its directives
become legal. Fostering accountability of Center-State in management of Tiger Reserves, by providing a
basis for MoU with States within our federal structure. Providing for oversight by Parliament.
Addressing livelihood interests of local people in areas surrounding Tiger Reserves.
Key Functions: to approve the tiger conservation plan prepared by the State Government under sub-section
(3) of section 38V of this Act evaluate and assess various aspects of sustainable ecology and disallow any ecologically
unsustainable land use such as mining, industry and other projects within the tiger reserves;
provide for management focus and measures for addressing conflicts of men and wild
animal and to emphasize on co-existence in forest areas outside the National Parks, sanctuaries or tiger reserve, in the working plan code
provide information on protection measures including future conservation plan, estimation of population of tiger and its natural prey species, the status of habitats, disease surveillance,
mortality survey, patrolling, reports on untoward happenings and such other management aspects as it may deem fit including future plan conservation
ensure critical support including scientific, information technology and legal support for better implementation of the tiger conservation plan
Facilitate ongoing capacity building programme for skill development of officers and staff of tiger reserves.
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10.2.4 Animal Welfare Board of India
It was established in 1962 under Section 4 of The Prevention of Cruelty to Animals Act, 1960 to advise Government on Animal Welfare Laws and promotes animal welfare in the country.
Recognition of Animal Welfare Organisations: The Board oversees Animal Welfare Organisations (AWOs) by granting recognition to them if they meet its guidelines. The organisation must submit paperwork; agree to nominate a representative of the Animal Welfare Board of India on its Executive Committee, and to submit to regular inspections. After meeting the requirements and inspection, the organisation is considered for grant of recognition.
The AWBI also appoints key people to the positions of (Hon) Animal Welfare Officers, who serve as the key point of contact between the people, the government and law enforcement
agencies. Financial assistance: The Board provides financial assistance to recognised Animal Welfare
Organisations (AWOs), who submit applications to the Board. Categories of grants include Regular Grant, Cattle Rescue Grant, Provision of Shelter House for looking after the Animals,
Animal Birth Control (ABC) Programme, Provision of Ambulance for the animals in distress and Natural Calamity grant.
Animal welfare laws and Rules: The Board suggests changes to laws and rules about animal welfare issues. In 2011, a new draft Animal Welfare Act was published for comment.
Guidance is also offered to organisations and officials such as the police to help them interpret and apply the laws.
Raising awareness: The Board issues publications to raise awareness of various animal welfare issues. The Board’s Education Team gives talks on animal welfare subjects, and trains
members of the community to be Board Certified Animal Welfare Educators.
10.2.5 Forest Survey of India
It is a government organization in India under the Union Ministry of Environment, Forest and
Climate Change for conducting forest surveys and studies. The organization came into being in, 1981.The objective of the organization is monitoring periodically the changing situation of land and forest resources and present the data for national planning; conservation and management of environmental preservation and implementation of social forestry projects. The Functions of the Forest Survey of India are:
To prepare State of Forest Report biennially, providing an assessment of the latest forest cover in the country and monitoring changes in these.
To conduct an inventory in forest and non-forest areas and develop a database on forest tree resources.
To prepare thematic maps on 1:50,000 scale, using aerial photographs. To function as a nodal agency for collection, compilation, storage and dissemination of
spatial database on forest resources.
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To conduct training of forestry personnel in the application of technologies related to resources survey, remote sensing, GIS, etc.
To strengthen research & development infrastructure in FSI and to conduct research on applied forest survey techniques.
To support State/UT Forest Departments (SFD) in forest resources survey, mapping and inventory.
To undertake forestry-related special studies/consultancies and custom made training courses for SFD’s and other organizations on a project basis.
Forest Survey of India assesses forest cover of the country every 2 years by digital interpretation of
remote sensing satellite data and publishes the results in a biennial report called ‘State of Forest Report'(SFR).
10.2.6 Central Zoo Authority of India
It was established in 1992 and constituted under the Wild Life (Protection) Act. The main objective of the authority is to complement the national effort in the conservation of wildlife. Standards and norms for housing, upkeep, health care and overall management of animals in zoos have been laid down under the Recognition of Zoo Rules, 1992.
Since its inception in 1992, the Authority has evaluated 513 zoos, out of which 167 have been recognized and 346 refused recognition.
The Authority’s role is more of a facilitator than a regulator. It, therefore, provides technical and financial assistance to such zoos which have the potential to attain the desired standard in animal management. Only such captive facilities which have neither the managerial skills nor the requisite resources are asked to close down.
Apart from the primary function of the grant of recognition and release of financial assistance,
the Central Zoo Authority also regulates the exchange of animals of the endangered category listed under Schedule-I and II of the Wildlife (Protection Act) among zoos.
Exchange of animals between Indian and foreign zoos is also approved by the Authority before the requisite clearances under EXIM Policy and the CITES permits are issued by the
competent authority. The Authority also coordinates and implements programmes on capacity building of
zoo personnel, planned conservation breeding programmes and ex-situ research including biotechnological intervention for the conservation of species for
complementing in-situ conservation efforts in the country.
10.2.7 Wildlife Trust of India
It was formed in November 1998 in response to the rapidly deteriorating condition of wildlife in India. WTI is a registered charity in India (under Section 12A of the Income Tax Act, 1961). It is a non-profit organisation. Its Headquarter is in NOIDA, Uttar Pradesh. Its Objective is to conserve wildlife and its habitat and to work for the welfare of individual wild animals.
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WTI currently focuses its resources on six priority landscapes – northeast India, western Himalayas, terai, southern Ghats system, central India and marine. Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) currently runs 44 projects across India. Its Depth Projects holistically
address multiple conservation hurdles specific to an area through a multi-pronged approach. Its Breadth Projects address specific conservation issues that may not be limited in time and space
in the country, such as the training of frontline forest staff and preventing wild animal deaths due to train hits.
10.2.8 Wildlife Institute of India
It is an autonomous institution under the Ministry of Environment Forest and Climate change,
Government of India. It was founded in 1982.The institute is based in Dehradun, India. Its Objective is to nurture the development of wildlife science and promote its application in conservation, in
consonants with our cultural and socio-economic milieu. WII carries out wildlife research in areas of study like Biodiversity, Endangered Species, Wildlife Policy, Wildlife Management, Wildlife Forensics, Spatial Modelling, Eco development, Habitat Ecology and Climate Change. WII has a research facility which includes Forensics, Remote Sensing and GIS, Laboratory, Herbarium, and an Electronic Library.
10.2.9 World Sustainable Development Summit
The Energy and Resources Institute’s (TERI) annual event, the Delhi Sustainable Development Summit
(DSDS), has evolved to the World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS). Date: 5 October 2016 –8 October 2016. To provide long-term solutions for the benefit of the global community by assembling the various stakeholders on a single platform (in the area of environment conservation). The WSDS brings together Nobel laureates, political leaders, decision-makers from bilateral and multilateral institutions, business leaders, high-level functionaries from the diplomatic corps, scientists and researchers, media personnel, and members of civil society; to deliberate on issues related to sustainable development.
India specific trivia: WSDS 2016 was held in New Delhi from October 5-8, 2016 under the broad rubric of ‘Beyond 2015:
People, Planet & Progress’, and it broadly focused on actions, on accelerated implementation of SDGs and NDCs.
The 4 days of discussions among different stakeholders clearly established that sustainability should not be a peripheral activity but should become a mainstream movement and that now is the
time to translate all the promises to action.
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10.2.10 Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
It’s established in 1980 to develop into an excellent resource centre with information — printed and visual — on sustainable development issues, which is possibly the best in India. It is a not-for-profit public interest research and advocacy organisation. It works as a think tank on environment-development issues in India, poor planning, climate shifts devastating India’s Sundarbans and advocates for policy changes and better implementation of the already existing policies. CSE uses knowledge-based activism to create awareness about problems and propose sustainable solutions.
10.2.11 Conserve
Established In 1998, when the Delhi government launched the Bhagidari campaign, asking its citizens to participate in civic initiatives, the conservationist, Anita Ahuja and her IIT-alumna
husband Shalabh rose to the challenge and launched Conserve. It is an NGO.
Its Objective is to counter the issue of plastic bags.(Recycling)Anita and Shalabh Ahuja founded Conserve India as an NGO to recycle the waste in their neighbourhood that wasn’t being managed
by local authorities. They quickly realized that plastic bags pose the biggest problem, not only because there are so many of them but also because they could not be recycled locally. After
much experimentation, the team at Conserve India realised that the solution lay in upcycling the bags into sheets of plastic that could be reinvented as fashion accessories. They named this material Handmade Recycled Plastic. Shalabh and Anita combined his expertise in engineering and her creative talents to get the most out of their solution to this huge problem. As well as cleaning Delhi’s streets, they have worked to provide hundreds of jobs for some of the poorest people living in their city. The income they generate by selling products made from Handmade Recycled Plastic, is then spent on social welfare projects. Today they continue to realise their vision. Conserve India bags are being sold around the world. The proceeds of this work are put to good use. Firstly, better wages for Conserve employees – a rag picker collecting bags for Conserve earns on
average three times more selling to us than they would earn elsewhere.
Secondly, training opportunities for all staff at Conserve India so that they can get more skilled jobs either within the organisation or elsewhere.
Thirdly, a school in the slum where many of the rag pickers we work with live. Finally, loans for Conserve workers to develop their own start-up businesses, and most recently a health clinic for the entire workforce.
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10.2.12 Environmentalist Foundation of India
It is started in 2007 and registered in 2011 .Its Headquarter is in Chennai, Hyderabad, Puducherry and Coimbatore. The Objective is Wildlife conservation and habitat restoration
The organisation is known for its work in cleaning and scientific restoration of lakes in India for biodiversity.
The organisation and its efforts grew from that one pond in Chennai to include over 39 lakes and 48 ponds in Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana, Pondicherry and Gujarat in the last 10 years (2007 to 2017)
EFI is also involved in the setting up of herbal biodiversity gardens at schools and special interest zones. The idea behind the herbal gardens are to increase people’s interest in green
cover and live healthy with native Indian herbs. EFI’s “Clean for Olive Green” is a beach clean-up project that is organised every year in the
months of December to May to keep Chennai’s beaches clean for the nesting Sea Turtle Mothers.
10.2.13 National Green Corps
It is a programme of the Ministry of Environment and Forests of Government of India. NGC Programme aims at building cadres of young children working towards environmental conservation and sustainable development. The functions of this programme are:
to impart knowledge to school children, through hands on experience, about their immediate environment, interactions within it and the problems therein
to inculcate proper attitudes towards the environment and its conservation through community interactions
to sensitize children to issues related to environment and development through field visits and demonstrations
To motivate and stimulate young minds by involving them in action projects related to environmental conservation.
10.2.14 Bombay Natural History Society
It was founded on 15 September 1883. It is an NGO. Objective of the body is
Environment Conservation and biodiversity research It supports many research efforts through grants and publishes the Journal of the Bombay
Natural History Society. BNHS is the partner of BirdLife International in India.
It has been designated as a ‘Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation’ by the Department of Science and Technology.
It sponsors studies in Indian wildlife and conservation, and publishes a four-monthly journal, Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society (JBNHS), as well as a quarterly magazine, Hornbill.
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10.2.15 The Energy and Resource Institute (TERI)
Established in 1974, it was formerly known as Tata Energy and Resource Institute. As the scope of its activities widened, it was renamed The Energy and Resources Institute in 2003 to work towards global sustainable development, creating innovative solutions for environment conservation. 1. The scope of the organisation’s activities includes climate change, energy efficiency, renewable
energy, biotechnology, and social transformation.
World Sustainable Development Summit (WSDS) – An annual summit which facilitates the exchange of knowledge on diverse aspects of global sustainable development.
LaBL (Lighting a Billion Lives) – An initiative to provide clean lighting access to bottom of the
pyramid communities.
Green Olympiad – Conducted in association with MoEF, it is an international environment examination that is annually organized for middle and high-school students.
2. TERI Press, TERI’s publishing arm releases a plethora of publications out of which some
noteworthy publications are : TerraGreen – Monthly magazine of TERI on issues of environment, biodiversity, livelihood
rights, wildlife, energy, and sustainable development.
TERI Energy Data Directory and Yearbook (TEDDY): Launched in 1986, it is a compilation of energy and environment data. It is a comprehensive reference document and a source of information on energy supply sectors (coal and lignite, oil and gas, power, and renewable energy sources) as well as energy-consuming sectors (agriculture, industry, transport,
residential, and commercial sectors). 3. GRIHA-Green Rating for Integrated Habitat Assessment (GRIHA) was conceived by TERI and
developed with Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, is a national rating system for green buildings in India.
10.2.16 Vindhyan Ecology and Natural History Foundation
It is a registered non-profit organisation, founded in 2012. To protect and conserve the nature, natural resources and rights of the nature dependent communities in the ecologically fragile
landscape of Vindhya Range in India. It tries to achieve its objective through Research, Advocacy, Education, Community mobilization, Litigation.
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Vindhya Bachao Abhiyan
It is the flagship program of VENHF which works towards environmental equity and bringing ecological justice through research-based environmental litigation, strengthening grass-
root environmental movements, supporting institution of local governance and protecting the rights of nature dependent indigenous communities.
*VENHF is partner of EKOenergy and Global Call for Climate Action
10.2.17 Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE)
Kamaljit S. Bawa is its founder & its mission is to generate rigorous interdisciplinary knowledge for achieving environmental conservation and sustainable development in a socially just manner, to
enable the use of this knowledge by policy makers and society, and to train the next generation of scholars and leaders.
It is a research institution in the areas of biodiversity conservation and sustainable development. It
focuses on applied science through research, education and action that influence policy and practice on conservation of nature, management of natural resources, and sustainable development.
It envisions a society committed to environmental conservation and sustainable and socially just
development, in which ATREE plays the role of a model knowledge-generating organization for catalysing the transition to such a society.
10.2.18 Save Aravalli Trust
Headquarter: Faridabad, Haryana
Major objectives are: 1. Afforestation and wildlife care
2. Water Conservation 3. Environmental Literacy
4. Waste Management It is working for the betterment of Aravalli– the oldest mountain range of India. The motive
is to make it green, home to wildlife and entity of prosperity for the humans.
10.2.19 Narmada Bachao Andolan
The people’s state the Narmada Bachao Andolan, every people practice hard for save to the Narmada River. This Movement is mobilised itself against the development in the mid and
late 1980’s.The people started the Narmada Bachao Andolan with the goal of saving and
protest the River Narmada.
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It is a social movement consisting of adivasis, farmers, environmentalists and human rights activists against the number of large dams being built across the Narmada River, which flows through the states of Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh and Maharashtra, all over India.
Sardar Sarovar Dam in Gujarat is one of the biggest dams on the river and was one of the
first focal points of the movement. It is one of the many dams under the Narmada Dam Project. The main aim of the project is to provide irrigation and electricity to people in these
states. Their mode of the campaign includes court actions, hunger strikes, rallies, and garnering
support from notable film and art personalities. Narmada Bachao Andolan, with its leading spokespersons Medha Patkar and Baba Amte, who have received the Right Livelihood
Award in 1991.
10.3 LIST OF NATIONAL PARKS IN INDIA These are defined according to the guidelines prescribed by IUCN (The International Union for
Conservation of Nature). There are mainly four types of protected areas which are-
(a) National Park (b) Wildlife Sanctuaries
(c) Conservation reserves (d) Community reserves
10.3.1 National Park
Classified as IUCN category II Any area notified by state govt to be constituted as a National Park There are 104 national parks in India. First national park in India- Jim Corbett National Park (previously known as Hailey National
Park) No human activity/ rights allowed except for the ones permitted by the Chief Wildlife Warden
of the state. It covered 1.23 Percent geographical area of India
10.3.2 Wildlife Sanctuaries
Classified as IUCN category II
Any area notified by state govt to be constituted as a wildlife sanctuary. Certain rights are available to the people. Example- grazing etc.
There are 543 wildlife sanctuaries in India. It covered 3.62 Percent geographical area of India
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10.3.3 Conservation reserves
These categories added in Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002. Buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and
protected forests of India. Uninhabited and completely owned by the Government. It covered 0.08 Percent geographical area of India
10.3.4 Community reserves
These categories added in Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002.
Buffer zones between established national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserved and protected forests of India.
Used for subsistence by communities and community areas because part of the land is privately owned.
It covered 0.002 Percent geographical area of India
10.3.5 Act related to wildlife
Wildlife Protection Act 1972 It is applicable to whole India except Jammu and Kashmir which have their own law for wildlife
protection.
10.3.6 Project related to wildlife
Project Tiger 1973 Operation Crocodile 1975 Project Rhinoceros 1987 Project Elephant 1988 Project Snow Leopard 2009
10.3.7 List of National Park Specific to Animals in India
Animal/Bird Predominant in
Sanctuary/Reserve
State
Wild Ass Rann of Kutch Wild Ass
Sanctuary
Gujarat
One horned Rhinoceros
Kaziranga National Park Assam
Elephants Periyar National Park Kerala Lions Gir National Park Gujarat
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The Great Indian Bustard
Ghatigaon Sanctuary Madhya Pradesh
The Royal Bengal Tiger
Sunderbans National Park West Bengal
Olive Ridley Turtle Gahirmatha Turtle Sanctuary Orissa Dolphins Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin
Sanctuary Bhagalpur, Bihar
Vulture Ramdevarabetta Vulture
Sanctuary
Karnataka
Bear Daroji Bear Sanctuary Hampi, Karnataka
Sangai Keibul Lamjao National Park Loktak Lake (Bishnupur), Manipur
Jerdon's Courser Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife
Sanctuary
Andhra Pradesh
Gharial National Chambal Sanctuary U.P., Rajasthan and M.P.
Grizzled Giant
Squirrel
Srivilliputhur Wildlife Sanctuary Virudhinagar & Madurai,
Tamil Nadu
Clouded Leopard Clouded Leopard National Park Tripura Hoolock Gibbon Hoollongapar Gibbon Sanctuary Assam
Hangul (Kashmir Stag)
Dachigam Sanctuary Jammu and Kashmir
10.3.8 LOCATION OF WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES/NATIONAL PARKS
Name of the Sanctuary/National Park
Location
Kaziranga National Park* Jorhat (Assam)
Manas Tiger Sanctuary* Barpeta (Assam)
Keoladeo National Park* Bharatpur (Rajasthan) Sundarbans Tiger Sanctuary* 24 Paraganas (West Bengal)
Bandhavgarh National Park Shahdol (Madhya Pradesh)
Kanha National Park Mandla ( Madhya Pradesh)
Dudwa National Park Lakhimpur, Kheri (Uttar Pradesh) Chandraprabha Sanctuary Varanasi (Uttar Pradesh)
Corbett National Park Nainital (Uttarakhand) Rajaji National Park Dehradun, Haridwar, Pauri Garhwal
(Uttarakhand) Dachigam National Park Srinagar (Jammu & Kashmir)
Ranthambore Tiger Sanctuary Sawai Madhopur (Rajasthan)
Ghatprabha Bird Sanctuary Belgaum (Karnataka)
Bandipur National Park Mysore (Karnataka)
Gir National Park Junagarh (Gujarat) Nal Sarovar Bird Sanctuary Ahmedabad (Gujarat)
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Hazaribagh National Park Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) Nelapattu Bird Sanctuary Nellore (Andhra Pradesh)
Mudumalai Sanctuary Nilgiris (Tamilnadu)
Periyar Sanctuary Idduki (Kerala)
Simlipal Tiger Sanctuary Mayurbhanj (Odisha) Gahirmatha Turtle Sanctuary Kendrapara (Odisha)
Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary
Bhagalpur (Bihar)
Silent Valley National Park Palakkad, (Kerala) Rani Jhansi Marine National
Park
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Campbell National Park Andaman & Nicobar Islands Galathea National Park Andaman & Nicobar Islands
Mahatma Gandhi Marine National Park
Andaman & Nicobar Islands
10.4 BIOSPHERE RESERVES
Indian Government has established 18 biosphere reserves. Eleven of the eighteen biosphere reserves are a part of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves, based on the UNESCO Man and
the Biosphere (MAB) Programme list.
10.4.1 Biosphere Reserves in India
Part of World Network of Biosphere Reserves
# Name of the Reserve Area Location
1. Gulf of Mannar 10,500 Indian part of Gulf of Mannar between India
(Tamil Nadu) and Sri Lanka - Coasts
2. Sunderbans 9,630 sq.km.
Part of delta of Ganges and Brahmaputra river system (West Bengal) - Gigantic Delta
3. Nanda Devi 5,860.69
sq.km.
Part of Chamoli, Pithoragarh & Almora
Districts (Uttarakhand) - West Himalayas
4. Nilgiri 5,520 sq.
km
Part of Wayanad, Nagarhole, Bandipur and Mudumalai, Nilambur, Silent Valley and
Siruvani Hills (Tamil Nadu, Kerala and
Karnataka) - Western Ghats
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# Name of the Reserve Area Location
5. Panchmarhi 4,926.28
sq.km.
Part of Betul, Hoshangabad and Chindwara
districts of Madhya Pradesh - Semi-Arid-
Gujarat Rajputana
6. Similipal 4,374
sq.km.
Part of Mayurbhanj district (Orissa) - Deccan
Peninsula
7. Nokrek 820 sq.km.
Part of Garo Hills (Meghalaya)- East Himalayas
8. Achanakmar-
Amarkantak
3835.1
sq.km.
Madhya Pradesh and Chhattisgarh (A large
part of the reserve is in Bilaspur district of
Chhattisgarh)
9. Nicobar Islands - Indian Ocean
10. Agasthyamalai
Biosphere Reserve
3500.36
sq.km. Kerala and Tamil Nadu
11. Khangchendzonga
Biosphere Reserve
2931.12
sq.km. Sikkim
Note: Kachch Biosphere Reserve (not in the UNESCO list) with an area of 12,454 sq. km is the largest biosphere in India
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11. MANUFACTURING INDUSTRIES Industries constitute a very large part of the country’s economy. Be it large-scale or small-scale, industries augment the growth of an economy by adding to the GDP, facilitating better employment and playing a larger part in a nation’s development. The process of making a finished product that is ready to sell in the market is called manufacturing, and this procedure can be physical, chemical, or mechanical. Every product that is available in the market for purchase is manufactured somewhere.
Product manufacturing requires machines and equipment and has plants, mills, or factories to produce goods in bulk for the mass and is mostly set up where all the resources are accessible. A
healthy and thriving economy can be determined through a healthy manufacturing industry.
Importance of manufacturing industries: They reduce the dependency of people on agriculture by generating jobs and by contributing
to the modernization of agriculture. Industrial development helps in the reduction of unemployment and poverty. Many public
sector industries and joint ventures are established and aimed to bring down regional inequalities by starting industries in tribal and backward areas.
Manufactured goods expand trade and commerce, and its export increases the foreign exchange.
Transforming raw materials to high valued goods brings prosperity and helps in economic growth.
11.1 Classification of Industries Manufacturing Industries also elaborates the classification of industries on the basis of production. Here are the major categories:
11.1.1 Agro-Based
Textile industry contributes significantly to industrial production, employment generation, and foreign exchange earnings. It produces valued products from raw materials.
Cotton Textile: Traditionally, cotton textiles were produced with hand spinning and hand weaving techniques, but since the use of power looms, the traditional looms faced a
setback. Jute Textile: India is the largest producer of raw jute and stands as the second place as an
exporter. Most of the mills are located in West Bengal because of factors like inexpensive water transport, a good network of roadways, and waterways for the movement of raw
materials. Sugar Industry: India is the second-highest producer of sugar and the highest producer of gur
and Khansari. Most mills are located in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, and Maharashtra. Karnataka,
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Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh because the production of cane in these places has a higher sucrose content.
11.1.2 Mineral-Based
The Iron and Steel industry is one of the basic industries and falls under the category of heavy, medium, and light. Steel is needed to produce various engineering goods.
Aluminium Smelting is one of the second most important metallurgical industries in India. It is a popular substitute for steel, copper, zinc and is used in the production of aircraft, utensils, and wire. It is light, corrosion-resistant, and a good conductor of heat. These industries are mostly found in Odisha, West Bengal, Kerala, and Uttar Pradesh.
Chemical Industries comprises both large- and small-scale manufacturing units, the chemical
industry is fast-growing and diversifying. The Fertilizer Industry is centred around the production of nitrogenous fertilizers, phosphatic
fertilizer and ammonium phosphate and complex fertilizers Automobile Industry is mostly located in Delhi, Gurgaon, Mumbai, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata,
Lucknow, Indore, and Bangalore. They provide vehicles for quick transport of passengers and goods.
Information Technology and Electronic Industry comprise a wide range of products from telephone, transistor to television. Computers and many more are mostly located in Mumbai, Delhi, Hyderabad, Pune, Chennai, Kolkata, and Lucknow.
11.1.3 On the Basis of their Main Roles:
Industries who supply raw materials as products for manufacturing are known as the basic or key industries. Consumer industries that produce products that can be directly consumed.
11.1.4 On the Basis of Capital Investment:
Small scale industries are defined with reference to the maximum investment permitted on the assets of a unit.
11.1.5 On the Basis of Ownership:
It is operated by government agencies like BHEL, SAIL, etc.
Public sector industries are owned or operated by a group of individuals like TISCO, Dabur industries, etc.,
Joint sector industries are run by groups of individuals and the state like OIL India Ltd. Cooperative sector industries are owned and operated by producers or suppliers of raw
materials and workers. They share the profit and share and also pool in the resources.
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11.1.6 Based on the majority and heaviness of raw materials and complete goods:
Heavy industries like iron and steel Light industries like electrical good industries
11.2 Location of Industries Location of industries is influenced by several factors like access to raw materials, power, market,
capital, transport and labour, etc. Relative significance of these factors varies with time and place. There is a strong relationship between raw material and type of industry . It is economical to locate
the manufacturing industries at a place where cost of production and delivery cost of manufactured goods to consumers are the least. Transport costs, to a great extent, depend on the nature of raw
materials and manufactured products. A brief description of factors influencing the location of industries are given below:
Raw Materials: Industries using weight-losing raw materials are located in the regions where
raw materials are located. Similarly, the locations of the pulp industry, copper smelting and pig iron industries are located near their raw materials. In iron and steel industries, iron ore
and coal both are weight-losing raw materials. Therefore, an optimum location for iron and steel industries should be near raw material sources. This is why most of the iron and steel
industries are located either near coalfields (Bokaro, Durgapur, etc.) or near sources of iron ore (Bhadravati, Bhilai, and Rourkela). Similarly, industries based on perishable raw materials
are also located close to raw material sources.
Power: Power provides the motive force for machines, and therefore, its supply has to be ensured before the location of any industry. However, certain industries, like aluminium and
synthetic nitrogen manufacturing industries tend to be located near sources of power because they are power intensive and require huge quantities of electricity.
Market: Markets provide the outlets for manufactured products. Heavy machine, machine
tools, heavy chemicals are located near the high demand areas as these are market orientated. Cotton textile industry uses a non-weight-losing raw material and is generally located in large urban centres, e.g. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Surat, etc. Petroleum refineries
are also located near the markets as the transport of crude oil is easier and several products derived from them are used as raw material in other industries. Koyali, Mathura and Barauni refineries are typical examples. Ports also play a crucial role in the location of oil refineries.
Transport: Have you ever tried to find out the reasons for the concentration of industries in Mumbai, Chennai, and Delhi and in and around Kolkata? It was due to the fact that they
initially became the nodal point having transport links. The industries shifted to interior
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locations, only when railway lines were laid. All major industrial plants are located on the trunk rail routes.
Labour: Industries require skilled labour. In India, labour is quite mobile and is available in
large numbers due to our large population.
Historical Factors: During the initial phase of colonization, manufacturing activities received new impetus provided by the European traders. Places like Murshidabad, Dhaka, Bhadohi,
Surat, Vadodara, Kozhikode, Coimbatore, Mysore, etc. emerged as important manufacturing centres. In the subsequent industrial phase of colonialism, these manufacturing centres
experienced rapid growths due to competition from the goods manufactured in Britain and the discriminatory policies of colonial power. In the last phase of colonialism, the British
promoted few industries in selected areas. This led to larger spatial coverage by different types of industries in the country.
Industrial Policy: India, being a democratic country aims at bringing about economic growth
with balanced regional development. Establishment of iron and steel industry in Bhilai and Rourkela were based on the decision to develop backward tribal areas of the country. At
present, the government of India provides lots of incentives to industries located in backward areas.
11.3 Major Industries
The iron and steel industry are basic to the industrial development of any country. The
cotton textile Industry is one of our traditional industries. The sugar Industry is based on local raw materials which prospered even in the British period.
11.3.1 The Iron and Steel Industry
The development of the iron and steel industry opened the doors to rapid industrial
development in India. Almost all sectors of the Indian industry depend heavily on the iron and steel industry for their basic infrastructure.
The other raw materials besides iron ore and coking coal, essential for the iron and steel industry are limestone, dolomite, manganese and fire clay. All these raw materials are gross
(weight losing), therefore, the best location for the iron and steel plants is near the source of raw materials.
In India, there is a crescent shaped region comprising parts of Chhattisgarh, Northern Orissa, Jharkhand and western West Bengal, which is extremely rich in high grade iron ore, good
quality coking coal and other supplementing raw materials. The Indian iron and steel industry consist of large integrated steel plants as well as mini steel
mills. It also includes secondary producers, rolling mills and ancillary industries.
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Integrated Steel Plants
TISCO:
The Tata Iron and Steel plant lies very close to the Mumbai-Kolkata railway line and about 240 km away from Kolkata, which is the nearest port for the export of steel. The rivers
Subarnarekha and Kharkai provide water to the plant. The iron ore for the plant is obtained from Noamundi and Badam Pahar and coal is brought from Joda mines in Orissa. Coking coal
comes from Jharia and west Bokaro coalfields.
IISCO:
The Indian Iron and Steel Company (IISCO) set up its first factory at Hirapur and later on another at Kulti. In 1937, the Steel Corporation of Bengal was constituted in association with IISCO and set up another iron and steel producing unit at Burnpur (West Bengal). All the three plants under IISCO are located very close to Damodar valley coalfields (Raniganj, Jharia, and Ramgarh). Iron ore comes from Singhbhum in Jharkhand. Water is obtained from the Barakar
River, a tributary of the Damodar. All the plants are located along the Kolkata-Asansol railway line. Unfortunately, steel production from IISCO fell considerably in 1972-73 and the
plants were taken over by the government.
Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works Ltd. (VISL):
The third integrated steel plant, the Visvesvaraya Iron and Steel Works, initially called the Mysore Iron and Steel Works, is located close to an iron ore producing area of Kemmangundi
in the Baba Budan hills. Limestone and manganese are also locally available. But this region has no coal. At the beginning, charcoal obtained by burning wood from nearby forests was
used as fuel till 1951. Afterwards, electric furnaces were installed which use hydroelectricity from the Jog Falls hydel power project. The Bhadravati River supplies water to the plant. This plant produces specialized steels and alloys. After independence, during the Second Five Year Plan (1956-61), three new integrated steel plants were set up with foreign collaboration: Rourkela in Odisha, Bhilai in Chhattisgarh and Durgapur in West Bengal. These were public sector plants under Hindustan Steel Limited (HSL). In 1973, the Steel Authority of India Limited (SAIL) was created to manage these plants.
Rourkela Steel Plant:
The Rourkela Steel plant was set up in 1959 in the Sundargarh district of Orissa in collaboration with Germany. The plant was located on the basis of proximity to raw materials, thus, minimizing the cost of transporting weight losing raw material. This plant has
a unique locational advantage, as it receives coal from Jharia (Jharkhand) and iron ore from Sundargarh and Kendujhar. The Hirakud project supplies power for the electric furnaces and
water is obtained from the Koel and Sankh rivers.
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Bhi la i Steel Plant: The Bhilai Steel Plant was established with Russian collaboration in Durg District of Chhattisgarh and started production in 1959. The iron ore comes from Dalli-Rajhara mine,
coal comes from Korba and Kargali coal fields. The water comes from the Tanduladam and the power from the Korba Thermal Power Station. This plant also lies on the Kolkata-
Mumbai railway route. The bulk of the steel produced goes to the Hindustan Shipyard at Visakhapatnam.
Durgapur Steel Plant: Durgapur Steel Plant, in West Bengal, was set up in collaboration with the government of the United Kingdom and started production in 1962. This plant lies in Raniganj and Jharia coal
belt and gets iron ore from Noamundi. Durgapur lies on the main Kolkata-Delhi railway route. Hydel power and water are obtained from the Damodar Valley Corporation (DVC).
Bokaro Steel Plant: This steel plant was set up in 1964 at Bokaro with Russian collaboration. This plant was set up on the principle of transportation cost minimization by creating Bokaro-Rourkela combine. It receives iron ore from the Rourkela region and the wagons in return take coal
to Rourkela. Other raw materials come to Bokaro from within a radius of about 350 km. Water and Hydel power is supplied by the Damodar Valley Corporation.
Other Steel Plants: New steel plants which were set up in the Fourth Plan period are away from the main raw material sources. All the three plants are located in South India. The Vizag Steel Plant, in Visakhapatnam in Andhra Pradesh is the first port based plant which started operating in 1992. Its port location is of advantage. The Vijayanagar Steel Plant at Hospet in Karnataka was developed using indigenous technology. This uses local iron ore and limestone. The
Salem Steel Plant in Tamil Nadu was commissioned in 1982.
Apart from these major steel plants, there are more than 206 units located in different parts of the country. Most of these use scrap iron as their main raw material, and process it in electric furnaces.
11.3.2 The Cotton Textile Industry
The cotton textile industry is one of the traditional industries of India. In the ancient and the medieval times, it used to be only a cottage industry. India was famous worldwide for the production of muslin, a very fine variety of cotton cloth, calicos, chintz and other different varieties of fine cotton cloth. The development of this industry in India was due to several
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factors. One, it is a tropical country and cotton is the most comfortable fabric for a hot and humid climate.
Second, a large quantity of cotton was grown in India. Abundant skilled labour required for this industry was available in this country. In fact, in some areas the people were producing
cotton textiles for generations and transferred the skill from one generation to the other and in the process perfected their skills.
Initially, the British did not encourage the development of the indigenous cotton textile industry. They exported raw cotton to their mills in Manchester and Liverpool and brought
back the finished products to be sold in India. This cloth was cheaper because it was produced at mass scale in factories in U.K. as compared to the cottage based industries of India.
In 1854, the first modern cotton mill was established in Mumbai. This city had several advantages as a cotton textile manufacturing centre. It was very close to the cotton
producing areas of Gujarat and Maharashtra. Raw cotton used to be brought to Mumbai port to be transported to England. Therefore, cotton was available in Mumbai city itself. Moreover,
Mumbai even then was the financial centre and the capital needed to start an industry was available there. As a large town, providing employment opportunities attracted labour in
large numbers. Hence, cheap and abundant labour too was available locally. The machinery required for a cotton textile mill could be directly imported from England.
Subsequently, two more mills, the Shahpur Mill and the Calico Mill were established in Ahmedabad. By 1947, the number of mills in India went up to 423 but the scenario changed
after partition, and this industry suffered a major recession. This was due to the fact that the
most of the good quality cotton growing areas had gone to West Pakistan and India was left with 409 mills and only 29 per cent of the cotton producing area.
After Independence, this industry gradually recovered and eventually flourished. In 1998, India had 1782 mills; of which, 192 mills were in the public sector and 151 mills in the
cooperative sector. The largest number, that is, 1,439 mills were in the private sector. The cotton textile industry in India can be broadly divided into two sectors, the organized sector
and the decentralized sector. The decentralized sector includes cloth produced in handlooms (including Khadi) and power looms. The production of the organized sector has
drastically fallen from 81 per cent in the mid-twentieth century to only about 6 per cent in 2000. At present, the power looms on the decentralized sector produce more than 59 percent
and the handloom sector produces about 19 per cent of all cotton cloth produced in the country.
Cotton is a “pure” raw material which does not lose weight in the manufacturing process. So other factors, like, power to drive the looms, labour, capital or market may determine the
location of the industry. At present the trend is to locate the industry at or close to markets, as it is the market that decides what kind of cloth is to be produced. Also, the market for the finished products is extremely variable, therefore, it becomes important to locate the mills close to the market. After the first mills were set up in Mumbai and Ahmedabad in the second half of the nineteenth century, the cotton textile industry expanded very rapidly. The number
of units increased dramatically. The Swadeshi movement gave a major impetus to the industry as there was a call for boycotting all British made goods in favour of Indian goods.
After 1921, with the development of the railway network other cotton textile centres expanded rapidly. In southern India, mills were set up at Coimbatore, Madurai and Bangalore.
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In central India, Nagpur, Indore, Solapur and Vadodara became cotton textile centres. Cotton textile mills were set up at Kanpur based on local investment. Mills were also set up at Kolkata due to its port facilities.
The development of hydro-electricity also favoured the location of the cotton textile mills
away from the cotton producing areas. The rapid development of this industry in Tamil Nadu is the result of the abundant availability of hydel power for the mills. Lower labour costs at
centres like Ujjain, Bharuch, Agra, Hathras, Coimbatore and Tirunelveli also caused industries to be located away from cotton producing areas.
Thus, the cotton textile industry is located in almost every state in India, where one or more of the locational factors have been favourable. The importance of raw materials has given
way to market or to a cheaper local labour force or it may be the availability of power. Presently, the major centres of the cotton textile industry are Ahmedabad, Bhiwandi, Solapur,
Kolhapur, Nagpur, Indore and Ujjain. All these centres are the traditional centres and are located close to the cotton producing regions. Maharashtra, Gujarat and Tamil Nadu are the
leading cotton producing states. West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh, Karnataka, and Punjab are the other important cotton textile producers.
Tamil Nadu has the largest number of mills and most of them produce yarn rather than cloth. Coimbatore has emerged as the most important centre with nearly half the mills
located there. Chennai, Madurai, Tirunelveli, Tuticorin, Thanjavur, Ramanathapuram and Salem are the other important centres.
In Karnataka, the cotton textile industry has developed in the cotton producing areas in the
north-eastern part of the state. Davangere, Hubli, Bellary, Mysore and Bangalore are important centres. In Andhra Pradesh, the cotton textile industry is located in the cotton
producing Telangana region, where most of the mills are spinning mills producing yarn. The important centres are Hyderabad, Secunderabad, Warangal and Guntur.
In Uttar Pradesh, Kanpur is the largest centre. Some of the other important centres are Modinagar, Hathras, Saharanpur, Agra and Lucknow. In West Bengal, the cotton mills are
located in the Hugli region. Howrah, Serampore, Kolkata and Shyamnagar are the important centres.
11.3.3 Sugar Industry
The sugar industry is the second most important agro-based industry in the country.
India is the largest producer of both sugarcane and cane sugar and contributes about 8 percent of the total sugar production in the world. Besides, khandsari and gur or jaggery
are also prepared from sugarcane. This industry provides employment for more than 4 lakh persons directly and a large number
of farmers indirectly. Sugar industry is a seasonal industry because of the seasonality of raw materials.
Development of the industry on modern lines dates back to 1903, when a sugar mill was started in Bihar. Subsequently, sugar mills were started in other parts of Bihar and Uttar
Pradesh. In 1950-51, 139 factories were in operation producing 11.34 lakh tonnes of sugar. The number of sugar factories rose to 506 and production to 176, 99 lakh tones in 2000-01.
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11.3.3.1 Location of the Sugar Industry Sugarcane is a weight-losing crop. The ratio of sugar to sugarcane varies between 9 to 12
per cent depending on its variety. Its sucrose content begins to dry during haulage after it has been harvested from the field. Better recovery of sugar is dependent upon its being
crushed within 24 hours of its harvesting. Sugar factories hence, are located within the cane producing regions.
Maharashtra has emerged as a leading sugar producer in the country and produces more than one-third of the total production of the sugar in the country. There are 119 sugar mills
in the state in a narrow belt extending from Manmad in the north to Kolhapur in the south. There are 87 mills in the cooperative sector.
Uttar Pradesh is the second largest producer of sugar. The sugar factories are concentrated in two belts – the Ganga-Yamuna doab and the tarai region. The major sugar producing
centres in the Ganga -Yamuna doab is Saharanpur, Muzarffarnagar, Meerut, Ghaziabad, Baghpat and Bulandshah districts; while Kheri Lakhimpur, Basti, Gonda, Gorakhpur, Bahraich are important sugar producing districts in the Tarai region. In Tamil Nadu, sugar factories are located in Coimbatore, Vellore, Tiruvannamalai, Villupuram and Tiruchchirappalli districts. Belgaum, Bellary, Mandya, Shimoga, Bijapur, and Chitradurg districts are the major producers
in Karnataka. The industry is distributed in the coastal regions i.e. East Godavari, West Godavari, Visakhapatnam districts and Nizamabad, and Medak districts of Telangana along
with Chittoor district of Rayalaseema. The other States which produce sugar are Bihar, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh and
Gujarat. Saran, Champaran, Muzaffarnagar, Siwan, Darbhanga, and Gaya are the important sugarcane producing districts in Bihar.
The relative significance of Punjab has declined, although Gurdaspur, Jalandhar, Sangarur, Patiala and Amritsar are major sugar producers.
In Haryana, sugar factories are located in Yamuna Nagar, Rohtak, and Hissar and Faridabad districts.
Sugar industry is comparatively new in Gujarat. Sugar mills are located in the cane growing tracts of Surat, Junagarh, Rajkot, Amreli, Valsad and Bhavnagar districts.
11.3.4 Petrochemical Industries
This group of industries has been growing very fast in India. A variety of products come under
this category of industries. In the 1960s, demand for organic chemicals increased so fast that it became difficult to meet this demand. At that time, the petroleum refining industry
expanded rapidly.
Many items are derived from crude petroleum, which provide raw materials for many new industries, these are collectively known as petrochemical industries.
This group of industries is divided into four sub-groups: 1. polymers,
2. synthetic fibre, 3. elastomers, and
4. Surfactant intermediate.
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Mumbai is the hub of the petrochemical industries. Cracker units are also located in Auraiya (Uttar Pradesh), Jamnagar, Gandhinagar and Hajira (Gujarat), Nagothane, Ratnagiri (Maharashtra), Haldia (West Bengal) and Visakhapatnam (Andhra Pradesh).
Three organisations are working in the petrochemical sector under the administrative
control of the Department of Chemicals and Petrochemicals. First is the Indian Petrochemical Corporation Limited (IPCL), a public sector
undertaking. It is responsible for the manufacture and distribution of the various petrochemicals like polymers, chemicals, fibres and fibre intermediates.
Second is the Petrofils Cooperative Limited (PCL), a joint venture of the Government of India and Weaver’s Cooperative Societies. It produces polyester filament yarn and
nylon chips at its two plants located at Vadodara and Naldhari in Gujarat. Third is the Central Institute of Plastic Engineering and Technology (CIPET), involved
in imparting training in the petro-chemical industry. Polymers are made from ethylene and propylene. These materials are obtained in the
process of refining crude oil. Polymers are used as raw materials in the plastic industry. Among polymers, polyethylene is a widely used thermoplastic.
Plastic is first converted into sheets, powder, resin and pellets, and then used in manufacturing plastic products. Plastic products are preferred because of their strength,
flexibility, water and chemical resistance and low prices. Production of plastic polymers started in India in the late fifties and the early sixties using other organic chemicals.
The National Organic Chemicals Industries Limited (NOCIL), established in the private sector
in 1961, started the first naphtha based chemical industry in Mumbai. Later, several other companies were formed. The plants located at Mumbai, Barauni, Mettur, Pimpri and Rishra
are the major producers of plastic materials. About 75 percent of these units are in the small scale sector.
The industry also uses recycled plastics, which constitutes about 30 per cent of the total production. Synthetic fibres are widely used in the manufacturing of fabrics because of their
inherent strength, durability, washability, and resistance to shrinkage. Industries manufacturing nylon and polyester yarns are located at Kota, Pimpri, Mumbai, Modinagar,
Pune, Ujjain, Nagpur and Udhna. Acrylic staple fibre is manufactured at Kota and Vadodara. Though plastics have become inseparable items in our daily use and they have affected our
lifestyle. But due to its non-biodegradable quality it has emerged as the greatest threat to our environment. Hence, use of plastic is being discouraged in different states of India.
11.3.5 Knowledge based Industries
The advancement in information technology has had a profound influence on the country’s
economy. The Information Technology (IT) revolution opened up new possibilities of economic and social transformation. The IT and IT enabled business process outsourcing
(ITESBPO) services continue to be on a robust growth path.
Indian software industry has emerged as one of the fastest growing sectors in the economy. Exports of the Indian software and services sector were Rs. 78,230 crores in 2004-05 which is approximately 30-32 per cent increase from the previous year.
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The software industry has surpassed electronic hardware production. The Indian government has created a number of software parks in the country.
The IT software and services industry account for almost 2 percent of India’s GDP. India’s software industry has achieved a remarkable distinction for providing quality products.
A large number of Indian software companies have acquired international quality certification. A majority of the multinational companies operating in the area of information technology have either software development centres or research development centres in India.
However, in the hardware development sector, India is yet to make any remarkable achievements. A major impact of this growth has been on employment creation, which is almost doubled every year.
11.4 Liberalization, Privatization, Globalization (LPG) and Industrial Development in India
The new Industrial Policy was announced in 1991. The major objectives of this policy were
to build on the gains already made, correct the distortions or weaknesses that have crept in, maintain a sustained growth in productivity and gainful employment and attain
international competitiveness. Within this policy, measures initiated are:
1. abolition of industrial licensing, 2. free entry to foreign technology,
3. foreign investment policy, 4. access to capital market,
5. open trade, 6. abolition of phased manufacturing programme, and
7. Liberalized industrial location programme. The policy has three main dimensions: liberalization, privatization and globalization.
The industrial licensing system has been abolished for all except six industries related to security, strategic or environmental concerns. At the same time, the number of industries
reserved for the public sector since 1956 have been reduced from 17 to 4. Industries related to atomic energy; substances specified in the Schedule of the Department of Atomic Energy
as well as Railways have remained under the public sector. The government also has decided to offer a part of the shareholdings in the public enterprises
to financial institutions, general public and workers. The threshold limits of assets have been scrapped and no industry requires prior approval for investing in the delicensed sector. They only need to submit a memorandum in the prescribed format.
In the new industrial policy, Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) has been seen as a supplement to the domestic investment for achieving a higher level of economic development . FDI
benefits the domestic industry as well as the consumers by providing technological upgradation, access to global managerial skills and practices, optimum use of natural and
human resources, etc. Keeping all this in mind, foreign investment has been liberalized and the government has permitted access to an automatic route for Foreign Direct Investment.
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The government has also announced changes in the industrial location policies. Industries are discouraged in or very close to large cities due to environmental reasons.
The industrial policy has been liberalized to attract private investors both domestic and multinationals. New sectors like, mining, telecommunications, highway construction and
management have been thrown open to private companies. In spite of all these concessions, Foreign Direct Investment has not been up to the expectation. There has been a big gap
between approved and actual foreign direct investment, even though the numbers of foreign collaborations are increasing. Larger parts of this investment have gone to domestic
appliances, finance, services, electronics and electrical equipment, and food and dairy products.
Globalization means integrating the economy of the country with the world economy. Under this process, goods and services along with capital, labour and resources can move
freely from one nation to another. The thrust of globalization has been to increase domestic and external competition through extensive application of market mechanisms and
facilitating dynamic relationships with the foreign investors and suppliers of technology. In Indian context, this implies:
opening of the economy to foreign direct investment by providing facilities to foreign companies to invest in different fields of economies activity in India;
removing restrictions and obstacles to the entry of multinational companies in India;
allowing Indian companies to enter into foreign collaboration in India and also
encouraging them to set up joint ventures abroad; carrying out massive import liberalization programmes by switching over from
quantitative restrictions to tariffs in the first place, and then bringing down the level of import duties considerably; and
Instead of a set of export incentives, opting for exchange rate adjustments for promoting export.
A breakup of foreign collaboration approval reveals that the major share went to core, priority sectors while the infrastructural sector was untouched.
Further, the gap between developed and developing states has become wider. Major share of both domestic investment as well as foreign direct investment went to already
developed states. For example, out of the total proposed investment by the industrial entrepreneurs during 1991-2000 nearly one fourth (23 per cent) was for industrially
developed Maharashtra, 17 per cent for Gujarat, 7 per cent for Andhra Pradesh, and about 6 per cent for Tamil Nadu while Uttar Pradesh, the state with the largest population has only 8
per cent. In spite of several concessions, seven north-eastern states could get less than 1 per cent of
the proposed investment. In fact, economically weaker states could not compete with the developed states in the open market in attracting industrial investment proposals and hence
they are likely to suffer from these processes.
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11.5 Industrial Regions in India
Industries are not evenly distributed in the country . They tend to concentrate on certain locations because of the favourable locational factors.
Several indices are used to identify the clustering of industries, important among them are:
the number of industrial units, number of industrial workers,
quantum of power used for industrial purposes, total industrial output, and
Value added by manufacturing, etc.
11.5.1 Major industrial regions of the country
Mumbai-Pune Industrial Region It extends from Mumbai-Thane to Pune and in adjoining districts of Nashik and Solapur.
Besides, industrial development has been rapid in Kolaba, Ahmednagar, Satara, Sangli and Jalgaon districts.
Development of this region started with the location of the cotton textile industry in Mumbai. Mumbai, with a cotton hinterland and moist climate favoured the location of the cotton textile industry.
Opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 provided impetus to the growth of Mumbai port. Machineries were imported through this port.
Hydro-electricity was developed in the Western Ghat region to meet the requirements of this
industry.
With the development of the cotton textile industry, the chemical industry also developed. Opening of the Mumbai High petroleum field and erection of nuclear energy plants added
additional pull to this region.
Besides, engineering goods, petroleum refining, petrochemicals, leather, synthetic and plastic
goods, drugs, fertilizers, electrical, shipbuilding, electronics, software, transport equipment and food industries also developed.
Important industrial centres are Mumbai, Kolaba, Kalyan, Thane, Trombay, Pune, Pimpri, Nashik, Manmad, Solapur, Kolhapur, Ahmednagar, Satara and Sangli.
Hugli Industrial Region Located along the Hugli River, this region extends from Bansberia in the north to Birlanagar
in the south for a distance of about 100 km. Industries also have developed in Medinipur in the west. Kolkata-Haora from the nucleus of this industrial region .
Historical, geographical, economic and political factors have contributed much to its development. It developed with the opening of the river port on Hugli. Kolkata emerged as a leading centre of the country. Later, Kolkata was connected with interior parts by railway lines and road routes.
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Development of tea plantations in Assam and northern hills of West Bengal, the processing of indigo earlier and, jute later coupled with the opening of coalfields of the Damodar Valley and iron ore deposits of the Chotanagpur plateau , contributed to the industrial development of the region.
Cheap labour available from the thickly populated part of Bihar, eastern Uttar Pradesh and Odisha also contributed to its development. Kolkata, being the capital city of British India (1773-1911), attracted the British capital.
The establishment of the first jute mill at Rishra in 1855 ushered in the era of modern industrial clustering in this region. The major concentration of jute industry is at Haora and Bhatapara.
The partition of the country in 1947 adversely affected this industrial region . Cotton textile industry also grew along with the jute industry, paper, engineering, textile machinery, electrical, chemical, pharmaceuticals, fertiliser and petrochemical industries have also developed within this region.
The Hindustan Motors Limited factory at Konnagar and diesel engine factory at Chittaranjan
are landmarks of this region. Location of petroleum refineries at Haldia has facilitated the development of a variety of industries.
Important industrial centres of this region are Kolkata, Haora, Haldia, Serampore, Rishra, Shibpur, Naihati, Kakinara, Shamnagar, Titagarh, Sodepur, Budge Budge, Birlanagar,
Bansberia, Belgurriah, Triveni, Hugli, Belur, etc. However, industrial growth of this region has slowed down in comparison to other regions. Decline of the jute industry is one of the
reasons.
Bangalore-Chennai Industrial Region This region witnessed the most rapid industrial growth in the post-Independence period.
Till 1960, industries were confined to Bangalore, Salem and Madurai districts but now they have spread over all the districts of Tamil Nadu except Viluppuram.
Since this region is away from the coalfields, its development is dependent on the Pykara hydroelectric plant, which was built in 1932.
Cotton textile industry was the first to take roots due to the presence of cotton growing areas. Along with cotton mills, the loom industry spread very rapidly.
Several heavy engineering industries converged at Bangalore. Aircraft (HAL), machine tools,
telephone (HTL) and Bharat Electronics are industrial landmarks of this region. Important industries are textiles, rail wagons, diesel engines, radio, light engineering goods, rubber
goods, medicines, aluminium, sugar, cement, glass, paper, chemicals, film, cigarette, match box, leather goods, etc. Petroleum refinery at Chennai, iron and steel plant at Salem and
fertiliser plants are recent developments.
Gujarat Industrial Region The nucleus of this region lies between Ahmedabad and Vadodara but this region extends
up to Valsad and Surat in the south and to Jamnagar in the west. Development of this region is also associated with the location of the cotton textile industry since the 1860s.
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This region became an important textile region with the decline of the cotton textile industry at Mumbai. Located in a cotton growing area, this region has the double advantage of the proximity of raw materials as well as of the market.
The discovery of oil fields led to the establishment of petrochemical industries around Ankleshwar, Vadodara and Jamnagar.
The port at Kandla helped in the rapid growth of this region. Petroleum refinery at Koyali provided raw materials to a host of petrochemical industries.
The industrial structure is now diversified. Besides, textiles (cotton, silk and synthetic fabrics) and petrochemical industries, other industries are heavy and bas ic chemicals, motor, tractor, diesel engines, textile machinery, engineering, pharmaceuticals, dyes, pesticides, sugar, dairy products and food processing. Recently, the largest petroleum refinery has been set up at Jamnagar.
Important industrial centres of this region are Ahmedabad, Vadodara, Bharuch, Koyali, Anand, Khera, Surendranagar, Rajkot, Surat, Valsad and Jamnagar.
Chotanagpur Region This region extends over Jharkhand, northern Odisha and western West Bengal and is known
for the heavy metallurgical industries.
This region owes its development to the discovery of coal in the Damodar Valley and metallic and non-metallic minerals in Jharkhand and northern Odisha. Proximity to coal, iron ore and other minerals facilitated the location of heavy industries in this region.
Six large integrated iron and steel plants at Jamshedpur, Burnpur, Kulti, Durgapur, Bokaro and Rourkela are located within this region.
To meet the power requirement, thermal and hydroelectric plants have been constructed in the Damodar Valley.
Densely populated surrounding regions provide cheap labour and Hugli region provides a vast market for its industries.
Heavy engineering, machine tools, fertilizers, cement, paper, locomotives and heavy
electricals are some of the important industries in this region. Important centres are Ranchi, Dhanbad, Chaibasa, Sindri, Hazaribagh, Jamshedpur, Bokaro, Rourkela, Durgapur, Asansol
and Dalmianagar.
Vishakhapatnam-Guntur Region This industrial region extends from Visakhapatnam district to Kurnool and Prakasam districts
in the south. Industrial development of this region hinges upon Visakhapatnam and Machilipatnam ports and developed agriculture and rich reserves of minerals in their
hinterlands. Coalfields of the Godavari basin provide energy.
Shipbuilding industry was started at Visakhapatnam in 1941.
Petroleum refineries based on imported petroleum facilitated the growth of several petrochemical industries.
Sugar, textile, jute, paper, fertiliser, cement, aluminium and light engineering are principal industries of this region.
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One lead-zinc smelter is functioning in Guntur district.
Iron and steel plant at Visakhapatnam use the Bailadila iron ore.
Visakhapatnam, Vijayawada, Vijayanagar, Rajahmundry, Guntur, Eluru and Kurnool are important industrial centres.
Gurgaon-Delhi-Meerut Region Industries located in this region have shown very fast growth in the recent past. This region is
located far away from the mineral and power resources, and therefore, the industries are
light and market-oriented.
Electronics, light engineering and electrical goods are major industries of this region. Besides, there are cotton, woollen and synthetic fabrics, hosiery, sugar, cement, machine tools, tractor, cycle, agricultural implements, chemical and vanaspati industries which have developed on a large scale. Software industry is a recent addition.
To the south lies the Agra-Mathura industrial area which specialises in glass and leather goods. Mathura with an oil refinery is a petrochemical complex.
Among industrial centres, mention be made of Gurgaon, Delhi, Shahdara, Faridabad, Meerut, Modinagar, Ghaziabad, Ambala, Agra and Mathura.
Kollam-Thiruvananthapuram Region This industrial region is spread over Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Always, Ernakulum and
Alappuzha districts. Plantation agriculture and hydropower provide industrial base to this region.
Located far away from the mineral belt of the country, agricultural products processing and market oriented light industries predominate the region. Among them, cotton textile, sugar,
rubber, matchbox, glass, chemical fertiliser and fish-based industries are important. Food processing, paper, coconut coir products, aluminium and cement industries are also
significant. Location of the petroleum refinery at Kochchi has added a vista of new industries to this region.
Important industrial centres are Kollam, Thiruvananthapuram, Alluva, Kocchi, Alappuzha, and Punalur.
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12. SETTLEMENT GEOGRAPHY Settlement geography is the study of human land, water and resource use, population density patterns, and settlement growth. It is essential to urban planning and urban landscape. Group of people living together forms a settlement. Settlement geography studies these villages, towns, etc. and also the types of relationships they generate. “A human settlement is place inhabited more or less permanent by human groups”
12.1 Definition Jordan (1966) “Emphasizes that settlement geography not completely investigates the distributions, but even more the structures, processes and interactions between settlements and its environment (such as soil, geomorphology, economy or society), which produce them.” “Settlement geography describes and explains the settlements„ location, substance, form and structure, as well as the
functions and processes that produced them over time.”
Settlement geography is the study of human land, water and resource use, population density patterns, and settlement growth.
12.2 Nature of settlement Geography:
Settlements, facilities built by man in the process of land occupancy and their groupings, from the most expressive feature of the cultural landscape. Settlement clusters or agglomerations may vary
in size from a small hamlet and village to metropolis , mega city and megalopolis , and in occupational structure and functional mix from predominantly agricultural and other primary
productions to secondary, tertiary and quaternary activities and in their sphere of influence from a village and locality to macro- regions, sometimes of supra - national dimension.
The branch of geographical knowledge concerned with the study of patterns and variation in the
spatial distribution of settlement features and their groupings on all scales in the present as well as in the past and future may, in general, is called Settlement Geography.
The latter involves description, classification, analysis, synthesis and explanation of networks, linkages, surfaces and hierarchies in their varying combinations as phenomena in the space
accessible to man and his technology. Advances in knowledge of the phenomena studied, as a result of improved techniques of data acquisition, monitoring, analysis and display, have encouraged geographers, especially the geographers, to draw on other disciplines to an even greater extent, while focusing the ideas and material so derived on the study and explanation of spatial aerations on
the earth ' surface.
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12.3 Scope of settlement Geography: The primary aim of studying settlement geography is to acquaint with the spatial and structural characteristics of human settlements under varied environmental conditions. Settlement site and structure- Internal morphology and external form, field patterns functions and house-types. Settlement geography being an offshoot of social or a recent most sprout from the venerable trunk of human was mainly concerned with urban settlements before the turn of the twentieth century.
As the post is the key to the present and we walk to a certain degree in every village among the ruins of antiquity. The themes form proposed for international symposium had at Varanasi in 1971 out
lined below comprehensive subject matter of and approaches to the study of settlement geography in general and rural settlements geography in particular.
12.4 Categories of Settlement: Based on above discussed factors, human
settlement is categorized as follows:
12.4.1 Clustered Settlement:
The settlement in which the houses are
closely built up and compact is known as clustered settlement. The shape of clustered settlement normally varies from rectangular, radial, to linear. Clustered settlement in India normally found in fertile alluvial plains and in the north-eastern states.
12.4.2 Semi-Clustered:
The settlement, clustering in a restricted area of dispersed settlement normally looks like semi-
clustered. Examples of such settlement can be seen in Gujarat plain and some parts of Rajasthan.
12.4.3 Hamleted Settlement:
Some settlement is fragmented into several units and physically separated from each other is known as hamleted settlement. Examples of hamleted settlement can be seen in the middle and
lower Ganga plain, Chhattisgarh and lower valleys of the Himalayas.
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12.4.4 Dispersed Settlement:
The isolated settlement is known as dispersed settlement. Examples of such settlement can be seen in parts of Meghalaya, Uttaranchal, Himachal Pradesh and Kerala have this type of settlement .
12.5 Rural-Urban Dichotomy (Difference)
The human settlements can be differentiated in terms of rural and urban, population size, nature
of activities, structure, functions, etc. There is no uniformity in the differentiation of the settlements. But, the basic difference between towns and villages is that in towns the main
occupation of the people is related to secondary and tertiary sectors, on the other side, in villages people are engaged in primary activities.
Sub-Urbanisation It is a new trend of people moving away from congested urban areas to cleaner areas outside the city in search of better quality of life.
Census of India, 1991 - It defines urban settlements as places which have municipal corporation, cantonment board, notified town area committee and have a population of
5000 persons and above and where 75% of male workers are engaged in non-agricultural activities and density of population is at least 400 persons per sq. km.
12.6 Types and Patterns of Settlements
Settlements can be classified into compact and dispersed by their shape, pattern and types. The major types classified by shape are as follows:
1. Compact or Nucleated Settlements - In these settlements, large number of houses are built very
close to each other and they develop along the river valleys and in fertile plains. There are close
knit communities and people here share common occupations. 2. Dispersed Settlements In these settlements, houses are spaced far apart and often interspersed
with fields such as a place of worship, a market that binds the settlement together.
12.7 Rural Settlements
These settlements are closely and directly related to land. They are dominated by primary activities like agriculture, fishing, animal husbandry, etc. The factors affecting the location of settlements are
as follows: Water Supply - Rural settlements are located near water bodies such as rivers, lakes and
springs as water is needed for irrigation, fishing, navigation and drinking.
Land - Fertile lands suitable for agriculture are places of human settlement like villages in rolling countryside in Europe avoiding swampy areas, low lying river valleys and coastal plains suited for wet rice cultivation in South-East Asia.
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Upland - Dry points like uplands, terraces, leaves that are not prone to flooding are places of settlements. In tropical countries, people build their houses on stilts near marshy lands to protect themselves from flood, insects and animal pests.
Building Material - Settlements are made in those places where building materials are available like cave dwellings in China, mud bricks houses in African Savanna and igloos with ice blocks in polar regions.
Defence - Places that form good defensive site are developed as settlements like defensive hills, islands, etc. In India, forts were built on hills.
Planned Settlements - Planned settlements are constructed by government by providing shelter, water and other infrastructure on acquired lands, e.g. canal colonies in Indira Gandhi Canal Command Area in India.
12.7.1 Rural Settlement Patterns Patterns of rural settlements reflect the way the houses are sited in relation to each other . The site
of the village, the surrounding topography and terrain influence the shape and size of a village. Rural settlements may be classified on the basis of a number of criteria:
1) On the basis of setting: The main types are plain villages, plateau villages, coastal villages,
forest villages and desert villages.
2) On the basis of functions: There may be farming villages, fishermen's villages, lumberjack villages, pastoral villages etc.
3) On the basis of forms or shapes of the settlements: These may be a number of geometrical
forms and shapes such as Linear rectangular, circular star like, T-shaped village, double village, cross-shaped village etc. a) Linear pattern: In such settlements houses are located along a road, railway line, and river, canal edge of a valley or along a levee. Linear pattern is the other most important design of settlements. In the linear settlements, houses are arranged along either side of a road, railway line, river or canal. Such settlements also evolve along the edge of a valley, especially in the mountainous areas, above
flood level or along the coast. The development of linear settlements in the hilly areas is largely controlled by terrain and
topography. Along the river banks and the sea shore, the flood and water level influence linear settlements.
b) Rectangular pattern: Such patterns of rural settlements are found in plain areas or wide inter
montane valleys. The roads are rectangular and cut each other at right angles. Over 50 per cent of the world population lives in rural settlements, and most of the people inhabit
the settlements of rectangular pattern. Rectangular settlements mainly develop in productive alluvial plains and wide intermontane valleys. The lanes in the rectangular settlements are almost straight, meeting each other at right angles. The rural settlements of the Sutlej-Ganga plains, especially those which developed on the cross -roads, fall in this category.
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c) Circular pattern: Circular villages develop around lakes, tanks and sometimes the village is planned in such a way that the central part remains open and is used for keeping the animals to protect them from wild animals.
d) Star like pattern: Where several roads converge, star shaped settlements develop by the houses built along the roads. The star-like settlements develop on the sites and places where several
metalled or unhealed roads converge. In the star-shaped settlements, houses spread out along the sides of roads in all direction. This pattern is common to both villages and towns, and is caused
mostly by new development, spreading out along the major roads. This type of settlements is the characteristic of the countryside's of North-West Europe, plains of Yangtzekiang, Punjab province of
Pakistan and the Sutlej-Yamuna plains.
e) Square Patterns: The square pattern of villages is normally found in agricultural region. In such type of villages houses are arranged in two or more rows with streets running parallel to each other.
Such villages are found having strong agglomeration. Sometime villages are protected by walls. The entire village is divided into Small Square of houses occupying the people of different castes. In the
study area Jat, Sangole and Mangalvedhe, Pandharpur and Atpadi Talukas have square pattern of villages, of which Shegaon, Hunnar.
f) T-shaped, Y-shaped, Cross-shaped settlements: T-shaped settlements develop at tri-junctions of
the roads (T) while (Y) shaped settlements emerge as the places where two roads converge on the
third one and houses are built along these roads. Cruciform settlements develop on the cross- roads and houses extend in all the four direction.
g) Double village: These settlements extend on both sides of a river where there is a bridge or a ferry
12.7.2 Problems of Rural Settlements
Rural settlements in developing countries are large in number and have poor infrastructure. There is inadequate supply of water in these settlements.
Water borne diseases like cholera, jaundice, etc are a common problem. There is lack of irrigation facilities, problem of drought and flood in rural settlements. Inadequate sanitation facility, toilet and garbage disposal facilities cause health related problems.
Proper housing and separate shed for animals are not there. Rural settlements mostly lack metalled roads and modern communication network . Health centres and educational institutions are less in number.
12.8 Urban Settlements
There had been a rapid growth of urban settlements around the world . The first city to reach a population of one million was London in AD 1810. At present 48% of the world population live in cities.
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12.8.1 Classification of Urban Settlements
Common basis of classification are:
Population Size - It refers to the lower limit of the population for a settlement to be
designated as urban. It is not universal and varies from country to country. In Columbia, a settlement having population of 1500 is termed as urban, in Argentina and Portugal it is 2000, 2500 in USA and Thailand, 5000 in India, 30,000 in Japan, 250 in Denmark, Sweden and Finland, 300 in Iceland, and 1000 in Canada and Venezuela.
Occupational Structure - In some countries, the major economic activities along with
population size designate a settlement as urban. In Italy, settlement called as urban if more than 50% of its economically productive population is engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. India has set its criterion at 75%.
Administration - Administration set up also designates a settlement as urban in some
countries. In India, if an area has a municipality, notified area council, then it is considered urban.
Location - Location of urban centres is examined with reference to their function, e.g.
strategic towns offering natural defence, mining towns, industrial towns, tourist centres, places with historical relics and other places that can provide proper living conditions have the potential to develop into urban centres.
12.8.2 Functions of Urban Centres
On the basis of the functions, the urban settlements are classified into the following:
Administrative towns - National capitals having administrative offices like New Delhi,
Canberra, London, Beijing, etc are called administrative towns. Provincial (sub-national) towns can also have administrative functions, e.g. Victoria (British Columbia), Albany (New
York), etc.
Trading and Commercial Towns - Agricultural market towns like Winnipeg, banking and
financial centres like Frankfurt, large inland centres like Manchester, transport nodes like Lahore, Baghdad, Agra are important trading centres.
Cultural Towns - Pilgrimage places like Jerusalem, Varanasi, Jagannath Puri, etc are
considered cultural towns. Other centres like health and recereation (Miami), industrial (Pittsburgh and Jamshedpur), mining, quarrying (Dhanbad) and transport (Singapore and Mughal Sarai) are also urban settlements.
Classification of Towns on the basis of Forms - Urban settlements can be linear, square,
and star or crescent shaped. Cities in developed countries are planned while in developing countries have evolved historically with irregular shapes. Chandigarh and Canberra are
planned cities while smaller town in India have evolved historically from walled cities to large urban sprawls.
Addis Ababa Established in 1878, it is capital of Ethiopia and is located in hill valley topography. It is a large nodal centre, has large markets and government
headquarters. The city has witnessed rapid growth and expansion in all directions.
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Canberra Established in 1912, it is the capital of Australia. It is a garden city with wide open spaces, parks and gardens. Initially, it was built to accommodate 25,000 people but now it has expanded to accommodate many satellite towns.
12.8.3 Types of Urban Settlements Problems of Urban Settlements
Depending upon the size and services available, urban centres are classified further as follows:
Towns - These can be well understood with reference to ‘village’. Specific functions such as
manufacturing, retail and wholesale trade, and professional services exist in towns.
City - They are larger than towns, have greater number of economic functions, tend to have
transport terminals, major financial institution and administrative offices. In the words of
Lewis Mumford, “The city is in fact the physical form of the highest and most complex type of associative life”.
Conurbation - The term conurbation was coined by Patrick Geddes in 1915. This is applied to a large area of urban development that resulted from the merging of originally separate
towns or cities like Greater London and Tokyo.
Megalopolis - Popularised by Jean Gottman (1957), this signifies super metropolitan region
extending as union of conurbations, e.g. urban landscape stretching from Boston to Washington.
Million City - It refers to a city whose population reaches more than one million, e.g. London
reached million mark in 1800 followed by Paris in 1850 and by 1950 there were around 80 such cities.
12.8.4 Distribution of Mega Cities
The number of mega cities or megalopolis has been rising rapidly . The number of mega cities is 25 currently. At present, the number of million cities in Europe is 58, 206 in Asia, 79 in North and Central America, 43 in South America, 46 in Africa and 6 in Australia. They are also inadequate in infrastructure such as electricity sewage, disposal, health and education facilities.
12.8.5 Problems of Urban Settlements
In developing countries, urban settlements suffer from unsustainable concentration of population, congested housing, lack of drinking water, poor infrastructure, no proper sewage disposal, health
and education facilities, vertical expansion and growth of slums. Most of the cities in developing countries suffer from such unplanned growth. They are:
Economic Problems - The decreasing employment opportunities in rural areas push the
unskilled and semi-skilled labour force to migrate to urban areas which is already saturated.
Socio-Cultural Problems - Cities in developing countries suffer from several social ills. Lack
of financial resources fail to create adequate social infrastructure. Lack of employment and
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education tends to aggravate the crime rates. Male selective migration to the urban areas distorts the sex ratio in these cities.
Environmental Problems - Urban settlements in developing countries suffer from
improper sewage system, massive use of fuel that causes air pollution, lack of clean drinking
water, dumping of untreated wastes and huge concrete structures that aggravate the environmental problems.
12.8.6 Healthy City
The World Health Organisation suggests that a healthy city should have clean and safe
environment, meet the basic needs of all his inhabitants, involve the community in local government and provide easily accessible health service.
12.8.7 Urban Strategy
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) outlines the urban strategy that aims to
increase shelter for urban poor, provision of basic services like primary healthcare, drinking water, education, sanitation, government facilities, upgrading energy use, alternative transport system and reducing air pollution.
12.9 RURAL AND URBAN FRINGE
12.9.1 Evolution of the the concept of fringe.
Evolution of the term goes back to Vonthunen in 1826, the city is surrounded by a system of concentric belts of land use. Others who have made a contribution are Jonnason, Duglass, Mckenzie, Park, Burgess, Makaye, and Christaller who devised Central Place Theory, Homer
Hoyt, Mckenzie, and Charles C Colby, who have discussed the fringe in their own way.
In 1937, T.L Smith, firstly used the term ‘urban fringe’ and said this area is outside the
administrative limit. In 1940, Salter discussed that this is an area where we find mixture of land use both urban and rural. In 1945, Balk Yes describes that fringe is an area of
urbanization. In 1962, Wehrwein calls it suburban development. In 1960, Russwarm has discussed that this is discontinuous area .In 1962, G.A Wissink has given the name of ‘An Area
of great Differentiation.’
12.9.2 Definition of Rural- Urban Fringe
An attempt to define has been made by foreign and Indian scholars. T.S. Smith (1931) has highlighted the characteristics of the fringe area found between continuous built up area and rural landscape in their own way. G.S Wehrwein (1942) has recognized that rural urban fringe consists of rural territory pierced by fringe like projection of urbanized land uses
because of stellar growth of the city and transition between well-organized urban land uses
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and adjacent peripheral zone of agricultural area. R.R Mayers and J.A Beagle has described ‘Urban fringe is the zone between countryside and the city’. Apart from them other scholars have as Lewis Keeble, Garnier and Chabot.
Some Indian Scholars as R.L Singh has called it as the rural land with urban phenomena. M.M.P Sinha has defined ‘rural urban fringe in the real sense is a narrow zone with varying width outside the political boundaries of an urban unit which is neither urban nor rural in character. It acts as a bridge between the two.’
12.9.3 Characteristics of Rural- Urban Fringe
Rural urban zone is an area of transition with two contrasting environments on ecosystem. The landscape portrays impingement of houses encroaching in this area. Small villages have grown up with commuting people. These are characterized by growth of golf courses, Industrial establishment,
shopping centres, waterways, hypermarkets and graveyards. In western cities there is no break in the continuity which is strengthened by journey to work .
R.E Dickinson believes there is fast land use changes reflected in premature urban growth. Municipal Corporation does not take responsibility for this area. Slaughter house, junkyard, wholesale establishments, cemeteries sewage plants are found in this area which produces obnoxious environment. Walter Firey Flint City, Michigan) believes there has been usurpation of agricultural land by residential tract. Land value is lesser in agricultural land and the density of population decreases from urban to rural area. Proyer in 1968, has argued that built up area near the city is just like social and economic unit. People get urban facilities like electricity, gas, water and transport facilities. Golledge has said these rural urban characteristics do not apply in developing countries. According to him there is:-
1. Constantly changing pattern of land use. 2. It has small size of farms
3. Intensive production of crops 4. Mobile population
5. Division of land into uneven sizes of plots 6. Expansion of residential buildings
7. Incomplete provision of services and public utilities.
Indian geographers as Sudesh Nangia in 1976 studied the fringe of Delhi Metropolitan region. She believed that the zone is not concentric but polygonal in shape. R.L Singh studied rural urban fringe
of Varanasi. Ujagir Singh did a study of KAVAL Cities. MMP Sinha has believed that rural urban is a narrow belt with variable width. The picture is different in developed countries where we find big
houses, cars, open spaces for gardens and people having high income.
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12.9.4 Types of Rural Urban Fringe
Rural urban fringe is a dynamic zone. It changes its shape and limits with increase in urban facilities. The fringe area can be placed in two groups. 1. Primary urban fringe- This belt touches the outer administrative limit of the city. After
development it witnesses rapid development of urban facilities and various activities. Andrews has named it urban fringe while the outlying adjacent zone is named Reinmann. Myres and Beegle call it ‘True fringe’, ‘Inner fringe’ by Whiteland.’ Inner fringe or urban sub- urban fringe’ by MMP Sinha.
2. Secondary urban fringe - Secondary urban fringe is an area extending outside the primary urban
fringe. It has primarily rural characteristics which has developed slowly. Urban functions are less.
12.9.5 Factors of Development of Rural Urban Fringe.
Some of the driving forces of the development of fringe area can be outlined as follows.
1. Population Increase - There is continuous influx of people to urban areas in search of
livelihood. They are often engaged in non-formal jobs and do not have place to live in urban areas. Fringe is gives them solace as they can stay along roads I outside the margins of the city.
2. Increased Income and wealth - Increase in income has brought about changes in life styles.
The rich prefer living in the fringe with improved life style.
3. Transportation and communication technologies –Development of transport has helped
expansion and have helped rural people to move off their farms and also the city people to be dispersed to surrounding suburbs.
4. Increased investments in new infrastructure. There has been manifold increase in the city’s function as a result of which retail houses, warehouses and other commercial development has
taken place and employment to relocate labour forces. The urban fringe has developed but it is underdeveloped.
12.9.6 Delimitation of Rural Urban Fringe
Demarcation of fringe area is a real problem. Many scholars have given different views. The characteristics and functions differ among the cities. The scholars have considered many factors in their delimitation of the area .There are two methods of demarcation of rural urban fringe:
1. Imperical method
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2. Statistical method
1. Imperical method It is a very traditional method which implies that the continuous built up area is a basis of delineation. Some of the scholars who have contributed are Smith (1937) ,Andrews (1942) ,M.W Rodehaver, W.T Martin (1957),S.W Blizzard and W,F Anderson (1962), D. Mukherjee (1963)
,Oosthwizen (1969), R.J Prayor, M.K Srivastava and Ujagir Singh . They have given their techniques of delimiting the fringe area.
The following indices may be considered as a base point for the delimitation of the zone of fringe belt.
1. Changes in land use 2. Changes in built up area
3. Occupational structure of population 4. House types 5. Distribution of industrial and non-agricultural activities 6. Limit of essential services 7. The distribution of educational institutions.
2. Statistical Method Dr MMP SInha in 1980 has applied statistical method in demarcation of urban fringe. He has first tried to determine the influence area with the help of Isochrome. He has considered the word limit as (T) 100. The area outside is considered 0. The urban Index is found between 0 and 100 and values given to number of villages. The correlation between all factors of the villages have been found out. Those villages have been excluded where the value is below+30 and -30. The mean value of other factors have been taken which is known as scale of urbanity. As we move away from the city the population density decreases. The sex ratio increases away from the city. This gives positive
correlation.
Some of the notable works in India is of R.L Singh on Varanasi Fringe , Harihar Singh of Kanpur Fringe, Ujagir Singh did a study of KAVAL cities ,K.N Gopi of Hyderabad metropolitan fringe , MMP Sinha of
Patna fringe, Sudesh Nangia of Delhi metropolitan fringe area, Hiralal on Bareilly fringe’ Today it can be suitably be classified as
1. Inner fringe zone or area of convenience 2. Outer fringe zone or slowly progressive zone.
12.9.7 SATELLITE TOWN
The term “...Satellite town “first used by G.R. Taylor in 1915. The term Satellite town is at times used to designate a place that is at a distance from the city, but linked to it through the daily commuting of people. It is limited in size built in the vicinity of large town or city. Satellite city experiences cross
commuting (that is city residents commuting out of and employees commuting in to the city).
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Characteristics:
1. The basic characteristic of satellite city is that it is a smaller city near a large metropolitan city which has its own local govt. and economy which is independent of the neighbouring
large city. 2. Satellite cities are interconnected with larger cities but are completely independent of the
larger cities nearby. Sometimes the larger cities are locally known parent city. 3. Satellite city have their own culture, own history and their own independent economic
infrastructure. 4. Satellite cities are not developed as the larger cities nearby. The populations of satellite city
are much smaller than that of the larger city nearby. Many amenities and infrastructure facilities that are available in large cities nearby are not prominent in the satellite cities.
Residents of satellite cities are known to travel regularly to the large city nearby for work, recreational and other reason.
5. There are good transport service between the satellite city and the large parent city nearby. 6. Students often travel to higher education institutions in the parent city as often quality
educational institutions are located in the large city nearby and not in the satellite town or
city.
Example: Australia –
1) Gawler (Adelaide) 2) Melton ( Melbourne )
India – 1) Nagrota (J&K ) 2) Gurgoan ,
3) Faridabad , 4) Noida (Delhi ) 5) Haldia, 6) Durgapur, 7) chittaranjan, 8) Kharagapur, 9) Haringhata ( Mumbai)
12.10 Morphology of Indian Cities A large number of cities in India have a long history of their evolution. As a consequence, their nucleus and old part of the city is characterized by elements of natural growth which is recognized as indigenous parts of the cities. During British period, new anglicised part was added to the existing town with a large number of government offices, cantonment, civil lines, railway colonies etc. Later, during post-independence period newly developed areas were added which were built up according
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to modern style, architecture and plan. Thus a single town or city may exhibit characteristic morphological features reflecting its development during different historical phases. A. E. Smailes has identified six elements of morphology of Indian towns. They are-
1) Old walled towns 2) Extra mural extension
3) Cantonment 4) Civil lines
5) Railway Colonies and 6) Residential colonies and industrial units developed after 1947.
12.10.1 Characteristics of Morphology of Indian Cities
Following distinct features are found in Indian cities-
1. No clear cut delineation of residential and commercial areas In most of the Indian cities residential functions are located mixed with commercial functions which are found in core of the city identified as CBD. In fact, at the time of origin of the towns both commercial and residential functions originated simultaneously at the nucleus of the towns. Besides, commercial functions have encroached into residential zones. Even in newly developed areas, with the development of residential areas, commercial functions start to be located along the road or even within the residential buildings.
2. CBD is not devoid of residential population As found in developed countries. Though during day the CBD is congested with large number of people who visit there for shopping and other services, the night density of population is definitely
much lower than the day time population. But the CBD or inner core of the city is not devoid of night population as there are residential uses of built up block in the upper storeys of the buildings
as well as in the back portion of buildings.
3. Impact of British Period on Mor phology The cities of India possess characteristic features of morphology revealing impact of British Period. There are clear cut anglicised portion of the cities located at a distance from old indigenous part. The impact of British period is evidenced in the architecture of buildings as well as functional use of land e.g. civil lines, railway colonies, cantonment, office buildings of collectorate, police lines etc. Even the colleges and schools which were established during British period bear the imprints of British architecture and style. In this section of the city roads are wide and straight and residential building are of big size.
4. Unplanned growth of functional areas Since most of the cities have a history of natural growth regarding their growth and expansion,
therefore there has been unplanned growth of functional areas. Different functional zones are found mixed with one another in close proximity. However, in such cities there are newly developed urban
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built up areas which have developed in a planned way following urban planning norms regarding Street plan width of roads, etc.
5. Haphazard skyline In most of the cities there is no regular pattern of declining skyline formed by declining the height of buildings from the inner core towards the periphery of the towns. In fact, high rise buildings and
apartments are found in the inner core, intermediate zone as well as in the peripheral belt of the city. Close to high rise buildings, there may be single or double storey housing leading to irregular
pattern of skyline.
6. Absence of clear cut zonation of residential zones according to economic class In most of the cities of India there is no clear cut demarcation of different categories of residential zones based on economic class. In the inner zone comprising of the old built up areas, high, middle and low income groups residences are found in close proximity, though there is a tendency of high class residences to be relocated along the periphery. Similarly in the peripheral belt, majority of the houses belong to upper middle or high class residences but a considerable number of poor men's dwellings also exist which are older than high-class residences. In newly developed residential colonies there is tendency of segregation of dwellings based on caste or economic class considerations.
7. Less suburban growth The growth of suburban areas depends on transportation facilities e.g. development of good quality
wide roads and availability of cheap and speedy modes of transportation. In a large number of cities of India, due to less development of transportation facilities, people prefer to live in the inner or
intermediate zone close to their place of work to save time and money on transportation. Only in metro cities of India, e.g. Delhi, Mumbai, Chennai, etc. large scale development of suburban zone is
found which is facilitated by the development of metro rail, local trains, public transport buses, etc.
8. Sharp decline of population density fro m inner core towards periphery Regarding demographical morphology of cities, decline of population density from inner core
towards outer peripheral belt is clearly observed. The nucleus of the cities or the inner core is characterized by highest density of population which gradually declines outwards towards the periphery. This is because, large proportion of urban population prefer to live within inner core to avail the facilities found there e.g. easy accessibility, nearness to the zone of employment etc. The outer zone is preferred by people belonging to high income group who have their own car or other means of transportation which make even long distance travel convenient. Therefore, in the outer zone, fringe areas or in suburban areas the density of population is much lower than that of the inner zone.
9. Imprint of rural environment Since several cities in India have originated as marketplace for agricultural products, therefore the
imprint of rural and agricultural environment is observed in them. In many houses, there has been a
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separate place for cowshed or rooms for storing grains and other agricultural products. At places a large number of cows and buffaloes are reared at one place and supplying milk to neighbouring population is an important source of livelihood to the people engaged in these activities. Largescale rural urban migration is also responsible for creating rural environment within urban limits.
10. Growth of planned towns During post-independence period, several planned towns have developed which have planned layout of roads and clear cut demarcation of various urban land use and functional zones. Example
of such towns are Chandigarh, Bhubaneswar, Gandhinagar, etc. Such towns have concentration of new urban built-up areas which follow norms of urban planning and structure. Besides new planned
areas are being added to old existing towns which comprise of better residential, commercial, administrative, recreational areas.
Briefly it can be said that no cities in India perfectly follow the traditional model of urban morphology. Every city possesses the features of concentric zonation, sectoral or multiple nuclei model. Most of the Indian cities are not typical modern urban centres like the cities of developed countries, rather they are over grown villages and therefore they even today possess some of the rural characteristics e.g. existence of rural or agricultural functions, inadequate old and traditional residential houses, underdeveloped roads and lack of civic amenities. Most of the cities are highly congested especially in the inner zone and they lack plant layout of roads, open spaces and differentiating commercial and residential land use.
12.10.2 Morphology of Rural Settlement
Morphology refers to the internal structure or the constructional plan of a village which includes the layout of streets and roads, arrangement of houses, pattern of housing, geometrical size and shape of village and agricultural fields, location of either the water body, religious site, or the house
of the village headman.
Rural Morphology includes
Physical Morphology Social Morphology
12.10.2.1 Physical Morphology Physical Morphology includes the study of the relationship between the following:
Road to lane relationship: It includes how roads are connected to lanes. Lane to lane relationship: It is description of geometrical arrangement of lanes. How they are
connected to each other and ending at what points. In Indian villages, lanes are extremely narrow meandering and ending abruptly. This shows unplanned character of Indian villages.
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In UK, cruciform villages have all the lanes cutting across 90 degree, because they are planned villages. Lane to house relationship: Geometry of lanes determines the arrangement of
houses because houses grow along lanes. In India, lanes are largely unplanned and
arrangement of houses determines the lane type.
House to house relationship: Physical morphology is also determined by the spacing between the houses. In clustered villages, houses are unevenly spaced or they have wall to wall
arrangement. Houses are hardly according to geometrical plan and their average height is variable. There is clustering of houses based on social structure/cast system. Role of geometrical shape of the agriculture field also determines the village pattern. House type can range from ‘Pucca’ to ‘Kutcha’ and in older parts of villages,
ventilation is closed to the roof (depends on whether village is developed or not).
12.10.2.2 Social Morphology It refers to the social structure of a village which is based on cast, or class.
In Indian villages, caste hierarchy is reflected in the morphology of villages. Social factors like division of work, untouchability (not so prominent now), social prohibition
over the work of women and lower casts had all led to a distinct social morphology of Rural Settlements from urban ones.
The following factors affect the following morphological character of villages: Arrangement of buildings
Pattern of streets and fields Functional characteristics of settlement . For example, the houses of higher cast
people like Brahmins and Rajputs would be large and people from the lower cast would have huts, kutcha houses with cattle.
The intermediate regions of rural settlement comprise of the people of service casts like Ahirs, Jats, Loth, etc.
Cast based hamlets at times emerge. These are closely linked with centre under the Jajmani system (inter cast cooperation like higher cast people requiring lower cast people for some specific work like ironsmith) and act like a unit.
K. N. Singh in his religious ritual and secular dominance model highlighted the importance of two concepts:
Development of twin settlement which included: Caste Hindus Outcasts
The segregation was much pronounced during the past favouring the outgrowth of the helmeted structure of villages. In the case of compact settlements out-castes generally lived on the outer parts of the built-up area in a direction (south, south-east, and north, etc.) less conducive for wind movement, for even air gets polluted after coming in contact with a Shudra‘s body.
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How and why these traditions came into being is a matter of debate amongst scholars, but the author believes these untouchables to be the remnant of the pre-Aryan tribes who were always despised by the Aryans and later Rajput settlers.
Secular dominance model: Under this model, all caste and religion came together as
functional units under the old Jajmani system. For example, landowners required the services of landless people for the cultivation of fields.
Thus, the socio-cultural traits of rural settlement is also a field of study in the settlement system
12.10.3 Doxiadis classification of Rural Morphology
Earliest attempt to classify Rural Morphology was done by Doxiadis.
He classified rural morphology into four sectors:
1. Homogenous sector or Village core: It consists of the central part of
the village.
It has a religious site, water body or Zamindar/ Village headman’s house, or community land.
It is surrounded by the own caste man of village Zamindar.
It is the most densely populated region and congested part of the village reflecting patriarchal society and security
concerns.
2. Transitional zone This part is occupied by the village servicemen e.g. Goldsmith, Blacksmith, Milkman,
weavers, etc.
This zone is attached with the core of the village where middle caste people are mixed with poor upper caste people.
This zone is also known as the Artisans zone.
3. Circulatory part: It is the outer periphery of the village where new houses and settlers have been
migrated or settled outward due to congestion of the core. Thus, this zone has mixed land use in terms of social structure.
4. Special part: It was occupied by landless labours outside the village close to farmlands because of
work opportunities on-field and social segregation. They are usually the people from the lower castes.
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12.10.4 Conurbation
A conurbation is a region comprising a number of metropolises, cities, large towns, and other urban areas that, through population growth and physical expansion, have merged
to form one continuous urban or industrially developed area. In most cases, a conurbation is a polycentric urbanized area, in which transportation has developed to link areas to create a single urban labour market or travel to work area.
Patrick Geddes coined the term in his book Cities in Evolution (1915). He drew attention to the ability of the then new technology of electric power and motorized transport to allow cities to spread and agglomerate together, and gave as examples "Midlandton" in England, the Ruhr in Germany, Randstad in the Netherlands, and Northeastern Seaboard in the United
States. The term as described is used in Britain, whereas in the United States each polycentric
"metropolitan area" may have its own common designation, such as San Francisco Bay Area or the Dallas–Fort Worth metroplex. Internationally, the term "urban agglomeration"
is often used to convey a similar meaning to "conurbation". A conurbation should also be contrasted with a megalopolis, where the urban areas are close but not physically
contiguous, and where the merging of labour markets has not yet developed.
12.10.5 Slum and associated problems
A slum is usually a highly populated urban residential area consisting mostly of closely packed, decrepit housing units in a situation of deteriorated or incomplete infrastructure, inhabited primarily by impoverished persons . Although slums, especially in America, are usually located in urban areas, in other countries they can be located in suburban
areas where housing quality is low and living conditions are poor . While slums differ in size and other characteristics, most lack reliable sanitation services, supply of clean water,
reliable electricity, law enforcement, and other basic services. Slum residences vary from shanty houses to professionally built dwellings which, because of poor-quality construction and/or lack of basic maintenance, have deteriorated.
Due to increasing urbanization of the general populace, slums became common in the 18th to late 20th centuries in the United States and Europe. Slums are still predominantly found in urban regions of developing countries, but are also still found in developed economies. The world's largest slum city is found in the Neza-Chalco-Ixtapaluca area, located in the State of Mexico.
Slums form and grow in different parts of the world for many different reasons. Causes include rapid rural-to-urban migration, economic stagnation and depression, high unemployment, poverty, informal economy, forced or manipulated ghettoization, poor planning, politics, natural disasters, and social conflicts.
Strategies tried to reduce and transform slums in different countries, with varying degrees of success, include a combination of slum removal, slum relocation, slum upgrading, urban planning with citywide infrastructure development, and public housing . UN-HABITAT
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defines a slum household as a group of individuals living under the same roof in an urban area who lack one or more of the following:
Durable housing of a permanent nature that protects against extreme climate conditions.
Sufficient living space, which means not more than three people sharing the same room.
Easy access to safe water in sufficient amounts at an affordable price. Access to adequate sanitation in the form of a private or public toilet shared
by a reasonable number of people. Security of tenure that prevents forced evictions (Slum Dwellers to double by
2030: United Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) report, April 2007).
India is a third world country that suffers from poverty, malnutrition, diseases, unhealthy conditions, and more, in Indian slums. Most of India’s population is currently living in a slum.
Every year, hundreds of thousands of men, women, and children die around the world and India alone is responsible for 25% of the deaths. (Slum Dwellers to double by 2030: United
Nations Human Settlements Programme (UN-HABITAT) report, April 2007).
12.10.5.1 Reasons for development of slums
Slums are not a new phenomenon. They have been part of the history of most cities, particularly in the early years of urbanization and industrialization as populations boomed. Slums are generally the only type of settlement affordable and accessible to the poor in cities, where competition for land and profits is intense.
There are two main reasons why slums develop: population growth and governance.
1. Population growth
Countries around the world are urbanizing rapidly as more people migrate from rural areas
to the cities and natural population growth continues to occur. Today, more than half the world’s population resides in urban areas. More than 90 percent of this urban growth is
taking place in the developing world.
Urban migration happens for a number of reasons: The pushing and pulling forces of migration: Some people migrate because they are
pushed out of their place of origin by factors such as natural disasters or sustained
ecological changes. Others are pulled to a new destination by better job prospects, education, health facilities, or freedom from restrictive social or cultural realities.
Low incomes from agriculture: Most people in rural areas work in the agricultural sector, which is highly dependent on weather. Also, rural land is limited, its fertility sometimes low or declining, land holdings are small, farm debts are high, and many households have become landless. As a result, overall rural incomes are low
Better job prospects: In comparison with rural areas, urban areas offer dramatically
increased job opportunities. In addition, because urban cultures are often less
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constrained than those in villages, cities can also offer greater prospects of upward social mobility
People know what cities can offer them: Most migrants make a deliberate choice to stay or leave in rural areas. Improved transport, communications and links with earlier
migrants have all made rural populations much more aware of the advantages and disadvantages of urban life, especially regarding job opportunities and housing.
Urban migration is often a survival strategy for rural households: Sometimes, rural households split into several groups located in different places —rural areas, small
towns, and big cities—in order to diversify their sources of income and be less vulnerable to economic downturns.
2. Governance
Another reason slums develop is bad governance. Governments often fail to recognize the rights of the urban poor and incorporate them into urban planning, thereby contributing to the growth of slums.
In addition, many countries simply cannot respond to rapid urbanization quickly enough. People are coming to cities far faster than the planning process can incorporate them. Often,
they find their own land and build a shack before the government has a chance to learn of their existence.
The attitude of a government towards urbanization is also an important component. Some governments take a hostile approach to urbanization. They believe that if they provide urban
services to the poor, it will attract urbanization and cause the slums to grow. The problem with this view is that very few people come to the city for water or services—they come
looking for work. In other cases, governments take more of a passive approach to urbanization. They either do
not have the planning tools to deal with the rapid urbanization that is happening, or the tools in place are not sufficiently responsive to the reality on the ground
12.10.5.2 Role of slums in city All cities have their slums and their informal settlements. Their extent, proportion and
character vary not merely with income level but also with the socio-political or legislative
environment and law- enforcement system. Ironically, it is not so much the absence of a legal framework and its application that leads to slums and informal settlements; its very presence can frustrate efforts to pre-empt and prevent their formation and growth.
Slums are not only unavoidable; they are a mark of success of a city. The formation of slums is an integral part of the process of growth and development of a city. Only in a static (stagnant) city does the state and status of its constituent parts remain unchanged. This is not to say that each part of a city must go through a cycle of development, deterioration and renewal, but that at any given moment of time, there are parts that have seen better days, and parts that are being newly developed or renovated. The extent of deterioration is, of course, relative, and the worst "slums" of a city may still be better than most parts of many. The decline and renovation of some cities may be piecemeal and hardly visible on the outside
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or to outsiders, and an area may continue to be held in esteem even as properties within it are gutted and remodelled, while retaining their facades.
Countries need to recognize that the urban poor are active agents and not just beneficiaries of development.
Developing cities requires local solutions. Local authorities need to be empowered with financial and human resources to deliver services and infrastructure to the urban poor. Cities should draw up local long-term strategies for improving the lives of slum dwellers.
Local governments should develop strategies to prevent the formation of new slums. These should include access to affordable land, reasonably priced materials, employment opportunities, and basic infrastructure and social services.
Public investments must focus on providing access to basic services and infrastructure. Working with the urban poor, cities need to invest in housing, water, sanitation, energy, and urban services, such as garbage disposal. These services and infrastructure must reach the poor living in informal settlements.
The transportation needs and safety concerns of a city’s poorest residents should be a high
priority in planning urban transportation systems, which can expand the choices people have regarding where to live and work.
Building codes and regulations should be realistic and enforceable and reflect the lifestyle and needs of the local community. This means, for example, that they may have to be flexible
enough to allow housing that is built increment.
12.11 India’s urbanisation challenges
India is one of the fastest growing economies in the world, and its growth is propelled by its
cities. Evidently, Oxford Economics’ Global cities report estimates that 17 of the 20 fastest-growing cities in the world between 2019 and 2035 will be from India. Studies have a lso
shown that Indian cities are likely to contribute to 70% of India’s GDP by 2030. All of these findings are reflected in the exponential rate of urbanization that the country is undergoing.
While this is a turn towards greater economic growth, it also comes with a set of challenges with regards to liveability. Delving deeper into those challenges reveal an inherent limitation
within the framework of governance.
Metropolitans are the centres of economic growth and job creation . They enjoy economies
of agglomeration that ensures steady growth, which further draws in the talent pool from different parts of the nation, leading to greater innovation and accelerated economic growth.
However, it also entails more and more people moving to urban agglomerations. Since Indian cities have grown in an unplanned manner, they are not fully equipped to deliver basic
services like housing, water and sanitation to the growing number of residents. Hence, despite high economic growth, India cities are also the centres of high income inequality
and poor quality of life. In 2019, New Delhi and Mumbai ranked 118th and 119th respectively, on the Economist Intelligence Unit's Global Liveability Index 2019 that covered 180 Cities.
The political economy of development in India has always leaned towards rural development. It was not until 2005 when Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission
(JNNURM) was launched to reform the cities through planned development initiatives. Many
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of the projects undertaken were, however, unfinished. JNNURM has now been replaced by Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT). Since 2014, there has been a marked shift in policy focus, reflecting a greater acknowledgement of the importance of urban development. Hence, Smart Cities Mission, Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Housing
for All (Urban) (PMAY-U), and Swachh Bharat Mission (Urban) (SBM-U) are some of the major urban development programmes that have been in operation for the last five to six years.
Through focus on different components like housing, water supply, urban mobility, sanitation, etc., the programmes aim at improving the liveability of Indian cities. While the
programmes have achieved milestones, there is still room for improvement. Building on the lessons learned from JNNURM, the programmes also aimed to enforce
decentralisation by devolving some functions to Urban Local Bodies (ULBs), but the ground reality told a different story. Enforcement of the 74th Constitutional Amendment Act, 1992 is one of the main challenges in the implementation of all the urban development programmes. The amendment had added ULBs as the third tier of government to decentralise
governance down to the grassroots. However, the provisions of the Act leave a lot of power in the hands of the state government, which ends up depriving the local governments of
the autonomy required by them to perform their designated role. This challenge is at the root of issues that plague the existing programmes, be it the operational difficulties or the
issue of under-utilisation of funds.
According to the Constitution, there are 18 broad functions which can be performed by the ULB, but devolution of the functions is decided by the state government . States also have the discretion to define specific criteria for categorising various types of municipalities. They can remove the municipalities’ jurisdiction over certain geographical areas by categorising them as ‘Industrial Township’ under an appropriate state law. It dilutes the power of the municipalities as this provision can easily be exploited by state governments who can take over the governance of any area they please.
The lack of autonomy of ULBs also extends to finances. Municipal corporations have two types of revenue bases ¾ revenue and non-revenue, but property tax is the only major internal source. However, issues of undervaluation, non-availability of database of properties, low rates, low collection efficiency and lack of indexation of property values disable the ULBs from fully accessing it. Further, the Constitution empowers the state governments to also decide on devolution of tax revenues and grants -in-aid to urban local governments. In this way, ULBs neither have financial autonomy nor the capacity to raise funds, so they heavily rely on public sources. It can be gauged from the funding pattern of many of the projects under the urban development programmes. The programmes require ULBs to raise a portion of the funds for projects, but do not have provisions for augmenting the capacity of ULBs to raise resources. Resultantly, the largest portion of finances remain public funds.
Although there is a broad range of functions for ULBs outlined by the Constitution, the revenue required to deliver on those functions is dependent on the Centre and State. The
imbalance between the powers and responsibilities assigned to ULBs results in their ineffective functioning.
Lastly, the governance structure of Census Towns (CTs) is another concern that affects the quality of life in urban areas. There are very few metropolitan cities in India, so India’s
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urbanization journey is actually being driven by the CTs, which form urban agglomerations concentrated around the metropolitans.
A village is classified as CT by the Registrar General of India (RGI) as a resu lt of the population census exercise if they pass the threshold of 5,000 population size, population density of 400 people/sq. km., and 75% of male workforce working in non-farm activity.
The population in CTs is categorised as “urban” but the GDP generated is recorded as “rural”, which distorts the estimation of per capita GDP for the urban sector as well as the extent of urbanization in the country. It is because despite its urban characteristics, a CT is governed by a Panchayat. The state exercises the right to categorise settlements as “urban” and “rural”, and are often apprehensive of bringing CTs under the “urban” fold, as it implies application of urban regulations on CTs. The stricter regulations and high tax rates on basic amenities could be unwelcome to the population and reflecting in their voting behaviour. As a result, CTs, the peri-urban areas that take some of the pressure off of metropolitans in terms of providing basic amenities to residents, are governed by a body that is ill -equipped to
understand its developmental needs. Therefore, the framework of governance, and particularly the 74th Constitutional
Amendment Act can be revisited to add provisions that can better enforce decentralisation
of governance in urban areas. In the meanwhile, programmes and schemes can still be more effective if those are designed while accounting for the shortfalls in the Constitution , such that ULBs are more empowered to participate in governance.
Town planning is the process of managing land resources. It involves the control of existing and new developments, as well as strategy preparation to ensure manage future requirements. It is a dynamic process that changes in response to
policy, development proposals and local needs.
Town planners must try and balance the demands of landowners and developers, with the needs and concerns of the community and the policy framework. If planning is successful, it can provide protection for the environment, can promote and facilitate regeneration, can
help create and sustain communities, and can create new and exciting places.
Town planning maintains the best of the past while encouraging creativity and innovation in the development of a sustainable future.
12.11.1 History of town planning
Historically, the practice of urban planning and applying some level of control to the design to communities, dates back at least as far as the third millennium BC, and the urban designs of the Mesopotamians, Minoans, and Egyptians. Grid-like, or orthogonal, urban plans were first used for structuring cities in the 8th century BC by the Ancient Greeks, and the Roman Empire then dramatically expanded city planning, predominantly for military defence, but also for public convenience, developing the ‘city centre’.
During the Middle Ages, some European cities retained the Roman ‘city centre’ idea of planning, while others developed more organically, sometimes with little-to-no system of planning in place.
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With the Enlightenment came a fresh examination of the ideas of urban planning. As a result of this new open-mindedness, several European cities tried to redesign their major cities; in some cases quite drastically, such as Paris under Baron Haussmann who introduced long and wide boulevards.
During the Industrial Revolution, urban centres of the new industries grew at an unprecedented rate, albeit very often with a complete lack of planning for the living and working environments of the poorer classes. By the end of the 19th century though, urban planners and theorists had begun to realise that this should change.
At around the same time, the Town and Country Planning Association was founded, which heralded the start of the professionalization of urban planning. With the emergence of modernism in the 1920s, new ideas about how the urban environment should be planned and organised were developed.
The Town and Country Planning Act 1947 was an important piece of British legislation that introduced the basis for much of the contemporary planning system. It was intended as a response to the post-Second World War need for large-scale rebuilding and planning of towns and cities, as well as to help reorganise industry.
The Town and Country Planning Act 1990 superseded the 1947 Act and made several
changes, principally dividing planning into forward planning and development control, i.e. setting out the future strategy of the local authority, and controlling the
current development. By the 1960/70s, modernism had many critics, who argued that its ideas and theories, when
put into practice, resulted in unintended consequences such as the development of sink estates, urban blight and other social problems. Since this period, there has been more
of a tendency for town planners to focus on ‘landmark’ projects in an attempt at individualising their particular area, in the hope of regenerating interest. One famous
example of this was the ‘Bilbao effect’ resulting from the construction of the Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao.
12.11.2 Principles of Town Planning
Town planning cannot be studied in isolation . It involves the study of various subjects such as engineering, architecture, surveying, transportation planning etc. The intention of the town
planning is to satisfy the needs of our future generations and prevent the haphazard growth of the town. Some of the guiding principles of town planning are as follows:
1. Zoning The town should be divided into suitable zones such as commercial zone, industrial zone, residential zone, etc and suitable rules and regulations should be formed for the development of each zone.
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2. Green belt Green belt is non-development zone on the periphery of
the town. It prevents the haphazard sprawl of the town restricting its size. In essence, a green belt is an invisible
line designating a border around a certain area, preventing development of the area and allowing wildlife to return
and be established. Greenways and green wedges have a linear character and may run across the town and not
around the town.
3. Housing Housing has to be carefully studied and designed to suit the local population. Care should be taken to see that there is no development of slums since it would be responsible for degrading the life of the citizens. There are various types of housing styles. When a land use plan is
made, zones for independent housing, midrise buildings, high rise buildings are allocated. Land use maps are of two
types. Type 1 helps us study the land use on a broad range. All we can see are the residential, commercial and recreational zones.
4. Public buildings Public buildings should be well grouped and distributed throughout the town . Unnecessary
concentration of public buildings should be avoided. Factors such as parking facilities, road widths have to be taken into consideration while allocating the space for public buildings.
5. Recreation centres Recreation centres have to be given importance while designing a town. They are necessary for the recreational activities of the general public. They include parks for walking and cycling, amusement parks etc.
6. Road systems Road network hierarchy is very important. The efficiency of any town is measured by the layout of its roads. A nicely designed road system puts a great impression in the minds of people, especially the visitors to the town. The provision of a faulty road system in the initial stages of town formation proves to be too difficult and costly to repair or to re-arrange in future.
7. Transport facilities The town should be provided with suitable transport facilities so that there is minimum loss of time from place of work to the place of residence. Efficiency in transport facilities includes both public
and private networks. Public transportation network includes access to buses, trains, trams and trolleybuses. Efficiency in using the public transport will determine the success of that town in terms
of design.
Town planning has gained a lot of importance today . New towns are being developed. It has become very important for the town planners to concentrate on old development as well as the new
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development. It is essential that old and new development are linked properly . Energy efficiency in planning should be the goal of any town planner, urban designer or an Architect.
12.11.3 Issues in urban planning
A checklist of some of the issues that must be considered in urban planning, when developing or implementing a policy or design:
1. Urban sprawl & inefficient use of land causes housing affordability problems, transport problems, and uses up a finite resource.
2. Transport: In most cases roads dominate, and the development does not support public transport, and is unfriendly for walking and cycling.
3. Design for human scale, rather than cars and commerce. Design should inspire community
and create a pleasant living environment. 4. Community or neighborhood identity adds to the feeling of place and cohesiveness of the
community. This is helped by access to most facilities within the local area; a strong local economy (including a local currency or bartering system?) The dominant 20th century model results in isolation, lack of familiarity with neighbors (which contributes to crime) and many more trips out of the neighborhood (especially by car).
5. Single use vs mixed use developments. Since the rise of the car, recent decades have favored single use; mixed use may enable more needs to be met locally.
6. Environment: water & waste. 7. Environment: energy usage. 8. Affordability and accessibility. The social impact of housing costs. 9. Regional development - decentralization, revitalization of country towns. How, and ask: Why
is it needed, why have people left? 10. To plan or not to plan?
Overarching vision and plan? Or a few simple principles to encourage sustainability
and quality of life? Note that suburban sprawl was created with regulations, and traditional neighborhoods which grew into the most vibrant and desirable parts of
cities had much less regulation, and would certainly not be permitted today. Need for participation by local communities, and ultimate say in their own
communities. 11. Existing communities: gradual & staged improvements. How to create community? How to
achieve appropriate density and affordable housing, when resident’s natural tendency is to fight change, especially change that might negatively affect their house prices.
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