Name …………………………………………………………

Date ………………………………………………………….

GEOGRAPHY CE

CONTENT REVISION

2016 - 17

Exam Content

1. GEOMORPHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

(a)What is the difference between weathering and erosion?

Erosion is the wearing away of the land through moving forces such as rivers and waves whereas

weathering involves the breakdown of the land in situ (in one place) through processes that do not

involve movement such as freeze-thaw action or acid rain. Whereas in erosion the broken up

material is removed (as load), in weathering it remains at the point of weathering as scree.

(b) Describe the different types of weathering.

Physical weathering is the disintegration of rocks by physical processes, large rocks being broken

down into smaller rocks.

Freeze thaw weathering (frost shattering) is a type of physical weathering that occurs in cold

climates where temperatures fluctuate around freezing point. Water freezes in cracks and

expands putting the surrounding rock under pressure. When the temperature rises above freezing

the ice thaws and fills in the new gaps. If this is repeated many times then the cracks are made

larger and eventually sharp, angular pieces of rock break off known as scree. (Draw the diagram

below)

Onion-skin weathering is a also a sort of physical weathering that occurs in hot climates when

repeated heating and cooling of the outer layers of rocks during the day and night respectively leads

to the expansion and contraction of the outer layers of rocks. This creates stress in the rock and

eventually the outer layer of rock peels off leaving behind more rounded rocks.

Chemical weathering is the decomposition of the rock by a chemical change within the rock.

Acid Rain/Carbonation is a well known form of chemical weathering. All rain is naturally acidic

because it passes through carbon dioxide. Man has increased the levels of this gas by burning fossil fuels and so rain water is even more acidic – Acid Rain. Certain rocks containing calcium

carbonates are literally dissolved. Limestone statues and buildings are very prone to this. This

process is speeded up in warm wet conditions.

Oxidation is also chemical weathering. When oxygen in the air reacts with certain minerals in

rocks, such as iron or copper, those minerals will rust and turn brown or red and flake away.

(c) What is deposition?

When an agent of erosion, such as a river or the sea, drops its load because it lacks energy, perhaps

because it is moving slowly.

(d) Why does a river deposit its load?

Because it is losing energy as it slows down (i.e. when it enters the sea producing a delta or on the

inside of meanders producing a beach called a slip-off slope).

(e) Name and describe the different types of river erosion.

Attrition: rocks are broken up because they collide into each other.

Hydraulic action: the force of flowing water dislodges particles from the river bed and banks.

Abrasion (corrosion): the rubbing of load against the bed and banks.

Corrosion: water dissolving some rocks such as limestone.

(f) Name and describe how a river transports its load.

Traction: boulders and rocks rolled along river bed when river has lots of energy.

Saltation: smaller pebbles bounced along river bed.

Suspension: light particles of silt held within water making it look murky brown.

Solution: dissolved minerals within water.

(g) Use labelled diagrams to explain how landforms were made.

Make sure that your diagrams are large and clear with plenty of geographical labels showing

processes operating and naming parts of the landforms.

Waterfall (erosion landform)

SECTION B

Meanders (erosion and deposition landform)

Actually try to draw on an arrow showing the route of the fastest flow around the outside of bends.

Ox-Bow Lake (erosion and deposition landform)

Actually try to draw on an arrow showing the route of the fastest flow around the outside of

bends.

(h) With the help of a labelled diagram, explain how a flood plain is formed?

This is a deposition landform.

(i) Why do rivers flood? Why does a place shown in the photo flood regularly?

Causes should be divided into physical and human causes.

Physical causes can include: heavy rainfall, snowmelt, saturated ground, frost, marshy areas, lots of

tributaries (high drainage density)

Human causes can include: adding drains to take water to river faster, building impermeable

surfaces, deforestation, straightening rivers

(j) How could people be affected by floods?

Think of primary and secondary effects.

Primary effects could include: death, injury, damage to buildings, factories, shops and tourist

attractions, crops

Secondary effects could include: silt on ground, loss of business, farm trade, tourism declines

(k) How can humans respond to the threats of river floods?

Always try to give an example of where these responses are tried.

Don’t build on the flood plain Build a dam, e.g. Aswan Dam on Nile, Three Gorges Dam on Yangtze

Don’t straighten and narrow channels

Plant more trees

Better monitoring of rainfall and river with warnings

Strategic flood plains (that are deliberately flooded)

Reinforce and heighten embankments

(l) What happens to the size and load as one travels from the source to the mouth of a

river?

Size decreases and shape gets rounder as load is eroded die to attrition.

(m) Describe the different types of coastal erosion.

Abrasion (corrosion): large waves throwing beach material (sand and shingle) against a cliff

Attrition: waves cause rocks and pebbles to rub against each other and to break up into smaller

particles.

Corrosion (solution): when salts and acids in the water slowly dissolve rock, e.g. limestone.

Hydaulic Action: the force of waves compressing air in cracks in cliffs.

(n) What are the coastal features produced by erosion, transportation and deposition?

Be ready to recognise these on an O.S. map.

Erosion: headlands and bays, cliffs, wave-cut platforms, caves, arches, stacks and stumps

Transportation: spit through longshore drift

Deposition: beaches and spits

(o) What is longshore drift?

The process by which material is moved along the beach because of the prevailing wind approaching

the beach at a diagonal angle. The upcoming weaves (swash) move material diagonally up the beach

and the retreating waves (backwash) drag material down the beach. See spit diagram below)

(p) Draw labelled diagrams to show how some of the above coastal landform were

created.

Cliff and Wave-cut platform (erosion)

Headlands and Bays (with caves, arches, stacks and stumps)

Spits (deposition and transportation)

(q) What are the causes of, and solutions to, cliff collapse?

Causes (think in terms of physical and human)

Consider the Holderness coastline. A physical cause for rapid erosion is because it is made of very

soft rock called boulder clay which was deposited by retreating glaciers at the end of the last ice

age. A human cause which has increased the rate of erosion is the building of sea defences at places

like Mappleton where they have groynes. This means that they trap beach material and this material

does not travel down the coast and so people like the farmer Sue Earle suffer.

Solutions

Do not build on cliff tops. Let nature take its own course. Defend the base of the cliffs with sea

defences. In recent years the British government has adopted a strategy of managed retreat. This

means accepting that certain low-lying areas of coastline are liable to erosion and flooding. The

government will allow them to slowly flood and instead defend coastlines where people live or

work. Cheap farmland around the Essex and Norfolk coastline is likely to be lost.

(r) How can the coastline be defended?

A beach is the best form of defence for it absorbs the impact of waves. Groynes slow down

longshore drift and help build beaches. Revetments heighten a beach and protect the cliff line.

Sea walls and gabions absorb the impact of crashing waves.

SEE CASE STUDY OF A FLOOD

2. WEATHER AND CLIMATE

a. Explain the difference between weather and climate.

Climate is the state of the atmosphere over a large area and a long period of time. It is the

average weather. E.g. Britain has a humid temperate maritime climate.

Weather is the state of the atmosphere over a small area and on a daily basis. E.g. today it is warm

and dry in London.

b. Use the climate graph shown to compare the climate patterns in different

places.

Consider the following:

Temperature (the line): maximum, minimum, temperature range (difference between

maximum and minimum), seasonal change

Rainfall (the bars): total rainfall, maximum and minimum, seasonal change

c. Draw annotated diagrams and write to explain the different types of rainfall.

Relief rainfall is created when moist air is forced to rise over highland areas. As it rises it cools,

condenses and eventually precipitates on the windward side of the hills. As the air sinks down the

other side of the highlands it warms up and evaporates. As a result the air is drier and there is less

rain. This is called the rainshadow. It is the leeward side of the mountains.

Frontal rainfall occurs throughout the year over Britain as warm air masses blowing from

relatively warm areas such as the Atlantic or Africa meet colder air masses from the North Pole or

Russia. The air masses do not mix and the warmer lighter and less dense air rises over the cooler,

denser and heavier air. As a result the moisture in the warm air cools, condenses and precipitates.

Where these air masses meet is called a front.

Convectional rainfall is due to the sun heating the ground. Warmed air above then starts to rise

(this is the convection). This warm air evaporates moisture from lakes, rivers and marshes and

plants transpire. The warm air continues to rise, then cools, condenses and rains. This sometimes

happens on hot summer days in the UK and occurs almost every day in the tropical rainforest.

Explain the effect of relief on the variations in rainfall patterns in the UK.

The West of Britain is wetter than the east because prevailing winds blow over the Atlantic and

Irish Sea from the South west and is then forced to rise over the mountains and hills which tend to

be in the West and North of the country. These areas will receive relief rain whilst the East is in

the rainshadow and so will be drier.

Describe what is meant by the term ‘hydrological (water) cycle’ and describe its main

features.

The hydrological cycle is the continuous recycling of water in its various states between the air,

land and sea.

Its main features should be described using a diagram (see below). Make sure that you can define all

of the processes on it. See glossary.

(d) Describe the main characteristics of Britain’s climate.

Humid: rain falls throughout the year.

Temperate: no extremes of temperature, mild winters and cool summers.

Maritime: influenced by the sea

See the map below for a more detailed description of the climate in the four corners of Britain.

(e) Describe and explain the differences between the humid temperate climate (of

Britain) and the humid tropical climate (of the equatorial rainforest).

When explaining climates diagrams are useful, e.g. convectional rainfall, how sun strikes the Equator

and poles, etc.

Humid Temperate Humid Tropical

Description

Warm winters Hot summers and winters

Cool summers Little seasonal change in temperatures

Rain throughout the year rain throughout year

Clear seasonal change in temperature large rainfall total

Seasonal changes in rainfall

Explanation

Northerly latitude 50˚+ Equatorial so receives concentrated

Sun spread over larger area overhead sun throughout year

Seasons due to more direct sun in summer Convectional rainfall daily

Relief rain in North and west

Frontal rain all year

Sea moderates extremes (cools in

Summer, warms in winter) Gulf Stream and SW prevailing winds

(f) How do the Gulf Stream and prevailing winds affect Britain’s climate?

Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift): this is a warm current of water that crosses the North

Atlantic from the Gulf of Mexico and flows between the UK and Iceland. It warms the air above it

and this air is blown over Britain by the prevailing winds from the SW. The impact is most

noticeable in winter when Britain, and the West coast in particular, are kept warmer than most

places at this latitude.

Prevailing Winds: Our prevailing winds come from the SW and blow over the Atlantic Ocean.

They will blow the warmth from the Gulf Stream to us. They also blow the relative heat from the

sea to us in winter and the relative coolness from the sea in summer, so moderating our climate,

not letting it get too warm or cold. They will also blow the moisture from the sea and that is why

we have rain throughout the year.

Occasional winds bring different weather, e.g. a wind from the North would bring much colder

weather and snow in winter.

(g) What is a microclimate?

A microclimate describes how the climate in a small area such as the school grounds varies from

that of the surrounding area.

(h) What factors affect a microclimate?

How may weather conditions between two places on the OS map vary?

Surface colour-dark surfaces absorb heat and are warmer, e.g. tarmac playgrounds

Distance from water-water can moderate temperatures, cooling in summer, heating in winter

Aspect-the direction a place faces. South facing gardens in Britain are warmer

Shelter-walls and buildings can shelter areas from cold winds but they also create shade

Altitude-for approximately every 150m you rise the temperature drops by one degree.

Buildings –release warmth from central heating and bricks and concrete absorbs heat

Vegetation-trees can shade areas and intercept rain

Urban Heat Island Effect-urban areas are warmer than surrounding countryside due to the

darker surface colours and the heat released from factories, cars and houses. Air pollution can

create smog when water molecules condense around dust particles. Wind speeds are generally

lower due to buildings which act as wind breaks.

(i) Describe and explain where you would place a weather station.

A weather station is a collection of weather (meteorological) instruments, many of which will be

stored in a Stevenson Screen. Its location needs to take account of the microclimate of the area

as described above.

With what instruments are the following aspects of the weather measured?

Temperature with a thermometer, wind speed with an anemometer, wind direction with a

wind vane or wind sock, air pressure with a barometer, rainfall with a rain gauge.

(j) What is the name given to a low pressure system?

A depression. They are created when warm air rises. This usually happens at a front where warm

air is forced to rise over colder air. As it rises it cools, condenses and precipitates.

(k) Describe the type of weather which is associated with a depression?

Unsettled weather, strong winds, winds blowing anticlockwise, fronts bring belts of rain and cloud,

storms, a sequence of weather with the warm front passing first and then the cold front, moving

towards the East over Britain.

(l) What is the name given to a high pressure system?

An anticyclone. They are created when air cools and sinks. As it does so it warms up, evaporates

any moisture and produces cloudless skies.

Describe the weather associated with a high pressure system.

Few clouds, blue skies, light winds, no rain, dry, winds blowing clockwise, covers the whole country,

lasts several days, in summers hot sunny heat wave conditions, in winter frost and fog result.

(m) Which side of Britain is usually wetter, the East or the West? Why is this?

The West is wetter as warm moist air is blown off the Irish Sea and Atlantic by prevailing winds

and hits the West first. There are mountains and relief rain in the West. The East is in the rain

shadow.

(n) Why are places colder or warmer than others in the UK?

To answer this question you must consider:

Latitude – as you travel north it becomes colder as the sun’s rays are spread over more a larger

area and there is more atmosphere to travel through.

Altitude – Higher places are colder

Distance from the sea – cooling effect in the summer relative to land temperatures and warming

effect during the winter.

Gulf Stream (North Atlantic Drift) –Warming effect during the winter.

4. ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

(a) What are primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary economic activities?

An economic activity is a job.

Primary: extracting raw materials from the ground, e.g. farmer, miner.

Secondary: manufacturing or processing goods using the raw materials provided by the primary

activities, e.g. factories, oil refinery.

Tertiary: providing a service by selling a good,e.g. shopkeeper, or some expertise/skill, e.g. doctor,

nurse.

Quaternary: research and development.

Most people in MEDCs work in tertiary jobs whilst most people in LEDCs are either in primary or

secondary jobs.

Be ready to identify different types of economic activities on an OS map.

(b) What is a NIC?

A Newly Industrialised Country, e.g. China, South Korea.

(c) Name a farming type and its location and then explain why it is located there.

Type: extensive pastoral sheep farming.

Location: Lake District, UK

Factors: Divide factors into physical and human factors

Physical (most important in this case)

Poor thin soil so not ideal for arable farming, fine for grazing sheep.

Steep slopes so machinery cannot be used for arable farming, sheep can cope with such slopes. High ground which is too cold for most pastoral animals and crops is bearable for sheep.

Strong winds and heavy rains make arable farming difficult but sheep are resistant.

Human (less important here)

Land is relatively cheap and a lot is needed in sheep grazing.

Machinery/buildings: little needed, possibly a quad bike and lambing shed.

Chemicals: for dipping sheep, natural manure is used as fertiliser.

Market: improved road transport has helped in export of sheep.

Government can influence market by providing subsidies. The National Park authority encourages

traditional farming activities. The 2001 foot and mouth disease meant that many sheep were

slaughtered and this posed a major threat to the livelihood of many farmers.

Useful farming words to use in your writing :

Pastoral: animal rearing.

Arable: ploughing land and growing crops.

Subsistence: keeping the farm produce for oneself (self sufficiency)

Commercial: selling the produce for profit.

Intensive: using a small area of land very efficiently, possibly by using lots of workers (e.g. labour

intensive rice farming in the Ganges valley of India) or lots of machinery and chemicals bought with

capital (money) (e.g. market gardening in Lincolnshire).

Extensive: using a large area of land and with fewer workers or machines and chemicals per hectare

of land.

(d) Name a secondary industry and give its location.

Name Clothing Industry - Walmart

Location Dhaka, Bangladesh

Growth

Physical factors were that the area had plenty of space for big factories, land was flat for easy

building, there was excellent access to the rest of the world via the Indian Ocean, there are local

resources such as cotton, dyes etc.

Human factors were that there were lots of neighbouring cities as markets, there were lots of

potential labourers as well, it was where traditional textile industries are based and paying workers

a low wage. Poor working standards allow for exploitation and sweat shops.

(e) What have been the effects of such change on the local area? What has been the

impact of the closure of a factory on a local area?

In Detroit the decline brought lots of empty spaces and derelict buildings, a lack of investment,

unemployment, little money raised in taxes to invest in services, the wealthy moved out to the

suburbs leaving behind the poor and crime. Shops closed down.

(f) Using a named tertiary industry describe its location and give reasons for its

location.

Name Tourism

Location Lake District, Cumbria, North West England.

Grew up due to physical attractions of coastline, beautiful views from hills and valleys, fresh air,

sea, Wastwater (deepest lake), Windermere and human attractions of Roman Fort, Stone Circles,

Wordsworth Museum etc. The arrival of the railways in the nineteenth century made it accessible

to Londoners. Royal and rich visitors made it fashionable to visit such resorts.

(g) The tourist industry is changing rapidly. What are some reasons for this change?

People are wealthier and can afford more holidays. People have more time off work. Transport has

improved. Tourist facilities are more accessible and attractive. People are more aware of the

opportunities for holidays.

(h) Give evidence from the OS map to show that the area is attractive to tourists.

Look for physical and human features that tourists would visit. Many tourist attractions have blue

symbols. Always pick obvious evidence and different features. Examples might be an information

centre, a cathedral, a nature reserve, walking trails, beaches, woodland walks.

(i) What economic activity/sector is a quarry?

It is a primary activity as it extracts stone or a mineral from the ground

(j) What conflicts might a quarry cause in the local environment and community?

Environment is affected by dust and explosions. Wildlife is lost when habitats are destroyed. It scars

the landscape. Community is affected by noise of explosions, heavy lorries on narrow country

roads.

(k) Name a secondary economic activity you have studied in an LEDC. For this

economic activity name two inputs, two throughputs and two outputs.

Clothes Production for Wal-Mart, Dhaka, Bangladesh

Inputs: Cloth, Leather, Thread, Cotton, Metal Zips etc.

Throughputs: Cutting, Sewing, Gluing etc.

Outputs: Shoes, T-Shirts, Pollution, Waste etc.

SEE CASE STUDY OF A GLOBAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

SEE CASE STUDY OF A LOCAL ECONOMIC ACTIVITY

Earthquakes and Volcanoes (Tectonics)

There should be some general questions on tectonics as well as a specific question on a case study.

Remember the structure of the Earth and make sure that you can define the labelled words (see

glossary).

(a) Describe the pattern/distribution of earthquake and/or volcanic activity as shown

on the map in the exam paper.

Do use the map and do not muddle earthquakes with volcanoes. Try to mention the names of the

plates, the directions in which they are moving (towards, apart, etc) and the types of boundaries.

Earthquakes are found in fairly wide belts which encircle the Pacific Ocean and run across Central

Asia into the Mediterranean. They are on all plate boundaries. Name countries that suffer

earthquakes.

Volcanoes are found in narrow belts, mostly around the Pacific Ring of Fire and Mid Atlantic Ridge

as well as a few in the Mediterranean and East Africa. They are often near coasts. They occur on

constructive and destructive boundaries. A notable exception is the Hawaiian volcanic chain that

lies in the middle of the Pacific Ocean over a hot spot.

(b) Name and locate on the map three areas of the world commonly affected by

earthquake activity and three areas affected by volcanic activity.

Try to give details of specific events and the types of plate boundary involved.

Be ready to locate these places on a world map.

Earthquakes

Sendai (2011) destructive boundary between Pacific oceanic and Eurasian continental plates.

Kobe (1995) destructive boundary between Philippine oceanic and Eurasian continental plates.

San Francisco in California (1906, 1989) on a conservative boundary between North American

continental and Pacific oceanic plates.

Pakistan and Afghanistan in Himalayas on a collision boundary between Indo-Australian and Eurasian

continental plates.

Volcanoes

Pinatubo (1991) in Philippines on a destructive boundary between Philippine oceanic and Eurasian

continental plates.

Montserrat (1995) on destructive boundary between Caribbean and North and South American

plates.

Etna (2002) on destructive plate boundary between Eurasian and African continental plates.

Eyjafjallajökull (2010) on constructive plate boundary between Eurasian and North American

continental plates.

(c) Explain why earthquakes and volcanoes occur on or close to plate boundaries.

What is tectonic activity?

Explain that the Earth’s crust is divided into oceanic and continental plates that are moved by

convection currents in the mantle. Then describe the different directions that plates move

(towards each other, away and sliding past). This results in four types of boundary, name them, give

examples and describe what is happening at them.

Destructive boundary: denser oceanic plate is subducted (forced under) less dense continental

plate usually. Violent earthquakes result from friction. Volcanoes are created when the subducted

plate melts and magma forces its way to surface through weaknesses in crust, e.g. Kobe and

Pinatubo.

Constructive Boundary: oceanic plates move creating ocean ridges such as the Mid Atlantic

Ridge. Plate movement leads to smaller earthquakes and magma rising into gaps makes volcanoes.

Collision Boundary: continental plates collide and rocks buckle to create fold mountains such

as the Himalayas. There are no volcanoes but there are major earthquakes.

Conservative Boundary: Two plates pass sideways past each other in the same or opposite

direction and the resulting friction creates earthquakes, but not volcanoes, e.g. San Andreas Fault in

California.

(d) Why do people continue to live in areas that are tectonically active?

For each reason try to give a named example of where this applies. If a question is about

earthquakes do not mention volcanic benefits!

Fertilise soil from volcanic ash or lava, e.g. Etna.

Unaware of risks/ignorance, e.g. Romans around Vesuvius. Jobs and economic prosperity, especially in tourism, e.g. Tokyo, Vesuvius.

Family and friends live near by.

Religion or superstition, e.g. local people near Pinatubo saw early signs of eruption as sign of a goof

harvest.

Inertia: it’s easier to stay put rather than to move.

Gambling: it won’t happen in my lifetime.

Belief in technology: people in Japan may believe that technology will protect them.

(e) Name either an earthquake or volcanic eruption that you have studied and

describe why it occurred/what caused the tectonic hazard.

See causes on separate case study pages.

(f) Describe some of the hazards created by a named volcanic eruption or a named

earthquake/Explain how tectonic movements affect people who live in the region of

plate boundaries.

See effects on separate case study pages.

(g) How have humans learnt to cope with such hazards? How do humans respond to

such hazards?

See responses on separate case study pages.

(h) Why are LEDC countries hit hardest by the effects of earthquakes or volcanoes?

They often know less about tectonic processes

Monitoring is limited

Warnings are difficult if population don’t have TVs or radios

Buildings are not as well built

Population and emergency services have been less well educated about what to do in an

emergency.

Poorer emergency services, limited response strategies

Limited money to rebuild

Often more isolated with poorer transport so aid takes time to arrive

(i) What is the difference between the focus and the epicentre of an earthquake?

The focus is the point underground where the energy of the earthquake is released (shock

waves). The epicentre is the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus, so it receives

the strongest shockwaves.

(j) Why do some earthquakes cause more destruction than others?

Similar to (h). Also focus on geology, hard bed rock eg Chalk absorbs more of the earthquakes

energy but Clay wobbles like jelly. Think about how close cities are to the epicentre of the

earthquake, population density of the region/area too.

LOCATIONAL KNOWLEDGE

You will be provided with a blank outline map of the world and a blank outline map of the British

Isles.

You will be expected to locate all of your case studies on the maps (see attached sheets).

There will be other locational questions in the thematic section and the case study section which

will refer to places listed on the pages of locational knowledge.

After these lists there follow pages with all of the places highlighted on maps.

After these completed maps are other blank maps for you to practise upon.

GLOSSARY OF USEFUL TERMS

The Common Entrance setters now provide a glossary of useful terms.

You really should be able to understand and use these terms.

A sophisticated and mature vocabulary is one sign of a good geographer.

APPENDIX I

LOCATION KNOWLEDGE

Questions will be set only on locations shown in this appendix.

Major global physical features

Continents Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Oceania, Europe, North and South

America

Mountain ranges Alps, Andes, Himalayas, Pyrenees, Rockies

Desert Sahara

Oceans Arctic, Indian, Atlantic, Pacific

Rivers Amazon, Mississippi, Nile, Rhine, Yangtze

Other global features

Arctic Circle, Antarctic Circle, Equator, International Dateline, North Pole, Prime Meridian, South

Pole, Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn

British Isles

Countries The countries of the UK and the Republic of Ireland

Sea areas English Channel, Irish Sea, North Sea

Rivers Severn, Thames, Trent, Clyde, Shannon

Hills Grampians, Lake District, Pennines, Snowdonia

Major cities Belfast, Birmingham, Cardiff, Dublin, Edinburgh, Glasgow,

Liverpool, London, Manchester, Newcastle

Countries

Europe France, Germany, Greece, Italy, Poland, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, Ukraine

Africa Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Nigeria, South Africa

Americas Brazil, Canada, Mexico, USA

Asia Afghanistan, Bangladesh, China, India, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq,

Japan, Pakistan, Russia, Saudi Arabia

Oceania Australia, New Zealand

Major cities and city states

Beijing, Berlin, Cairo, Delhi, Los Angeles, Madrid, Mexico City, Moscow, New York, Paris, Rio de

Janeiro, Rome, Sydney, Tokyo, Warsaw, Washington DC

APPENDIX II

GLOSSARY OF USEFUL TERMS

A

air mass a very large body of air with relatively uniform temperature and

moisture characteristics

air pressure the weight of the air above a reference point, measured in

millibars

atmosphere the layer of air round the earth

B

bay an area of sea between two headlands

beach material which the sea deposits on the coast

bedding plane the line dividing successive layers of sedimentary rock

biodiversity the number and variety of all living things within an ecosystem

brownfield site disused or derelict urban land which is available for

redevelopment

business park a development of offices and industrial units

bypass a road built round a town

C

CBD Central Business District : the commercial and business centre of

a town, with highest land values

climate the average weather over many years

collision boundary where continental plates collide

compass an instrument used to identify direction

condense gas becoming liquid

conservative boundary where two tectonic plates slide past each other, but where crust

is neither formed nor destroyed

constructive boundary where two tectonic plates move apart from each other and new

crust is formed

continent a large land mass

contour line a line on an OS map joining all points of the same height core the centre of the Earth

crust the thin outer layer of solid rock round the Earth’s surface

D

dam a wall built to hold back water

decompose the breakdown of organic material by animals, bacteria and fungi

desert an area receiving less than 250 mm of precipitation per year

destructive boundary where an oceanic plate slides underneath a continental plate or

another oceanic plate

dispersed spread out

dormant inactive

drought a prolonged period of below average precipitation

E

easting a vertical grid line on an OS map

ecosystem an area displaying a distinctive interaction between plants,

animals and the physical environment

eco-tourism low impact tourism aimed at protecting the natural environment

and local cultures

environment the air, land, water, plants and wildlife

epicentre the point on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus of an

earthquake

equator the imaginary line running round the middle of the Earth

erosion the wearing away of the land by material carried in rivers,

glaciers, waves and wind

ethnic group people of the same racial origin

evaporate liquid turning to gas

extinct no longer in existence (of animals): no longer active (of

volcanoes)

F

fault a line of weakness in rock

fetch the maximum distance over which wind can blow to form a wave

fieldwork an enquiry which takes place outside the classroom

floodplain the flat area either side of a river which is regularly flooded

focus the point underground where the energy of an earthquake is

released

fog cloud at ground level (visibility less than 1km)

foreshock a small earthquake before a large one

front the boundary between warm and cool air masses

function the activities of a settlement

G

geothermal energy heat and electricity produced from hot, underground water

gorge a deep, steep-sided valley

graph a drawing to show data

greenfield site land which has not been built on before

grid reference reference a number which locates an area on a map

globalisation the ways in which companies, ideas and lifestyles spread round

the world and interact with one another

H

habitat the area where plants and animals live headland a promontory of more resistant rock which juts out into the sea

hemisphere half of the globe

hierarchy a ranking of settlements according to their size or importance

high order settlement a settlement which contains top level shops and services

humidity the moisture in the air

hydro-electric power electricity produced by water being released through dam

turbines

I

infiltration the movement of water from surface into the soil

interception precipitation landing on plants, trees and buildings

irrigation the artificial watering of crops

isotherm a line on a map joining places of equal temperature

J

joint a crack in the rock

K

key a list giving the meaning of symbols on a map

L

land use the way in which land is put to use by humans

landfill the disposal of waste in natural or man-made holes in the ground

lava molten rock at the Earth’s surface

LEDC Less Economically Developed Country

levée an embankment next to a river channel, raised above the flood

plain

linear long and narrow

longshore drift a movement of sand and pebbles along a beach by wave action

low order settlement a settlement which contains few basic shops and services

M

magma molten rock beneath the Earth’s crust

mantle the semi-solid mass of rock beneath the Earth’s crust

market the place where goods are sold

mass movement the movement of weathered soil and rock on a slope

meander a bend in a river

MEDC More Economically Developed Country

microclimate the local climate of a small area such as a garden

N

national park an area of countryside of outstanding beauty which is protected

from development

NIC Newly Industrialised Country

northing a horizontal grid line on an OS map

nucleated clustered together

O

OS Ordnance Survey

P

percentage the number out of 100

permeable allowing water to flow through, e.g. joints in rocks plate boundary the point where two tectonic plates meet

plate tectonics the theory explaining how the Earth’s crust is able to move

plunge pool a deep pool which is eroded at the base of a waterfall

pollution damage to the environment as a result of human activity

porous able to hold water like a sponge

precipitation rain, snow, hail or sleet

primary information geographical data which one has collected oneself

pyroclastic flow a cloud of superheated gas and ash ejected from a volcano

R

raw material mineral and agricultural resources which can be processed to

make something else

recycling reusing waste

relief the height and shape of the land

renewable energy a sustainable source of power which can be used indefinitely (e.g.

wind, solar, tidal)

reservoir a lake behind a dam

resource any product of the environment used by people

retail selling products to the public

river basin an area of land drained by a river and its tributaries

river cliff a steep, undercut area on the outside of a river meander

run-off the movement of water across a surface

rural relating to the countryside

S

science park a development of high-tech industries close to a university

scree piles of broken rock found beneath steep rock faces

secondary information geographical data collected by somebody else

sedimentary rock layered rock formed by deposition of sediments

seismic wave a shock wave produced by earthquakes

seismometer a sensitive instrument used to measure earthquakes

service industry work such as retail, administration, education, healthcare or

tourism

settlement pattern the shape and spacing of settlements

settlement a place where people live

site the exact location of a settlement

situation the location of a settlement in relation to the surrounding area

slip-off slope a gently-sloping area formed on the inside of a river meander

spit an extended beach which grows by deposition across a bay or

river mouth

social relating to society

source the beginning of a river

stack a pillar of rock which stands in the sea

stewardship looking after resources in a sustainable way for the future

suburb the residential and commercial development at the edge of a city

sustainable using resources in a way which prevents them from being

exhausted/running out

symbol something used to represent something else

T

tectonic plate a large, rigid section of the Earth’s crust

topographical map a map showing natural features

tourism travel involving an overnight stay away from home, and

associated support industry transportation the movement of eroded material

tributary a river joining a larger river

tsunami a sea wave caused by earthquakes and volcanic eruptions

U

urban relating to a town or city

urbanisation the increase in the percentage of people living in cities

V

vegetation trees, shrubs and plants

volcanic bomb lava exploded into the air which solidifies as it falls

W

waste items which no longer have a use

waterfall a point on a river where water falls vertically

water table the upper surface of water in the ground

weathering the breakdown of rocks in situ by mechanical, chemical or

biological means

APPENDIX III

COMMAND WORDS

used in Common Entrance and Common Academic Scholarship papers

annotate add descriptive explanatory labels

choose select carefully from a number of alternatives

complete finish, make whole

define give an exact description of

describe write down the nature of the feature

develop expand upon an idea

explain write in detail how something has come into being and/or

changed

give show evidence of

identify find evidence of

list put a number of examples in sequence

mark and name show the exact location of and add the name

name give a precise example of

select pick out as most suitable or best

shade and name fill in the area of a feature and add the name

state express fully and clearly in words

study look at and/or read carefully

suggest propose reasons or ideas for something

scholarship only

discuss present viewpoints from various aspects of a subject

elaborate similar to expand and illustrate

expand develop an argument and/or present greater detail on

illustrate use examples to develop an argument or a theme