GEOGRAPHY AND TECHNOLOGY

Geography and Technology

Edited by

Stanley D. Brunn Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, U.S.A.

Susan L. Cutter Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, U.S.A.

and

J. W. Harrington, J f.

Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, U.S.A.

SPRINGER SCIENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, LLC

A c.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress

ISBN 978-1-4020-1871-8 ISBN 978-1-4020-2353-8 (eBook) DOI 10.1007/978-1-4020-2353-8

The cover image, "A Digital Sunset over Europe and Asia," is a digital composite from daytime land images taken by MODIS instruments on NASA's Terra satellite and nighttime images taken by DMSP satellites. Copyright: The Living Earth, Inc. Used with Permission.

Printed on acid-free paper

All Rights Reserved © 2004 Springer Science+Business Media New York Originally published by Kluwer Academic Publishers 2004 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1 st edition 2004

No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording Of otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Figures ................................................................................................... VIII

Tables ......................................................................................................... X

Foreword Douglas Richardson ......................................................................... XI

Preface and Acknowledgements .......................................................... XIII

Contributing Authors .......................................................................... XVII

Color Plates ........................................................................................... XXI

Part I - Geography and Technology Interfaces

1. Geography and Technology Thomas J. Wilbanks ............................................................................ 3

2. Communications Technology and the Production of Geographical Knowledge Ron Johnston .................................................................................... 17

3. Federal Funding, Geographic Research, and Geographic Technologies: 1904-2004 Fred M. Shelley, Wendy Bigler, and Richard Aspinall ...................... 37

Part II - Technologies That Changed Geography

4. The Imbrication of Geography and Technology: The Social Construction of Geographic Information Systems Francis J. Harvey and Nicholas R. Chrisman .................................. 65

5. Computers and Geography: From Automated Geography to Digital Earth Daniel Sui and Richard Morrill ....................................................... 81

6. Remote Sensing of Selected Biophysical Variables and Urban/Suburban Phenomena John R. Jensen and Michael E. Hodgson ....................................... 109

7. New Digital Geographies: Information, Communication, and Place Matthew Zook, Martin Dodge, Yuko Aoyama, and Anthony Townsend ................................................................... 155

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Part III - New Geographies with New Technologies

8. From Globes to GIS: The Paradoxical Role of Tools in School Geography Roger M. Downs ............................................................................. 179

9. Fieldwork in Nonwestem Contexts: Continuity and Change Philip W. Porter and Lawrence S. Grossman ................................. 201

10. The Camera and Geographical Inquiry JohnA. Jakie ................................................. .................................. 221

11. Film Networks and the Place(s) of Technology Deborah P. Dixon and Leo E. Zonn ................................................ 243

12. Motor Vehicles on the American Landscape James M. Rubenstein ...................................................................... 267

13. Airspaces: Air Transport, Technology, and Society Thomas R. Leinbach and John J. Bowen, Jr. .................................. 285

14. A World on Demand: Geography of the 24-Hour Global TV News David R. Rain and Susan R. Brooker-Gross ................................... 315

15. Democracy and Technology Joanna Regulska .............................................. ............................... 339

16. Technologies Applied to Public Health Mihael Greenburg .......................................................................... 363

17. "Real" Bodies, "Real" Technologies Pamela Moss and Mei-Po Kwan .................................................... 383

18. Geotechnology, the U.S. Military, and War Mark W. Corson and Eugene J. Palka ............................................ 401

Part IV - The Environment and Technology

19. Earth Pulses in Direct Current Douglas J. Sherman and Andreas C. W. Baas ................................. 431

20. The Impact of Technology Upon In Situ Atmospheric Observations and Climate Science Julie A. Winkler ............................................... ................................ 461

21. Population-Environment Interactions with an Emphasis on Land-UselLand-Cover Dynamics and Role of Technology

VII

Stephen J. Walsh, Tom P. Evans, and Billie L. Turner II ................ 491

22. Capacity Building and Geographic Information Technologies in African Development D.R.F. Taylor ................................................ ................................... 521

23. Natural Hazards and Technology: Vulnerability, Risk, and Community Response in Hazardous Environments Graham A. Tobin and Burrell E. Montz .......................................... 547

Part V - The Worlds Before Us

24. The GIS Revolution in Science and Society Jerome E. Dobson ................................................ ........................... 573

25. Why Technology? Narratives of Science and the Bewitchment of an Image Michael Curry ................................................................................ 589

Index ........................................................................................................ 603

FIGURES

Figure Page

3-1. The change in federal funding for geographic research: 1950-99 .. 56

5-1. Illustration of the relationship between computers and geography ........................................................................................ 82

6-1. The remote sensing process ........................................................... 111

6-2. Various types of passive remote sensing systems ......................... 113

6-3. An example of relatively coarse multispectral remote sensing using the ADAR 5500 digital frame camera ................................. 114

6-4. Characteristics of NASA's Advanced Visible Infrared Imaging Spectrometer ................................................................................. 115

6-5. Remote sensor data of Harbor Town in Hilton Head, South Carolina......................................................................................... 116

6-6. Components of a typical national spatial data infrastructure........ 122

6-7. GeoCover-Ortho images ............................................................... 126

6-8. Digital elevation model of Rosslyn, Virginia ................................ 127

6-9. LIDAR-derived digital elevation model ....................................... 129

6-10. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission-derived digital elevation model ............................................................................................. 131

6-11. Relationship between the spatial and temporal resolutions .......... 133

6-12. An impervious surface map derived using object-oriented classification techniques applied to USGS NAPP color-infrared orthophotography .......................................................................... 134

6-13. Global land cover 1 x 1 kIn dataset derived from MODIS data ... 137

6-14. Thirteen class land cover map of Mount Kilimanjaro derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery ...................................... 138

6-15. Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) map ......................................... 141

6-16. Leaf Area Index and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation maps of the U.S. derived from MODIS hyperspectral imagery .......................................................................................... 143

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7 -1. An example of how cartography can be used to envision infrastructure of digital geographies ............................................. 160

7-2. A graph visualization of the topology of network connections of the core of the Internet, December 11, 2000 ................................. 161

7-3. Sample Wayback Machine web pages ........................................... 173

10-1. Comparison of the number of graphics included in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers and in Economic Geography, 1940-2000 .................................................................. 230

10-2. View through a rearview mirror on U.S. 30 west of Toledo, Iowa, 2002 ..................................................................................... 236

10-3. Windmill farm northwest of Palm Springs, California, 2002 ....... 237

10-4. Log house north of Andover, Pennsylvania, 1991 ........................ 237

10-5. The image of former Mayor Frank Rizzo on South Ninth Street in largely Italian-American South Philadelphia, 1995 .................. 238

10-6. Tour bus on "The Strip" in Las Vegas, 2002 ................................. 238

13-1. The rise of global air traffic .......................................................... 289

13-2. The falling commercial airline accident rate ................................. 291

19-1. Two-minute time series of water surface fluctuations measured with a pressure transducer ............................................................. 432

19-2. Thirteen-minute time series of water surface fluctuations measured with a pressure transducer ............................................ 440

19-3. Spectral analysis of the Figure 19-2 time series, showing statistically significant peak frequencies ....................................... 441

19-4. Thirteen-minute time series of water surface fluctuations measured with a pressure transducer ............................................ 441

19-5. Sediment suspension from a levee bank in the Sacramento River Delta caused by a boat wake ......................................................... 443

19-6. Synchronous time-series of wind speed obtained from a cup­anemometer measuring at 5 Hz, and a co-located hot-film probe measuring at 20 Hz ....................................................................... 450

19-7. Synchronous time-series of wind speed obtained from a hot-film probe and a co-located Safire, both measuring at 20 Hz at 4 cm above a sand surface ..................................................................... 454

21-1. GIS and the integration of data and technologies for linking people, place, and environment.. ................................................... 504

21-2. Linking the effects of households and communities through a multi-level model .......................................................................... 508

23-1. Natural hazards and human response in context ........................... 549

23-2. A revised model of hazard management ....................................... 564

TABLES

Table Page

3-1. Federal funding for geographic research: 1950-99 ......................... 49

6-1. Biophysical and categorical variables and selected representative remote sensing systems capable of providing such information ........................................................................... 120

6-2. Characteristics of the NAVSTAR global positioning system ........ 124

6-3. Urban and suburban applications and the minimum remote-sensing resolutions required to obtain such information .............. 135

13-1. Selected significant commercial passenger aircraft ...................... 288

13-3. The world's busiest passenger airports, 2002 ............................... 299

13-3. The world's busiest cargo airports, 2002 ...................................... 300

19-1. The distinctive hydrodynamic signatures of types of wave common in the surf zone ............................................................... 442

20-1. Global Climate Observing System (GCOS) Climate Monitoring Principles ....................................................................................... 483

22-1. Components of geospatial capacity building ................................ 525

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FOREWORD

It is particularly appropriate that the AAG's Centennial Celebration should prompt the publication of a volume devoted to Geography and Technology. New technologies have always been important in advancing geographic understanding, but never have they been so thoroughly and rapidly transformative of the discipline as at this stage in geography's evolution.

Just as new technologies have profoundly expanded both research possibilities and the knowledge base of other disciplines, such as biology, physics or medicine, so too are the revolutionary new geographic technologies developed during the past few decades extending frontiers in geographic research, education and applications. They are also creating new and resurgent roles for geography in both society and in the university. This trend is still accelerating, as the integration of geographic technologies, such as the global positioning system and geographic information systems (GPS/GIS), is creating an explosion of new "real-time, real-world" applications and research capabilities. The resultant dynamic space/time interactive research and management environments created by interactive GPS/GIS, among other technologies, places geography squarely at the forefront of advanced multidisciplinary research and modeling programs, and has created core organization management tools (geographic management systems) which will dramatically change the way governments and businesses work in the decades ahead.

While these and other important geographic technologies, including remote sensing, location-based services, and many others addressed in this book, are forging new opportunities for geography and geographers, they also pose challenges. Inherent within all advanced technology is the potential for its abuse, as well as for creative and beneficial uses within science and society. As geographers and as developers of new geographic technologies, we have an obligation to employ our expertise to help ensure that appropriate regulatory and legal frameworks are implemented to safeguard civil liberties and locational privacy as these new technologies become ever more widespread in research and applications. We must also work to ensure that these technologies are accessible to community-based groups, and that their benefits accrue to those historically dispossessed around the world.

As this book illustrates, our new geographic technologies are also embedded in and magnified in their impacts by parallel development in technology generally, including the broad advances in computers, the Internet, wireless communications, and many other areas. It is also the case that a great deal of cutting-edge research and innovation related to the new geographic technologies has originated in geography's burgeoning private sector,

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highlighting the need to foster stronger linkages and coordination among private, public, and university geographic researchers and research agendas, as is common in other disciplines blessed with strong private or public sector research components.

Perhaps most importantly, there remains a need to better integrate geography's transformational new technologies with geography's traditional strengths and its characteristic diversity. Technology in geography does not pose a threat to our traditions; it offers a way to extend and revitalize these traditions. Just as the microscope and DNA sequencing have revolutionized research, education, and applications in biology, and in so doing made the work of Linnaeus and Darwin ever more important to modern science and to modern medical applications, so too will new geographic technologies such as interactive GPS/GIS extend research horizons in traditional areas across the full breadth of geography, and make our applications more central to the needs of our society and our rapidly changing world.

This volume also makes clear that geographic technologies are integral to the intellectual core of our discipline, and that an understanding of their evolution and impact is essential to understanding the history and philosophy of geography as a discipline. Our ways of thinking and doing as geographers always have been and will continue to be intertwined with advances in technologies which, while neither intrinsically good nor bad, in the best of hands help us to see beyond, to integrate the disparate, to visualize complexity, to communicate the remarkable commonplace as well as the merely extraordinary, to bridge continents and disciplines, and to create geographic understanding.

I commend the editors and the authors of Geography and Technology, for their foresight and their insight at this Centennial moment in the AAG's history, and for this important publication. The topics and issues addressed in this Centennial publication will be critical to geography's future and to that of our world during the AAG's second century.

-Douglas Richardson

PREFACE

Anticipating the excitement of a centennial celebration, the Council of the Association of American Geographers formed a Centennial Coordinating Committee in 1997, seven years before the event. Among the Committee's charges was to devise and produce appropriate book publications for the 2004 centennial year. One suggestion that generated much interest would address geography, technology, and society issues, the subject matter of this book. Inasmuch as technologies have always been integral in the production of geographical knowledge, it was deemed only fitting to examine those technologies that have affected geography as a discipline, and how various fields and subfields of inquiry have been impacted by these several technologies. Among the technologies the committee considered worthy of examining were cartography, the camera, aerial photography, computers, and other computer-related technologies that have been important in the production, presentation, and dissemination of geographical information.

As this book project on geography and technology interfaces evolved in committee discussions, we were interested in potential contributions coming from colleagues with interests in technological innovations, the impacts of technologies on geography and society, disciplinary inquiries into the social! technology interfaces, high-tech as well as low-tech societies, and applications of technologies to the public and private sectors.

A description of this project appeared in several issues of the AAG Newsletter in April 2002 and was supplemented by many formal and informal calls for contributions. As editors, we also identified topics that we thought merited inclusion in any final product and solicited contributions to fill these gaps. This volume represents the contributions of individuals who submitted working titles and abstracts as well as those who responded to our suggestions for subjects we considered important in any tome on the geography/technology interfaces.

The twenty-five chapters are divided into five major sections. Part I, entitled "Geography and Technology Interfaces," includes chapters that discuss an overview of geography and technology by Wilbanks, how various communications technologies have affected the production of geographical knowledge by Johnston, and a history of federal funding for geographic research and geographical technologies during the past century by Shelley, Biglar, and Aspinall. The last chapter also describes the federally funded research that has appeared in major U.S. geographical journals.

Part II, "Technologies That Changed Geography," includes four chapters about specific technologies. Harvey and Chrisman examine the early disciplinary and academic roots of automated geography and geographical

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information systems. Their chapter is followed by Sui and Morrill's wide­ranging discussion on the impact of computers on the discipline of geography and specific fields during the past three decades. Remote sensing, and especially its use in studying physical and urban phenomena, are the focus of the Jensen and Hodgson chapter. The final chapter in this section by Zook, Dodge, Aoyama, and Townsend looks at the new digital technologies and how these are affecting communication, communities, and society.

Part III, "New Geographies with New Technologies," includes eleven chapters that look at how specific technologies have changed the content of what we study in geography. Individual chapters consider tools and technologies used in the classroom (Downs), conducting fieldwork in non­Western contexts (Porter and Grossman), the camera (J akle), film and cinema (Dixon and Zonn), the automobile (Rubenstein), and aircraft (Leinbach and Bowen). Additional chapters examine the 24-hour news phenomenon (Rain and Brooker-Gross), democratization (Regulska), public health (Greenberg), gender (Moss and Kwan), and the U.S. military and war (Corson and Palka).

Part IV, "The Environment and Technology," includes five chapters on technology/environment themes. Technologies used to measure and study earth surface processes are discussed by Sherman and Bass, weather and climate by Winkler, and the land cover/land use dynamics by Walsh, Turner, and Evans. The final two chapters look at many of these same human/ environmental/technology themes and current geographic technologies within an African context (Taylor) and their application in the study of natural hazard preparedness, risk, and human response (Tobin and Montz).

The volume concludes with Part V, "The Worlds Before Us," and two chapters on major technology/society themes. The first, by Dobson, ponders what might be some future uses and applications of GIS, not only in geography, but in related disciplines studying the earth and biosphere. The final chapter, by Curry, asks readers to reflect on what kinds of geographical technologies were important to early human societies and those that are affecting current generations. Many of the questions about observing, narrating, representing, describing, analyzing, and predicting the geographical have long intrigued the scientist, artist, and practitioner. While geographers have made many advances in the past millennia, as we proceed into the 21 st century and beyond, we will continue to ask some of the same questions, but address them with some new technologies. In short, information and communications technologies (ICTs) and the processing and representation of georeferenced data of all kinds, including remote sensing and satellite imagery, utilizing GIS (geographical information systems) and GISc (geographical information science), will continue to affect what and how geographers understand and represent the world. The traditional and emerging subjects of our inquiry will

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continue to advance by incorporating new and unknown technologies into their presentation, analysis, description, and forecasting of earth features and data.

Acknowledgements

This centennial publication could not have seen the light of day without the support of many individuals. We first acknowledge the support of others on the Centennial Coordinating Committee (Don Janelle, Kathy Hansen, Pat Gober, Alice Rechlin-Perkins, Marilyn Silberfein, and Barney Warf). Also we acknowledge the strong encouragement provided by the present AAG Executive Director (Doug Richardson) and his predecessor (Ron Abler) during various stages of discussion and production, and AAG presidents (Pat Gober, Will Graf, Susan Cutter, Reg Golledge, Jan Monk, Duane Nellis, and Alec Murphy). AAG Council's continued support for this centennial activity is also recognized and appreciated. The Kluwer staff included Myriam Poort, Susan Jones and Andre Tournois.

Various colleagues and friends provided suggestions for potential contributions and also reviewed manuscripts. These include Karl Raitz, Tony De Souza, Jonathan Phillips, John Pickles, Harm de Blij, and Joni Seager. Four others also merit mention. First is Martin Kenzer who, in an e-mail in early 2003, included an attachment of a satellite image which is now the cover. Second is Debra Lackas of The Living Earth, Inc., who granted us permission to use this image, which is a digital composite of archived images taken by several ocean-faring ships and earth-orbiting satellites. Third is Rose Canon who, as in her nearly sixteen years as editorial assistant for The Professional Geographer and Annals of the Association of American Geographers, again performed admirably in copy-editing these chapters. Fourth is Donna Gilbreath who efficiently and with her professional graphics and cartographic skills prepared the camera-ready copy of the entire manuscript for the publisher and designed the cover.

We are very pleased with the original contributions of these senior and junior scholars. All met our deadlines and responded to suggestions provided by us or others to strengthen the chapter with added conceptual, theoretical, or bibliographic materials. As we reflect on assembling these chapters and what they might contribute to our future, we see two fruitful directions. The first is that we believe firmly, as demonstrated in the book, that geographers have much to contribute to questions about the social impacts of technology, whether as a disciplinary perspective or from a broader base, focused on improvements in the human condition. The second is that the geography/ technology interfaces have only begun to be investigated in these twenty-five chapters. Each contribution provides a valuable assessment of the state-of-

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the-art of the hislher/their inquiry. There are clearly many more substantive ideas that merit study, whether related to specific technologies, methodologies and paradigms, social impacts, or their role in our disciplinary histories. Perhaps in another decade or two, the technology/geography interfaces will be as important in disciplinary and transdisciplinary training, instruction, and research as are the current environmental/geography fields and subfields. If this volume contributes to this "turn," we believe the contributors will have served a major and useful purpose. Geographers clearly are not alone in seeking to explore the technology/society linkages and networks. We know we have much to learn from others and for others to learn from us.

-Stanley D. Brunn -Susan L. Cutter -J.W. Harrington, jr.

September 2003

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS

Editors, Affiliations, and Email Addresses

Stanley D. Brunn, Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0027 brunn@uky.edu

Susan L. Cutter, Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208 scutter@gwm.sc.edu

J. W. Harrington, Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 jwh@u.washington.edu

Authors, Affiliations, and Email Addresses

Yuko Aoyama, Graduate School of Geography, Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610 yaoyama@c1arku.edu

Richard Aspinall, Department of Geography, Montana State University, Bozeman, MT 59717 aspinall @montana.edu

Andreas C.W. Baas, Department of Geography, King's College London, Strand, London WC2R 2 LS, UK andreas.baas@kcl.ac.uk

Wendy Bigler, Department of Geography, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287-0104 Wendy.Bigler@asu.edu

John J. Bowen, Jr. Department of Geography & Urban Planning, University of Wisconsin-Oshkosh, WI 54901 bowenj@uwosh.edu

Susan R. Brooker-Gross, Department of Geography, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061 srbI44@vt.edu

Mark W. Corson, Department of Geography, Northwest Missouri State University, Maryville, MO 64468 mcorson@mail.nwmissouri.edu

Nicholas R. Chrisman, Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 chrisman@u.washington.edu

Michael R. Curry, Department of Geography, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095 curry@geog.uc1a.edu

Deborah P. Dixon, Department of Geography, University of Aberystwyth, Aberystwyth, Wales, UK dxd@aber.ac.uk

Jerome E. Dobson, Department of Geography, University of Kansas, Lawrence, KS 66045 Dobson@ku.edu

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Martin Dodge, Centre for Advanced Spatial Analysis, University College London Gower Street, London WCIE 6BT UK m.dodge@ucl.ac.uk

Roger M. Downs, Department of Geography, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA 16802 rd7@psu.edu

Tom P. Evans, Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloomington, IN 46405 evans@indiana.edu

Michael Greenberg, Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08903 mrg@rci.rutgers.edu

Lawrence S. Grossman, Department of Geography, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061lgrossrnn@vt.edu

John A. Jakie, Department of Geography, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801 j-jakle@uiuc.edu

John R. Jensen, Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208 jrjensen@sc.edu

Francis J. Harvey, Department of Geography, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 fharvey@fharvey.email.umn.edu

Michael E. Hodgson, Department of Geography, University of South Carolina, Columbia, SC 29208 hodgsonm@gwm.sc.edu

Ron Johnston, School of Geographical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, UK BS8 ISS r.johnston@bristol.ac.uk

Mei-Po Kwan, Department of Geography, Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210 kwan.8@osu.edu

Thomas R. Leinbach, Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0027leinbach@uky.edu

Burrell Montz, Department of Geography, SUNY Binghamton, Binghamton, NY bmontz@binghamton.edu

Richard Morrill, Department of Geography, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 morrill@u.washington.edu

Pamela Moss, Faculty of Human and Social Development, University of Victoria, Victoria, B.C., Canada V8Y 2Y2 pamelam@uvic.ca

Eugene J. Palka, Department of Geography and Environmental Engineering, U.S. Military Academy, West Point, NY 10996-1695 gene.palka@usma.edu

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Philip W. Porter, Department of Geography, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 pwporter@tds.net

David R. Rain, George Washington University, 1957 E. St. Suite 512 NW, Washington, DC 20052 david.r.rain@census.gov

Joanna Regulska, Department of Women's and Gender Studies and Geography Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901 regulska@rci.rutgers.edu

James M. Rubenstein, Department of Geography, Miami University, Oxford OH 45056 rubensjm@muohio.edu

Fred M. Shelley, Department of Geography, Texas State University -San Marcos, TX 77843 Fs03@swt.edu

Douglas J. Sherman, Department of Geography, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843 Sherman@geog.tamu.edu

Daniel Sui, Department of Geography, Texas A and M University, College Station, TX 77843 dsui@geog.tamu.edu

D.R.F. Taylor, Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Carleton University, Ottawa, Canada K1S 5B6 frasectaylor@carleton.ca

Graham Tobin, Department of Geography, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL gtobin@luna.cas.usf.edu

Anthony M. Townsend, School of Urban Planning and Communications, New York University, NY 10011 anthony.townsend@nyu.edu

B. L. Thrner, II, Graduate School of Geography and Marsh Institute, Clark University, Worcester, MA 01610 btumer@c1arku.edu

Stephen J. Walsh, Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3220 swalsh@email.unc.edu

Thomas J. Wilbanks, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Building 4500NIBox 2008 Oak Ridge, TN 37831-6184 wilbankstj@oml.gov

Julie A. Winkler, Department of Geography, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI 48823 winkler@pilot.msu.edu

Leo E. Zonn, Department of Geography, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599-3220 zonn@email.unc.edu

Matthew Zook, Department of Geography, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40506-0027 zook@uky.edu

COLOR PLATES

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Figure 3-1. The change infederalfundingfor geographic research: 1950-99 by major sources and publications in Annals of the Association of American Geographers, The Professional Geographer, and Geographical Review.

XXIII

a

b

Figure 6-7. GeoCover-Ortho images: a-Mount Kilimanjaro at 28.5 LJ 28.5 m spatial resolution [RGB = Landsat TM bands 7,4,2 (mid-infrared, near­infrared, and green)); b-Mosaic of hundreds of GeoCover-Ortho Landsat Thematic Mapper images of Australia obtained between 1987 and 1993 (courtesy of Earth Satellite Corporation and NASA).

XXIV

a

b

Figure 6-10. Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM}-derived digital elevation models: a-portion of San Martin de Los Andes, Argentina. Elevations range from 700 to 2,400 m (2,300 to 8,000 ft.); b-Santa Barbara, California. Mount Abel (2,526 m; 8,286 ft.) is seen in the distance. The DEM is draped with a Landsat Thematic Mapper image (RGB = bands 7,4,2) (courtesy NASA Jet Propulsion Lab and NlMA).

xxv

Figure 6-13. Global land cover 1 x 1 Ian dataset derived from MODIS data (courtesy NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and Boston University).

Figure 6-14. Thirteen class land cover map of Mount Kilimanjaro derived from Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery. This is part of the EarthSat GeoCover land-cover mapping project. Compare this thematic map with the original imagery found in Figure 6-7a (courtesy Earth Satellite Corporation).

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a

b

Figure 6-16. Leaf Area Index (a), and Fraction of Photosynthetically Active Radiation (b) maps of the u.s. derived from MODIS hyperspectral imagery (courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory).

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Figure 6-15. NASA Enhanced Vegetation Index (EVI) composite obtained June 1-16, 2003. EVI is a surrogate for the amount of biomass present (courtesy of NASA Earth Observatory).

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Graphics in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers

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Figure 10-1. Comparison of the number of graphics included in the Annals of the Association of American Geographers and in Economic Geography, 1940-2000.

xxx

Figure 10-2. View through a rearview mirror on u.s. 30 west of Toledo, Iowa, 2002.

Figure 10-3. Windmill farm northwest of Palm Springs, California, 2002.

XXXI

Figure 10-4. Log house north of Andover, Pennsylvania, 1991.

Figure 10-5. The image of former Mayor Frank Rizzo on South Ninth Street in largely Italian-American South Philadelphia, 1995.

XXXII

Figure 10-6. Tour bus on "The Strip" in Las Vegas, 2002.

Integrated GISc Database

Aerial Photography

Y 2 Y 1 Y 2 N • Y 2

Digital Elevation Models

Social, Economic,Oemographic, Health, and Environmental Data Differential GPS

Figure 21-1. GIS and the integration of data and technologies for linking people, place, and environment.