Geochemistry and detrital modes of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhi fold...

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Geochemistry and detrital modes of Proterozoicsedimentary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhi foldbelt: implications for provenance and source-areaweatheringMahshar Raza a , A.H.M. Ahmad a , M. Shamim Khan a & Feroz Khan aa Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, IndiaVersion of record first published: 04 Apr 2011.

To cite this article: Mahshar Raza , A.H.M. Ahmad , M. Shamim Khan & Feroz Khan (2012): Geochemistry and detritalmodes of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhi fold belt: implications for provenance and source-areaweathering, International Geology Review, 54:1, 111-129

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International Geology ReviewVol. 54, No. 1, January 2012, 111–129

Geochemistry and detrital modes of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhifold belt: implications for provenance and source-area weathering

Mahshar Raza*, A.H.M. Ahmad, M. Shamim Khan and Feroz Khan

Department of Geology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India

(Accepted 16 August 2010)

Bayana Basin, sited along the eastern margin of the north Delhi fold belt of the Aravalli Craton, contains an ∼3000 m-thicksequence comprising one volcanic and seven sedimentary formations of the Delhi Supergroup. The sedimentary units are theNithar, Jogipura, Badalgarh, Bayana, Damdama, Kushalgarh, and Weir formations in order of decreasing age. Petrographicstudy of the sandstones as well as major and trace elements (including rare earth elements) and bulk-rock analyses of theshales and sandstones allow the determination of their provenance, source-rock weathering, and basinal tectonic setting.The sandstones are quartz rich and were derived mainly from exhumed granitoids typical of a craton interior. Geochemicalpatterns of the sandstones and shales are similar. However, trace element abundances are low in sandstones, probably due toquartz dilution. The coarser clastic Damdama and Weir sandstones, which occur at higher stratigraphic levels, have strikinglylow trace element concentrations compared with the underlying Bayana and Badalgarh sandstones. All samples show uni-form LREE-enriched patterns with negative Eu-anomalies (Eu/Eu∗ = 0.16–0.23) and are similar to those of post-ArchaeanAustralian shales (PAAS). However, the (La/Yb)n ratios (averages 11–18) of all the sedimentary units are higher than thoseof PAAS, except for the Bayana Sandstone, which has low values (average 6.77). The chemical index of alteration (70–78)and the plagioclase index of alteration (87–97) values and the A–CN–K diagram suggest moderate to intense weathering ofthe source area.

The provenance analyses indicate that basin sedimentation was discontinuous. It received input from a terrain compris-ing granitoids, mafic rocks, sedimentary sequences, and tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) suites. The Nithar andBadalgarh sandstones received input from a source consisting predominantly of granitoids. The succeeding Damdama andWeir sandstones received debris from granitoids and TTG in different proportions. The Kushalgarh shale was possiblyderived from a source consisting granites and mafic rocks with a TTG component. The pre-existing sedimentary formationsalso contributed intermittently during the different phases of sedimentation.

Bulk-rock geochemical data suggest Mesoarchaean gneisses and late Archaean granites of BGC/BGGC (Banded GneissicComplex/Bundelkhand Granitic Gneiss Complex) basement as possible source terrains. These data indicate deposition in acontinental rift setting. The coeval formation of many rift-related Proterozoic sedimentary basins in the BGC/BGGC terrainsuggests that the North Indian Craton underwent major intracratonic extension during Proterozoic time, probably triggeringthe break up of Earth’s first supercontinent.

Keywords: Aravalli Craton; bulk-rock geochemistry; palaeoweathering; Rajasthan; north Delhi fold belt; Indian shield

Introduction

The geochemistry of clastic sedimentary rocks is used asa powerful tool in the study of provenance, tectonic set-ting, and palaeoclimatic conditions (e.g. Nesbitt and Young1982; Bhatia 1983; Taylor and McLennan 1985; Naqviet al. 1988; Absar et al. 2009; Raza et al. 2010) and also toconstrain the composition and evolution of the upper con-tinental crust (Taylor and McLennan 1985). Consequently,most of our knowledge about the composition of aver-age upper crust and global crustal evolution models comesfrom geochemical and isotopic data gathered on clasticsedimentary rocks, particularly of Precambrian age. Theearly Proterozoic period was notable for accelerated crustalgrowth (Taylor and McLennan 1985), which brought about

∗Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]

the development of orogenic belts between Archaean cra-tons (Windley 1984). The geochemical signatures of crust-forming episodes of ancient continental crust are believedto be preserved in the sedimentary rock records of theseorogenic belts even if their source rocks have been coveredor destroyed over geological time.

The Aravalli–Delhi fold belt (ADFB) of the Indianshield (Figure 1) is a large orogen, which contains a com-plete record of early Proterozoic sedimentary sequences,preserved in various isolated linear basins within an Arch-aean basement (Deb and Sarkar 1990; Roy and Jakhar2002), referred to as the Banded Gneissic Complex (BGC;Heron 1953) or Mewar Gneissic Complex (Roy 1998).Although, enough information is available on the

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112 M. Raza et al.

geochemistry of mafic volcanic rocks of these belts (Razaand Khan 1993; Raza et al. 1993, 2001; Ahmad and Tarney1994; Ahmad et al. 2008), the geochemical data on sedi-mentary rocks are meagre (e.g. Banerjee and Bhattacharya1993; Tripathi and Rajamani 2003). Thus, these sedimen-tary formations remain unrepresented in any computedmodel for crustal evolution. In some of these basins,the sedimentary rock sequences are excellently preservedand their stratigraphy is well defined, and thus are mostsuited for Proterozoic crustal evolution and palaeoclimaticstudies. The northern part of the ADFB, referred to asthe north Delhi fold belt (NDFB), contains three sedi-mentary domains, which are from E to W: the BayanaBasin, the Alwar Basin, and the Khetri Basin. Amongthese, the Bayana Basin crops out in a key area alongthe easternmost fringe of the orogen, marking the bound-ary between the Aravalli and Bundelkhand blocks of theAravalli Craton (Figure 1). The basin contains in ∼1800million-year-old (Deb and Thorpe 2004), almost unde-formed and least metamorphosed sedimentary succession,consisting entirely of siliciclastic sediments with no car-bonates, developed in a rift (Singh 1982; Raza et al.2007). The unique feature of the Bayana Basin fill is rapidalternation of facies (Singh 1982; Ahmad et al. 2005),which would be a result of tectonic, climatic, and sea-levelchanges. In this study, we report the first account of geo-chemical data of sandstone–shale succession of the BayanaBasin and describe their geochemistry together with pet-rographic analysis of sandstones in the context of theirprovenance, palaeoweathering, and tectonic setting.

Geology of the area

Aravalli–Delhi fold belt

The northwestern edge of the Indian shield is marked bythe ∼800 km-long NE–SW-trending Aravalli–Delhi oro-genic belt. The geological history of this orogen evolvedthrough a wide span of time ranging from >3000 Ma toabout 500 Ma (Gopalan et al. 1990; Roy and Jakhar 2002;Valdiya 2010 and references therein). This terrain containsa well-preserved and well-exposed Proterozoic sedimen-tary record. Based on tectono-lithological characteristics,the region may be divided into following domains (Deb andSarkar 1990).

(1) Banded Gneissic Complex basement (3500–2500Ma, U–Pb Zircon, Sm–Nd)

(2) The Aravalli Supergroup supracrustals (2500–2000 Ma, U–Pb Zircon, Pb–Pb Galena, Sm–Nd,Rb–Sr)(a) Udaipur–Jharol Belt(b) Bhilwara Belt

(3) The Delhi Supergroup supracrustals (1800–1000Ma, Pb–Pb Galena, U–Pb Zircon)

(a) South Delhi fold belt(b) North Delhi fold belt

(4) Vindhyan Basin (1600 Ma, Rb–Sr glauconite, U–Pb, Zircon of tuffs, Pb–Pb limestone).

The Delhi fold belt consists of a NE–SW-trendingsuccession of supracrustal rocks, termed the DelhiSupergroup, which extends all along the western marginof the ADFB. It is narrow near the centre (∼10 km) andwidens towards the two ends, being more than 200 kmwide in the north (Figure 1). The belt is broadly dividedsouth Delhi fold belt (SDFB) and north Delhi fold belt(NDFB) into the occurring to the south and north of Ajmercity, respectively. However, the rocks of these two sub-beltsshow marked differences in various characteristics such asvolcanic/sediment ratio, nature of mafic-ultramafic rocks,base metal mineralization, and related sulphur and leadisotopic ratios, and also the ages of granitic intrusions(Deb and Sarkar 1990). However, some workers claimcontinuity of Delhi Supergroup rocks from south to northbased on continuous lithostratigraphy, similar structuralhistory, and metamorphic patterns (Naha et al. 1984;Sharma 1988; Singh 1988;). Amongst the three basins ofthe NDFB, the Bayana and Alwar basins disappear underthe vast expense of recent alluvial towards south, whilethe Khetri Basin appears to extend southwards into SDFB(Singh 1988). Based on their geochronological data base,Deb and Thorpe (2004) had suggested an isochronousdevelopment of sedimentary sequences of the Aravalli,Bhilwara, and north Delhi belts at ∼1800 Ma.

Bayana Basin

The Bayana Basin forms the easternmost limit of theNDFB covering parts of northeastern Rajasthan. The basinas a whole is filled up with an ∼3000 m-thick packageof volcanic-sedimentary rocks, referred to as the DelhiSupergroup, which consists of eight formations (Figure 1).The lower six formations are included in the Alwar Groupand the succeeding two are correlated with the AjabgarhGroup of the main Delhi basin (Singh 1982). The wholesuccession consists of ∼55%, sandstone, ∼30% con-glomerate, ∼ 1.5% shales, and ∼14% volcanic products(Banerjee and Singh 1977). Overall, the conglomerate–sandstone association constitutes about 85% of the totalthickness. The stratigraphic classification of the basin, asworked out by Singh (1982), is shown in Figure 1. TheBayana sequence records only monoclinal rolling on aNW–SE trending axial plane with no reconstitution ordevelopment of schistosity. At places, the maximum gradeof metamorphism is only up to lower greenschist facies.Zircon from a rhyodacite tuff sample of Bayana volcanicshas yielded U–Pb age of 1876 million years, which hasbeen considered the minimum age of these volcanic rocks(Deb and Thorpe 2004).

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International Geology Review 113

Kushalgarh Formation / Weir Formation

Damdama Formation

Bayana Formation

Badalgarh Formation

Jogipura FormationAlwar Group

(B)(A)

(C)

Jahaj−Govindpura (Bayna) volvanics

Nithar Formation

Pre−Delhi basement

Ajabgarh Group

24°

28°

76° 80°

28°

24°

80° 84°

77° 5'

77° 5'

77° 10'

77° 10'

77° 10'

77° 10'

26°

55'

26°55'

27°

0'

0 3 km

Figure 1. (A) Outline map of India showing location of Aravalli fold belt. (B) Generalized geological map of Aravalli fold belt showinglocation of the Bayana Basin (C) Simplified geological map of the Bayana Basin showing distribution of various formations (after Singh1988).

Petrography

The sandstones of the Bayana Basin are medium tofine grained, poorly moderately sorted to moderately wellsorted (Table 1). The sand grains are subangular to sub-rounded and generally show low sphericity. Texturally,the sandstones are submature having subangular to sub-rounded grains. The sandstones are mainly composed ofseveral varieties of quartz followed by feldspars, rock frag-ments, micas, and heavy minerals. Average detrital min-eralogy includes monocrystalline quartz (84.69%), poly-crystalline recrystallized metamorphic quartz (4.18%),stretched metamorphic quartz (2.36%), feldspar (3.98%),rock fragments (3.43%), mica (1.09%), and heavy minerals(0.27%). Presence of a higher amount of monocrystallinequartz than polycrystalline quartz indicates derivation ofthese sandstones from a granitoids source (Basu et al.1975).

The feldspars include orthoclase, plagioclase, andmicrocline. Both fresh as well as altered grains are present.Rock fragments include siltstone, phyllite, chert, shale,schist, quartzite, gneisses, and granite. Both biotite andmuscovite occur as tiny to large elongated flakes withfrayed ends. Heavy minerals include opaques, tourma-line, biotite, muscovite, garnet, epidote, zircon, rutile, andstaurolite.

The relative abundance of monocrystalline quartz tothat of polycrystalline quartz appears to reflect the maturityof the sediments, because polycrystalline quartz is gener-ally eliminated by recycling and disintegrates in the zone ofweathering as does strained quartz (Basu 1985). The sand-stones have a considerably high percentage of monocrys-talline quartz (84.68%) as compared with polycrystallinequartz (15.32%), which indicates removal of polycrys-talline quartz by weathering and recycling. Abundance offeldspar also serves as a guide to determine the matu-rity index because much of the feldspar is destroyed byweathering where relief is low and rainfall high. The smallpercentage of feldspar in the sandstones suggests that theywere lost in the soil profile, by abrasion during transit, or bysolution during digenesis. However, occurrence of weath-ered and fresh feldspars together indicates derivation fromdifferent sources.

Geochemistry

Analytical techniques

Twenty-one samples of the shale and sandstone represent-ing various formations of the Bayana Basin were analysedfor the major and trace element (including rare earth

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114 M. Raza et al.

Table 1. Percentages of framework modes of the sandstones of the Bayana Basin (based on the Dickinson 1985 classification)

Sample number Qt F L Qm F Lt

Nithar Formation

Range 92.93–96.7 3–5.15 0–2.1 89.9–95 3–5.1 2–5.05Average 94.59 4.07 1.31 92.45 4.07 3.48

Jahaj Govindpura Formation

Range 62.73–93.55 2.18–20.1 3.57–26.77 56.41–89.2 2.39–20.06 7.04–33Average 76.36 9.51 14.13 72.27 9.57 18.14

Jogipura Formation

Range 92.91–100 0–4.76 0–4.84 88.43–100 0–0 0–2.1Average 96.31 1.94 1.74 94.17 1.95 3.88

Badalgarh Formation

Range 99.06–100 0–0 0–0.93 97.9–100 0–8.03 0.93–6.9Average 99.84 0 0.15 99.49 0 0.51

Bayana Formation

Range 81.98–100 0.9–17.52 0.094–18.01 75.22–99.64 0.94–17.74 0.35–22.33Average 94.12 4.14 1.70 86.10 4.16 9.73

Damdama Formation

Range 97.24–99.23 0.21–2.19 0–1.39 88.11–95.03 0.21–2.19 3.41–9.69Average 98.39 1.18 0.42 91.62 1.21 7.16

Weir Formation

Range 91.26–100 0–0 1.58–4.71 89.08–100 0–0 3.75–10.91Average 97.49 0 2.51 93.62 0 6.37

Notes: Qt, total quartz; F, total feldspar; L, total unstable lithic fragments; Qm, monocrystalline quartz; Lt, total lithic fragments.

element) concentrations. Large-size whole rock sampleswere crushed and then powdered to 200 mesh using anagate mortar. Major element oxides were determined byX-ray fluorescence techniques in the geochemical labora-tory of Wadia Institute of Himalayan Geology (WIHG),Dehra Dun, India. The accuracy and precision was ±1–3%.Trace elements and REE were analysed by inductively cou-pled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) at the NationalGeophysical Research Institute (NGRI), Hyderabad, India(Roy et al. 2007). For ICP-MS analysis, all samples werefused with LiBO2 followed by treatment with HNO3 andfurther dilution of dissolved lead solution to 250 ml toreduce the total dissolved solids to less than 0.12% in fluidsolution. International rock standards analysed along withour samples include JG2 (granite), GSR-4 (sandstone), andGSR-5 (shale) to check the validity and reproducibility ofanalysis. The data on these standards are comparable withcertified values and the precision obtained is better than 8%RSD. The data are given in Table 2.

Results

Major elements

Compositionally, all the sandstones of the Bayana Basin,except the Badalgarh Sandstone, come under the cat-egory of quartz arenite (SiO2 = 80–88%, Al2O3 =4–9%, Fe2O3 = 0.04–7.7%, CaO = 0.09–0.25%, and

Na2O = 0.02–0.32%) as proposed by Condie (1993). TheBadalgarh Sandstone shows geochemical characteristicssimilar to those of quartz wackes (SiO2 = 74–76%, CaO= 0.16–0.17%, Na2O = 0.11–0.12%, and P2O5 = 0.03%).The shales and sandstones of the Bayana Basin show alinear trend on the SiO2 versus Al2O3 plot (Figure 2)with shales containing SiO2 < 70% and Al2O3 > 13%.The sandstones display SiO2 > 83% and Al2O3 < 8%,except the Badalgarh Sandstone, which has intermediatechemistry with SiO2 = 74–76% and Al2O3 = 13–14%. Ingeneral, the rocks appear to be a mixture of quartz and illiteend members (Figure 2).

The Kushalgarh shales are enriched in SiO2 and Fe2O3

(67% and 15%, respectively) but depleted in Al2O3 (15%)relative to the lower shales, which have average SiO2

= 62%, Fe2O3 = 3%, and Al2O3 = 24%. Among thesandstones, the Badalgarh Sandstone has much lowerSiO2 (average ∼76%), higher Al2O3 (average ∼14%),and higher contents of MgO (average 1.07%) comparedwith other sandstone units (average ∼0.09 to 0.28%).Comparatively, the Weir sandstones show the highestamount of SiO2 (average ∼89%) and Na2O (0.06–0.08%).A negative correlation is observed between SiO2 and TiO2

(r = −0.84), Al2O3 (r = −0.94), MgO (r = −0.8), andK2O (r = −0.97).

Depletion of Na2O (<1%) in all the sandstone units ofthe Bayana Basin is probably due to a relatively smalleramount of Na-rich plagioclase as shown by petrographic

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Tabl

e2.

Che

mic

albu

lk-r

ock

com

posi

tion

sof

Bay

ana

sedi

men

ts.

Low

ersh

ale

Upp

ersh

ale

Nit

har

sand

ston

eB

adal

garh

sand

ston

e

Ele

men

ts1

23

45

67

89

1011

12

SiO

263

.83

59.2

760

.82

56.6

63.0

366

.48

70.9

463

.82

80.3

83.5

876

.24

74.4

4T

iO2

0.48

0.49

0.71

0.61

0.62

0.25

0.52

0.71

0.12

0.24

0.21

0.24

Al 2

O3

24.4

226

.27

17.1

26.8

323

.42

23.8

712

.59

17.1

8.17

8.73

13.9

113

.59

Fe2O

31.

681.

429.

363.

341.

641.

456.

949.

363.

21.

41.

211.

5C

aO0.

140.

180.

20.

120.

140.

180.

130.

20.

10.

160.

160.

17M

gO0.

751.

131.

560.

930.

631.

351.

581.

560.

080.

400.

821.

31N

a 2O

0.16

0.14

0.09

0.12

0.14

0.09

0.93

0.09

0.02

0.13

0.12

0.11

K2O

6.12

6.7

4.97

6.58

5.85

4.58

4.30

4.97

2.09

2.33

2.86

4.61

MnO

0.02

0.02

0.08

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.08

0.04

0.02

0.02

0.02

P2O

50.

030.

030.

050.

040.

040.

030.

040.

050.

050.

040.

030.

03S

um97

.63

95.6

594

.94

95.1

995

.53

98.3

97.9

997

.94

94.1

797

.03

95.5

896

.02

Sc

1414

1820

71

1318

53

16

V97

7612

190

7170

157

121

3634

3438

Cr

9978

113

107

8822

101

113

5430

3317

Co

3050

2110

1419

1921

729

1518

Ni

1414

4134

1515

384

5616

2218

Rb

286

244

184

249

217

134

153

184

587

8414

4S

r38

3328

7138

1733

283

187

16B

a94

380

528

485

066

470

011

028

488

9093

208

Th

10.6

1112

.515

.611

.43.

69.

312

.58

94

6U

205

58

2313

55

53

314

Y44

5023

4937

2316

235

816

25Z

r10

114

510

412

917

715

172

104

977

9714

8N

b15

1813

1719

810

136

106

7L

a54

.12

49.6

855

.15

42.4

937

.32

23.5

525

.73

Ce

71.2

868

.28

73.2

252

.58

62.1

342

.22

43.1

9P

r11

.05

10.7

412

.01

7.66

7.98

5.88

5.63

Nd

38.1

537

.10

38.9

825

.90

28.7

220

.01

19.7

1S

m8.

017.

028.

885.

325.

633.

993.

71E

u1.

651.

391.

881.

231.

130.

810.

90G

d6.

525.

526.

924.

384.

693.

813.

16T

b1.

00.

931.

200.

680.

750.

500.

52D

y5.

555.

115.

673.

223.

882.

452.

77H

o1.

111.

021.

210.

560.

760.

470.

50E

r2.

982.

853.

011.

471.

991.

221.

47T

m0.

500.

480.

400.

230.

330.

210.

24Y

b2.

992.

912.

651.

371.

990.

211.

55L

u0.

440.

460.

390.

220.

331.

440.

25

(Con

tinu

ed)

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116 M. Raza et al.

Tabl

e2.

(Con

tinu

ed).

Bay

ana

sand

ston

eD

amda

ma

sand

ston

eW

eir

sand

ston

e

Ele

men

ts13

1415

1617

1819

2021

SiO

282

.69

84.8

684

.38

86.7

087

.33

87.5

685

.51

89.9

488

.25

TiO

20.

430.

240.

340.

190.

150.

120.

120.

110.

12A

l 2O

35.

034.

73.

634.

824.

685.

618.

235.

466.

43Fe

2O

36.

967.

74.

654.

870.

130.

040.

050.

790.

90C

aO0.

140.

090.

180.

140.

160.

250.

130.

130.

15M

gO0.

260.

290.

240.

080.

120.

170.

210.

090.

10N

a 2O

0.10

0.07

0.10

0.32

0.19

0.11

0.08

0.06

0.07

K2O

1.8

1.26

1.23

0.05

0.09

0.70

1.19

0.02

0.06

MnO

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

P2O

50.

030.

020.

040.

030.

030.

030.

030.

020.

02S

um97

.47

99.2

894

.82

97.2

192

.89

94.6

095

.56

96.6

396

.11

Sc

1113

41

21

11

1V

9897

6830

2322

2722

24C

r37

4619

52

86

46

Co

4551

5651

5466

6262

60N

i27

2825

2523

2324

2423

Rb

5339

375

518

296

12S

r23

2218

46

69

34

Ba

200

190

9530

3596

8025

24T

h5

54

43

23

23

U3

93

62

23

56

Y10

2614

1010

79

56

Zr

4675

5353

5331

4625

28N

b6

79

77

76

76

La

12.5

514

.03

13.7

410

.59

7.55

6.64

7.01

Ce

25.1

527

.85

27.1

320

.11

13.5

912

.35

12.8

5P

r3.

084.

013.

382.

501.

601.

671.

88N

d12

.50

13.1

112

.92

9.17

5.57

6.13

6.25

Sm

2.35

2.84

2.54

1.73

0.93

1.22

1.32

Eu

0.57

0.65

0.60

0.29

0.17

0.21

0.19

Gd

2.60

2.87

2.55

1.34

0.88

1.14

1.20

Tb

0.45

0.52

0.53

0.21

0.17

0.18

0.17

Dy

3.00

3.10

3.08

1.13

0.90

0.96

0.99

Ho

0.58

0.62

0.60

0.19

0.16

0.16

0.18

Er

1.53

1.62

1.56

0.55

0.42

0.47

1.49

Tm

0.23

0.29

0.25

0.09

0.07

0.07

0.23

Yb

1.40

1.48

1.44

0.60

0.44

0.44

1.45

Lu

0.21

0.21

0.22

0.09

0.07

0.06

0.21

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100Quartz

K-Feldspar

Illite

90

80

70S

iO2

60

50

0 5 10 15 20 25 30

AI2O3

Lower shale (1−6)

Upper shale (7−8)

Nithar Sandstone (9−10)

Badalgarh Sandstone (11−12)

Weir Sandstone (20−21)

Damdama Sandstone (16−19)

Bayana Sandstone (13−15)

Figure 2. Al2O3 versus SiO2 plot of shales and sandstones of the Bayana Basin.

characteristics (Table 1). Their K2O and Na2O contentsand K2O/Na2O ratios (>1) are also consistent with pet-rographic data that indicate dominance of K-feldspar overplagioclase feldspar. The studied sandstones generally con-tain >90% monocrystalline quartz and 10% polycrys-talline quartz indicating their derivation from a granitoidsource (Basu et al. 1975). The high proportion of quartzas well as the dominance of K-feldspar over more unstableplagioclase are the features that suggest that the source areaof these sandstones remained exposed for a longer periodof time. A strong correlation between Rb and K2O (r =0.96) in these clastic rocks suggests an alkali feldspar andclay mineral control on the abundances of these elements.

Trace elements

Average whole rock multi-element compositions of dif-ferent sedimentary units of the Bayana Basin are normal-ized to average upper continental crust (AUCC) values ofCondie (1993) and are plotted in Figure 3A. The elementsused in this diagram are arranged according to progres-sively decreasing incompatibility from left to right. Allthe rock formations of the Bayana Basin are character-ized by strong depletion in CaO, Na2O, and Sr, indicatinga high degree of weathering in the source area (Nesbittet al. 1980). These elements are removed by soil solutionsduring degradation of feldspars under intense chemicalweathering. Although multielement patterns of the lowerand upper shale units are almost the same, the latter is moreenriched in Fe2O3 and depleted in U and Ba. Comparedwith AUCC, both of these shale units are enriched in REEand depleted in CaO, Na2O, Sr, Ni, and Zr.

The shape of multi-element patterns of all the sand-stone units of the Bayana Basin is almost same. However,the Damdama and Weir sandstones, which occur at ahigher stratigraphic level, have strikingly low trace elementconcentrations compared to the underlying Bayana andBadalgarh sandstones. The Bayana Sandstone is enriched

in ferromagnesian elements and depleted in LREE, K2O,U, and Rb relative to the Badalgarh Sandstone. Among theyounger sandstone units, the Weir Sandstone is depleted inK2O, Ba, Sr, and Na2O relative to the underlying DamdamaSandstone. Compared with AUCC, the sandstones of theDamdama, Weir, and Bayana formations are enriched inCo (Figure 3A). Nath et al. (2000) had observed that Cobecomes enriched in the fluvial system during sedimentaryprocesses. There is a strong negative correlation betweenSiO2 and Sc (r = – 0.81), Cr (r = –0.85), Rb (r = –0.94),Sr (r = –0.80), Ba (r = –0.83), Th (r = –0.85), Y(r =–0.85), Zr (r = –0.85), and Nb (r = 0.83), indicating theeffect of quartz dilution. The positive correlation betweenAl2O3 and K2O (r = 0.93), Rb (r = 0.94), Ba (r = 0.91), Sr(r = 0.73), and Th (r = 0.73) indicates that these elementsare bounded in clay minerals. Al2O3 also shows positivecorrelation with high field strength elements (HFSE) suchas Zr (r = 0.83) Y (r = 0.86), and Nb (r = 0.81), suggest-ing that these elements are also fixed in clay minerals. Lowconcentration of ferromagnesian elements in these rockssuggests a lack of Fe–Ti oxides and mica.

Chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the BayanaBasin clastic rocks are shown in Figure 3B. The Badalgarhsandstones, which are classified herein as quartz wacke,are more enriched in REE (

∑ = 108 ppm) than Bayana(∑ = 70 ppm), Damdama (

∑ = 40 ppm) and Weir(∑ = 33 ppm) sandstones. In general, the total REE con-

centrations in sandstones are low (∑ = 33–70 ppm) except

for the Badalgarh Sandstone. Among the coarser clas-tic units, the Damdama and Weir sandstones are stronglydepleted in REE (average

∑ = 40 ppm and 36 ppm,respectively). Although REE patterns of the lower shaleand the Kushalgarh shale are similar in shape, the totalREE contents are high in the former (average ∼203 ppm)relative to the latter (average ∼152 ppm). Although thesandstone units have relatively lower contents of REE,the shape of their REE patterns is similar to those ofassociated shales. All the samples show almost uniform

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Figure 3. Average upper continental crust (AUCC)-normalized multi-element spidergrams (A) and chondrite-normalized REE patterns(B) of sedimentary formations of the Bayana Basin. Normalizing values of AUCC after Taylor and McLennan (1985) and those ofchondrite after Sun and McDonough (1989).

LREE-enriched patterns, similar to those of post-ArchaeanAustralian shales (PAAS). The average (La/Yb)n ratios are13.38 for lower shale, 11.82 for Badalgarh Sandstone, 6.77for Bayana Sandstone, 12.51 for Damdama Sandstone,17.86 for Kushalgarh shale, and 10.65 for the youngestWeir Sandstone. The (La/Yb)n ratios of all the sedimen-tary units are higher than those of PAAS (8.2) and North

American Shale Composite (NASC) (7.17), except for theBayana Sandstone, which has low (La/Yb)n ratios (average6.77).

All the sedimentary units of the Bayana Basin are char-acterized by prominent negative Eu-anomalies with almostsimilar average Eu/Eu∗ values (0.23), except for the WeirSandstone, which shows lower values (0.16). Although

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average SiO2 contents of the Damdama (87%) and Weirsandstones (89%) are not very much higher than that ofthe Bayana Sandstone (84%), their total REE contents(Damdama Sandstone = 40 ppm, Weir Sandstone = 33ppm ) are proportionately very low, relative to BayanaSandstone (70 ppm) as well as to older sandstone units.HREE of all the sandstones are moderately fractionatedwith (Gd/Yb)n ratio of 1.94 for Badalgarh Sandstone, 1.55for Bayana Sandstone, 1.75 for Damdama Sandstone, and2.1 for Weir Sandstone. The (Gd/Yb)n ratios of the Bayanashales (lower shale = 1.84, Kushalgarh shale = 2.1) arealmost similar to those of associated sandstones but higherthan those of NASC (1.39) and Proterozoic shale stan-dard (1.62) of Condie (1993). Highly fractionated REEpatterns, low Eu/Eu∗ values, and high Th and Zr con-tents of the Bayana clastic rocks suggest their derivationfrom a provenance dominated by felsic rocks. Most of theREEs show strong negative correlation with SiO2 (r =>0.80), which appears to be due to a quartz dilution effect.The REEs show strong positive correlation with Al2O3

(r = 0.71–0.95), indicating that REEs are bounded in clayminerals. However, a strong positive correlation betweenREE and Zr (r > 7) is also observed, which indicates aZircon control. These relationships suggest that clay min-erals and zircon controlled the REE geochemistry of theBayana Basin clastic rocks.

Influence of surface processes

Hydraulic sorting

Hydraulic sorting (grain-size effect) may significantlymodify the mineral abundances and consequently theconcentrations of many elements. In this regard, theclay minerals may be of particular importance. Theseminerals, which are enriched in many elements, arepreferentially concentrated in the finer fraction duringhydrological/sedimentary processes. Thus, the pelites aremore likely to have higher abundances of many ele-ments relative to associated sandstones (Cullers 2000). Thegrain sizes of our samples range from mud to sand rep-resenting various units of shale and sandstones. In thefollowing discussion, we evaluate sorting effects by com-paring geochemical compositions of studied sandstonesand associated shales.

The increasing trend of textural maturity in sandstonesleads to an increase for quartz at the expense of primaryclay size material. Textural maturity of sandstones can beevaluated by examining the SiO2/Al2O3 ratios (McLennanet al. 1993). Except for Nithar and Badalgarh sandstones,all the succeeding sandstone formations of the BayanaBasin have SiO2/Al2O3 ratios > 10 (10.4–23.2), suggest-ing an increasing trend of textural maturity with strati-graphic younging. In general, the sandstones are depletedin total REE relative to associated shales. Although REE

contents are different, the sandstones and shales displaysimilar REE patterns, which are closely similar to that ofPAAS. The enrichment of REE in shales is the result ofphysical fluvial sorting, resulting in chemical differentia-tion. During their studies on flood plain deposits of southIndia, Singh and Rajamani (2001) had observed that, dueto physical fluvial sorting, the REEs as well as Fe, Mg, Mn,Ni, and Cr tend to be more concentrated in the finer than thecoarser particles. The grain size of sedimentary rocks ofthe Bayana Basin ranges from fine- to coarse-grained sandsto muds and their chemistry as a whole can be consideredrepresentative of their source terrain.

Th/Sc ratio may remain constant in some cases butsometimes shales may have lower values of Th/Sc thanassociated sandstones. This trend of Th/Sc ratio is due topreferential incorporation of mafic volcanic material in finefraction (e.g. Cullers 2000). The average Th/Sc ratios ofbasal shale and the Kushalgarh shales are 0.83 and 0.64,respectively. Among the sandstone samples, the Th/Scratio is high in Nithar Sandstone (average 2.3), BadalgarhSandstone (average 2.5), and Weir Sandstone (average 2.5).The Bayana Sandstone exhibits lower values (average 0.6)of Th/Sc, which are similar to that of the Kushalgarh shales(average 0.64).

During grain-size sorting, the K-rich phases (illite andbiotite-vermiculite) are enriched in pelites and the plagio-clase in sands. The accumulation of plagioclase in sandsresults in a decrease of Eu anomaly (McLennan et al.1993). This is specifically true for sand derived from activetectonic setting where Eu anomaly (Eu/Eu∗) in sands dif-fers by as much as 0.1 from that in coexisting shales(McLennan et al. 1990). In the absence of abundant pla-gioclase, there is no systematic Eu enrichment in sandsover associated muds (Nathan 1976; Bhatia 1985). In theBayana Basin, the Eu/Eu∗ values of all the sedimen-tary units are similar (average 0.23), except for the WeirSandstone, which shows lower values (average 0.16). TheKushalgarh shale, although occuring in association withWeir sandstones, shows higher Eu/Eu∗ (0.23) values thanthe Weir Sandstone (0.16). Thus, the Eu/Eu∗ ratios inshales of the Bayana Basin are either similar to or higherthan those of associated sandstone units and thus indi-cate the absence of plagioclase concentration due to sandsorting.

Certain trace elements provide evidence of sorting andrecycling processes as they are accommodated in one spe-cific heavy mineral such as zirconium in zircon or titaniumin rutile and both survive reworking. Th/Sc and Zr/Scratios in sedimentary rocks are considered as robust indi-cators of their provenance (McLennan et al. 1990). AsTh is incompatible and Sc is compatible during mag-matic processes, the Th/Sc ratio is an indicator of thefractionation of the igneous source rock that provided detri-tus to the sedimentary basin. The Zr/Sc ratio displays thegrade of reworking in clastic sedimentary rocks because

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Lower shale (1−6)

Upper shale (7−8)






100

10

1

0.10.01 0.10 1.00 10.00 100.00

Zr/Sc

Th

/Sc

Upper continental crust

Recycled

Figure 4. Th/Sc–Zr/Sc plot of shales and sandstones of theBayana Basin.

an addition of zircon by sorting and recycling to samplesresults in an increase in Zr/Sc ratio.

Samples of different formations of the Bayana Basinshow large variation in Zr/Sc and Th/Sc ratios (Figure 4)and thus indicate large difference in degree of recycling.They reflect unrecycled upper continental crust materialto intensely recycled detritus. The variation in these twoelement ratios also demonstrates the poor mixing of theserocks. The Th/Sc and Zr/Sc ratios of lower shales areeither less than 1 and 10, respectively, or slightly more thanthese values, thus suggesting either unrecycled or slightlyrecycled detritus. This trend is changed substantially in theNithar Formation (Th/sc = 1.6–3, average 2.3; Zr/Sc =2–26, average 14) and the Badalgarh Formation (Th/Sc =1–4, average 2.5; Zr/Sc = 25–97, average 61), which haverecycled material. Again the unrecycled material is repre-sented by the Bayana Formation, which has Th/Sc ratios0.38–1.00 (average 0.61) and Zr/Sc ratios 4–13 (average7.7). The trend again changed in the Damdama Sandstone,which shows a recycled nature with the Th/Sc ratios rang-ing from 1.5 to 4 and Zr/Sc ratios from 26 to 53. TheTh/Sc and Zr/Sc ratios for the Kushalgarh shales (average0.64 and 5.66, respectively) and the Weir Sandstone (aver-age 2.5 and 11.7, respectively) are different, indicatingunrecycled material in the former and only minor amountof recycled debris in the latter.

The Bayana sediments also show large variation inLa/Sc ratio (sandstones = 2.34–5.89; shales = 3.73–15.32). Large variation in concentration of some trace ele-ments and their ratios raise the possibility that heavy min-erals such as zircon, allanite, and monzonite (McLennan1989) have influenced the composition of these rocks. Ina recycling-dominated system, the REE patterns of result-ing sediments tend to distort due to relative concentration

and destruction of a particular heavy mineral. However, thestudied sedimentary rocks display REE patterns similar tothose of AUCC and PAAS. Although silica content in sand-stones is high, the shape of REE patterns remains similarto those of the upper continental crust. This suggests theabsence of selective sorting of heavy minerals (Tripathi andRajamani 2003).

Palaeoweathering

Palaeoweathering in the source area is one of the mostimportant processes affecting the composition of clasticsedimentary rocks. To constrain the intensity of chemi-cal weathering in the source area of sedimentary rocks,the chemical index of alteration (CIA; Nesbitt and Young1982) is considered a useful measure. The index is calcu-lated as follows.

CIA = Al2O3 × 100/Al2O3 + CaO∗ + Na2O + K2O

The values are in molecular proportions and CaO∗ repre-sents CaO in silicate minerals. The CIA values of differentformations of the Bayana Basin are variable but alwaysabove 70. In general, the values are between 70 and 78,suggesting moderate to high weathering conditions, exceptthose of Damdama and Weir sandstones, which showhigher values (84 and 94, respectively) thus suggestinggreater weathering.

The weathering indices are not only related to degreeof weathering but also controlled by source compositionand grain size. The source rocks with felsic compositionhave greater CIA values than mafic ones. The increase inCIA with more pelitic nature is a common feature and read-ily explained by the higher proportion of clays (weatheringproduct) in pelites. In the case of the Bayana Basin, theWeir Sandstone is expected to show lower CIA values thanthe associated Kushalgarh shales. However, the CIA valuesof sandstone are higher (average ∼94) than the Kushalgarhshales (average ∼70). Low CIA values of the Kushalgarhshales compared with those of the Weir Sandstone sug-gest the derivation of these two formations from differentsources.

As secondary processes, particularly the K-metasomatism, may possibly reduce the CIA values,the plagioclase index of alteration (PIA = Al2O3–K2O/(Al2O3–K2O) + CaO + Na2O × 100 in molecularproportions) are generally used in cases of ancient sed-imentary rocks. The PIA values of Bayana rocks rangefrom 87 to 97. Although PIA values of basal shales arehigh (average 97), the Kushalgarh shales show lowervalues (89) than the associated Weir Sandstone (94). Thedata indicate a greater degree of weathering of source rockthan the intensity of weathering indicated by CIA values.The high CIA and PIA values of Bayana clastic rockstogether indicate strong chemical weathering conditions

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Lower shale (1−6)

Upper shale (7−8)






Cao+Na2O K2O

AI2O3

Figure 5. A–CN–K (A = Al2O3, CN = CaO+Na2O, K = K2Oin molecular proportions) diagram for Bayana Basin sedimen-tary rocks. Arrows 1–6 denote the compositional trend of initialweathering profiles of various rock types: 1, gabbro; 2, tonalite;3, diorite; 4, granodiorite; 5, granite; and 6, advance weatheringtrend.

in the provenance. Such intense chemical weathering isin conformity with the worldwide humid warm climateduring Palaeoproterozoic period (Eriksson et al. 1998).

A simple and useful way to evaluate the chemicalweathering trend is an A–CN–K (A = Al2O3, CN = CaO+ Na2O, K = K2O in molecular proportion) ternary plot(Nesbitt and Young 1984; Nesbitt 2003). During the initialstage of weathering, the compositions of the residues ofvarious igneous rocks plot on trends 1–5 (Figure 5), ema-nating from respective fresh rocks and parallel to the A–CNtie line because Na2O and CaO are leached out from theearlier dissolved plagioclase. Continued weathering leadsto the destruction of plagioclase, resulting in more removalof CaO and Na2O and the points plot more close to theA–K boundary. During the advance stage of weathering,K-feldspars are dissolved and K is removed in preferenceto Al; as a result the residues are redirected to the Al apexalong trend 6 (Figure 5). Intensely weathered samples plotcloser to apex A, indicating more abundance of kaoliniteand gibbsite over primary minerals such as feldspar. In thisdiagram, almost all of our samples plot close to the A–Kboundary, implying that their source area had experiencedintense weathering.

The Th/U ratio of sedimentary rocks increases withincreasing weathering due to the oxidation and loss of U(Taylor and McLennan 1985; McLennan and Taylor 1991;McLennan et al. 1995). The Th/U ratios above 4 are con-sidered to be related to weathering history (McLennanet al. 1995). The Th/U ratio of Bayana sediment is low(0.28–3). This could indicate either a more primitive sourcehaving a lower Th/U ratio or a change in redox conditions

as U concentration is high during redox conditions (Bauluzet al. 2000). In our samples, the U concentrations arevariable (2–23 ppm) but generally high relative to that ofPAAS (3.1 ppm). The high concentration of U is not dueto increasing weathering intensity because there is no cor-relation between Th/U and CIA. Therefore, it is possiblethat Th/U ratios of Bayana sediments are the result of alower redox condition in the sediments, which might con-trol the U distribution and the Th/U ratios. Alternatively,the enrichment of U over Th resulting in a high Th/U ratiomight be explained by higher feldspar concentrations andpossible U enrichment.

Provenance composition

In accordance with Dickinson’s (1985) scheme, the detritalmodes of Bayana sandstones were identified and recal-culated to 100% as the sum of Qt, Qm, F, L, andLt (Table 2). In the Qt-F-L plot, most of the samples ofthe Bayana Basin sandstones lay in the continental blockprovenance field, suggesting a contribution from the cratoninterior with basement uplift. The rest of the samples fallin the recycled orogen provenance, which suggests theirderivation from metasedimentary and sedimentary rocksthat were originally deposited along former passive con-tinental margins (Dickinson and Suczek 1979; Dickinson1985). In the Qm-F-Lt plot, the samples fall in the conti-nental block provenance with little contribution from therecycled orogen provenance.

The plots of Bayana Basin sandstones on Qt-F-L andQm-F-Lt diagrams (Figure 6) suggest that the detritus ofthe sandstones were contributed by a granite-gneiss ter-rain of the craton interior and medium- to high-grademetamorphosed supracrustals. This suggests the deriva-tion of the sandstones from stable parts of the craton, withsome contribution from recycled orogen, shedding quart-zose debris of continental affinity into the basin (Dickinsonet al. 1983). Nevertheless, such provenance determinationhas to be considered with caution, because the changes inthe original composition during the digenesis may lead tomodification in the Qt-F-L plot (McBride 1985).

Surface processes such as weathering, transportation,and digenesis affect the primary concentrations of ele-ments in sediments significantly. Certain elements, suchas alkali and alkaline earth metals, are transported as dis-solved species and thus their concentrations are modified.Other elements such as Ti, Al, and HFSE are insoluble inlow-temperature aqueous solutions (Stumm and Morgan1981; Sugitani et al. 1996; Hayashi et al. 1997). It hasbeen observed that Al2O3 and TiO2 are not fractionatedrelative to each other during weathering, transportation,and digenesis (Young and Nesbitt 1998). The Al2O3/TiO2

ratio of clastic sedimentary rocks is considered similarto that of their source rock (Hayashi et al. 1997) andthus is used as a useful indicator of the provenance. The

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122 M. Raza et al.

Continental block

provenances with

sources on stable

cratons (C) and in

uplifted basement (B)

Decreasing

maturity or

stability

Magmatic arc

provenances

B >

C

B >

C

C >

BC

> B

Qt

Recycled orogen

provenances

Increasing ratio

of oceanic to

continental

materials

P > V

P > V

V > P

V > P

Nithar JGV

F

F

L

Lt

Jogipura Badalgarh Bayana Damdama Weir

Nithar JGV Jogipura Badalgarh Bayana Damdama Weir

Qm Member of fields

for mature rocks

with stable

frameworksCratonic interior

continental balock

provenances

Merger of

fields

for

basement

and

arc roots

Increasing ratio

of plutonic (P)

to volcanic (V)

sources

Recycled orogen

Provenances

Increasing

ratio

of chert

to quartz

(MIXED)

Figure 6. Framework mode diagrams (Dickinson and Suczek 1979) indicating maturity and provenance of Bayana Basin sandstones. F,total feldspar; L, unstable lithic fragments; Lt, total lithic fragments, Qm, monocrystalline quartz; Qt, total quartz; B, basement uplift; C,continental block; P, plutonic; V, volcanic.

Al2O3 /TiO2 ratios of the Bayana sediments range from11 to 95. Except Bayana sandstones, all the formations ofthe Bayana Basin show higher Al2O3/TiO2 ratios, (24–95) corresponding to felsic magmatic rocks. The BayanaSandstone exhibits lower values of Al2O3/TiO2 (11–19,average 14), suggesting partial input from mafic rocks.

Trace elements are particularly useful for the determi-nation of provenance composition of clastic sedimentaryrocks. Certain trace elements are usually immobile undersurface conditions, and have low residence time in seawa-ter, thus they reflect the source-rock composition (Taylorand McLennan 1985; McLennan et al. 1990). REE, Th,

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Table 3. Average element ratios of shales of the Bayana Basin compared to a range of ratios in similar fractions derived from felsicand basic rocks (Cullers 2000).

Bayanashale (A)

Averagelower shales

AverageKushalgarh

shales

Range ofsedimentsfrom felsic

sources

Range ofsedimentsfrom basic

sources

Cr/Th 7.69 11.08 14.92–0.25 500–22.22Th/Sc 0.83 0.64 18.1–0.61 4–0.05Eu/Eu∗ 0.23 0.24 0.83–0.32 1.02–0.7

Table 4. Average element ratios of sandstones of the Bayana Basin compared to a range of ratios in similar fractions derived fromfelsic and basic rocks (Cullers 2000).

BayanaSandstone(B)

AverageNithar

Formation

AverageBadalgarhFormation

AverageBayana

Formation

AverageDamdamaFormation

AverageWeir

Formation

Range ofsedimentsfrom felsic

sources

Range ofsedimentsfrom basic

sources

Cr/Th 5.04 5.54 7.12 1.98 2.00 7.69–0.04 55.55–21.73Th/Sc 2.3 2.5 0.61 2.63 2.5 20.5–0.84 0.22–0.05Eu/Eu∗ – 0.24 0.23 0.19 0.16 0.94–0.40 0.95–0.71

Sc, and Cr contents and their ratios are particularly sen-sitive to average provenance composition because Th andREE are highly incompatible and Sc and Cr are compat-ible. In addition, these elements are transferred quantita-tively into terrigenous sediments from source to site ofthe deposition. The ratios of these elements may exhibitonly modest change, even when recycling is important(Wronkiewicz and Condie 1990; Gu 1994). Th/Sc andCr/Th ratios and the Eu anomalies (expressed as Eu/Eu∗)are significantly different in felsic and mafic sources.Therefore, they provide useful information about prove-nance of the sedimentary rock (McLennan et al. 1993;Cullers 2000; Armstrong-Altring et al. 2004). Th/Sc,Cr/Th, and Eu/Eu∗ ratios of shale and sandstone of theBayana Basin are more similar to those of sedimentaryrocks derived from felsic source rocks than those of maficsource rocks (Tables 3,4). The influence of mafic sourcerock is generally indicated by the presence of ferromagne-sian minerals, resulting in high Cr/V ratios. A high Cr/Vratio indicates enrichment of Cr over other ferromagnesiantrace elements pointing to the existence of mafic sourcerocks (McLennan et al. 1993). The Cr/V ratios of our sam-ples are around one and thus indicate the absence of maficcomponents in their source rocks. A felsic rock-dominatedsource of studied sedimentary rocks is also indicated by theTiO2 versus Zr plot, where all of our samples occupy thefield of felsic igneous rocks (Figure 7).

The source-rock composition of the Bayana Basin clas-tic rocks can be further evaluated using a La–Th–Sc ternaryplot. The diagram is a useful measure to determine therelative contribution of felsic and mafic input into thesedimentary basin. In this diagram (Figure 8), the data of

3.0

2.0

1.0

0.0

0.0 100 200 250

Zr

%T

iO2 Maf

ic ig

neou

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Figure 7. TiO2–Zr plot of shales and sandstones of the BayanaBasin. Fields of various rock types after Hayashi et al. (1977).

Bayana sedimentary rocks are plotted along with availabledata of Berach Granite (Raza et al. 2010) and Archaeanmafic rocks (Condie (1993). All the samples plot close tothe field dominated by Archaean granitoids (G), except forBayana sandstones, which show an inclination towards thefield of mafic rocks (M) representing Archaean basalts andkomatiites (Condie 1993 ). A positive correlation of Fe, Ti,and MgO with Sc (r = 0.64, 0.85, and 0.7, respectively),V (r = 0.77, 0.82, and 0.68, respectively), and Cr (r =0.55, 0.90, and 0.67, respectively) suggests the presence oftholeiitic mafic components in clastic rocks of the BayanaBasin. The relative contribution of mafic to felsic debrisis further evaluated by plotting the data in a Th/Sc versus

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Lower shale (1−6)

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Figure 8. La–Th–Sc triangular diagram of shales and sand-stones of the Bayana Basin. G, Berach Granite (Raza et al. 2010);M, mafic rocks (Condie 1993).

Sc diagram (Absar et al. 2009) in which the compositionsof Granite (G), TTG (T), and mafic rocks are also plotted.In this diagram (Figure 9), all the samples of shales andthose of sandstones of the Bayana Formation plot betweengranite and mafic end members. Although the Damdamaand Weir sandstones plot between granite and TTG endmembers, the sandstones of Nithar and Badalgarh forma-tions plot near granite. Although the Kushalgarh shalesplot between granite and mafic end members, their high(La/Yb)n ratios (average 19) favour the presence of TTGin their provenance. The distribution of plots demonstratesthat different formations of the Bayana Basin receiveddebris from sources of different compositions, consistingprimarily of granite, mafic rocks, and TTG in differentproportions.

It has been observed that Eu/Eu∗ and (Gd/Yb)n

ratios in Archaean sedimentary rocks are >0.85 and >2,

respectively. Most of our studied samples have (Gd/Yb)n

ratios lower than 2 and Eu/Eu∗ ratios lower than 0.85.These are the characteristic features of PAAS-like sedi-mentary rocks. Therefore, a strictly Archaean source forBayana clastics is less of a possibility. To evaluate thepossibility of Bayana sediments being derived from anArchaean source, the data are plotted in a La versusTh diagram. The REE and Th have been considered aspowerful tools to determine the composition of sourcearea of sedimentary rocks (Taylor and McLennan 1985;McLennan and Taylor 1991). In this diagram (Figure 10),the lower shales and the Kushalgarh shales plot well in thePAAS field, the Damdama and Weir sandstones plot in theArchaean field, and the Badalgarh and Bayana sandstonesplot near the margin between the two fields. Therefore, theLa–Th diagram distinguishes different sources for Bayanasediments, that is, a post-Archaean provenance for shalesand an Archaean source for Weir and Damdama sand-stones. A mixture of post-Archaean and Archaean sourcesis indicated for Badalgarh and Bayana sandstones. Thisdiagram indicates the derivation of younger sandstones(Damdama and Weir) from a source consisting particu-larly of typical Archaean rock assemblage. The samplesof these two younger sandstones also plot near the TTGend member in the Th/Sc–Sc diagram (Figure 9). Theyalso exhibit high (La/Yb)n ratios, low K2O/Na2O (aver-age 0.33 and 0.86, respectively) ratios (average 12 and11, respectively), and strikingly low Y contents (average9 and 5, respectively). The high (La/Yb)n ratio with lowcontents of Y and low K2O/Na2O ratios of Damdamaand Weir sandstones and the high (La/Yb)n ratios ofKushalgarh shales (average 18) are the features that areunlikely to be generated from a source consisting entirelyof granites. These features are characteristically found intonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG; Jahn et al. 1981)suites, which are important constituents of Archaean ter-rains the world over (Condie 2005). The TTG rocks aretypically depleted in HREE and Y, a feature that can be

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Figure 9. Th/Sc–Sc plot of shales and sandstones of the Bayana Basin. G, granite (Mondal and Zainuddin 1996, 1997); T, TTG (Sharmaand Rehman,1995); and M, mafic rocks (Mondal and Ahmad 2001) of BGGC. Gneiss and Mafic rocks of BGC after Ahmad and Tarney(1994).

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Figure 10. La–Th plot of shales and sandstone of the BayanaBasin. Fields of PAAS and Archaean sediments after McLennanet al. (1980).

explained by the retention of these elements in garnet thatremains in the residual phase. Therefore, the TTG can beconsidered as an important constituent of the provenancethat supplied debris to the Bayana Basin, particularly inthe later part of its depositional history. The distinctly dif-ferent trace element and REE characteristics of Damdamaand Weir sandstones from those of older sandstones ofthe Bayana Basin also suggest different provenances. Thesudden change in provenance suggests discontinuous sedi-mentation in the Bayana Basin, probably due to tectonism.

Our geochemical data as discussed above provideimportant constraints on the source terrain of the BayanaBasin. The provenance analyses suggest that the basinreceived debris from different sources during its long depo-sitional history. The overall assessment of the provenancesuggests that the lower shales and the sandstones of theBayana Formation were derived from a source consisting ofgranitoids and mafic rocks. The Damdama and Weir sand-stones received debris from a source comprising granitoidsand TTG in different proportions. The sandstones of theNithar and the Badalgarh formations were probably derivedfrom a granite-dominated source terrain. The Kushalgarhshales were probably derived from a source consisting ofgranites, mafic rocks, and TTG in different proportions.In addition, the pre-existing sedimentary formations alsocontributed intermittently throughout the sedimentation, asindicated by variable Th/Sc and Zr/Sc ratios of differentformations (Figure 4).

Available palaeocurrent data on sedimentary rocks ofthe Bayana Basin suggest that the debris to the basinwas supplied from northwest and west and from southand southeast during deposition of different formations(Singh 1977). The palaeocurrent studies carried out bythe authors of this study on these sedimentary rocks sug-gest polymodal distribution of the data. The potential

source, having an age older than that of Bayana sedi-mentary rocks, may be the BGC (Heron 1953) of theAravalli Block (AB) and Bundelkhand Granitic GneissComplex (BGGC) of the Bundelkhand Block (BB) of theNorth Indian Craton (NIC). These Archaean complexeshave served as basement for Proterozoic supracrustal coverrocks of the Aravalli, Bhilwara, and Delhi belts of the ABand Gwalior, Bijawar, and equivalent basins of the BB.The BGC and BGGC consist principally of Mesoarchaeangneisses, associated mafic enclaves, minor metasedimen-tary rocks, and large bodies of late Archaean granitoids.The gneisses of the BGC and BGG are as old as 3281 mil-lion years (Gopalan et al. 1990; Mondal et al. 2002), butthe granitic plutons are of a younger age (late Archaean;2666–2440 Ma; Roy and Kroner 1996; Wiedenbeck et al.1996). Although the BGC gneisses are more similar toless common low-Al2O3 granite of Condie (1981) thantypical TTG of Archaean cratons, the typical TTG rockswith Al2O3 > 15% and strongly fractionated REE patternswith (La/Yb)n > 18 are reported from the BB ( Sharmaand Rehman 1995), which now occur to the east of theBayana Basin. Therefore, the Mesoarchaean gneisses, theirmafic/sedimentary enclaves, and the late Archaean gran-ites of the NIC can reasonably be identified as the possiblesource of sedimentary fill of the Bayana Basin.

Tectonic setting

The interpretation regarding tectonic setting of ancientsedimentary basins is largely based on the fundamentalassumption that the nature of the source terrain is inti-mately related to tectonic processes controlling the originand evolution of an adjacently lying sedimentary basin(Bhatia and Crook 1986). Variation in major and trace ele-ment concentrations reflects distinct provenance types andtectonic settings for sedimentary sequences (Bhatia 1983;Bhatia and Croocks 1986). The high K2O/Na2O ratiosclassify the Bayana Basin sedimentary rocks as quartz-rich type (Crook 1974), suggesting that these rocks weredeposited in plate interiors either at a stable continen-tal margin or intracratonic basin. The sedimentary rocksof the Bayana Basin are interbedded with mafic volcanicflows of tholeiitic composition. These mafic rocks showa strong continental flood basalt affinity and a continentalrift setting is inferred for their emplacement ( Raza et al.2001, 2007). The sandstones of the Bayana Basin exhibitlarge variation in K2O/Na2O (0.16–104) and Al2O3/Ca +Na (10–112) ratios and their Fe2O3 + MgO contents arelow (0.21–11). In general, they are enriched in SiO2 andare significantly depleted in Na2O and CaO (Figure 3A).These are the geochemical characteristics which are gen-erally shown by sedimentary rocks of passive margins.These features are a reflection of the recycled nature ofpassive margin sediments, showing enrichment in quartzand depletion of more unstable phases such as feldspar

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(Bhatia 1983; Roser and Korsch 1986). Geochemical studyof recent sedimentary rocks of East African Rift System(EARS; Mapila et al. 2009) suggests that they are compo-sitionally very similar to those of passive margin setting.They also exhibit LREE-enriched patterns, which are sim-ilar to those of PAAS. Therefore, the geochemical data ofsedimentary rocks of the Bayana Basin further support arift basin tectonic setting.

The coeval formation of many rift-related basins suchas Bayana, Alwar, Bhilwara, and Aravalli basins (Raza andKhan 1993; Raza et al. 2001, 2007; Deb and Thorpe 2004)in the AB and Gwalior, Bijawar, and Lesser Himalayanbasins in the BB (Raza 1981; Bhat and Ghosh 2001; Absaret al. 2008) suggests that the NIC suffered a major intracra-tonic extension during the Palaeoproterozoic period (Deb1993; Mazumder et al. 2000; Mallikharjuna Rao et al.2005). This event appears to represent an important exten-sional regime that triggered the commencement of dis-persion of Earth’s first super continent that amalgamatedat ∼2.4 Ga involving cratons of South Australia, EastAntarctica, India, and North China (Zhao et al. 2003; Stienet al. 2004; Barley et al. 2005).

Conclusions

The provenance, palaeoweathering, and tectonic settingof sedimentary fill of the Proterozoic Bayana Basin ofthe northwestern Indian shield were assessed using petro-graphic and geochemical studies, yielding several conclu-sions.

(1) The sandstones are quartz rich, primarily derivedfrom a granite-gneiss terrain of a craton interior aswell as minor pre-existing sedimentary sequences.

(2) Sedimentation in the basin was discontinuous andwas probably derived from different sources.

(3) The sedimentary materials for basal shales and thesandstones of the Bayana Formation were derivedfrom granitoids and mafic rocks.

(4) The sandstones of the the Nithar and the Badalgarhformations had their source in a granite-dominatedsource terrain.

(5) The Damdama and Weir sandstones were derivedfrom a source consisting predominantly of grani-toids and TTG in different proportions.

(6) The Kushalgarh shales were probably derived froma source consisting of granites, mafic rocks, andTTG in different proportions.

(7) The pre-existing sedimentary formations also con-tributed intermittently during the sedimentation asindicated by variable Th/Sc and Zr/Sc ratios ofdifferent formations.

(8) The Archaean BGC/BGGC basement of the NICmay represent possible source terrains.

(9) CIA (70–78) and PIA (87–97) values and the A–CN–K diagram suggest a moderate to high degreeof source-area weathering.

(10) The closely similar geochemical compositions ofanalysed samples and recent sedimentary rocksof the EARS suggest a rifted basin tectonic set-ting for the Bayana Basin. The rift represents amajor intracratonic extensional regime that prob-ably accompanied the dispersion of an Archaeansupercontinent.

AcknowledgementsThe authors are thankful to the Chairman, Department ofGeology, for providing necessary facilities in the Department.Drs V. Balaram of National Geophysical Research Institute,Hyderabad, India, and N.K. Saini of Wadia Institute of HimalayanGeology, Dehra Dun, India, greatly helped with the analyses intheir respective labs. Preparation of computer-generated diagramsby Mr Waseem Ahmad, research scholar, is greatly acknowl-edged. The work benefited from fruitful discussions with DrM.E.A. Mondal.

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Geochemistry and detrital modes of Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, Bayana Basin, north Delhi fold...

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