GEO-REFERENCING OF GENERAL BOUNDARIES USING

REAL-TIME KINEMATICS FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF

LAND ADMINISTRATION IN KENYA

A case study of Kiambu-Kiambaa Registration section

(Kiambaa/Ruaka/5402)

By

MIKE KELVIN MUTHUMBA

REG NO: 113P01800

A project report submitted to the School of Surveying and Geospatial Sciences in

Partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of:

Bachelor of Technology in Land Survey

MAY, 2015

2015

ii

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this project is my original work and has not been presented in

any other university for examination or award of any other degree.

..

Mike Kelvin Muthumba

Reg No.EEGJ/01800P/2013

Supervisor

This project has been submitted for examination with my approval as the supervisor.

....

Dr. Samson O. Ayugi

iii

ABSTRACT

A General Boundary is an Approximate Boundary. It is a boundary of which the

precise line is undetermined in relation to the physical features which demarcate it.

In Kenya, general boundaries have very poor survey accuracy. Registry maps based

on these boundaries are unreliable. That notwithstanding, parcels of land in Kenya

acquired through the process of Land Consolidation/Land Adjudication are

registered using registry maps based on general boundaries. This has led to hundreds

of thousands of boundary disputes. Many boundary dispute cases generate other

cases such as destruction of property, physical body injuries and even murders.

In this study, the accuracy of Geo-referencing using GPS Real-Time Kinematic was

tested by comparing its data with that generated by a conventional land survey

method (traverse) where the results show that the computed RMS of the system is

within the expected accuracy.

It is concluded that the RMS results obtained deems it justifiable that RTK should be

embraced in Geo-referencing of general boundaries hence recommended that more

awareness be imparted to users on the new technology.

Geo-referencing ensures that; distances can be measured; areas can be calculated;

directions can be determined; exact position of any point can be determined;

geographical coordinates of a locality can be found; and parcels of land can be

identified without ambiguity

iv

DEDICATION

I dedicate this project first to the Almighty God who has granted me the strength and

the intellectual capacity to accomplish this project.

I also dedicate this project to my wife Mary Njeri Murage, my mother Jane Wanjiku

Mugia, George Kithinji Mugia (Uncle), Mary Muthoni Mugia (Aunt), my

Grandmother Florence Mabuti Mugia, friends and the former Director of Surveys

(Kenya) E M. Murage for his mentorship in this profession.

v

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I express my sincere gratitude to my supervisor Dr. Samson Ayugi, Chairman,

Department of Geo-information and Earth Observation, for his guidance, support and

encouragement that enabled the success of this project.

I feel indebted to the District Surveyor Kiambu, Mr Muchungu, for his assistance

with the equipment and materials used in the process of realizing this noble project.

My gratitude also goes to the entire staff School of Surveying and Geospatial

Sciences, Technical University of Kenya, for their continuous assistance and advice

regarding this project and my studies as a whole. In particular, I would like to thank

Dr.Wayumba for his wide scope of knowledge that was incorporated in this project.

Finally, I would like to give all the gratitude to the Almighty for giving me the

courage to face all the challenges that came by regarding this project.

vi

TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION ................................................................................................................ ii

ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... iii

DEDICATION ................................................................................................................... iv

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ................................................................................................... v

TABLE OF CONTENTS ................................................................................................... vi

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................ viii

CHAPTER ONE ................................................................................................................. 1

1.1Background to the Study............................................................................................. 1

1.2 Problem Statement .................................................................................................... 1

1.3 Overall Objectives ..................................................................................................... 1

1.5 Research Questions. .................................................................................................. 2

1.6 Scope of the project. ................................................................................................. 2

1.7 Organization of the Project ........................................................................................ 2

CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 3

GEO-REFERENCING OF GENERAL BOUNDARIES ...................................................... 3

2.1 Types of Cadastral Boundaries in Kenya .................................................................... 3

2.1.1 The Fixed Boundary ............................................................................................... 3

2.1.2 The General Boundaries ......................................................................................... 3

2.1.3 Origin of General Boundaries in Kenya .................................................................. 4

2.2 Land Adjudication and Consolidation ........................................................................ 4

2.3 General Boundaries and Land Disputes ...................................................................... 6

2.4 Surveying a General Boundary to Fixed Boundary Standards ..................................... 8

2.5 What is Geo-Referencing? ......................................................................................... 9

2.5.1 Geo-Referencing of General Boundaries ................................................................. 9

2.5.2 Why Geo-Reference General Boundaries in Kenya? ............................................. 10

2.5.3 Precision and Accuracy in Geo-Referencing General Boundaries .......................... 11

2.6 Use of GPS in Geo-Referencing .............................................................................. 12

2.6.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS).......................................................... 12

2.6.2 Global Positioning Satellite System (GPS) ............................................................ 13

2.7 Positioning Techniques ............................................................................................ 15

2.8 GPS Surveying Methods .......................................................................................... 15

2. 9. Procedure of Carrying out RTK-GPS Survey ......................................................... 16

2.9.1 Sources of Error in GPS Survey ............................................................................ 17

vii

CHAPTER THREE........................................................................................................... 19

METHODOLOGY............................................................................................................ 19

3.1 Location of the Site ................................................................................................. 19

3.2 Work Flow ............................................................................................................... 19

3.3 Reconnaissance ....................................................................................................... 20

3.4 Selection of New Points ........................................................................................... 20

3.5 Personnel Involved .................................................................................................. 21

3.6 Checking of the Instruments .................................................................................... 21

3.7 GPS Observations.................................................................................................... 21

3.8 Precautions Taken During Observation .................................................................... 23

3.9 Data Processing and Transformation ........................................................................ 23

3.9.1 Traverse observations ........................................................................................... 23

CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 24

DATA FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS ............................................................................... 24

4.1 Result Analysis........................................................................................................ 24

4.2. Discussion of the Results ........................................................................................ 24

CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. 27

CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................. 27

5.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................. 27

5.2 Conclusions ............................................................................................................. 27

5.3 Recommendations ................................................................................................... 27

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 29

APPENDICES .................................................................................................................. 30

Appendix 1 Setting up and Initialization of the Base with the Rover (2014) ................... 30

Appendix 2 GPS coordinates displayed by word pad from text tab file (2014) ............... 31

Appendix 3 TRAVERSE FIELD NOTES ...................................................................... 32

Appendix 4 TRAVERSE COMPUTATION .................................................................. 34

Appendix 5 DEMONSTRATION OF PICKINGS AND CHECKS ................................ 35

Appendix 6 DEMONSTRATION OF PICKINGS AND CHECKS Const .................................... 36

Appendix 7 BOUNDARY DATA .................................................................................. 37

Appendix 8 COORDINATES TRANSFORMATION TO UTM ................................................ 38

Appendix 10 COORDINATES TRANSFORMATION TO UTM Cont .......................... 40

Appendix 11 Google Earth view of the plotted coordinates (2014) ................................. 41

Appendix 12 Google Earth Image of the Geo-referenced parcel ..................................... 42

viii

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

GPS Global Positioning System

RMS Root Mean Square

R.I.M Registry Index Maps

P.I.D Preliminary Index Diagrams

GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System

UTM Universal Transverse Mercator.

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1Background to the Study

After the enactment of the Land Registration Act 20121 and the Land Act, 2012, it

has become obligatory that all parcels of land throughout the country be geo-

referenced to the National Grid to standards acceptable in terms of accuracy and

precision to ensure compatibility with other documents as pointed out under Section

15(b) and 107(8) of the Acts respectively. Also article 155 (a,b,c) of Sessional Paper

No.3 of 20092 advocates for use of modern technology in survey and mapping such

as the GNSS and GIS to improve mapping standards in general boundary areas so

that they fit into a computerized system. There are also many boundary disputes

emanating from General boundaries which are difficult to solve since such

boundaries are not mathematically determined but based on estimation and biased

historical evidence of their position.

1.2 Problem Statement

Most land registration sections are under general boundaries and are hence captured

in the Registry Index Maps (R.I.Ms) and Preliminary Index Diagrams (P.I.D

s).These

areas are not adequately covered by Control Survey Network making it difficult to

Geo reference such parcels of land using the conventional survey methods.

1.3 Overall Objectives

The overall objective of this study is to Geo-reference5 General boundaries using

Real-Time Kinematics GPS and highlight the advantages it offers in comparison

to the conventional survey methods.

1.4 The specific objectives are to: 1. Identify various types of boundaries as provided for by the respective Acts.

1. Propose a method of Geo-referencing.

2. Apply the method in Geo-referencing the boundaries of the parcel of land in

question.

1 Land Registration Act,2012.AN ACT of Parliament to revise, consolidate and rationalize the registration of

titles to land, to give effect to the principle and objects of Devolved Government in land registration, and for connected purposes 2 A National Land Policy that was to guide the country towards efficient, sustainable and equitable use of land for prosperity and posterity.

2

3. To compare and analyse the results obtained using a conventional survey

method (traverse) for accuracy, reliability and precision.

3

4 1.5 Research Questions.

1. How could the Survey of Kenya (S.O.K)3 and other organizations use Real-

Time Kinematics in mapping to help optimize and improve mapping

standards in general boundary areas so that they fit into a computerized

system?

2. How is the Real-Time Kinematics approach different from the traditional

approach?

3. Are the accuracies achieved using Real-Time Kinematics within the

acceptable limits in relation to the traditional methods of providing control?

1.6 Scope of the project. This project was confined to identification of various types of boundaries and to

geo-reference the parcel of land in question using GPS, Real Time Kinematics and

analysing the data against that obtained using conventional methods (Traverse).

1.7 Organization of the Project The project is divided into five chapters as follows:

Chapter One introduces the subject, presents the problem statement, research

objectives, scope of the study and the organization of the project.

Chapter two addresses the subject of Geo-referencing of General Boundaries, types

of boundaries, Origin of General Boundaries in Kenya, Land Consolidation and land

Adjudication in Kenya, General Boundaries and Land Disputes and Application of

GPS in Boundary surveys.

Chapter Three deals with the methodology of data collection, categories of data

collected, and methods of analysis of the same.

Chapter Four focuses on data findings and Analysis. Where the results of the study

from data collected are presented and analyzed.

Chapter five is the final chapter of this project which highlights the conclusion of the

study, recommendations and areas of further research.

3 SOK refers to the department of Surveys in the Ministry of Lands. The department is responsible for all cadastral operations in Kenya.

3

5 CHAPTER TWO

GEO-REFERENCING OF GENERAL BOUNDARIES

2.1 Types of Cadastral Boundaries in Kenya

Kenya practices a legal cadastre, which is a state register containing information

about land parcels. This is supported by a detailed description of the parcel either in

the form of Registry Index Maps (RIMs) under RLA4 or Deed Plans under RTA

5.

The index maps or deed plans are the end products of cadastral surveys.

There are two classes of Cadastral surveys, which support the two boundary

systems in Kenya that is the fixed and general boundaries.

2.1.1 The Fixed Boundary

Surveys in this system are precise and are carried out under the provisions of the

Survey Act Cap 299 of the Laws of Kenya, which details how and by who are such

surveys carried out and approved. This is especially important as the Government of

Kenya guarantees titles to land. The fixed boundary system is one which has been

accurately surveyed so that any lost corner monument can be re-established

precisely from mathematical measurements. Monumentation for fixed boundary

surveys consist of coordinated beacons at the turning points of rectilinear

boundaries. Natural features such as rivers, roads, and ocean line, may also be

adopted as curvilinear boundaries. Most of the fixed surveys are carried out under

the Registration of Titles Act (RTA)

2.1.2 The General Boundaries

Are carried out in accordance with four other Acts i.e. The Registered Land Act

Cap 300, The Land Consolidation Act Cap 283, The Land Adjudication Act, Cap

284 and The Land (Group Representatives) Act Cap 287.

The term general boundary means that the exact location of the boundary is

undetermined but assumed to be represented by a visible physical feature such as

hedges, walls, rivers or streams, coastlines, or any physical feature that may be

found suitable for the definition of the position of the boundary. The concept of

general boundaries was introduced in Kenya in 1959 by the Native Lands

4 RLA refers to Registered Lands Act Cap 300(repealed) laws of Kenya. 5RTA refers to Registration of Titles Act Cap 281 Laws of Kenya(repealed)

4

Registration Ordinance and the registry map was intended to be used as the index

map [GoK, 1966: 70].

2.1.3 Origin of General Boundaries in Kenya

Cadastral surveying in Kenya may be traced to the establishment of a survey section

and the appointment of a chief surveyor in 1903 to superintend the demarcation and

survey of plots that had been alienated in Nairobi (Njuki, 2001). Major landmarks in

the cadastral survey reforms in Kenya are associated with the different land reform

programs initiated over the years.

Prior to the Second World War, the major land reform programs were the Land

adjudication at the coast and the European settlement on the white highlands.

Cadastral surveys concerned with alienating crown lands to the white community

were done under the provisions of the Survey Ordinance of 1923 and registered

under the RTA. These surveys were of very high standards, described land

unambiguously and resulted in very few boundary disputes (Njuki, 2009).

The other form of surveys was done under the provisions of the Land Titles

Ordinance of 1908 to demarcate and define the boundaries of both adjudicated and

unclaimed land at the coast. These surveys were done by compass and chain with

connections to very few control points and were slow, expensive and of low

accuracy. Certificate of titles were issued for all adjudicated lands and all unclaimed

lands reverted to the crown.

2.2 Land Adjudication and Consolidation

The period after the Second World War to shortly after Independence (1963) saw

land reforms focus on loosening control to land ownership for the Africans. A series

of recommendations, factors and events led to the Land Consolidation and

Adjudication programmes which were intended to transform from customary to

individual (Statutory Freehold) land tenure for Africans in regions categorized

similarly in this period as Trust Lands. The Land Consolidation programme which

involved adjudication and fragment gathering of small plot sizes, worked for some

time and the areas in which it was implemented are referred to as Consolidation

areas. Unfortunately, land acquisition through the process under the Land

Consolidation Act did not require precise boundary surveys but simply identification

The main and unique problem with land consolidation process is

finding space to place the consolidated fragments as one parcel of

land on the ground

5

by use of physical features and general agreement on boundaries among the owners.

This was the genesis of general boundaries to support land registration in Kenya.

(There are some areas in Kenya where land consolidation was started in the

1970s and to date (2015), there are still parcels of land in the air yet to find

space to land)

The land adjudication programme replaced the land consolidation programme and

abandoned the fragment gathering approach. This programme is still ongoing and the

areas in which it has worked are referred to as Enclosure areas (Wayumba, 1999).

6 Similarly, there were areas referred to as Rangelands commonly inhabited by

nomadic pastoral communities in which group ownership of land was preferred to

individual. Group ranches were then registered in the name of group representatives

on behalf of the rest of the group members under the provisions of the Land (Group

Representatives) Act Cap 287 of 19686.

Cadastral surveys in this period were thus concerned with this endeavour. In

consolidation areas, surveys were done to ascertain the sizes of individual fragments

and the general size of the adjudication section, to demarcate the replanned plots and

to produce the Demarcation Maps and the Registry Index Maps. The surveys were

done under the supervision of the Director of Surveys. In the enclosure areas,

surveys were carried out to map the property boundaries in the adjudication section

and to prepare the Preliminary Index Diagrams (PIDs).

These surveys involved identification of boundaries on unrectified aerial

photographs. In Rangeland areas, surveys involved identification of group ranch

boundaries on 1:50,000 topographic sheets and simple ground surveys to map the

missing boundaries (Njuki, 2001). They resulted in the preparation of Registry Index

Maps Range (provisional). In the period after independence, the major land reform

policy has been the conversion of communal land tenure in trust lands into individual

ownership through land adjudication, the transfer of land from the white settlers to

6 An Act of Parliament to provide for the incorporation of representatives of groups who have been recorded as owners of land under the Land Adjudication Act, and for purposes connected therewith and purposes incidental thereto

6

the native Africans through Land Settlement Programs1 and cooperative societies

and the transfer of land from group or company ownership to individual land tenure.

Cadastral surveys in the enclosure areas are as described above while surveys to

subdivide group ranches and cooperative/company farms are increasingly being

undertaken as per the provisions of the Survey Act Cap 299 of the laws of Kenya. In

all the settlement schemes, apart from the One Million Acre Scheme, surveys

involved demarcation and survey of plots by ground survey methods. In the One

Million Acre Settlement scheme, surveys were done by the Survey Department and

involved the preparation of topographical base maps at a scale of 1/2500,

demarcation of plots and preparation of the Registry Index Map by Photogrammetric

Methods (Njuki, 2001).Currently, majority of the cadastral surveys in Kenya, done

for purposes of first registration, change of lease, conveyance or any other may be

classified under two broad categories i.e. the fixed boundary surveys and the general

boundary surveys. These two survey categories seek registration under two main

registration legislations i.e. The RLA and the RTA.

2.3 General Boundaries and Land Disputes

Land disputes may arise from a wide range of different situations and are commonly

found where there is intense population pressure on land, where different types of

land use abut or overlap one another, and where boundaries are not well demarcated.

(Hussein, 1998).

1) Over access to pastoral resources and damage to crops between herders and

farmers;

(2) Over grazing and watering areas between different groups of herders;

(3) Where customary boundaries are poorly defined between neighbouring

communities, and between migrant and indigenous farmers;

(4) Where expanding cities place pressure on peri-urban areas between the urban

elites and peri-urban populations;

(5) Where population pressure reduces the sizes of holdings below uneconomic

levels; and;

7

(6) Where state allocations of land for forestry or large scale development schemes

conflict with customary landholders interests (Leonard, R., and Longbottom, J.,

2000)

In Kenya, most physical boundary features are simple hedges that easily get

destroyed if not well maintained. In the event that the physical boundary feature is

removed, destroyed or substantially altered (for example, the river changing its

course or the hedge fully destroyed or missing) it becomes extremely difficult to re-

establish the original boundary to acceptable accuracies.

In addition to poor survey applications, the complexity of implementing Land

Consolidation Act especially in fairly developed areas (the Act does not provide for

compensation for developments during relocations), corruption and the sensitivity

and emotive nature with which Kenyans hold land has led to hundreds of thousands

of land disputes, mostly boundary related that have clogged the courts. Some

disputes pass from generation to generation.

During the Swearing in of the members of the County Land Management Board

(CLMB), Meru County in October 2014;

The Honourable Justice Njoroge of the Meru High Court remarked; Many

boundary dispute cases mutate and generate other cases arising out of

destruction of property, physical injuries and even murders

The import of this then, is that the boundary dispute may take ages before it can be

resolved because; the murder case must be resolved first; then the succession process

follows; thereafter the property damages case is resolved; before finally addressing

the boundary dispute.

Francis Oriosa Orango V Joseph Mato Ngoko & another (2008) EKLR: A land

mark and intriguing case involving a general boundary that was re-established by

over four land registrars at different times between 1993 and 2008.This would have

taken less than an hour if the boundaries were Geo-referenced.(facts of the case

annexed)

In Kenya, since registry maps based on general boundaries are not reliable, any

boundary dispute relating to general boundaries should be solved by the land

8

registrar through arbitration. The law provides that, except where the boundary has

been fixed as per section 19 of the Land Registration Act (LRA) No. 3 of 2012,

any dispute concerning a parcel of land arising out of a general boundary shall be

determined by the Land Registrar after receiving evidence as to its boundaries and

situation as may be necessary [LRA sec 18(3)]. Notwithstanding the law, the land

registrar is often faced with difficult times in circumstances where the protagonists

cannot avail reliable witnesses; or in circumstances where the aggrieved party may

have bought the land but not lived on it and boundaries are destroyed or removed. In

such circumstances, the land registrar has barely two options; either to postpone the

case and order the protagonists to agree and demarcate the boundary (which the land

registrar can then witness and record), or request a surveyor to apply any techniques

(including rudimentary measurements) to mark the boundary on the ground which

the land registrar would then order the warring parties to adopt. Thereafter, the land

registrar would order the parties to maintain the boundary.

The law provides that, The maintenance of general boundaries (fences, hedges,

walls, stones, pillars, beacons or any other physical features) demarcating a parcel of

land shall be the responsibility of the proprietors of the parcels of land. The Registrar

may in writing, order which of the adjoining proprietors shall be responsible for the

care and maintenance of any feature demarcating a common boundary, and any

proprietor so ordered to be responsible for the care and maintenance of the boundary

feature allows the feature or any part of it, to fall into disrepair, be destroyed or

removed, commits an offence and is liable on conviction to a fine not exceeding two

hundred thousand shillings (USD 2,200) - (LRA sec. 20).

2.4 Surveying a General Boundary to Fixed Boundary Standards

The Land Registration Act (LRA) No. 3 of 2012 provides that for a general

boundary to be surveyed to fixed boundary standards there must be a request by a

land owner whose parcel of land is defined by the boundary, or if the Land Registrar

desires it necessary to have the boundary fixed. In either case, the Land Registrar

must issue a notice to all owners of parcels of land defined by the boundary intended

to be fixed to avail themselves at the site on an appointed day that the boundary is to

be fixed. The land owners must show proof that they are the registered owners of the

abutting parcels of land before the exercise of ascertaining the boundary on the

ground commences. The field exercise involves a surveyor, the Land Registrar and

9

the parcel owners walking along the boundary and ascertaining its existence; where

there is a dispute, it is sorted out. The surveyor places a boundary mark/monument

(beacon) at every corner of the boundary and subsequently surveys the boundary

marks precisely as provided for in the Survey Act. The Land Registrar takes notes

and keeps a record endorsed by all the land owners present during the exercise.

After the survey plan defining the fixed boundary is approved by the Director of

Surveys, the Land Registrar shall file the plan (survey plan) containing the necessary

particulars and make a note in the register that the boundaries have been fixed, and

the plan shall be deemed to accurately define the boundaries of the parcel (LRA sec

19)

While legal boundary points for fixed boundaries are marked with marks, that are

precisely surveyed, legal boundary points for general boundaries though marked

with physical features, remain undefined.

The legal responsibility of ascertaining any uncertainty on a general boundary is

vested with the Land Registrar while the determination of the position of any

uncertainty on a fixed boundary is vested with the surveyor (LRA sec 18(3).

(Muriithi, 2015)

2.5 What is Geo-Referencing?

To geo-reference is to define location in physical space and is crucial to making

aerial and satellite imagery useful for mapping. Geo-referencing explains how

position data (e.g., Global Positioning System (GPS)7 locations) relate to imagery

and to a physical location. Different maps may use different projection systems.

Geo-referencing tools contain methods to combine and overlay these maps with

minimum distortion. Using geo-referencing methods, data obtained from

observation or surveying may be given a point of reference from topographic maps

already available. Geo-referencing describes the process of locating an entity in 'real

world' coordinates.

2.5.1 Geo-Referencing of General Boundaries

General boundaries as has been introduced, define most of land property in Kenya.

They are found in all consolidation, enclosure and rangeland areas. The registration

10

in these areas is supported by either the Registry Index Maps (RIM) or the Interim

RIMs.

One major problem of general boundaries is that whenever the boundary is lost or a

dispute arises over it, the method of reestablishment leaves so many loopholes for

abuse.

The RLA provides that in cases of disputes, the Land Registrar after gathering all

views of the people resident in the area and any other relevant information

including that provided by the surveyor, decides the position of the disputed

boundary and his/her decision is final. It is noted that the RIM is not an authority on

boundaries and the opinion of the surveyor is just treated alongside all the other

views of the elders.

(Wayumba, 1999) Recommends, due to the inaccuracies associated with land

adjudication programs, the areas of parcels quoted in the title deeds are at variance

with the true physical area. This causes problems at the time of land subdivision for

sale or transfer and there is therefore an urgent need to fix general boundaries so as

to upgrade them to the RTA type of surveys.

7

2.5.2 Why Geo-Reference General Boundaries in Kenya?

There are a number of justifiable reasons why general boundaries in Kenya need to

be geo-referenced; they include and not limited to:

Unreliable Levels of Survey Accuracy: As indicated earlier in this paper,

many titles in Kenya acquired through the process of land adjudication are

based on registry maps whose general boundaries are not geo-referenced.

For this reason, any scaled distances or areas computed from these registry

maps do not reflect the distances or areas on the ground to reliable levels of

accuracy. Worse still, the registry maps cannot be used to guide in the

identification of the location of the parcels of land on the ground.

7 A satellite-based navigation system made up of a network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of

Defense. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the system available for

civilian use.

11

Even a qualified surveyor cannot independently locate the parcels of land

shown on a registry map on the ground without the help of the land owners and,

or the local community

(Muriithi, 2015)

Boundaries in Arid and Semi-Arid Lands (ASAL): In the Arid and Semi-

Arid lands in Kenya, commonly referred to as ASAL areas, there exists no

prominent identifiable vegetative vegetation. As George Oner Ogalo (2002)

puts it, boundary hedges, even if planted (in these areas) cannot grow into

air visible boundaries (to be mapped for adjudication purposes) due to the

harsh conditions. In addition, the communities resident in these areas are

nomadic pastoralists who keep on moving from place to place during

different seasons in search of pasture and cannot maintain boundaries; and

even if it were possible for them to maintain them, they would not favour

hedges as boundaries because hedges restrict movement of their livestock

(Ogalo, 2002)

2.5.3 Precision and Accuracy in Geo-Referencing General

Boundaries There is a school of thought (in Kenya) that is of the view that geo-referencing of

general boundaries means transforming the general boundaries into fixed

boundaries. That is, surveying all the general boundaries with the same degree of

precision and levels of accuracy as provided in the survey Act, Cap 299 for fixed

boundaries.

The other school of thought propagates that geo-referencing is not fixing; that is,

whereas fixed boundaries are automatically geo-referenced; the converse is not the

same. When general boundaries are geo-referenced, it does not mean they have

been fixed; or that they must be fixed in order for them to be geo-referenced.

Fixed boundaries are automatically geo-referenced; but not all geo-referenced

boundariesare fixed (Muriithi, 2015)

P.Williamson quotes a resolution adopted at the U.N. Regional Cartographic

Conference for Asia and the Far East held in India in 1955 [19] which stated:

12

"The precision of a cadastral survey should not be more than necessary for the fulfillment

of practical requirements. The system, the method of production, and the legal basis

should be adapted to local circumstances both social and physical."

8 2.6 Use of GPS in Geo-Referencing

The days when a cadastral surveyor used to have six chainmen are gone. With the

advent of Total Stations and GPS- the black boxes that almost anyone can operate-

the surveyor will have to change his approach to surveying. There will be little need

for manual skills and more emphasis will be laid on management skills. (Njuki,

1998).

GPS has been designed to facilitate roaming through the so called Real Time

Kinematic Systems (RTK). This has made possible rapid point layout using these

systems. GPS accuracies are now in the region of 5 20 cm well within our

cadastral standards. (Yego, 1998)

GPS technology has been used in cadastral surveys in countries such as El

Salvador, Indonesia, Morocco, Botswana, Namibia, Jordan and in a number of

countries in Eastern Europe. Tests for use of GPS in RTK8 surveys in Belize and

Albania have demonstrated that the use of GPS in cadastral surveys has

considerable cost savings (Mwenda, 2001).

There is no doubt therefore about the potential of using GPS in Geo-referencing of

general boundaries.

2.6.1 Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)9

The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies namely:

GPS,

Glonass and

Galileo. 9

Each of them consists mainly of three segments:

(a) Space segment,

(b) Control segment and

8

Real Time Kinematics (RTK) is a differential GNSS technique originated in the mid-1990s that provides high performance

positioning in the vicinity of a base station. 9 The term global navigation satellite system (GNSS) refers to a constellation of satellites providing

signals from space transmitting positioning and timing data. By definition, a GNSS provides global

coverage.

13

(c) User segment.

These segments are almost similar in the three satellite technologies, which are all

together make up the GNSS. As of today, the complete satellite technology is the

GPS technology and most of the existing worldwide applications related to the GPS

technology. The GNSS technology will become clearer after the operation of Galileo

and the reconstruction of Glonass in the next few years.

However GPS has been widely used in positioning due to its wide coverage.

2.6.2 Global Positioning Satellite System (GPS)

The United States Department of Defence (DoD) has developed the Navstar GPS,

which is an all-weather, space based navigation system to meet the needs of the USA

military forces and accurately determine their position, velocity, and time in a

common reference system, anywhere on or near the Earth on a continuous basis

(Wooden, 1985).

GPS has made a considerable impact on almost all positioning, navigation, timing

and monitoring applications. It provides particularly coded satellite signals that can

be processed in a GPS receiver, allowing the receiver to estimate position, velocity

and time (Hofmann-Wellenh of et al., 2001).

There are four GPS satellite signals that are used to compute positions in three

dimensions and the time offset in the receiver clock. GPS comprises three main

components namely:

Space segment:

The space segment (SS) is composed of the orbiting GPS satellites or Space Vehicles

(SV) in GPS parlance. The GPS design originally called for 24 SVs, eight each in

three approximately circular orbits, but this was modified to six orbital planes with

four satellites each. The six orbit planes have approximately 55 inclination (tilt

relative to Earth's equator) and are separated by 60 right ascension of the ascending

node (angle along the equator from a reference point to the orbit's intersection).

The orbital period is one-half a sidereal day, i.e., 11 hours and 58 minutes so that the

satellites pass over the same locations or almost the same locations every day. The

orbits are arranged so that at least six satellites are always within line of sight from

almost everywhere on Earth's surface. The result of this objective is that the four

satellites are not evenly spaced (90 degrees) apart within each orbit. In general terms,

14

the angular difference between satellites in each orbit is 30, 105, 120, and 105

degrees apart which sum to 360 degrees.

Orbiting at an altitude of approximately 20,200 km (12,600 mi); orbital

radius of approximately 26,600 km (16,500 mi), each SV10

makes two complete

orbits each sidereal day, repeating the same ground track each day. This was very

helpful during development because even with only four satellites, correct alignment

means all four are visible from one spot for a few hours each day. For military

operations, the ground track repeat can be used to ensure good coverage in combat

zones.

Control segment.

The control segment is composed of:

1. Master control station (MCS),

2. An alternate master control station,

3. Four dedicated ground antennas, and

4. Six dedicated monitor stations.

User segment. The user segment is divided into three parts: i.e.

a. The military.

b. The civilian Surveyors, Engineers, Tourists, security personnel, and

sports just to state but a few.

c. Receivers-there are three common types of GPS receivers i.e.

Navigation receivers-are used mainly for reconnaissance due to their

accuracy. Uses the C/A Code.

Geodetic Receivers-used for precise work since they accommodate post

processing

Real-Time receivers-similar to geodetic receivers. In addition have a

radio- link which aid in communication with another receiver 10

10SV-Satellite Vehicle

15

2.7 Positioning Techniques

There are three GPS positioning techniques namely:

a. Absolute point positioning.-involves a single receiver measuring its range

to at least four satellites simultaneously. This positioning method is the least

accurate and not applicable for survey work.

b. Relative positioning.-when two or more receivers are tracking at least four

satellites simultaneously .this method attains higher accuracy than absolute

positioning. There is extensive correlation between observations taken from

the same satellites at the same time and at separate stations.

c. Differential Positioning. -Similar to relative positioning but requires at

least one receiver to be placed on a known station.

2.8 GPS Surveying Methods

1. Rapid static Surveying-observations are made within a base length less

than 20km.length of the session ranges from 5-30 minutes. This method

allows post-mission processing.

2. Static Surveying-Observations are made between base lengths greater than

20Km.its used in densification of controls in a large area. The session ranges

from 30 minutes to 2hrs.

3. Kinematic Surveying-the receivers are often in motion compared to

startic.In Kinematic Survey ,Initialization16

of the receiver and maintenance

of lock to all the satellites is required. Kinematic survey involves the

following:

Kinematic on the fly: it provides instantaneous positioning since the

receiver is in motion throughout the session. Its most productive and

less accurate.

Stop and Go. One stationary referred to as the reference and a

moving receiver referred to as the rover are used. The reference

occupies the same control point throughout the session.

Leap frog method: To receivers are used, where one receiver moves

at a time.

16

Pseudo-Kinematic method: This method is a high bread of static

and kinematic surveying methods.

2. 9. Procedure of Carrying out RTK-GPS Survey

To carry out a GPS survey, the following are the minimum areas that should be

considered.

Planning

Reconnaissance.

Observations.

Planning: -This is done to ease the process of surveying together with the level of

accuracies required. Planning is done to ensure that:

a. The Datum points are selected from a network that is geometrically correct.

b. There is security for both manpower and instruments.

c. There are enough datum points.

d. There are enough GPS receivers to be used.

Reconnaissance:-It entails checking the layout of the land in terms of:

a. Accessibility.

b. Vegetation cover.

c. Presence of tall building.

d. Transmission lines.

e. Plus any other factor that may cause obstruction.

Observations:-This is the actual field work where the GPS observations are made

on both old survey points and the new survey points.

Figure 2.1 RTK GPS Surveying

(www.what-when-how.com)

17

In this method, the base receiver remains stationary over the known point and is

commonly attached to a radio transmitter (Figure 2.1).

The rover receiver is normally carried in a backpack (or mounted on a moving

object) and is attached to a radio receiver. Similar to the conventional kinematic GPS

method, a data rate of 1 Hz (one sample per second) or lower is normally employed.

The base receiver measurements and coordinates (along with the antenna height) are

transmitted to the rover receiver through the communication (radio) link. The built-in

software in the rover receiver combines and processes the GPS measurements

collected at both the base and the rover receivers to obtain the rover coordinates.

The initial ambiguity parameters are determined almost instantaneously using a

technique called on-the-fly (OTF) ambiguity resolution.

2.9.1 Sources of Error in GPS Survey

The GPS is not a perfect system. There are several different types of errors that can

occur when using a GPS receiver, for example: User mistakes

User mistakes account for most GPS errors; and a GPS receiver has no way to

identify and correct these mistakes.

User mistakes:-Satellite may be blocked by buildings, terrain, electronic

interference, and sometimes dense foliage. A GPS receiver needs a fairly clear

view of the sky to operate.

Multipath interference: Multipath interference is caused by the satellite signal

reflecting off of vehicles, buildings, power lines, water and other interfering

objects Multipath is difficult to detect and sometimes impossible for the user to

avoid or for the receiver to correct. When using a GPS receiver in a vehicle

place the external antenna on the roof of the vehicle to eliminate most signal

interference caused by the vehicle. If the GPS receiver is placed on the

dashboard there will always be some multipath interference.

Satellite and receiver clock errors:-These can be slight discrepancies in the

satellites atomic clocks which may cause slight position errors in the GPS

receiver. Errors are monitored and corrected by the Master Control Station.

Orbit errors:-Satellite orbit pertains to the altitude, position, and speed of the

satellite. Satellite orbits vary due to gravitational pull and solar pressure

18

fluctuations. Orbit errors are also monitored and corrected by the Master

Control Station.

Satellite geometry:-The location of GPS satellites in relation to a GPS receiver

on the ground can impact the receivers ability to triangulate a 3D position. The

quality of a receivers triangulated position improves the further apart GPS

satellites are located from each other in the sky above the receiver. The quality

decreases if the satellites are grouped close together in the sky above the

receiver.

Atmospheric interference:-The atmosphere can slow or speed up the satellite

signal. Fortunately, error caused by atmospheric conditions (ionized air,

humidity, temperature, pressure) has been reduced with the implementation of

the Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS)11

11 Selective Availability:-Selective Availability is the intentional degradation

(limits accuracy of satellite signals) of the GPS system by the U.S. Department

of Defense for security reasons.

(Control Survey notes, Jane Maina, KISM 2010)

11 WAAS is an extremely accurate navigation system developed for civil aviation. Before WAAS, the

U.S. National Airspace System (NAS) did not have the potential to provide horizontal and vertical

navigation for approach operations for all users at all locations. With WAAS, this capability is a

reality. The Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) is an air navigation aid developed by the

Federal Aviation Administration (prime contractor Raytheon Company) to augment the Global

Positioning System (GPS), with the goal of improving its accuracy, integrity, and availability.

Essentially, WAAS is intended to enable aircraft to rely on GPS for all phases of flight, including

precision approaches to any airport within its coverage area.

19

CHAPTER THREE

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Location of the Site

The project area is within Kiambu County, Kiambaa Sub-County The site is about

300 Metres off Nairobi-Limuru by pass road junction.

3.2 Work Flow

Figure 3.2 Flowchart showing a summary of the methodology

Data Analysis &

presentation

Reconnaissance

Identification of old points

Selection of new points

GPS -RTK Survey

Checking instruments

GPS Observation

Traverse Survey

Checking instruments

Traverse Observations

20

3.3 Reconnaissance

Existing Survey plans and R.I.Ms of the area bearing (Kiambaa/Ruaka/sheet 13) and

544/77 were obtained from Survey of Kenya. The RIM showed the extent the parcel

of land in question. While the Survey plan showed a number of existing old control

points which were used to extend control to the site using the conventional survey

method (Traverse).

With the plans, the surveyor visited the site and made a general view of the ground.

A thorough search for the beacons in the field was done. The general boundaries

defining the parcel Kiambaa/Ruaka/5402 were located and found to be properly

maintained and undisputed.

The old points found were;

Point -Northing -Easting

TW9 129497.17 18705.48

TR19 134134.17 23755.43

TR11 134027.29

23669.66

Figure 3.3 coordinates of beacons used as reference points

A topographical map was used to I identify their plannimetric position while their

coordinates were obtained from FR No 544/77 & FR No.130/47

All the control points selected were found to be in good condition and on stable

ground.

3.4 Selection of New Points

The following factors were put into consideration while selecting the new control

points.

Stability of the ground: Stability of the ground where the points were placed was

of much consideration as the points could be used later in detail picking.

Therefore they were placed on stable ground to ensure that their positions and

elevation does not change.

Accessibility: Points were placed in such a way that they could be easily

accessed and that they could not be easily found by unauthorized persons to

21

avoid interference. Accessibility was also based on the time factor such that

less time could be used when moving from one station to the next.

Maximum coverage: Points were established in such a way that they covered

the area of interest effectively.

Once the location the location of the new points was established, they were marked

by iron pins hammered into the ground, concreted and witnessed with nearby

features for ease of recognition in future.

3.5 Personnel Involved

Since survey field work cannot be carried out by one person, the surveyor recruited

some assistants to help carry out the exercise.

3.6 Checking of the Instruments

Before going to the field, the instruments were individually checked to ensure that all

the instruments were in the right working conditions and all accompanying

instruments and accessories were available and in good condition.

3.7 GPS Observations

The GPS receivers were checked a day before the field day to be certain whether

they were functional. It was also ensured that the batteries were fully charged.

The instruments used included;

GPS Base Station receiver (1)

GPS Rover receiver (1)

Memory cards (2)

Measuring tape (1)

Panga (1)

Booking sheets & field notes.

Iron pins.

Control points used in RTK-GPS observations were approximately 10KM from the

site (i.e. in Kiambu Town) hence the test how efficient RTK-GPS Geo-referencing

can be in areas where controls are scarce or none at all. The following formed part of

the initial setup.

22

Base Station- The base station was set at one second collection rate and at 13

degrees elevation mask. While ensuring that there was no obstruction to the sky. The

datum coordinates were keyed into the receiver which were in the local system

(Cassini soldner)

The Rover- The rover receiver was set at one (1) second collection rate and 15

degrees elevation mask. The rover rod was at a fixed height. Unlike conventional

surveying from a total station, the line of sight was not needed.

Before getting too far away from the base station, the radio link to the rover was

checked. The first thing to be done upon starting the survey on the data collector

was to initialize the system (resolve the integer ambiguity).

A Known point initialization was done this is the fastest and safest way to

initialize. Where possible and practical this should be the method of choice. The

firmware uses the three-dimensional deltas of the relative WGS84 positions of the

base stations and the known point occupied by the rover as an aid in solving the

integer ambiguities.

After initialization the data was compared with the first and second shots to within

an acceptable tolerance. The points checked, hence preceded with data collection

with the confidence of surveying with a correct initialization. This procedure was

repeated whenever there was any loss of lock

The system was now ready to observe points that required to be geo-referenced. The

amount of time of occupation varied depending on conditions such as obstruction,

multi-path and noise.

Observations started at 8:00Am and went as follows.

One GPS receiver was set at control point TW9 at 8:00 to run unstopped

throughout the observation period (Base station), since the point was on

stable ground and for security purposes (see Appendix 1).

The other receiver (Rover) was used to establish new points & Geo-reference

the corner points of the boundary of the parcel of land under study. The

23

Rover continuously received corrections from the Base station while at the

same time ensuring that lock was maintained and ambiguity fully resolved.

3.8 Precautions Taken During Observation

The following precautions were taken in to consideration to make the project a

success.

The batteries were frequently checked during observation period.

Instrument height was read at the beginning and at the end of the observation.

The cut off angle was raised or lowered depending with the features

encountered in the field.

The tripods screws were fastened properly.

The real time Nothings and Eastings were booked before the observations were

stopped at each instrument station.

3.9 Data Processing and Transformation

There was no post processing of data since the actual coordinates were obtained in

real time and transferred as text tab document using Bluetooth technology to the

computer. The Data collected was in Cassini a local system and hence was

transformed to UTM coordinates to facilitate plotting it on Google Earth as

KML/KMZ file for further checking and scrutiny. (See Appendix 2, 3 and 4)

3.9.1 Traverse observations

A traverse was also done between control pointsTR19&TR11using F/R

No.544/77.where the new points established by GPS were also coordinated from the

traverse to acquire a set of coordinates for comparison and analysis. A high accuracy

was achieved which was deemed justifiably accurate enough to provide a control

network for this project.using the traverse network the boundary of the parcel was

picked to acquire a set of data for analysis.

The drawings were also exported to Google earth for appreciation.

24

CHAPTER FOUR

DATA FINDINGS AND ANALYSIS

4.1 Result Analysis

This chapter represents the results of the project and their presentation with a view

to demonstrate the RMS error of the Geo-referenced land boundaries using Real-

Time Kinematics as compared with Geo-referenced parcel boundaries using

conventional survey method(Traverse).

4.2. Discussion of the Results

Statistics for the coordinates recorded by RTK and from the Traverse. This was

done by computing the coordinates difference for the points (northing and easting),

square of the points, and average of the squared difference and then computation of

the RMS error.

Computation of sample statistics that would be used to draw conclusion about the

Accuracy of Real-Time Kinematics was done utilizing the following equations in

Ms-excel 2007:

x2 = (X1-X2)2 ............Equation 1

y2= (Y1-Y2)2 ........Equation 2

RMS (E) = (Mean X2+Mean Y2) ....Equation 3

Where: X1=easting from the RTK- GPS

Y1=northing from the RTK -GPS

X2=easting from the Traverse

Y2=northing from the Traverse.

Mean X =average of easting squares of the residual

Mean Y =average of northing squares of the residual

N= number of the used points

25

Table 4.2 the table of computed RMS from the points defining the boundary of the

parcel in question.

Coordinates from RTK-GPS Coordinates from the

TRAVERSE

DIFFERENCE SQUARE

PID EASTING NORTHING EASTING NORTHING x y x2 y2 POINT

MK1 252623.6116 9867198.7790 252623.6016 9867198.7784 0.0100 0.0006 0.000100 0.000000 0.0100

MK2 252631.2454 9867215.6330 252631.2404 9867215.6297 0.0050 0.0033 0.000025 0.000011 0.0060

MK3 252595.2018 9867209.4490 252595.2038 9867209.4481 0.0020 0.0009 0.000004 0.000000 0.0022

MK4 252601.8965 9867225.8940 252601.8935 9867225.8938 0.0030 0.0002 0.000009 0.000000 0.0030

AVERAGE 0.000138 0.000011

RMS 0.0122

26

Figure 4.3 the graphic representation of residuals.

MK1 MK2 MK3 MK4

dN 0.0006 0.0033 0.0009 0.0002

dE 0.01 0.005 0.002 0.003

DIFFERENCE IN (M) 0.01 0.006 0.0022 0.003

0

0.002

0.004

0.006

0.008

0.01

0.012

DIF

FER

ENC

E (

M)

Graphic Representation of residuals

27

CHAPTER FIVE

CONCLUSION

5.1 Introduction

The objectives of this study were to analyse and test the suitability of the use of

Real Time Kinematic GPS in Geo-referencing of general boundaries with the view

of recommending the same for adoption and subsequent implementation. It is

therefore expected that when the government is ready to implement The Land

Registration Act, 2012, the results of this study will be found useful.

5.2 Conclusions

This project is sui generis and leaves no iota of doubt that there is dire and forthwith

need to geo-reference general boundaries in Kenya. The need is overwhelming not

only from surveyors but very many other land users such as valuers, estate agents,

architects, engineers, the government and even the general public, res ipsa loquitur.

In view of the foregoing, this study draws the following conclusions:

There are two types of boundaries established by various repealed Acts in

Kenya i.e. General and Fixed Boundaries.

THAT RTK GPS establishes boundary positions as accurately as the

conventional methods hence a near ideal method of Geo-referencing.

THAT RTK is economical and fast in geo-referencing of boundaries as

compared to the conventional methods.

THAT the Geo-referenced boundaries can be re-established in future if

damaged.

5.3 Recommendations

It is now a legal requirement in Kenya that all land for purposes of registration

or compulsory acquisition shall be geo-referenced (LA sec 8, 107(8); LRA sec

7(1)(d), 15). It is therefore not a matter of choice but to comply with the law.

The National Mapping Agency should establish a unitary and homogeneous

network of control points of adequate density, preferably using dynamic

technology such as GNSS.

28

The Survey Act (cap 299) and the medieval Survey Manual should be amended

to allow the use of modern technology such as GPS and GIS in authentication

surveys.

The Director of Surveys should work towards the establishment of Continuous

Operating Reference Stations (CORS) across the country as infrastructure to the

County Governments and private practitioners for mapping.

A new National Land Policy to be formulated which should advocate for the

use of the GPS in mapping.

29

REFERENCES

Government of Kenya, 2009: Sessional Paper Number 3, 2009 on National Land

Policy. Government Printer Nairobi.

Njuki, A. K., 2001. Cadastral Systems and their Impact on Land Administration in

Kenya. Proc. Int. Conference on Spatial Information for Sustainable Development,

Nairobi, Kenya, 2nd -5th October, 2001.

Bo Shen, 2009 GIS and GPS Technology, 0360-520, Seminar Report

Mwenda, J.N. 2001: Spatial Information in Land Tenure Reform with Special

Reference to Kenya. Proc. Int. Conference on Spatial Information for Sustainable

Development, Nairobi, Kenya, 2nd- 5th October, 2001.

Kaufmann, J. and D. Steudler, 1998: Cadastre 2014. A Vision for a future Cadastral

System.FIG Commission 7.

The Land Registration Act, 2012.(Kenya)

Maina J. 2010: Unpublished Third Year Control Survey Lecture Notes, Kenya

Institute of Survey and Mapping (KISM), Department of Surveying, Nairobi,

Kenya.

Yego, 1998. Modern Technology in Surveying: Opportunities and Challenges.,

1998.

Wikipedia encyclopedia, 2011 at http:// www.spacenews.com, May 2014

Network RTK Positioning at http://gpsworld.com 2014.

Real Time Kinematics article at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_Time_Kinematic

Grooves, P.D., 2008. Principles of GNSS, Inertial, and Multi-sensor Integrated

Navigation Systems.

J.C, M.C., 1985. Surveying. 2nd ed.

sickle, J.V., 2008. GPS for Land Surveyors.

30

APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Setting up and Initialization of the Base with the Rover (2014)

31

Appendix 2 GPS coordinates displayed by word pad from text tab file (2014)

32

Appendix 3 TRAVERSE FIELD NOTES

33

34

Appendix 4 TRAVERSE COMPUTATION

35

Appendix 5 DEMONSTRATION OF PICKINGS AND CHECKS

36

Appendix 6 DEMONSTRATION OF PICKINGS AND CHECKS Const

37

Appendix 7 BOUNDARY DATA

38

Appendix 8 COORDINATES TRANSFORMATION TO UTM

39

Appendix 9 COORDINATES TRANSFORMATION TO UTM Cont!

40

Appendix 10 COORDINATES TRANSFORMATION TO UTM Cont

41

Appendix 11 Google Earth view of the plotted coordinates (2014)

42

Appendix 12 Google Earth Image of the Geo-referenced parcel