Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily.docx

8/10/2019 Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily.docx

1/18

Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily

"Norman Sicily stood forth in Europe --and indeed in the whole bigoted medieval world-- as an exampleof tolerance and enlightenment, a lesson in the respect that every man should feel for those whose bloodand beliefs happen to differ from his own."

-- John Julius Norwich, The Kingdom in the Sun 1970

"Sicilians are a diverse people, having had contact with a great variety of ethnic stocks and physical typesthroughout the centuries."

-- Encyclopedia Britannica, Volume 10, page 779 1997

Genes and populations.The most personal of biological sciences,

genetics influence everything about who we are. Our appearance,

talents and health - even our identities - are all shaped to a great

extent by the genes we inherited through our parents. Perhaps for this

reason, the topic often provokes strong emotions and opinions. This

very simplified overview is not intended as a detailed scientific orsociological treatise, nor is it intended for research purposes. (For

insights into population genetics, works such as those of the

distinguished geneticist Luigi L. Cavalli-Sforza should be consulted;

Matt Ridley's Genome is a good introduction for the layman; Steven

Oppenheimer's Out of Eden and Spencer Wells' The Journey of Man place

pre-historic human migration in perspective.) First, let's define a

few terms. Ethnology generally refers to the social study of peoples

and the comparative differences among them, in view of culture,

history and traditions; ethnography is a methodical identification of

peoples based on ethnology. Genealogy is the historical study of

ancestral lineages, descent and kinship. As a research tool, genealogy

is quite useful in genetic studies, but social concepts such asconsanguinity ("blood" relationships between people descended from the

same ancestor) are not, strictly speaking, biological in nature. In a

place as ethnically diverse as Sicily, ethnology is interesting

(though this is not an "ethnic" website), while genetic knowledge is

obviously important in treating certain diseases. Race is a

traditional social method of identifying people from various regions

based primarily on their appearance and various physical

characteristics. Anthropology is the study of man generally -

physically, socially, culturally. In its most general sense,

anthropology often embraces ethnology, population genetics, genealogy

and many aspects of biology, history, archeology, linguistics and the

arts. (For more information about the origins and ethnology of the

various Sicilian peoples, see the Sicilian Peoples series linked from

"Brothers" in the following section.)

Take your place in history.This all seems rather abstract --even

impersonal-- until you start to trace your own ancestral DNA. That's

the idea behind the 5 year long Genographic Project sponsored by the

National Geographic Society. The project's website offers a good

overview and atlas of population genetics, explaining its impact on


2/18

individuals. To participate in their study, you'll need DNA analysis

from a company such as Family tree DNA. Eventually, Best of Sicily

will present a summary based on their results. We've already received

correspondence from a number of readers about their own results from

genetic analysis. This indicates, for example, a high prevalence of

gene marker M172 (Haplogroup J2), shared by peoples (including

Sicily's Elymians, Carthaginians, Greeks and Arabs) having remoteorigins in the Fertile Crescent.

Brothers: Out of Africa

Genetic Heritage and History

Population Genetics

Sicilian Haplogroups

Ethno-Regional Origins

Popular Perceptions

Further Reading & Links

Terms Defined

Brothers: Out of AfricaThe brotherhood of mankind has ancient roots. In the remote shadows of

human pre-history, there was only a single primitive culture. "Genetic

tracking" is a new science but it indicates that "modern" man existed

as a hunter-gatherer in eastern Africa around 150,000 years ago, with

evidence of these same people discovered in the Middle East dated from

around 80,000 years ago. A well-researched hypothesis that all humans

are descended from a "mitochondrial" Eve (a reference to the

mitochondrial DNA traced to a female ancestor living in east Africa

150,000 years, or about 7,000 generations, ago) emphasizes the

"commonality" of all humans and our descent from a single "race." At

one point, there were probably only around 10,000 humans in the world,

and they gradually migrated, leaving a DNA trail behind them. Stephen

Oppenheimer (author of Out of Eden - The Peopling of the World), among

others, suggests a single major "exodus" out of Africa, not

necessarily many waves of emigration as was previously theorized. This

theory is supported by geneticists such as Spencer Wells (author of

The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey and director of the Genographic

Project). Genetic drift would have resulted in a single line of

mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) surviving in isolated populations.

Peoples of Sicily Series

Introduction

Sicanians

Elymians

Sicels

Phoenicians

Greeks

Carthaginians

Romans

Vandals & Goths

Byzantines

Arabs

Normans


3/18

Swabians

Angevins

Aragonese

Albanians

Spanish

Jews

About 72,000 years ago, the effects of a major volcanic eruption(Toba) with global consequences killed off many humans. By some

estimates, as few as 2,000 humans survived the disaster --in Africa.

They were already making simple jewelry. Art was a reflection of the

modern mind, and early culture. The divergence of humans into

regionalised groups with their own particular genetic characteristics,

often in response to climatic conditions, mutations or disease,

generally took place at some point after this. At least this is

suggested by genetic evidence. According to the best estimates, it was

probably only around 45,000 to 40,000 BC (BCE) that a large group

settled permanently in Europe, though they had already established a

permanent presence in the Middle East and certain eastern and central

Mediterranean coastal areas. By 25,000 BC, if not earlier, groups ofhumans could be identified, albeit very generally, by their cultures

and superficial physical characteristics. (Comparative linguistic

studies, though useful, enlighten us about only much more recent

historical periods, written language being a relatively recent

development.)

There is a point where evolutionary genetic conditions become

localized (ethnic) ones. The Ice Man found frozen in the Alps in 1991

lived about 5,300 years ago, and genetic testing indicates his

considerable affinity with the present Alpine population.

Is race an antiquated concept? It's becoming so, and important

(professional) anthropologists increasingly rely on genetics for

determining human migrations and human evolution. Observations made

here concerning genetic differentiation relate only to the last twelve

thousand years or so.

The earliest identifiable (pre-historic) "modern human" inhabitants of

Sicily were present at least 10,000 to 12,000 years ago and many lived

in caves. People are interested in the physical appearance of their

ancestors, whether recent or ancient. For lack of a more descriptive

term, the earliest Sicilians would be identified as "Caucasoid" in

appearance. Generally, they probably had darker hair and eyes than

most of their northern-European counterparts, and probably tanned

easily. Extant visual evidence (sculpture, mosaics, etc.) and

surviving literary accounts indicate that most ancient Mediterranean

peoples, whether Phoenician, Egyptian, Greek, Roman or Sicanian, were

generally a little darker than northern Europeans. Ancient peoples

were, on average, shorter than modern ones, and did not live as long.

Peoples from across Europe were drawn (or coerced) to Rome, but it was

the Middle Ages that brought Vandals, Vikings and Visigoths to the

sunny "Med" in large numbers, literally changing the face of the

Mediterranean population. (Even today, when there are more blondes in


4/18

Sicily than in ancient times, Sicilian women joke about the obsession

of the local men with foreign blondes, and a black-haired, dark-eyed

Sicilian girl is referred to as a "mora," or Moor, while a redhead is

a "normanna" or Norman --terms in wide use since the Middle Ages.)

Until the fall of the Roman Empire, there were no known large-scale

"non-Mediterranean" incursions into Sicily by sub-Saharan or east-

Asian peoples (the Huns come to mind), nor do there appear to havebeen any substantial "Nordic" (northern European) colonisations until

the arrival of the Longobards and Normans. Rather, the Sicels and

Elymians were Mediterranean peoples arriving from regions such as the

Italian peninsula or the eastern Mediterranean at some point after

1500 BC, while the Sicanians were probably descended from the earliest

inhabitants of Sicily. There are few archeological differences among

the three civilizations and their Iron Age cultures, though the very

few known linguistic distinctions, inferred from Greek-era records and

a few stone inscriptions using Phoenician characters, link them in

some way to particular regions. (In theory, contact with certain

civilizations, rather than colonization per se, may partly explain

this; by analogy, many Indians and Chinese speak English but are notdescended from the English, and many non-Italic peoples in the Roman

Empire spoke Latin, just as many Romans spoke Greek.) The earliest

Sicilians assimilated, and then amalgamated, with the Phoenicians and

Greeks within a few brief centuries. By 300 BC, they had ceased to

exist as distinct ethnic populations, having become Hellenized.

We are on more solid ground in describing the civilizations of the

Phoenicians, Greeks, Carthaginians, Romans, Arabs and Normans of

Sicily through extensive literary, archeological, linguistic and

artistic evidence. Their migrations and activities are well-

chronicled. Historians occasionally debate the merits of certain

particularly detailed events, but not the most fundamental historical

facts (migration, colonization, amalgamation) which complement

knowledge drawn from genetic data.

Return to top of this page

Genetic Heritage and History

It's important to remember that gene markers are placed into their

proper chronology based on generations rather than years, and an

average historical generation is presumed to span 25 years. If

recorded and purely anthropological (i.e. non-genetic) knowledge of

human migrations is rather recent, in Sicily there are certain native

animal species that (based on genetic studies) are European in origin

while others are African. This involves not only birds that could fly

to Sicily but mammals such as wild cats and foxes. Genes are part of

the human essence, but genetic testing only deals with particular gene

markers in certain sample individuals; it is the science of statistics

that allows us to generalize based on such studies. Various genetic

traits (even superficial physical ones like red hair and green eyes)

were introduced into the population by individuals from various

places. This is a generality; it is probable that there were red-

haired Sicilians in Greek times but equally probable that there were

far more following the influx of the "Celtic-Nordic" Normans


5/18

intermarrying with the local population. History indicates that

amalgamation was always quite normal in Sicily; many of the tenth-

century Arabs (mostly men) arriving from northern Africa married

Sicilians who were already present, and the island's population

doubled within two centuries as the Arabs founded dozens of towns and

smaller communities across Sicily. In the flow of history, certain

localized communities of ethnic Sicilians occasionally left Sicily(some Arabs from a few localities during the reign of Frederick II in

the thirteenth century and some Jews during the Spanish rule at the

end of the fifteenth century), but most of these people remained to be

completely integrated into the population. A mass exodus of Siculo-

Arabs, who had lived in Sicily for generations and knew no other

country, would have entailed the migration of at least a half million

people. Eventually, most Arabs and Jews in Sicily were Christianized.

This is reflected in the historical record not only in actual

chronicles but in medieval feudal records of taxes and population

movements and, still later, acts of baptism.

Some simple examples of this immigration and residence information arein order. Towns such as Palermo, Castrogiovanni (Enna), Calascibetta,

Caltanissetta, Read

about historically multicultural Palermo.Caltagirone, Caltabellotta,

Racalmuto, Favara, Mistretta, Marsala, Mussomeli and Misilmeri were

either founded by Arabs or grew considerably under Arab domination,

and bore Arabic names (under the Greeks Palermo, from the Arabic

Bal'harm, was Panormos). The specific mention of Arabs and the

presence of Arabic given names and surnames was evident in these

places long after Frederick II banished a few thousand Arabs of

western Sicily to Apulia. As regards Jews present in many Sicilian

localities until 1492, those who converted usually continued to name

their children according to tradition (hence Abramo, Beniamino,

Isacco, etc.) and to practice professions traditionally associated

with Jews in Sicily (dyers, bankers). Many assumed distinctive

surnames (Siino for Zion, Rabino for Rabbi) indicating a Jewish orgin.

Similar generalities about the permanence of Phoenician, Carthaginian,

Greek and Roman populations in Sicily are valid. Where are these

peoples today? Genetically (so to speak), they are represented in the

modern Sicilians --an amalgamated group of European and Mediterranean

peoples. However, as we shall see, genetics and ethnic identity are

two distinct ideas.


Population Genetics

The idea of genetic testing in general populations is that a

particular gene marker, based on a mutation, is identified with a

certain frequency in samples from the two (or more) populations being

compared. Broadly defined, population genetics is the study of the

distribution of, and change in, allele frequencies in particular

populations. (Allele frequency is a term used in describing the

genetic diversity of any species population.) There are also, strictly

speaking, phenotype and genotype frequencies, but we'll leave the

scientific complexities to the scientists.


6/18

With the use of terms such as "Pacific Rim" to describe cultures or

even economies by the bodies of water they border (or particular

physical features such as plains or mountain ranges) rather than by

their continental land masses and political borders, the term

"Mediterranean" has again become popular in recent years. Considering

that the ancient and early-medieval (pre AD 1000) peoples of southernEurope, Asia Minor and northern Africa were racially similar, and also

culturally similar Ancient routes to Sicily...in many respects, we

prefer to define them as Mediterranean rather than European, Asian or

African --partly because broad geographical definitions (based on

continents) had little political meaning until "new" places (like

America) were "discovered" in the latter Middle Ages. The "European"

Romans scarcely knew of the existence of the Lapps of northern

Scandinavia, a unique ethnic group. Though the Egyptians had contact

with Ethiopia, the "African" Carthaginians and Saracens had little, if

any, knowledge of the peoples of what is now Zambia. Via the Persians,

the Phoenicians traded with India and even Mongolia, but they probably

knew nothing of Japanese civilization. Despite political differences,the Romans had more in common with the Carthaginians than with most

northern European groups, while the Carthaginians had more in common

with the Persians than with most sub-Saharan peoples.

This "cultural" perspective of Mediterranean ethnography is far from

perfect, but it compares favorably to the blind geographic point of

view espoused by those who would have us believe, despite reliable

iconographic and numismatic evidence to the contrary, that Jesus was a

blue-eyed "Caucasoid" European and Hannibal was a dark "Negroid"

African.

Considering their common roots, the medieval Sicilians were

overwhelmingly similar to the Byzantines and Saracens who conquered

them; indeed, they may have had more in common with these peoples than

they did with the Romans. Was Sicily geographically part of Africa

when it was ruled by Carthaginians or Saracens, only to be re-

integrated into Europe when it was ruled by Romans and Normans? A good

question, but one that was rarely posed before the modern era.

Following the fall of the Roman Empire, "Italy" didn't become a

political reality (a nation) until the nineteenth century. The Italian

(and Sicilian) vernacular languages we know today came into widespread

literary use only in the thirteenth century.

Twelfth-century Sicily's multiculturalism was not a trendy socio-

political concept. It was an everyday reality. By then, the human race

had splintered into numerous ethnic groupings and societies. When

anthropologists speak generically of genetic or even "racial"

influences, they are usually speaking of various mutations and

adaptations during the historical period (from cica 4000 BC) or the

known neolithic era (10,000 BC), when Proto-Celts, Proto-Indo-

Europeans (and Sicily's Proto-Sicanians) were well established as

distinct cultures. Certain gene markers, based on mutations, are

associated with certain populations at certain times (in specific


7/18

generations), but it is not only these markers which made one a Roman,

Viking or Mongol; that's really a social matter.

Sicilian Haplogroups

Haplogroups reflect the most ancient genetic influences, dating to at

least 8,000 years ago. These can be traced easily along the main

Typical 12-marker Sicilian genetic profile.patrilineal line (yourfather's father et al.) or Y-chromosome. While this is a tiny fragment

of one's genetic heritage, it is easy to isolate.

Haplogroup M173, associated with the descendants of the first waves of

humans into Europe (often seen as a branch of the Cro-Magnon

haplogroup M343, or R1b), is widespread in Sicily and indeed across

Europe, where many English (including some 70% of Englishmen in

southern England) and French share it. Today it is most prevalent

(90%) among the Spanish and Irish. M173 originated about 30,000 years

ago. In effect, some 80% of western Europeans living today are in this

haplogroup. Though the neolithic Proto-Sicanians were probably part of

this haplogroup, many Sicilians more likely inherited it fromancestors descended from subsequent foreign conquerors arriving from

the North and West --Sicels, Romans, Visigoths, Vandals, Normans,

Lombards, Swabians (Germans), Angevins (French) and Spaniards among

them -- but possibly from some Greeks as well. (These observations are

only intended as generalities.)

In Sicily one of the most interesting haplogroups to geneticists is

the much more recent M172 (also called J2), probably introduced about

8,000 BC with the introducton of agriculture to a native people

sometimes referred to as the "Proto-Sicanians." At least 21% of

Sicilians carry the marker for this haplotype (probably about 19%

throughout Europe), and no more than 10% of people in regions such as

Spain, but it is very frequent in the Middle East, Ethiopia and

particularly the Caucasus region of west-central Asia (where it

reaches 90%), and is present among some central-Europeans and north-

Africans.

It has been plausibly suggested that M172 may be associated with the

arrival of neolithic farmers from the Fertile Crescent who were the

probable predecessors of the Indo-European society which later emerged

in western Asia, a "hypothetical" society whose culture and language

greatly influenced prehistoric peoples from India to Ireland. The

language of Sicily's Sicanians does not seem to have had Indo-European

roots, though the issue is far from conclusive. However, the

comparatively sophisticated farmers from the East must have had an

influence in prehistoric Sicily as elsewhere in the Mediterranean and

western Europe (only the Basques' ancestors may have been largely

untouched by the earliest Proto-Indo-European influences). Later, it

is unlikely that the Indo-Europeans actually supplanted entire

populations; they probably represent an influx of a few migratory

waves of settlers whose language and culture greatly influenced those

of peoples already present. Lines bearing haplotype M172 could have

arrived in Sicily with various waves of colonisers from the South and


8/18

East --Elymians (probably from Anatolia), Phoenicians (and

Carthaginians), Greeks, Byzantines and Arabs among them --but possibly

from some Romans and (in the late 1400s) Albanians as well. (These

observations, like those about M173, are only intended as

generalities.)

Several early observations (they are hardly "conclusions") emerge fromresearch conducted thus far. The notion that certain parts of Sicily

still genetically reflect the influence of specific ancient peoples

(Phoenicians, Greeks) has been largely disproven, yet certain small,

relatively-isolated towns seem to be marked by a predominance of one

medieval group or another (Arab, Norman). Leaving aside specialized

studies, if we consider the major Y haplogroups, Sicily's population-

genetic distribution is somewhat similar (though by no means

identical) to mainland Italy's. If only approximately the proportions

are: J Group (J1, J2, etc.) 35%, R Group (primarily R1b) 25%, I Group

15%, K Group 10%, H Group 10%, Others (E, T, G, etc.) 5%. Along female

lines, Sicilians' descent from the "Seven Daughters of Eve" seems to

be distributed fairly equally, but much more data must be collected inthis area. These factors (and scholarly studies) all point to the

island's multi-peopling as the main cause of its genetic diversity.

As they are based on several sources, the percentages indicated here

may vary somewhat from what you find reported elsewhere. Haplogroup

E1b1b, for example, is sometimes reported at a slightly higher

frequency. Such variations are geographical, based to some degree on

who populated a specific localityGreeks, Normans, Arabs...

Without the influx of significant "foreign" genetic influences

(admixture) over time, a small, localised population might become

"inbred" in a matter of centuries. If this were the case in Sicily,

today's Sicilians would be genetically identical to the Proto-

Sicanians of 6000 years ago. Instead, they reflect a fair degree of

genetic diversity.

Ethno-Regional Origins

Attempts to ascertain Sicilian "ethnic" origins should be undertaken

with caution because haplogroups do not correspond precisely to

medieval or modern conceptions of nationality. At best, they are

approximate. For example, J2 is identified with Greeks but also with

some Germans.

Speaking very broadly, the most frequent Y haplogroups of the world's

most conquered island may be correlated most probably (albeit

imprecisely) to the following peoples:

Estimated percentage of haplogroup presence

in Sicily circa 1400. J1 - Arabs, Berbers, Carthaginians, Jews,

J2 - Greeks, Romans, Jews, Spaniards,

R1b - Germans, Normans, Longobards, Aragonese, Spaniards, Romans,

I1 & I2b - Vikings and Normans,

I & I2a - Elymians,

E1b1b - Arabs and Berbers,


9/18

G - Arabs and Elymians,

N - Vikings and Normans,

K - Arabs, Greeks, Berbers, Carthaginians,

H - Arabs,

T - Phoenicians, Carthaginians.

To make effective use of our map requires at least 37 "recent" Y-chromosome markers rather than the 12 ancient ones revealed by basic

haplogroup tests, and SNP or subclade identification.

Click on a name to

read a cultural description....

Popular Perceptions (and misperceptions)

"Racialist" descriptions of perceived "racial" characteristics of so-

called sub-races (Pontids, Dinarics, Mediterranids, Armenids,

Saharids, Arabids, and so forth) are still Click

on an image to read about the influence of Frederick II or Mussolini

on Sicilian

history.entertained in certain quarters. Viewed in terms of the humangenome, race (as the term is commonly used and understood) is a

relatively insignificant (or at best superficial) and arbitrary

consideration, and we are already seeing more reliance on purely

genetic identification. Genetic diversity is a reality. While race, as

the term is traditionally used, is fast becoming an outmoded concept,

specific gene markers (based on relatively "recent" mutations) are

naturally linked to persons sharing common origins (i.e. the same gene

pools) coinciding with Asian, African, European or other "racial"

groups or sub-groups. The legitimate scientific basis of regional

(racial) distinctions (but not racialism) is genetic differentiation

over thousands of generations.

Genetic studies have proven beyond doubt that, ultimately, we are all

descended from the same people. Implications of "recent" migrations

and cultural factors involving the human race, particularly over the

last 8,000 years, may be discussed (even debated) for decades to come.

Outside academic and scientific circles, much of the debate finds

fertile ground among those seeking to prove that their ancestors were

"black" or "white" rather than humans living in a certain region or

identified with a certain culture. While it might be overzealous to

define all such people as racists, it is clear that their views, based

on interpretations (and misinterpretations) regarding gene markers and

mutations originating in the last 8,000 years (and the "historical"

period of the last 6000) rather than those of the last 80,000 years,

are outdated.

Prevalent stereotypes (and ignorant authors outside Italy) sometimes

paint a superficial physical picture of Sicilians which bears little

similarity to reality. While individuals having extremely light blonde

hair represent only a small part of the Sicilian population, many

Sicilians have blue or green eyes and light complexions (and red

hair). In Sicily the range of complexions, from cream to olive, is

striking, and combinations are interesting --blue-eyed dark brunettes


10/18

and brown-eyed strawberry blonds. Moreover, the idea that northern

Italians are overwhelmingly "lighter" than southerners is

statistically inaccurate. Anybody who spends even a few weeks

travelling the country could plainly observe this. Let's remember, of

course, that superficial physical traits are only a tiny part of an

individual's genetic profile. Sicily, more than most other parts of

Italy, has had a particularly wide influx of "immigrants" over thecenturies, creating a greater genetic diversity than one might find in

some other regions of Europe.

Sicilian history and ethnology are well documented. Not surprisingly,

genetic studies of the Sicilian population for the ancient and

medieval periods generally confirm what is known historically. As

genetic conclusions are keyed to generations rather than years,

historical knowledge sometimes helps to place genetic developments in

their proper context. For example, the prevalence of multiple

sclerosis in Enna and Monreale may be attributed to genes brought with

the Normans, while diseases of the thalassemia group may have arrived

with Phoenician, Greek or Arab peoples. Certain superficial physicaltraits probably were widely introduced by specific groups --blue eyes

by Normans and Longobards, kinky hair by Arabs, and so forth. That

said, apart from avoidance of "inbreeding," the most important aspect

of any migration and amalgamation is usually cultural rather than

physical. We've come to accept that most Vikings had blue eyes, but

would their achievements be attenuated if the Norsemen were all brown-

eyed?

Are there connections between genetic traits and ethnic culture? In a

few respects there are, though perhaps not in ways that many of us

imagine. Here are a few examples:

If prehistoric hunters in a certain region had to be a certain

height (either short or tall) to capture the fauna they ate, it's

possible that hunters bearing this trait would more likely survive to

pass it on to offspring. Thus a particular range of stature might come

to be identified with that population. Exceptionally acute vision is

another trait beneficial to the hunters which might find its way into

the gene pool.

Let's imagine that a certain kind of edible plant grows in a

specific region, but some of the inhabitants of that area are allergic

to this food. Perhaps such a food might not find its way into the

local cuisine. Conversely, if it were a dietary staple, those allergic

to it might not survive to transmit their allergy to offspring.

Art often reflects the appearance of the people who create it, and

while it may be idealized it can provide us with an insight into the

minds of its creators. Thus the earliest Elymian, Phoenician and Greek

art in Sicily often --though not always-- reflects the physical

appearance of its artists, or at least their aesthetic standards.

Moreover, if a certain random physical trait (small feet, big ears,

green eyes, flat noses, long fingers, excessive body hair) were


11/18

considered especially beautiful, it might eventually become dominant

in a population as people chose their mates based on such factors;

consequently, a society's visual arts and literature would reflect

this beauty standard.

If most people in a certain place were born with a certain voice

type or vocal range, it is possible that their music would reflectthis. Such factors would seem more prevalent among smaller, isolated

populations, but the principle is valid.

Skin pigmentation is a response to exposure to sunlight, and while

Sicily is not an extreme (equatorial) example of this, it is clear

that in equatorial regions people with more pigmentation are less

likely than paler ones, statistically speaking, to suffer skin cancer

from overexposure to solar radiation, and therefore more likely than

lightly-pigmented individuals to survive and transmit this physical

trait to their children. Consequently, a certain complexion becomes

associated with a specific group.

If a certain competitive sport were most successfully played by

athletes of exceptional stature who could quickly scale a particular

type of tree (or place a ball into a basket set at a fixed height

higher than most players' heads), people of a certain height would

play it better than others. This is relative, of course, but in a

society where most people are rather short it is possible that such a

game might not be developed as it would in a society of taller

individuals. In effect, a physical characteristic spawns a cultural

one.

A society in which people lived to be exceptionally old might

develop a culture different from that of one where longevity was rare.

This would influence attitudes (perhaps greater tolerance of aged

parents), which in turn could influence the social roles of the

elders.

Generalities aside, distinctions often exist between a person's ethnic

(or even genetic) identity and "nationalist" or group identities. As a

nation state, a united "Italy" has only existed since the 1860s, and

being "Italian" (or German or Russian) means different things to

different people. In the long term, passing political ideas (for

example the Fascist, Nazi and Communist governments in the case of the

three countries mentioned) have little effect on ethnic identities

formed over the course of many centuries. Beyond generalities

(collectively related to language, history, art, music, cuisine,

etc.), it's difficult --and rarely appropriate-- to place an undue

emphasis on a person's supposed "ethnic" identity. Statistically, most

of today's Italians are at least nominally Roman Catholic, but many

belong to other religions (or profess none), and those in the minority

are no less Italian than those in the majority, just as a Neapolitan's

dislike for pasta or opera makes him no less "Italian" than anybody

else in Naples.


12/18

Much remains to be discovered in comparative population genetics and

its integration with historical knowledge. The mapping of the human

genome is only a useful first step. Within the limits of scientific

methodology (hypothesis, controls, parameters, analysis, etc.),

genetic research involving the Sicilian populatiuon generally tends to

confirm, rather than refute, the presumptions arrived at via

historical research, which in recent years has become increasinglymulti-disciplinary (linking archival history to climatic studies,

geology and other fields). It's a good beginning...


Further Reading & Links

Books: Our knowledge of population genetics increases day by day. A

page such as this one can serve as little more than a very brief,

simplified introduction, with an eye toward the subject's Sicilian

context (our remote African, then Asian and finally European

forebears). For more detailed explanations of human genetic history

(and "pre-history") we suggest the following books. Each differs in

its approach, but despite occasional redundancy these works complementeach other surprisingly well. For example, the book by Luigi Luca

Cavalli-Sforza, the dean of population genetic studies, has an

interesting cultural and linguistic perspective. If we could make a

single suggestion to somebody seriously interested in this topic, it

would be to read all of these books, plus the one (following the list)

on the Indo-Europeans.

Out of Eden - The Peopling of the World - by Stephen Oppenheimer. An

exceptional examination of the human journey out of Africa, with

useful maps and pragmatic explanations of the correlations between

climatic conditions, languages and early human development. The work

reported in this book formed the partial basis of a documentary film

with a focus on Mitochondrial Eve. Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon

UK.

The Journey of Man - A Genetic Odyssey - by Spencer Wells. Like

Oppenheimer and Sykes, Spencer Wells conducted actual genetic research

around the world (in cooperation with the National Geographic Society)

to connect various peoples to pre-historic ancestors. Mediterranean

and European connections are dealt with here, and (with Out of Eden)

this book is a very good introduction to the topic. Wells' work was

the basis of an interesting documentary for National Geographic now

available on DVD (and presently included with test kits from the

Genographic Project). Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.

Genes, Peoples and Languages - by L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza. While the

layman may find it best to already have read the books by Wells or

Oppenheimer before this one, anybody interested in the early links

between human migrations and languages (and cultures) should not

overlook this volume. The author's groundbreaking genetic studies

began decades ago, setting the stage for everything to come. Buy from

Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.


13/18

Mapping Human History - Unravelling the Mystery of Adam and Eve - by

Steve Olson. Though it relies on the same genetic research as the

other books described here, this one often transcends specific

discussions of haplotypes in order to focus on more "social" factors,

and some of the conclusions are fascinating. Buy from Amazon US. Buy

from Amazon UK.

The Seven Daughters of Eve - by Bryan Sykes. Setting Seven Daughters

of Eve.aside patrilineal (Y-chromosome) research, Sykes concentrates

on our common descent, based on mitochondrial DNA, from one of the

women who lived at least ten thousand years ago. (A Sicilian might

descend from any of the women Sykes has named Katrine, Ursula, Xenia,

Helena, Velda, Jasmine and Tara.) The human link is interesting, and

it's one you can easily establish with a minimal investment in your

own genetic research. Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.

In Search of the Indo-Europeans - Language, Archaeology and Myth - by

J.P. Mallory. First published in 1989, this book's perspective is

slightly dated and the text contains no reference to genetic research(such as Cavalli-Sforza's landmark work in genetics and linguistics),

but it makes at least one passing reference to Siculan, the language

of the ancient Sicels. Sicily's Elymians are ignored altogether,

though the (presumably) non-Indo-European Etruscans are mentioned, and

it has been postulated that the Elymians and Etruscans might share

common or similar origins. Nevertheless, the author presents an

insightful reconstruction of what Proto-Indo-European society must

have been. This is an important element in understanding the earliest

civilizations that emerged from the darkness of prehistory,

influencing early-historic Sicily. A good companion volume to Cavalli-

Sforza's (above). Buy from Amazon US. Buy from Amazon UK.

Links: Interpreting published Sicilian genetic studies is interesting,

but the most "current" general observations come from people (from

around Sicily) who have actually had their DNA tested for haplotypes

and other markers, and shared the results. Presently the largest

online forum is Family Tree DNA's Sicily Project. For understanding

"familial" lineages dealing with the last few centuries (the

individuals behind the genes) there's really no substitute for

documented genealogical research, described on our Sicilian genealogy

page.


Some Terms Defined

This is hardly a complete list but includes a few terms used in

genetic anthropology and allied fields:

Angevin - relating to the French region of Anjou. King Charles of

Naples (who followed the Hohenstaufens) was descended from the Royal

House of France, called Anjou for its fief there. In medieval Sicilian

history, the term "Angevin" refers generally to French associated with

the House of Anjou, and not specifically to people from the Anjou

region.


14/18

Afrocentrism - various sociological philosophies which emphasise

particular modes of studying African anthropology and history in a

positive way, often as a reaction to longstanding bias present in

certain "Eurocentrist" and race-based "Nordicist" histories of Africa.

Afrocentrism seeks to present global history from an African

perspective. Extreme Afrocentrism is sometimes revisionist or racistin tone. As a social and political movement, it is particularly

popular outside Africa, though the independence of African countries

from European colonial powers clearly reflects a positive (and

practical) form of Afrocentrism.

allele - one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by

mutation and are found at the same place on the same chromosome.

amalgamation - process of ethnically or genetically diverse

populations uniting through marriage, resulting in a "mixed"

population.

anthropology - comparative study of societies and cultures, including

human evolution.

Arabs - Semitic people of the middle-east and northern Africa.

assimilation - process of distinct ethnic populations coexisting in

the same place, possibly adapting similar ethnological

characteristics, without necessarily intermarrying.

Byzantine Greek - reference to Greeks and their eastern Mediterranean

society following the fall of the western Roman Empire.

Carthaginians - residual Phoenician civilization of Carthage (in

northern Tunisia) in ancient times.

consanguineous - relating to or denoting people descended from the

same ancestor.

consanguinity - state of sharing descent from the same ancestor.

chromosomes - structure made of nucleic acids found in most living

cells, carrying information in form of genes.

DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid, substance present in most living

organisms and carrier of genetic information.

Elymi - also Elami or Elimiian; one of the three most ancient Sicilian

peoples, inhabiting parts of far western and northwestern Sicily,

sharing some regions with the Sicans. Probably a west Asian people

from what is now Turkey, arriving via Africa around 1200 BC.

ethnic - relating to a population or group having common cultural or

national traditions.


15/18

ethnology - study of characteristics of various peoples and

differences and relationships between them.

ethnography - scientific description or classification of peoples and

cultures with reference to their particular characteristics and

customs.

Eurocentrism - vague sociological concept (and new term) which

emphasises study of European anthropology as pre-eminent, sometimes

implicitly regarding it as superior to all others. Western historical

perspectives popular through the 1960s are often considered broadly

"Eurocentric" because they seem to minimise or even overlook the

cultural importance of peoples in Africa, Asia and the New World, or

view these cultures from an exclusively European perspective. Extreme

Eurocentrism is sometimes revisionist or racist in nature, though it

rarely reflects a well-defined philosophy or a formal movement.

genealogy - social study of lines of descent, kinship and familialhistory.

gene - unit of heredity consisting of DNA forming part of a

chromosome.

gene pool - stock of different genes in an interbreeding population.

genetics - scientific study of heredity and variation of hereditary

characteristics based on genes.

genetic drift - statistical model by which certain genes (or

haplotypes) become more frequent than others over the course of many

generations, based in part on factors which, over time, are seen as

random.

genetic tracking - science applied to determine migrations of people

in antiquity, particularly pre-historically.

genome - haploid or complete set of genetic material of an organism.

Greek - the people of Greece; the language of Greece. (Here the term

refers to the ancient Greeks of Greece, Sicily and all of Magna

Graecia.)

haplogroup - those sharing a haplotype from a remote common ancestor.

haplotype - genetic sequence inherited from a common ancestor.

heterogeneous - diverse in character or content.

Italianism - nationalist theory popularised during the Italian

unification era (1848-1870) and subsequently encouraged under Fascism

(1922-1945) advocating the idea of Italians as having existed as a


16/18

united people continuously since Roman times, notwithstanding the

factionalization existing from the end of the Roman Empire (Early

Middle Ages) until the nineteenth century; the theory often supports

the Roman Catholic Church as the only "Italian" church, and the

standard use of the Tuscan-Italian language (over regional Italic

languages such as Piedmontese, Milanese, Sicilian and Sardinian) to

the complete exclusion of all others. Italianism has become lesspopular with the advent of regionalism (federalism) in Italy.

Nowadays, Italianists are most often encountered in extremely

reactionary right-wing (Neo-Fascist) circles; the movement discourages

the use of languages other than Italian even in traditionally non-

Italian-speaking territories such as South Tirol (German), Aosta

(French) and Trieste (Slovenian). Fascism's Italianist laws prohibited

the study of English and French, and strictly regulated public worship

by Protestants and Jews. In a broader (non-political) humanistic and

positive cultural context, Italianism refers to an affinity for Italy,

Italians and Italian culture.

Italic - pertaining to the Italian peninsula, its ancient peoples andthe ancient languages related to Latin, particularly Oscan and

Umbruian. More generally, refers to Italian peoples generally, but not

to be confused with "Italy," a nation state which was established in

the 1860s.

Italy - modern nation (Italian Republic) which includes the Italian

peninsula and the islands of Sicily and Sardinia. (In historical

references the term is often used to describe the Italian peninsula as

opposed to the two large island regions, but today's Sicilians are

Italian.) Italy has existed as a united country only since 1860,

before which time the peoples of this region identified themselves as

Milanese, Piedmontese, Sardinians, Venetians, Sicilians, etc.

Magna Graecia - Megara Hellas (Greater Greece); Italian regions

colonized by ancient Greeks, including Sicily and most of the

peninsula south of the Etruscan regions around Rome.

Mediterranean - relating to the Mediterranean Sea and the land masses

touching it; the peoples of this region.

Moors - residual medieval Arab population of northern Africa; also

Saracens. (Moor is favored in describing Arabs of medieval

northwestern Africa who invaded the Iberian peninsula.)

multicultural - relating to, or constituting, several cultural or

ethnic groups. (Norman Sicily is said to be multicultural because

during this era various ethnic groups lived in equality.)

Nordic - most generally, refers to native inhabitants of Scandinavia,

nortwestern Europe and regions bordering the North Sea.

Nordicism - various modern sociological philosophies which emphasise

study of "Nordic" anthropology, often (but not always) as a racial


17/18

"science" based on principles no longer widely accepted. Often

characterised by its own unique definition of the term "Nordic,"

contemporary Nordicism is sometimes revisionist or racist in nature,

and particularly popular outside Nordic regions. Certain Nazi ideas of

race were, in a very broad sense, Nordicist.

Normans - residual Norse civilization of medieval Normandy,amalgamated with the essentially Gallic-Celtic population already

resident there. In the medieval context, the Normans were Frankish as

well as Scandinavian.

Phoenicians - seafaring semitic people of Phoenicia who settled

coastal areas of the Mediterranean.

population genetics - study of genetics applied to populations or

groups of persons, particularly allele frequencies.

Punic - pertaining to Phoenician descendants in northern Africa,

especially the Carthaginians; also the language of the ancientCarthaginians, based on Phoenician.

race - major division of humans having distinct physical

characteristics; distinct population (as a subspecies) within a

species.

racial science - also racialism, pseudo-science which purports to

identify and explain "racial" differences based primarily on

superficial traits (i.e. physical appearance), and various concepts

popularised in the nineteenth century and formerly considered

accurate, sometimes advancing arbitrary philosophies rooted in racism.

Nazi and Fascist concepts of race owe much to racial science.

racism - discrimination against or antagonism towards other races;

belief that there are abilities or qualities specific to each race. In

practice, racism is usually negative, as it often seeks to demonstrate

that one race is clearly superior to another.

Romans - people of Rome, the Roman Province (Italian peninsula) or

Roman citizens of the Roman Empire.

Saracens - residual medieval Arab population of northern Africa; also

Moors. (Saracen is favored in describing Arabs of medieval

northwestern and north-central Africa who invaded Sicily.)

Sicans - also Sicanians; one of the three most ancient Sicilian

peoples, inhabiting central and western regions following arrival of

Sicels and Elymians but originally present throughout Sicily. Probably

native to Sicily, descended from neolithic inhabitants; their language

apparently was not Indo-European.


18/18

Sicels - also Sikels or Siculi; one of the three most ancient Sicilian

peoples, inhabiting central and eastern Sicily from around 1100 BC.

Probably an Italic people.

Sicilian - of or pertaining to Sicily; the people of Sicily; the

language of Sicily.

Sicilianism - any of several regionalist movements and fields of study

which focus on Sicily and Sicilian ethnology (including the Sicilian

language and literature), as well as Sicilian history and culture,

usually in the wider context of Mediterranean and Italian society.

Sicilianist studies and social movements were ruthlessly suppressed

from 1860 until 1943, when the Allied liberation of Sicily spawned an

independence movement resulting in Sicilian semi-autonomy politically.

sickle-cell anemia - also sickle-cell disease; hereditary form of

anemia in which a mutated form of hemoglobin distorts red blood cells

into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels.

Siculo- - descriptive of the quality of being Sicilian, of Sicilian

origin, or being in Sicily (i.e. the Siculo-Normans of Palermo as

opposed to Anglo-Normans of London)

Swabian - relating to the German region of Swabia. Sicily's

Hohenstaufen dynasty was Swabian and brought a Germanic influence to

Sicilian society.

thalassemia - British thalassaemia; hereditary hemolytic disease

caused by faulty hemoglobin synthesis, prevalent in Mediterranean,

African and Asian countries.

Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily.docx

Documents

Transcript of Genetics & Anthropology in Sicily.docx