General Slides for SOC120Fall 2007Week 8

(Study Guide edited 3/09/10)

Class OutlineChapt Study Guide

Thoughts for Critical ThinkersCredibility

What does a critical thinker think/do?

“Can You Rely On Social Security“

Most People believe no!1994 survey found more young people believing in UFO’s then in the possibility they would get anything back from Social Security taxes

The Government retirement fund most experts agree will become increasingly less able to meet the needs of the growing retirement population unless changes are made. What changes, “just a little from each”

1. Remove ceiling (currently no SS tax above $87,000 year) and set 1.5% rate for this income above $87,000).

2. Raise retirement age raise age of full benefits 1 year from 65 to 68 (from current raise to 67 by 2027)

3. Cut Benefits by changing calculation of benefits from inflation “wage inflation” to “price inflation”.Above assumes the Trust Fund won’t be raided for other uses such as cutting taxes for the wealthy—which has been done

Andrew Tobias Sunday August 31, 2003 Parade Magazine

Note: Social Security was not designed as a retirement program but as an insurance program for those with little are no retirement, disability, and for children survivors. It is pretty difficult to live on Social Security alone [I get $1700 month after 40 years]. The idea was SS was for an emergency those who had for some reason been unable to create a retirement through work or savings and for children disabled and those under 21 whose parents were disabled or died.

What does a Critical Thinker do?Check the source

• Find out who is:Andrew Tobias

• Do other sources agree with his statements

• Then make a decision

Using your web search skills evaluate the above and make a decision

One additional possibility: Needs assessment for receiving SS benefits

Thoughts for Critical ThinkersThe Media has a liberal bias

Credibility

What does a critical thinker think/do?

Gore Bush

Positive 13% 24%

Neutral 31% 27%

Negative 56% 49%

Total 100% 100%

Reported in Lies and The Lying Liars Who Tell Them by Al Franken. He sites the source as Pew Charitable Trusts Project for Excellence in Journalism.

What does a Critical Thinker do?Check the source

• Find out who is:Pew Charitable Trusts Project for Excellence in Journalism

• Determine if they did the study and found the data as reported

• Determine their credibility

Using your web search skills evaluate the above

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers

What does a critical thinker think/do?

“..between 60% and 70% of American purchasing decisions are made at the point of sale with a very limited amount of information.“

Underhill, Paco Why We Buy: The Science of Shopping, 2002

CT Thoughts

a. Wait, sales are like busses there is always another one coming

b. Ask yourself; “ Do I really need this, can I buy a less expensive version that does everything I need?

c. Check sources for information on reliability, functionality, prices, alternatives (Consumers Report, Kelly Blue Book, PC World, Car and Driver…)

Louderback, Jim “But wait That’s not all!” USA Weekend Nov 15-17 2002

d. Your ideas?

Unless you have a lot of money to toss try the following!

If you don’t need it, don’t buy it!

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers

What does a critical thinker think/do?

The flu vaccine shortage is being given to those “At greatest risk for those whose life would be most endangered …”

1. Children 6 months-5 years [NPR Fall 06]2. Anyone age 2-64 with potentially serious chronic condition3. Adults 65 and older4. Pregnant women5. Residents of long-term care facilities6. Health care givers7. Caregivers for children

Dr. Isadore Rosenfield Parade Nov 7, 2004 p19 Flu Update

Is this reasonable? What group should be first, second…?

What does a Critical Thinker do?Check the source

Using your web search skills evaluate the abovePos-http://www.canoe.ca/Health0103/23_kids-ap.html

Neg-http://www.whale.to/vaccines/flu7.html

Is this reasonable? What group should be first, second…?

No, not according to the Japanese model. They decided to vaccinate school kids when there was limited vaccine—results significant decrease in flu deaths by all categories. Why? School kids get the flu, are the most significant distributors but don’t have a high death rate from the flu since they are not in a high risk category. Any k-6 teacher can verify this because of his/her experience. The Japanese model now has an adequate distribution.

Recent Report looked at 20 years of data and found flu shots in US have not significantly decreased flu deaths of older people. (Archives of Internal Medicine; 2/14/2005, Vol. 165 Issue 3, p265, 8p )

Week 8-10 [edit 2/17/07]:

Week 10, 11 after this

• Groups C8 concepts web PP, Review (1) C7 problems, Burden of Proof (2) Rev fallacies A03, Slippery slope, Group think, Pity, Relativism,

• Credibility and miracles, horoscopes Slides…“The Amazing Randy”[movie –Next week F05] Good luck/ Horoscopes, etc. [W6 S4,5] also John Edwards [W7 S9,10]

• Critical Thinking slides Winner”(W2 S2, S3), Study? (W2 S8,9), -*- Ethics (W7 S2), Iraq and Al Queda Decision (W4 S8,9 @W7S12) Cooperate Responsibility? (W6 S9), Media Liberal Bias? (W8S5,S6), Purchasing decisions (W8S7,8), Flu vaccine(W8S9,10), SS (W8S2,3,4)

• Web Credibility Exercise Pt I Boolean (Search Basics), Pt II Credibility Criteria, Pt III Credibility Exercise

• Class project PT III– Step 1—Done– Step 2---Continuing finished first day week 9– Step 3---Group Debate Drafts combine/edit A04 TR Due first class Week 9 (Next Wed W05)– Step 4---Oral Debates: Last 2 days in quarter

• A04 due last day week 8 1 printed copy-send digital copy pro to con (Monday W05)• A05– Start Week 9 Day1-Due last class day Week 10, obtaining data, interrupt, conclusions• Schedule for remainder of Quarter (W8S13)• Chapter 10 Overview –relevance for A05• Chapter 11 Overview –relevance to A05

Note: We do not cover Chapter 9 in this class

1st Slide

Chapter 8 8th ed Study GuideA. Deductive arguments [p247]

2 techniques for evaluating • Categorical logic, C8, • Truth-functional logic, C9

B. Categorical logic Def and Purpose [p248]C. CATEGORICAL CLAIMS 4 standard claims

A, E, I, O [Def/ex] and Affirm/Negative [p249]Terms: subject (S) Predicate (P)Venn Diagrams: Filled& Empty parts [p251]

D Translations into Standard Form [p251]1. Purpose (“main idea”)2. Easy/Simple3. Past->Present4. Only P of A claim5. The only S of A claim6. Times/occasions: Whenever, Wherever7. Claim about Individual, objects, places…8. Mass nouns/kind of stuff

E Square of Opposition [p256]ContrariesSubcontrariesDetermining Truth Limits

F 3 categorical operations [p258] –Conversion [p258] –Obversion [p259]

universe of discourse and complementary

class/term –Contraposition/contrapositive [p259]

Two common mistakes [Box:p263]

___________________

Syllogisms [p266]

Categorical Syllogisms [p266]

Terms

Relationship

Venn diagram of syllogism [p267 & web pract]

venn diagram validity test

limits of validity test

Rules method validity testdistribution [b p276]

} --rules of thumb--

C8 Everything builds—must memorize A, E, I, O, then Translation, then Square of opposition…

1st Slide

Schedule W08Schedule for remainder of quarter.

• Week 8 First Day --A04 due {2 copies},

• Week 9 First Day Pt III first draft of group write up of pro and con for debate due

• Week 9 –First Day--Start A05

• Week 10 Last Class Day --A05 due NO LATE PAPERS

• Week 10 (last day) -11--Debates

Chapter 8 Categorical Logic F07

• Inclusion

• Exclusion

A system of logic developed developed over 2000 years to clarify and evaluate the validity of deductive arguments. The study of categorical logic dates back to Aristotle. Based on the relations of:

Relevance:•Understand car, cell phone purchase, loans, etc.•Understand contractual agreements for renting an apartment•completing catalog requirements for a major, etc.•Understanding instructions on medicine bottles•Understand graduation requirements•Etc.

* Standard Categorical Claims 06

A: All _______ are _________(affirmative)

E: No________are__________(negative)

I: Some_______are__________(affirmative)

O: Some______are not _______(negative)

(S)ubject: noun or noun phrase*. Example: Methodists (Class members)

(P)redicate: noun or noun phrase. Example: Christians (College Students)

(S)ubject (P)redicate_

*Only noun or noun phrases are allowed--Not All fire trucks are red (adj)

All shiatsus are dogs.A (affirmative)

Some dogs are not animals.O (negative)

No men are teachers.E (negative)

Some teachers are parents.I (affirmative)

Classify these as A, E, I, or O, affirmative or negative

* Venn Diagrams of 4 Standard Claims

All Methodists are Christians No Buddhists are Christians

Some Christians are Methodists Some Christians are not Methodists

A E

I O

Circles-classes/categoriesShaded-empty

Blank-no mentionX-some, at least one

Methodists Christians Buddists Christians

Christians MethodistChristians Methodists

Identify claim form and Create a Venn diagram of the following:

A (affirmative)

O (negative)

E (negative)

I (affirmative)

All shiatsus are dogs.

Some dogs are not animals.

No men are teachers.

Some teachers are parents.

Venn Diagrams of previous slide

A E

I O

All shiatsus are dogs.

Some dogs are not animals

No men are teachers

Some teachers are parents

shiatsus dogs men teachers

teachers parents dogs animals

Etc. An introduction, not possible to cover all possibilities.

1. Purpose is to translate an ordinary claim into an equivalent standard form p2612. Easy translations e.g “Every A is a B --> All A’s are B’s [A: Claim]

“Minors are not eligible --> No minors are eligible [E: Claim]3. Past to present: “There were….” To “Some …”p2514. Only; Only adults are admitted to see Bad Boys

All admitted to Bad Boys are adults5. The only; The only people allowed to drink beer are over 21

All people allowed to drink beer are over 216. Times, occasions, places (whenever, wherever);

She makes friends wherever she goes All places she goes are places she makes friends

7, Claims about an individual (object, occasion or place); Hitler was a psychopath All people identical with Hitler are psychopaths

8. Mass nouns; Tattoos are too out of style to get one now All examples of tattoos are too out of style to have now

Translation of claims into standard form: “equivalent claims”06

Introduces predicate of A:

Introduces subject of A:

Treat asA: are E: claim:

Treat asA: claim:

A: or E:All…:

Identify the rule and Translate the following:• Every salamander is a lizard. Every A: All salamanders are lizards.• Snakes are the only members of the suborder

Ophidia. Only: All members of the suborder Ophidia are

snakes.• Wherever there are snakes there are frogs. Whenever, Wherever: All places there are

snakes are places there are frogs.• Socrates is a Greek. Indiv Category: All people identical with

Socrates are Greeks.

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

All Methodists are Christians No Methodists are Christians

Some Methodists are Christians Some Methodists are not Christians

(Never the same value)

* The Square of Opposition: Correspondence (same S and P)

If A is true what is E, I, and O?•See next slide

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

All Methodists are Christians No Methodists are Christians

Some Methodists are Christians Some Methodists are not Christians

(Never the same value)

T

thus Fthus T

thus FKnown

* Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims--Example

* Determine Truth Values for Corresponding Exercise 1All Aluminum cans are recyclable

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Aluminum cans are not recyclable

No Aluminum cans are recyclable

Some Aluminum cans are recyclable

T

thus ?thus ?

thus ?Known

* Determine Truth Values for Corresponding Exercise 1 AnswersAll Aluminum cans are recyclable

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Aluminum cans are not recyclable

No Aluminum cans are recyclable

Some Aluminum cans are recyclable

T

thus Fthus T

thus FKnown

* Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims LimitsAll Muslims are Christians

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Muslims are not Christians

No Muslims are Christians

Some Muslims are Christians

F

??

?Known

Exercise 2

* Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims LimitsAll Muslims are Christians

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Muslims are not Christians

No Muslims are Christians

Some Muslims are Christians

F

thus T?

?Known

LimitsIf T at top all known

If F at bottom all known

If F at top or T at bottom only contradictory known

Exercise 2 Answers

* Limits on determining Truth value• If we have one truth value, it is often possible to

determine other Truth values.

• True claim, top of square, we can determine all others

• If we know A is false all we can infer is corresponding O (not E or I)

• False claim at the bottom (I or O) we can infer other 3

• If false at top all can infer is value of contradictory

* Three Categorical Operations• Conversion: (E and I claims not A and O) switch S and P

[All E and I claims are equivalent but not A and O]

• Obversion: (A ↔ E, I ↔ O) horizontal change affirmative to negative (vice versa) and replace predicate with its complementary term* [All 4 A, E, I, O are equivalent]

• Contraposition: (A and O not E and I) switch S and P and replace both with complementary terms. [All A and O claims are equivalent but not E and I]

•*Universe of discourse-context that limits scope of terms (“everyone passes” [in class not world])•Complementary class-everything in the universe not in first category (everyone not in the class, simplest to put “non” in front of class p259)•complementary term-the names of complementary classes (students vs non students (p273))

* Three Categorical Operations--Practice by making change and determine whether it is

equivalent to starting claim

• Converse: “All Shiites are Muslims”

All Muslims are Shiites. (not equivalent)

• Obversion: “No Muslims are Christians”

All Muslims are non-Christians. (equivalent)

• Contrapositive: “No Sunnis are Christians”

No non-Christians are non-Sunnis. (not equivalent)

equivalency

Obversion Claims 3All aluminum cans are (recyclable)

All Aluminum cans are non-(recyclable)

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Aluminum cans are (not recyclable)Some Aluminum cans are not non-recyclable

No Aluminum cans are (recyclable)No Aluminum cans are non-(recyclable)

Some Aluminum cans are (recyclable)Some Aluminum cans are not-(not recyclable)

T

thus Fthus T

thus FKnown

* Two Syllogisms

• All animals have X

• Man has X

• Therefore man is an animal

• Man is an animal

• Animals have Y

• Therefore man has Y

Conclusion used as Premise for another argument

Two common Nature vs Nurture arguments

* We would have to convert these to standard form for analysis

* Categorical Syllogisms

• Standard form, two premise deductive argument, whose every claim is a standard form categorical claim in which three terms occur exactly twice in exactly two of the claims

• Example: All CSUB students are college students

Some college students are not dorm residents Therefore some CSUB students are not dorm residents • Terms: P Major (predicate of conclusion) -- dorm residents S Minor (subject of conclusion) -- CSUB students

M Middle (both premises but not in conclusion) -- college students

Relationship of Terms

Americans(Socialists)

Consumers(Collectivists)

Democrats(Republicans)

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-0

MinorMajor

Middle

No Republicans are CollectivistsAll Socialists are CollectivistsTherefore, no Socialists are Republicans

(p267 and Categorical Logic)

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-1

No Republicans are Collectivists

MinorMajor

Middle

* Venn Diagram Validity Test-2

All Socialists are Collectivists

MinorMajor

Middle

Since result (green and purple) shade the areas and are empty no Socialists are Republicans, we have a correct diagram of the conclusion, a valid syllogism

* Venn Diagram test of Validity• (1) Some syllogisms are problematic

-I or O as one premise, where to place the XIf one premise A or E and other premise is I or O diagram A or E first (p287) and there is no longer a choice of where to place the X

• (2) Some syllogisms still have a problem-an X could go either of two places. Place the X on the line

If the the X falls entirely within the appropriate area the argument is valid. If the X fails to entirely fall within the area the argument is invalid (p289)

• (3) When both premises of a syllogism are A or E (shading) and the conclusion is an I or O (an X), a diagram cannot possibly yield a diagram of the conclusion– If any area has only one area unshaded place the X there and then the

conclusion can possibly be read—valid, if not the conclusion is invalid

(p267…)

* Rules Method for Test of Validity p294

• (1) # Negative claims premises = # negative claims conclusion

• (2) One premise must distribute * the middle term

• (3) Any term distributed* in conclusion must be distributed in premise

* Distributed: see next slide

• A-claim all S are P

• E-claim No S are P

• I- claim Some S are P

• O-claim Some S are not P

* Distributed: claim says something about every member of the class. Memorize this to apply rules method.

The circled terms are distributed

Quiz Chapt 9—From Chapter quiz (quiz file link on class schedule)

• (1) Display the first claim (a) in a square of opposition

• (2) Translate, if necessary, and Create a Venn diagram test of this syllogism

• (3) State the rules for tests of validity and apply the rules to test the validity of this syllogism if possible. {state why not possible if this is the case}

(a) Man is an animal(b) Animals have Y(c) Therefore man has Y

Determining Truth Values for Corresponding Claims 2All Men are Animals

Contraries

(both cannot be true)

(both cannot be false)

Subcontraries

A E

I O

Contradictories

(Never the same value)

Some Men are not Animals

No Men are Animals

Some Men are Animals

T

thus FT

FKnown

LimitsIf one T at top all known

If one F at bottom all known

If both F at top or T at bottom only contradictory known

Venn Diagram Validity Test-2

MinorMajor

Middle

Thoughts for Critical Thinkers

What does a critical thinker think/do?

“..PAIN: Redheads need 20% more painkiller.“

“Research breakthrough” USA Weekend Nov 15-17 2002

CT Thoughts

a. ..b. ..c. ..d. ..e. ..f. ..g. ..

Based on Chapter 11, What do you need to know?

University of Louisville study presented at meeting of American Society of Anesthesiologists, Sample 10 redheads and 10 brunettes given a common anesthetic then electrically shocked until moved only ½ the time, redheads required 20% more anesthesia.

http://www.asahq.org/news/redheads.htm

Identify the errors and rewrite the following answers to the question1. The burden of proof is not placed on the person who is making the argument, but on the one that the argument is being

argued to: they must prove the argument valid or invalidEx: The court of law the prosecutor’s goal is to prove beyond a reasonable doubt though the defense is the one making the argument.Exception: Special circumstances. Like if you go to the doctor and they tell you that you you need a heart transplant; you want a second opinion

2 When the affirmative makes the opponent prove an argumentEx: God exist, one person says God does not exist, so the first person says, Prove it thenException: It is unplausable

3. When the second person states a claim and has the burden. Example Jose I believe and then Tony says “I believe in God” Tony has the burden of proof because he claimed it second

4. When there is a doubt you can prove your point.Ex: When someone says there are aliensException: In court cases when you have more cons against a person but you have 2 good claims to prove them innocent.

5. The placing of the requirement for proof on the wrong side of an issue.Example: God is real and exists, the burden of proof is placed on the person who is for something, rather then against.Exception: Doesn't have one.

6. The person who (1) makes the claim is required to provide evidence to support the claim, (2) and if he/she leaves it up to the listener to provide evidence that is a mistake in burden of proof.Ex: There is a God because he appeared and spoke to meException: There is a God because you said so.

7. Burden of proof is when a person needs to explain why the argument is true. Ex. Two people are conversating and one says God is real. The person who believes that God is real has the burden of

proof

Define with “rules of thumb”, give an example and an exception to the fallacy of burden of proof.

Misplaced Burden of Proof--Class definition/example errors W07 Definitions1. When you try to make your claim credible by saying it has been researched or

proven but don’t site the study2. Lack of evidence to support a claim.3. Beyond a reasonable doubt.4. You require the other person to prove their position.5. The proof source must be credible6. In an argument the against position has the Burden of Proof7. Premise doesn't lead to the conclusion8. The party/side who does not have the answer has to prove

Examples1. Kobe Bryant could have been proven guilty with DNA 2. Sandy I want you to prove why Judaism is believable.3. Sam: “Lowering taxes will be good for the economy” Jim: “prove it”

Exceptions1. Kobe is innocent 2. When a third person does not know what is being argued about and the person

serves as a mediator3. The car is not starting because my starter failed4. If you know for a fact the proof you have is valid and strong then OJ must be

guilty

Search Suggestions S1 W07

• Eliminate unwanted categories with “-” in Google eg. -.com

• Use Yahoo and check subsets –often good sources• Alternative search engines for specific data or sources—

e.g. FirstGov• Process—make first search, check results and change

search to eliminate unwanted• Use Google Scholar for academic sources or News for

newspapers, etc.• Use advanced search to narrow search even more eg

specific dates

Web Credibility Techniques S1 W07

• Domain—some indicator but not alone. e.g. a .edu could be PR for the school, a professor’s site, a student’s site…

• Content—scan for face validity (does it appear reasonable) (a) Layout/presentation (professional, boring, flashy, etc.) (b) Is parent organization listed and can be confirmed with

another source Goal, purpose of parent…• Purpose (inform, educate, humor…)• Source (University, authors, journals ???)—back up URL

and use Google to find and evaluate source credibility (a) Sources, links, policies, listed and are they reasonable?

Library Criteria http://www.lib.calpoly.edu/infocomp/modules/05_evaluate/index_end.html